WELDING

Welding is a materials joining process which

produces coalescence of materials by heating
them to suitable temperatures with or
without the application of pressure, and with
or without the use of filler material.
 Why Welding is Important
• Provides a permanent joint
– Welded components become a single entity
• Usually the most economical way to join parts
in terms of material usage and fabrication
costs
– Mechanical fastening usually requires additional
hardware (e.g., screws) and geometric alterations of the
assembled parts (e.g., holes)
• Not restricted to a factory environment
– Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding
• Most welding operations are performed
manually and are expensive in terms of labor
cost
• Most welding processes utilize high energy
and are inherently dangerous
• Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
• Welded joints can have quality defects that
are difficult to detect
 Principal Applications of Welding
• Construction - buildings and bridges
• Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage
tanks
• Shipbuilding
• Aircraft and aerospace
• Automotive
• Railroad
 TYPES
• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a
plastic state and forced together by external pressure
(Ex) Resistance welding
• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to
solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
 Classification of welding processes:
(i). Arc welding (iv) Thermit Welding
• Carbon arc
• Metal arc (v) Solid State Welding
• Metal inert gas Friction
• Tungsten inert gas Ultrasonic
• Plasma arc Diffusion
• Submerged arc Explosive
• Electro-slag (vi) Newer Welding
(ii). Gas Welding Electron-beam
• Oxy-acetylene Laser
• Air-acetylene (vii) Related Process
• Oxy-hydrogen Oxy-acetylene cutting
(iii). Resistance Welding Arc cutting
• Butt Hard facing
• Spot Brazing
• Seam Soldering
• Projection
• Percussion
 The Weld Joint
The junction of the surfaces of parts that have
been joined by welding
• Two issues about weld joints:
– Types of joints
– Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the
joints
• There is a difference between joint type and the way it is
welded ‑ the weld type
 Five Types of Joints

(a) Butt joint, (b) corner joint, (c) lap joint, (d)
tee joint, and (e) edge joint
 Fillet Weld
• Used to fill in the edges of plates created by
corner, lap, and tee joints
• Filler metal used to provide cross section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
• Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds

• (a) Inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet
corner joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; (d) double fillet tee
joint (dashed lines show the original part edges)
Groove Welds(Butt Weld)
• Usually requires part edges to be shaped into
a groove to facilitate weld penetration
• Edge preparation increases cost of parts
fabrication
• Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U,
and J, in single or double sides
• Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds

• (a) Square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel groove weld;
(c) single V‑groove weld; (d) single U‑groove weld; (e) single
J‑groove weld; (f) double V‑groove weld for thicker sections
(dashed lines show original part edges)
 Plug Weld and Slot Weld
• (a) Plug weld and (b) slot weld
Spot Weld and Seam Weld
Fused section between surfaces of two sheets or plates: (a) spot
weld and (b) seam weld
• Used for lap joints
• Closely associated with resistance welding
Welding Positions
 Welding Methods
• Leftward / Forward welding: The weld is made
working from right to left. This is found most
advantageous on plates up to about 3 mm.
 Welding Methods
• Right ward / back ward welding: The weld is
made working from left to right. This method
provides better shielding against oxidation and
slows down its cooling
 Welding Methods
• Vertical welding: This is often advantageous
for thickness of 6mm and above. It does not
require edge preparation up to 15mm
thickness. Here the operator starts at the
bottom and proceeds to the top.
Edge Preparation
 Two Basic Types of Electrodes
• Consumable – consumed during welding
process
– same base material
– Source of filler metal in arc welding
• Non-consumable – not consumed during
welding process
– Tungsten, Carbon or graphite
– Filler metal must be added separately if it is added
 Consumable Electrodes
• Forms of consumable electrodes
• Coated (stick electrode)
• Uncoated (bare electrode)
• In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by the arc and added to weld joint
as filler metal
 Coated electrodes
• To facilitate establishment of arc
• To produce shield gas around arc and weld
pool
• To provide formation of slag to reduce rapid
cooling
• To introduce alloying elements not considered
in core wire
 Arc Shielding
• At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air
– Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by
these reactions
– To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
• Arc shielding is accomplished by:
– Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
– Flux
 Flux
• A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal.
• Provides protective atmosphere for welding
• Stabilizes arc
• Reduces spattering
 GAS WELDING

