WELDING PROCESSES

Oxyfuel-gas Welding
Oxyfuel-gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to
describe any welding process that uses a fuel gas combined
with oxygen to produce a flame.
The flame is the source of the heat that is used to melt the
metals at the joint.
The fuel gas generally used is acetylene (C2H2) because of
the high temperature generated in the flame; the process is
known as oxyacetylene-gas welding (OAW)
It is typically used for structural metal fabrication and repair
work.
Oxyacetylene welding
The flame is directed by a welding torch.
A filler metal is sometimes added, and pressure is
occasionally applied in OAW between the contacting part
surfaces
When filler metal is used, it is typically in the form of a rod
with diameters ranging from1.6 to 9.5mm
Composition of the filler must be similar to that of the base
metals.
The filler is often coated with a flux that helps to clean the
surfaces and prevent oxidation, thus creating a better weld
joint.
Oxyacetylene welding
Flame Characteristics
The flame in OAW is produced by the chemical reaction of
acetylene and oxygen in two stages
The first stage (which occurs in the inner core of the flame) is
defined by the reaction
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + Heat
This reaction produces about one-third of the total heat generated
in the flame
The products of which are both combustible, which leads to the
second-stage reaction
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + Heat
This reaction produces about two-thirds of the total heat
The two stages of combustion are visible in the oxyacetylene
flame emitted from the torch
Flame Characteristics"
Though higher amount of heat is produced in the second stage,
since it is distributed over a larger area, the temperature achieved
is small (of the order of 1200 to 2000°C) in the flame. This may
be used for preheating the steels.
The inner cone temperature is of the order of 3100°C which is
used for directly melting the steel joint.
The first-stage reaction is seen as the inner cone of the flame
(which is light blue ),
The second-stage reaction is exhibited by the outer envelope
(which is nearly colorless but with tinges ranging from blue to
orange).
During welding, the outer envelope spreads out and covers the
work surfaces being joined, thus shielding them from the
surrounding atmosphere
Flame Types

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas

welding and cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b)
oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame
Neutral flame
The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture is an
important factor in oxyfuel-gas welding.
At a ratio of 1:1 (i.e., when there is no excess oxygen), the flame
is considered to be neutral flame
It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating that the
combustion is complete.
The inner cone is light blue in color.
It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope (darker blue than the
inner cone)
This is the most desirable flame to be used in oxy-acetylene
welding
The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild
steel, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, and aluminium
Oxidizing flame
When oxygen is in excess, it is called the oxidizing flame
It is the hottest flame produced by any oxy-fuel gas source.
An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone
(3300°C), which is shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed
than that of the neutral flame
There is an excess amount of oxygen present in the flame which
badly oxidizes the weld metal
This flame would be useful for welding some non-ferrous alloys
such as copper base alloys and zinc base alloys
Some alloys of iron such as cast iron and manganese steel are
also better welded by an oxidising flame
The presence of excess oxygen causes an oxide film to form
quickly which provides a protective cover the metal pool
Reducing or carburizing flame
If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame is
known as a reducing or carburizing flame (a flame having
excess acetylene).
Excess of acetylene can be recognized by acetylene feather,
which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope
(reddish in colour)
The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame
and is usually much brighter in color
It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding
those metals that do not tend to absorb carbon.
The temperature of a reducing flame is lower; hence, such a
flame is suitable for applications requiring low heat, such as
brazing, soldering, and flame-hardening operations.
Other fuel gases
Other fuel gases (such as hydrogen and methylacetylene
propadiene) also can be used in oxyfuel-gas welding.
However, the temperatures developed by these gases are lower
than those produced by acetylene.
Hence, they are used for welding (a) metals with low melting
points (such as lead) and (b) parts that are thin and small.
The flame with pure hydrogen gas is colorless; therefore, it is
difficult to adjust the flame by eyesight
Welding Equipment

To ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene fittings

are left-handed, whereas those for oxygen are right-handed.
Welding torch

Oxy-acetylene welding torch details

Welding Equipment
The equipment for oxyfuel-gas welding consists basically of a
welding torch connected by hoses to high-pressure gas cylinders
and equipped with pressure gages and regulators
The welder wears eye and skin protection (goggles, gloves, and
protective clothing) as an additional safety precaution.
The combination of acetylene and oxygen is highly flammable,
and the environment in which OAW is performed is therefore
hazardous
Proper connection of the hoses to the cylinders is an important
factor in safety.
Oxygen and acetylene cylinders have different threads, so the
hoses cannot be connected to the wrong cylinders.
Welding Equipment"
Pure C2H2 is a colorless, odorless gas. For safety reasons,
commercial acetylene is processed to have a characteristic garlic
odor
Although OAW can be mechanized, it is usually performed
manually and is hence dependent on the skill of the welder to
produce a high-quality weld joint
The low equipment cost is an attractive feature of oxyfuel-gas
welding.
The process is economical for simple and low-quantity work.
It is rarely used to weld sheet and plate stock thicker than 6 mm
because of the advantages of arc welding in such applications
Welding Practice
Oxyfuel-gas welding can be used with most ferrous and
nonferrous metals
But the relatively low heat input limits the process to thicknesses
of less than 6 mm
Small joints made by this process may consist of a single-weld
bead.
Deep-V groove joints are made in multiple passes.
Cleaning the surface of each weld bead prior to depositing a
second layer is important for joint strength and in avoiding
defects
Wire brushes (hand or power) may be used for this purpose.
Methods of welding
There are two methods of welding
Leftward or forward welding

Rightward or backward or backhand welding

Leftward or forward welding
The welding flame is directed
away from the finished weld i.e.
towards the un-welded part of
the joint.
Filler rod when used is directed
towards the welded part of the
joint
This tends to preheat the metal
before the torch tip melts it
This technique is restricted to
welding of mild steel plates
upto 5 mm thick, cast iron and
non-ferrous metals
Rightward or backward or backhand welding
The torch flame is directed
towards the completed weld
and the filler rod remains
between the flame and the
completed weld section.
This allows the joint to be
continuously annealed,
relieving the welding stresses
Allows a better penetration as
well as forms a bigger weld
bead
Generally used for thicker
materials
Advantage of an oxy-acetylene welding
The principal advantage of an oxy-acetylene welding setup is the
versatility of the equipment.
The same equipment with a range of torches would be used for
oxygen cutting as well as for brazing and braze welding
Thus, it is useful for general purpose shops particularly smaller
ones
However, this method of welding is somewhat slower and as
such cannot compete with the other production welding methods
such as electric arc welding
Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the
metal parts being joined
No melting of the base metals occurs in brazing; only the filler
melts.
In brazing the filler metal (also called the brazing metal), has a
melting temperature that is above 450º C but below the
melting point of the base metal to be joined
Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal, a strong joint
is obtained
Brazing is derived from the word brass, an archaic word
meaning “to harden”
Brazing"
In a typical brazing operation, a filler (braze) metal wire is placed
along the periphery of the components to be joined
Heat is then applied by various external means, melting the braze
metal and, by capillary action, filling the closely fitting space
(joint clearance) at the interfaces
The main application of braze welding is in repair work,
typically on parts made of cast steels and irons.
Because of the wider gaps between the components being
welded, more braze metal is used than in conventional brazing
In general, dissimilar metals can be assembled with good joint
strength.
Intricate and lightweight shapes can be joined rapidly and with
little distortion
Brazing methods
A general brazing method is to apply flux to the joint after it has
been properly prepared
Heat is applied to the joint to bring it to the liquidus temperature
of the filler material
Apply the filler material so that it flows into the crevice by
capillary forces
The filler metal on solidification gives the necessary joint
strength
Heat sources that are used for brazing are a molten bath of
brazing filler metal, oxy-acetylene torch, controlled atmosphere
furnace, electrical resistance heating and induction heating
In torch brazing, a reducing flame (oxy-acetylene or propane)
is generally used to inhibit oxidation
Brazing methods"
In dip brazing, a molten salt bath or metal bath is used to
supply heat to the base metal
A brazing joint is prepared and dipped into the bath for quick
melting of the brazing alloy.
When the assembly is taken out of the bath, the joint cools and
joint strength is obtained.
It is a faster method for preparing brazing joints
In induction brazing heat is obtained from the high
frequency current induced in the work by means of the electrical
coils.
Electrical resistance heating set up is similar to the electrical
resistance welding, except that brazing requires less power
Brazing methods"
In furnace brazing, a furnace with a controlled atmosphere,
which is either neutral or reducing, is used.
The assemblies to be joined enter the furnace on a conveyor and
will pass through the various heating and cooling portions of the
furnace to make the joint.
Brazing methods

Brazing methods: (a) Dip brazing (b) Induction brazing (c)

