CONTENTS

DECLARATION …ii

CERTIFICATE …iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …iv

PROGRESS REPORT …v

LIST OF FIGURES …vi

LIST OF TABLES …vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION …viii

ABSTRACT …ix

1. INTRODUCTION ...01

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE …04

3. METHODOLOGY …25

3.1 Block Diagram …26

3.2 Circuit Diagram …30

3.3 Component Description …35

3.4 PCB Layout …38

3.5 Working …39

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS …40

4.1 Results …41

4.2 Discussions …42

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE …46

6. REFERENCES ...47

7. APPENDICES …48

1
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Block diagram … 06

Figure 2 Embedded system … 09

Figure 3 Harvard Architecture … 19

Figure 4 Pin Diagram … 20

Figure 5 Internal Block Diagram … 25

Figure 6 LED … 27

Figure 7 Resistor … 34

Figure 8 Electronics Colour Code … 35

Figure 9 Colour Coding of Resistor … 36

Figure 10 Colour coding of Resistor … 37

Figure 11 Regulated Power Supply … 38

Figure 12 Block Diagram of Simple circuit … 39

Figure 13 Bridge Rectifier … 40

Figure 14 Smoothing … 41

Figure 15 Regulator … 42

Figure 16 Step up transformer … 43

Figure 17 Step down transformer … 43

Figure 18 Diode … 44

Figure 19 Diode … 45

Figure 20 Circuit of L.S.M … 49

Figure 21 Layout … 50

2
1. INTRODUCTION

3
 LIBRARY SILENCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

As our final year project we are going to present “Library silence manager”. Our project measure
sound pressure level. The project is also connected to Audio announcement circuit. So our project
continuously measure sound pressure, and compare with critical noise level set using
microcontroller programming. If sound noise pressure exceed from set value, voice announcement
circuit start play, giving warning massage. This project can be very useful for the college library
and everywhere where noise level matter.
A basic sound level meter shows the sound pressure level with different frequency weighting and
with different time integration that are used for noise assessment. In almost all countries, the use
of A-frequency-weighting is mandated for protection of workers against noise induced deafness.
The standard sound level meter is more correctly called an ‘exponentially averaging sound level
meter’ as the AC signal from microphone is converted into DC by a root-mean square circuit and
thus I must have a time constant of integration; today, referred to as time weighting. The output of
RMS circuit is linear in voltage and passed through a logarithm circuit to give a linear readout in
decibels. It follow that decibels is not a unit but simply a dimensionless ratio-in case, the ratio of
two pressures. The decibel is a logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio. The ratio may be power,
sound pressure, voltage, intensity, etc. Not at all frequency is equally loud. This is because human
ear does not respond equally to all frequencies. Our ear much sensitive to sound in frequency
range of 1 KHz to 4 KHz. So sound meter are usually fitted with a filter whose response to
frequency is almost like that of the human ear. If the A-weighting filter is used, the sound pressure
level is given in dB unit.

4
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

5
Block diagram

Figure 1

6
Working
Condenser mic is used as an input device. The sound is converted into electrical
signal using condenser mic. This signal is than amplified by using LM358.For
sufficient amplification we are using two operational amplifiers. The audio output
is received through pin 2 and feedback is given through VR1. Here VR1 is used to
get an output amplitude level between 0 to 4 volts.
LM 358 is dual operational amplifier consisting of two independent, high gain,
internally frequency compensated operational amplifier that are design specially
to operate from a single power supply over a wide voltage range. Operation from
split supplies also is possible if the difference between the two supplies is 3 V to
32 V and VCC is at least 1.5 V more positive than the input common-mode
voltage. The low supply-current drain is independent of the magnitude of the
supply voltage.
Applications include transducer amplifiers, dc amplification blocks, and all the
conventional operational amplifier circuits that now can be implemented more
easily in single-supply-voltage systems. For example, these devices can be
operated directly from the standard 5-V supply used in digital systems and easily
can provide the required interface electronics without additional +-5-V supplies.
This analog output is fed to the analog input of PIC microcontroller. The AVR
microcontroller is used because it has internal analog to digital converter. Atmega
8 belongs to a class of 8-bit microcontrollers of RISC architecture. It has 8kb flash
memory for storing a written program. Since memory made in FLASH technology
can be programmed and cleared more than once, it makes this microcontroller
suitable for device development. IT has data memory that needs to be saved when
there is no supply. It is usually used for storing important data that must not be
lost if power supply suddenly stops. For instance, one such data is an assigned
temperature in temperature regulators. If during a loss of power supply this data
was lost, we would have to make the adjustment once again upon return of supply.