• It is the process of generating the heat required for melting

the joint by burning the combustible gas with air/oxygen in a
concentrated flame at high temp.
• The temperature generated during the process is 33000c
• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and
the torch combines with molten metal and forms oxides.
• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium, lithium
and borax.
• Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid, solid coating or
gas.
 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work
pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Oxy-Acetylene welding
 TYPES OF FLAMES…
• There is excess acetylene , with a long white inner area
(Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called
Carburizing flame (30000c).
Little excess of acetylene used- reducing condition: HCS, Ni, Non ferrous
More excess of acetylene used- carburizing condition: LCS
• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone
surrounded by the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral
flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron
• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more
pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce
is called Oxidizing flame
Has the highest temperature about 34000c
Used for welding brass and brazing operation
 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame.
Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and
cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame.
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
• Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen
• Suitable for joining metal sheets and plates of
thickness of 2 to 50 mm.
• Oxygen is stored at pressure of 14 MPa.
• Acetylene cylinders are packed with porous materials
(balsa wood, charcoal, Portland cement ), soaked in
acetone-which can dissolve 25 times of own vol.
• 2.5 Vol of oxygen is required for consuming of 1 vol
of acetylene, in which 1.5 vol of oxygen is supplied
from atm.
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
• Oxygen cyl- Black
• Acetylene cyl- Maroon
Oxyacetylene Welding
 Acetylene (C2H2)
• Most popular fuel because it is capable of higher
temperatures than any other
– Up to 3480°C
• Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
– First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
2C2H2 + 2O2 → 4CO + 2H2 + Heat
– Second stage reaction (outer envelope)
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
By combining,
2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
 Safety Issue in OAW
• Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly
flammable
• C2H2 is colorless and odorless
– It is therefore processed to have characteristic garlic
odor
 Manual Arc welding/ Shielded
Metal Arc Welding(SMAW)
• Equipment:
• A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
• Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
• Electrode holder
• Electrode
• Protective shield
• Gloves
• Wire brush
• Chipping hammer
• Goggles
 What is an Electric Arc?
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
• It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
• To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
• Metal rod is used as electrode
Electric Arc Welding -- Polarity
DC Polarity

Straight Polarity/ DCEN

Reverse Polarity/DCEP
(Direct current electrode –ve))
(–) (+)

(+) (–)
small weld penetration
deeper penetration
(thin sheets)
(thick metal)

AC - Gives pulsing arc

- used for medium penetration
Fusion Welding: Arc Welding (AW)
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint, molten
weld pool solidifies in its wake
 Arc welding
Advantages Limitations
– Most efficient way to join • Manually applied, therefore high
metals labor cost.
– Lowest-cost joining method • Need high energy causing danger
– Affords lighter weight through • Not convenient for disassembly.
better utilization of materials • Defects are hard to detect at
– Joins all commercial metals joints.
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer)

More efficiency
Power consumption and Cost is less
Higher voltage – hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
Not preferred for welding thin sections
Cathode and anode change continuously, so temp across the
arc would be more uniform.
Direct Current (from Generator)