Furnace brazing
Advantages of Brazing
1. Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals
2. Certain brazing methods can be performed quickly and
consistently, thus permitting high cycle rates and automated
production
3. Some methods allow multiple joints to be brazed
simultaneously
4. Brazing can be applied to join thin-walled parts that cannot be
welded
5. Less heat and power are required than in fusion welding
6. Problems with the heat-affected zone in the base metal near the
joint are reduced
7. Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can
be brazed, since capillary action draws the molten filler metal
into the joint
Limitations of Brazing
1. Joint strength is generally less than that of a welded joint
2. Although strength of a good brazed joint is greater than that of
the filler metal, it is likely to be less than that of the base metals
3. High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint
4. The color of the metal in the brazed joint may not match the
color of the base metal parts
Applications of Brazing

Brazing as a production process is widely used in a variety of

industries, including automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes),
electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables), cutting tools
(e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks), and jewelry
making.
In addition, the chemical processing industry and plumbing
contractors join metal pipes and tubes by brazing.
The process is used extensively for repair and maintenance work
in nearly all industries.
Filler metals
Several filler metals (braze metals) are available with a range of
brazing temperatures
Unlike welding operations, filler metals for brazing generally
have a composition that is significantly different from those of
the metals to be joined.
They are available in a variety of shapes, such as wire, rod,
sheets and strips, powders, pastes
The selection of the type of filler metal and its composition are
important in order to avoid embrittlement of the joint
Braze metal pastes consist of filler metal powders mixed with
fluid fluxes and binders
Characteristics of Filler metals

1. Melting temperature must be compatible with the base metal

2. Surface tension in the liquid phase must be low for good
wettability
3. Fluidity of the molten metal must be high for penetration into
the interface
4. The metal must be capable of being brazed into a joint of
adequate strength for the application
5. Chemical and physical interactions with base metal must be
avoided
Typical Filler Metals for Various Metals and
Alloys
Base metal Filler metal Brazing
temperature (°C)
Aluminum and its alloys Aluminum and silicon 570-620
Magnesium alloys Magnesium and 580-625
aluminum
Copper and its alloys Copper and phosphorus 700-925

Ferrous and nonferrous Silver and copper alloys, 620-1150

(except aluminum copper and phosphorus
and magnesium)
Iron, nickel and Gold 900-1100
cobalt-based alloys
Stainless steels, nickel- and Nickel and silver 925-1200
cobalt-based alloys
Fluxes
The use of a flux is essential in brazing; a flux prevents oxidation
and removes oxide films.
Brazing fluxes generally are made of borax, boric acid, borates,
fluorides, and chlorides.
Forms of flux include powders, pastes, and slurries
Wetting agents may be added to improve both the wetting
characteristics of the molten filler metal and the capillary action
The flux should also be easy to remove after brazing.
It is essential that the surfaces to be brazed be clean and free
from rust, oil, and other contaminants
Because they are corrosive, fluxes must be removed after
brazing, usually by washing with hot water.
Characteristics of a good flux
Characteristics of a good flux include
1. Low melting temperature
2. Low viscosity so that it can be displaced by the filler metal
3. Facilitates wetting
4. Protects the joint until solidification of the filler metal
Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by
means of a filler metal whose liquidus temperature is below
450°C
As in brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary action
between closely fitting or closely placed components.
Though soldering obtains a good joint between the two plates,
the strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the filler
metal used.
Two important characteristics of solders are low surface tension
and high wetting capability.
Heat sources for soldering are usually soldering irons, torches, or
ovens.
Soldering"
Soldering is normally used for obtaining a neat leak proof joint
or a low resistance electrical joint.
The soldered joints are not suitable for high temperature service
because of the low melting temperatures of the filler metals used
The joint design used for soldering is similar to that of brazing
since the filler metal enters the soldered joint by capillary action.
A soldered joint is weaker compared to that of the brazed joint.
As a result, other means of mechanical fastening is used in
addition to soldering to provide the necessary joint strength
Surfaces to be soldered must be precleaned so they are free of
oxides, oils, and so on.
Soldering"
An appropriate flux must be applied to the faying surfaces, and
the surfaces are heated.
Filler metal (solder) is added to the joint, which distributes itself
between the closely fitting parts.
After solidification, the flux residue must be removed
As an industrial process, soldering is most closely associated
with electronics assembly
It is also used for mechanical joints, but not for joints subjected
to elevated stresses or temperatures
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages include
1. Low energy input relative to brazing and fusion welding,
2. Variety of heating methods available,
3. Good electrical and thermal conductivity in the joint
4. Capability to make air-tight and liquid-tight seams for
containers
5. Easy to repair and rework
The biggest disadvantages of soldering are
1. Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanically means
2. Possible weakening or melting of the joint in elevated
temperature service
Types of Solders