Less efficiency
Power consumption and cost is more
Low voltage – safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
preferred for welding thin sections
Positive terminal connected to the work
Negative terminal connected to the electrode
Carbon Arc Welding
 Carbon arc welding
• One or two rods of carbon are used as –ve
electrode and work as +ve.
• Temp- 3200°C on –ve and 3900°C on +ve
• This is used where no addition of filler metal is
required.
• Here DC is always used.
• Used for welding sheets of steel, Al, Cu alloys.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Developed for high quality butt welds
• Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding by a cover of
granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a
coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead
of arc by gravity from a hopper
– Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding
 SAW Applications and Products
• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I‑beams)
• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels
 Atomic Hydrogen welding
• Arc is maintained b/w two non-consumable
tungsten electrode, while a hydrogen gas is
passed through the arc, which change the
molecules of H2 in atomic state absorbing large
amt. of energy.
• Just outside the arc the atoms of H2 recombine
into molecules, liberating large amount of heat
(4000°C)
• Used for alloy steel, SS, most non-ferrous metals.
• Now obsolete after MIG and TIG.
Atomic Hydrogen welding
 Tungsten Inert gas Welding (TIG)
• Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and
an inert gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C
• A.k.a. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Used
with or without a filler metal
– When filler metal used, it is added to weld
pool from separate rod or wire
• Applications: welding of aluminum and stainless
steel mostly
 Tungsten welding
• Pure tungsten is used for DCEN for welding
most of the metals
• Zirconated tungsten is used for A.C and DCEP
for welding Al and Mg alloys
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
GTAW
Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
• Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode Arc welding processes
 Applications of TIG
• Used for thin sheets for precision welding in
nuclear, aircraft, space craft, chemical
industries.
Consumable: Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

• This is gas shielded metal arc welded process where

wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool
through the welding gun.
• Shielding gases include argon and helium for aluminum
welding, and CO2 for steel welding.
• Bare electrode wire (no flux) plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead.
• No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag
• D.C is the current source.
• Consumable Metal electrode is used.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
GMAW Advantages

1. Continuous welding because of continuous wire

electrode.
2. Higher Welding speed.
3. No flux requirement
4. Eliminates problem of slag removal.
5. Can be readily automated.
GMAW Applications
1. Used to weld ferrous and various non-ferrous metals.

2. Good for fabrications such as frames and farm

equipment.

3. Can weld thicker metal (not as thick as SMAW).

4. Metal must be clean to start weld.

 Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding
• Resistance
welding, showing
components in
spot welding, the
main process in
the RW group
 Components in Resistance Spot
Welding
• Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
• Two opposing electrodes
• Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
• Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
 Advantages and Drawbacks of
Resistance Welding
Advantages:
• No filler metal required
• High production rates possible
• Lends itself to mechanization and automation
• Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
• Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
• High initial equipment cost
• Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
 Types of Resistance welding
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Butt welding
4. Projection welding
5. Flash welding
6. Percussion welding
1. Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance welding process in which fusion of
surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location
by opposing electrodes
• Used to join sheet metal parts
• Widely used in mass production of automobiles,
metal furniture, appliances, and other sheet
metal products
– Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
– Annual production of automobiles in the world is measured
in tens of millions of units
 Spot Welding Cycle
• (a) Spot welding cycle
• (b) Plot of force and
current
• Cycle: (1) parts inserted
between electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, (3)
current on, (4) current
off, (5) electrodes
opened
 2. Resistance Seam Welding
(RSEW)
• Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a
series of overlapping spot welds along lap
joint
• Can produce air‑tight joints
• Quicker operation than spot welding & gives
a stronger joint
• Applications:
– Gasoline tanks
– Automobile
– Various sheet metal containers
Resistance Seam Welding
 Limitations of Seam Welding
• Cannot be applied where abrupt changes in
contours are there
• It is necessary that the weld should proceed in
straight line or uniform curve
• Stock thickness above 3 mm cannot be weld
easily
3. Resistance Butt/ Upset Welding
• Used to join components
of similar cross section by
making a weld in a single
operation
• Solid state process
 Steps for Butt welding
• Two work pieces to be welded are first brought
together under pressure.
• Current is then applied
• Heat is produced in the weld region by resistance to
the passage of the current through the parts
• As the material heats, the force forges the material
to consolidate and complete the joint
• The pressure and current are applied throughout the
weld cycle
 Application of Butt welding
• wire and rod joints up to about 16mm
diameter
• Making chains
• Welding of high electrical conductivity
material
4. Resistance Projection Welding
(RPW)
• A resistance welding process in which
coalescence occurs at one or more small
contact points on the parts
• Contact points determined by design of parts
to be joined
– May consist of projections, embossments, or localized
intersections of parts
• The surfaces of the w/p are in contact only at the
projections.
 Resistance Projection Welding
• (1) Start of operation, contact between parts
is at projections by pressing the upper
electrode downwards; (2) when current is
applied, weld nuggets similar to spot welding
are formed at the projections
5. Resistance Flash Welding
• Two-stage process
• Used for joining metal
pieces end to end
• Does not use any filler
material
• AC power supply is
generally used
Steps for Flash Welding-
1. First the current is switched ON
•Weld pieces are slowly brought together to
make end contact
•produces a flashing or arcing across the
interface of the two butting ends
2. Pieces are then forcibly press against each
other.
•This forces the molten metal & slag to be
squeezed out in the form of sparks
 Application of Flash Welding
• Automobile industry
• Tubular and solid structures
• Welding of pipes
Advantages of Flash welding-
• Much quicker than Butt welding
• As only a small portion of w/p is heated,
current consumption is less
• Stronger than the butt welding joints
Limitations-
• Upsetting pressure and power limit the size &
area of w/p
 6. Resistance Percussion welding
• Striking of one solid
object against another
with some degree of
force.
• Used for joining wires of
dissimilar metals
Steps for Percussion Welding-
• First hold the parts at a small distance
• Switch ON the current & bring them closer at
fast speed
• An arc will be generated just before the
contact
• Then the weld will be completed after impact
Soldering
• It is a low temperature joining process by using another
metal or alloy which has fairly low melting pt. as compared to
the metals to be joined. It is performed at temperatures
below 450° C for joining.
• Soldering is used for,
• Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans
• Electrical Connections
• Joining dissimilar metals
 Soldering
• Soft soldering: is used for sheet metal works
that are not subjected to excessive loads,
these melt at temp below 350° C
– Alloy of lead & tin

• Hard Soldering: employed solders whose

melting temp. is higher than soft solders.
– Alloy of Cu & Zn
Soldering
Solder = Filler metal
• Alloys of Tin (silver, bismuth, lead)

Flux used to clean joint & prevent oxidation

• Zinc chloride
• separate or in core of wire
Tinning = pre-coating with thin layer of solder

Applications:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
• Pipe joining (copper pipe)
• Jewelry manufacture
• Typically non-load bearing

Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold

Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
Brazing
• Low temperature joining process.
• It is performed at temperatures above 450° C and it generally
affords strengths comparable to those of the metal which it
joins.
• It is low temperature in that it is done below the melting point
of the base metal.
• It is achieved by diffusion without fusion (melting) of the base
Brazing

Advantages

• Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by brazing

• Very thin metals can be joined
• Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
• In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence
there is no distortion
• Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders

Disadvantages

• Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding

• Joint preparation cost is more
• Can be used for thin sheet metal sections
Brazing
Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between
mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action

• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys

• Flux used (Borax)

• Types of brazing classified by heating
method:
– Torch, Furnace, Resistance

Applications:
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Joint can possess significant strength
Figure 31-2 Capillary action pulls water into a thin tube.
WELDING
DEFECTS
 Defects affect the quality of weld

• Porous welds • Poor appearance

• Poor penetration • Poor fusion
• Brittle welds
• Warping
• Spatter
• Undercut & Underfill • Magnetic blow
• Distortion • Weld stress
• Cracked welds
 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Porosity
Presence of small pores or voids in the weld, due to entrapement of
gases.
When these pores are quite small – porosity
Bigger void- Blow Hole
Due to:-
1. Presence of oil, grease, moisture
2. Faulty electrodes
3. Improper gas shielding
4. Wrong welding techniques
5. Low welding current
 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Poor penetration
why?
1. Speed too fast..
2. Electrodes too large.
3. Current too low.
4. Faulty preparation.