Solders Applications

Tin-lead General purpose

Tin-zinc Aluminum
Lead-silver Strength at higher than room temperature
Cadmium-silver Strength at high temperatures
Zinc-aluminum Aluminum, corrosion resistance
Tin-silver Electronics
Tin-bismuth Electronics
Tin–antimony Plumbing and heating
Types of Solders
Most solders are alloys of tin and lead, since both metals have
low melting points
Lead is poisonous and its percentage is minimized in most solder
compositions.
Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and promotes
the wetting action required for successful joining
In soldering copper, intermetallic compounds of copper and tin
are formed that strengthen the bond
Silver and antimony are also sometimes used in soldering alloys
For special applications and higher joint strength (especially at
elevated temperatures), other solder compositions are tin-zinc,
lead-silver, cadmium-silver, and zinc-aluminum alloys
Types Fluxes
Soldering fluxes can be classified as organic or inorganic
Organic fluxes are made of either rosin (i.e., natural rosin
such as gum wood, which is not water-soluble) or water-soluble
ingredients (e.g., alcohols, organic acids, and halogenated salts).
The water-soluble type facilitates cleanup after soldering
Organic fluxes are most commonly used for electrical and
electronics connections.
They tend to be chemically reactive at elevated soldering
temperatures but relatively noncorrosive at room temperatures.
Types Fluxes"
Inorganic fluxes consist of inorganic acids (e.g., muriatic
acid) and salts (e.g., combinations of zinc and ammonium
chlorides)
These are used to achieve rapid and active fluxing where oxide
films are a problem.
The salts become active when melted, but are less corrosive than
the acids.
When solder wire is purchased with an acid core it is in this
category
Types Fluxes"
Both organic and inorganic fluxes should be removed after
soldering
It is especially important in the case of inorganic acids to prevent
continued corrosion of the metal surfaces.
Flux removal is usually accomplished using water solutions
except in the case of rosins, which require chemical solvents.
Recent trends in industry favor water-soluble fluxes over rosins
because chemical solvents used with rosins are harmful to the
environment and to humans
Functions of Flux
1. be molten at soldering temperatures
2. remove oxide films from the base part surfaces,
3. prevent oxidation during heating,
4. promote wetting of the faying surfaces,
5. be readily displaced by the molten solder during the process,
6. leave a residue that is noncorrosive and nonconductive.
Unfortunately, there is no single flux that serves all of these
functions perfectly for all combinations of solder and base
metals.
The flux formulation must be selected for a given application.
Soldering methods
The most commonly used soldering methods are (1) With
soldering iron (flame or electrically heated) (2) Dip soldering
(3) Wave soldering
A soldering iron is a copper rod with a thin tip which can be
used for flattening the soldering material.
The soldering iron can be heated by keeping in a furnace or by
means of an internal electrical resistance
This is the most convenient method of soldering but somewhat
slower compared to the other methods
In dip soldering, a large amount of solder is melted in a tank
which is closed.
The parts that are to be soldered are first cleaned properly and
dipped in a flux bath as per the requirement.
Soldering methods"
These are then dipped into the molten solder pool
In Wave soldering, the part to be soldered (e.g., an electronic
printed circuit board, PCB) is not dipped into the solder tank, but
a wave is generated in the tank so that the solder comes up and
makes the necessary joint.
This is normally a continuous process with the PCB’s being
continuously moving on top of the solder tank and the waves
become continuously generated.
It is used for mass production of the electronic equipment
There are also other methods available for soldering, such as
torch soldering, oven soldering, resistance soldering, induction
soldering and infrared soldering
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding is a joining process in which a filler material
is used to hold two (or more) closely spaced parts together by
surface attachment
The filler material that binds the parts together is the adhesive
It is a nonmetallic substance—usually a polymer
The parts being joined are called adherends
Adhesives are used in a wide range of bonding and sealing
applications for joining similar and dissimilar materials such as
metals, plastics, ceramics, wood, paper, and cardboard
A common example of adhesive bonding is plywood, where
several layers of wood are bonded with wood glue.
Adhesive Bonding"
Adhesives are available in various forms: liquid, paste, solution,
emulsion, powder, tape, and film.
When applied, adhesives typically are about 0.1 mm thick.
Adhesive may require one or more of the following properties
Strength: shear and peel
Toughness
Resistance to various fluids and chemicals
Resistance to environmental degradation, including heat and
moisture
Capability to wet the surfaces to be bonded
Curing
Curing refers to the process by which the adhesive’s physical
properties are changed from a liquid to a solid, usually by
chemical reaction, to accomplish the surface attachment of the
parts.
A large number of commercially available adhesives are cured by
various mechanisms and suited to the bonding of various
materials
The chemical reaction may involve polymerization,
condensation, or vulcanization.
Curing is often motivated by heat and/or a catalyst, and pressure
is sometimes applied between the two parts to activate the
bonding process.
Curing"
If heat is required, the curing temperatures are relatively low, and
so the materials being joined are usually unaffected- an
advantage for adhesive bonding
The curing or hardening of the adhesive takes time, called curing
time or setting time.
In some cases this time is significant—generally a disadvantage
in manufacturing.
Types of Adhesives
A large number of commercial adhesives are available. They can
be classified into three categories
1. Natural:- derived from natural sources (e.g., plants and
animals), including gums, starch, dextrin, soy flour, and
collagen.
This category of adhesive is generally limited to low-stress
applications, such as cardboard cartons, furniture, and
bookbinding; or where large surface areas are involved
2. Inorganic :-based principally on sodium silicate and
magnesium oxychloride. Although relatively low in cost, they
are also low in strength—a serious limitation in a structural
adhesive
3. Synthetic:-the most important category in manufacturing. They
include a variety of thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
Electrically Conducting Adhesives
Although the majority of adhesive bonding applications require
mechanical strength, a relatively recent advance is the
development and application of electrically conducting adhesives
to replace lead-based solder alloys, particularly in the electronics
industry.
These adhesives require curing or setting temperatures that are
lower than those required for soldering.
In electrically conducting adhesives, the polymer is the matrix
and contains conducting metals (fillers) in forms such as flakes
and particles on electrically conducting polymers).
There is a minimum proportion of fillers necessary to make the
adhesive electrically conducting; typically, it is in the range of 40
to 70% by volume.
Surface Preparation
]oint strength depends greatly on the absence of dirt, dust, oil,
and various other contaminants.
Contaminants also affect the wetting ability of the adhesive and
prevent even spreading of the adhesive over the interface.
Thick, weak, or loose oxide films on workpiece surfaces are
detrimental to adhesive bonding.
A porous or a thin and strong oxide film may be desirable
Some surface roughness improve adhesion or introduce
mechanical locking.
However, the roughness must not be too high, because air may be
trapped, in which case the joint strength is reduced.
Various compounds and primers are available that modify
surfaces to improve adhesive-bond strength
Application Methods
Brushing, performed manually, uses a stiff-bristled brush.
Coatings are often uneven.
Flowing, using manually operated pressure-fed flow guns, has
more consistent control than brushing.
Manual rollers, similar to paint rollers, are used to apply
adhesive from a flat container.
Silk screening involves brushing the adhesive through the open
areas of the screen onto the part surface, so that only selected
areas are coated.
Spraying uses an air-driven (or airless) spray gun for fast
application over large or difficult-to-reach areas.
Application Methods"
Automatic applicators include various automatic dispensers and
nozzles for use on medium- and high-speed production
applications
Roll coating is a mechanized technique in which a rotating roller
is partially submersed in a pan of liquid adhesive and picks up a
coating of the adhesive, which is then transferred to the work
surface
Roll coating

Roll coating of adhesive onto thin, flexible material such as

paper, cloth, or flexible polymer
Applications
Major industries that use adhesive bonding extensively are the
aerospace, automotive, appliances, and building products
industries.
Applications include automotive brake-lining assemblies,
laminated windshield glass, appliances, honeycomb structures,
and aircraft bodies and control surfaces
Advantages
1) The process is applicable to a wide variety of materials
2) Parts of different sizes and cross sections can be joined—fragile
parts can be joined by adhesive bonding
3) Bonding occurs over the entire surface area of the joint, thereby
distributing stresses over the entire area
4) Some adhesives are flexible after bonding and are thus tolerant
of cyclical loading and differences in thermal expansion of
adherends
5) Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts being joined
6) Sealing as well as bonding can be achieved

7) Joint design is often simplified (e.g., two flat surfaces can be

joined without providing special part features such as screw
holes).
Limitations
Joints are generally not as strong as other joining methods
Adhesive must be compatible with materials being joined
Service temperatures are limited
Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to application of
adhesive are important
Curing times can impose a limit on production rates
Inspection of the bonded joint is difficult