What to do?
1. Use enough current to get desired penetration – weld slowly.
2. Calculate electrode penetration properly.
3. Select electrode according to welding groove size.
4. Leave proper free space at the bottom of weld.
 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Undercut/Underfill
Undercutting is a groove or crater that occurs near the toe of the weld.
When this weld flaw occurs, theweld metal fails to fill in that
grooved area, resulting in a weak weld that is prone to cracking
along the toes.
why?
1. Faulty electrode manipulation
2. Faulty electrode usage.
3. Current too high.
Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Fig. a) Underfill

Fig. a) Undercut

Examples of various discontinuities in fusion welds

 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Distortion
Due to:-
.Uneven heat
.Improper sequence.
.Deposited metal shrinks.
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Distortion of parts after
welding

Fig. a) in butt joints

Fig. a) in fillet joints

 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Cracked welds
Crack is a discontinuity of metal.
• Macro crack
• Micro crack
Makes the joint weak and finally lead to fracture.
Due to:-
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Weld and part sizes unbalanced.
3. Faulty welds.
4. Faulty preparation.
5. Rigid joints.
 Cracks caused by thermal stresses

Fig. b) various types of cracks

Fig. a) Crater cracks in butt & T-joints

Types of cracks in welded joints caused by thermal stresses that develop

during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the welded
structure .
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Spatter
Tiny electrode metal particles are blown out of the arc which get
deposited over the bead and base material.
Gives Poor appearance
Does not have any effect on weld strength
Due to:-
1. Too high welding current
2. Wrong composition of flux coating
3. Discontinuous Arc
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Poor fusion
why?
1. Wrong speed.
2. Current improperly adjusted.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Improper electrode size.

What to do?
1. Adjust electrode and ‘V’ size.
2. Weave must be sufficient to melt sides of joints.
3. Proper current will allow deposition and penetration.
4. Keep weld metal from curling away from plates.
Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Poor
fusion

Examples of various discontinuities

in fusion welds
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Brittle welds
why?
1. Wrong electrode.
2. Faulty preheating.
3. Metal hardened by air.

What to do?
1. Preheat at 135 to 260º C if welding on medium-carbon steel or certain alloy
steel.
2. Make multiple-layer welds.
3. Anneal after welding.
4. Use stainless or low-hydrogen electrodes for increasing weld ductility.
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Magnetic blow

why?
1. Magnetic fields cause
the arc to deviate from
its intended course.
What to do?
1. Use steel blocks to alter magnetic path around arc.
2. Divide the ground into parts.
3. Weld in same direction the arc blows.
4. Use a short arc.
5. Locate the ground properly on the work.
6. Use a-c welding
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Weld stress
why?
1. Faulty welds.
2. Faulty sequence.
3. Rigid joints.

What to do?
1. Allow parts to move freely as long as practical.
2. Make as few passes as possible.
3. Peen deposits.
4. Anneal according to thickness of weld.
5. Move parts slightly in welding to reduce stresses.
Thank
you
 Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Warping
why?
1. Shrinkage of weld metal.
2. Faulty clamping of parts.
3. Faulty preparation.
4. Over heating at joint.

What to do?
1. Peen joint edges before welding.
2. Weld rapidly.
3. Avoid excessive space between parts.
4. Clamp parts properly; back up to cool.
5. Adopt a welding procedure.
6. Use high – speed, moderate penetration electrodes.
 Causes and cures of common welding
troubles
Inclusions
• Slag got entrapped in the weld metal specially in case of Multi
pass welds and is known as Slag Inclusion
• Such inclusion may also be added due to dirt, rust etc.
• Such inclusions weakens the weld.