7
 LIST OF COMPONENTS
 ATMEGA8
 OPAMP LM358
 MIC
 RESISTORS
 CAPACITORS
 VOICE PROCESSOR(APR9600)
 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

What is a system???

A System is a way of working, organizing or doing one or many tasks according

to a fixed plan, program or set of rules. A system is also an arrangement in which
all its units assemble and work together according to the plan or program.

Example: WATCH
It is a time display SYSTEM
Part: Hardware, Needles, Battery, Dial, Chassis and strap
Rules: All needles move clockwise only.
A thin needle rotates every second.
A long needle rotates every minute.
A short needle rotates every hour.
All needles return to the original position after 12 hours.

8
EMBEDDED SYSTEM-
An Embedded System is one that has computer hardware with software embedded
in it as one of its important components.
Its software embeds in ROM (Read Only Memory). It does not need secondary
memories as in a computer HARDWARE

Figure 2

9
History of Embedded Systems:
When computers came into the market in the 1940’s, they were all Embedded
Systems. However, they were never regarded as Embedded Systems because,
firstly, they were regarded as computers; and secondly, because they were too
large and improper to be formally termed as Embedded Systems.

The Apollo Guidance Computer changed history. It became the world’s first
modern Embedded System. The Apollo Guidance Computer was developed by
Charles Stark Draper. The size of the device was reduced considerably from its
monolithic ancestor. However, this increased other risk factors.

Mass production of Embedded Systems began in the year 1961.Ever since; there
has been no stopping the production and increase in the use of Embedded
Systems.

Why do we need embedded systems?

The first reason why we need embedded systems is because general-purpose
computers, like PCs, would be far too costly. Another reason is because general-
purpose solution might also fail to meet a number of functional or performance
requirements such as constraints in power-consumption, size-limitations,
reliability or real-time performance etc. The digital revolution has reached a stage
that we cannot conduct our normal modern daily lives without this technology. All
sectors of the economy have been influenced by the digital revolution and the
industry has experienced tremendous developments in all aspects of engineering
disciplines.

10
 Basic components of EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 It has Hardware

 Processor, Timers, Interrupt controller, I/O Devices, Memories, Ports, etc.

 It has main Application Software

 Which may perform concurrently the series of tasks or multiple tasks?

 It has Real Time Operating System (RTOS)

 RTOS defines the way the system work. Which supervise the application
software? It sets the rules during the execution of the application program. A
small scale embedded system may not need an RTOS.

Hardware classification of EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1. Small scale Embedded System

As the name implies, It is the smallest type of Embedded System which has less
complexities in their hardware and software. It requires a board level design.
Usually they are designed with 8 or 16-bit microcontroller. 'C' language is mostly
used while installing this software. It can be battery operated.

2. Medium scale Embedded System

It is designed using 16 or 32 bit microcontroller or DSPs. The software includes
RTOS, Source Code Engineering Tool, Simulator, Debugger, and Integrated
Development Environment. These things make the software complicated.
Software tools also used as solution to the hardware complexities.

11
3. Sophisticated Embedded System
Sophisticated Embedded System has an enormous level of software and hardware
complexities. Because there is tremendous co-excision between software and
hardware and integration in the final system, they are also used for cutting edge
applications. Certain functions such as encryption TCP/IP protocol stacking
various algorithms and network driver functions are implemented in hardware to
obtain great speeds.

Programming Language for Embedded System

Language basically used for embedded system:-

1) Assembly Language.
2) Embedded C

Software used for Compiling these language:-

1) Keil π vision
2) Top view
3) Bascom

For designing a circuit we need compiler like:-

1) Proteus ISIS Professional

2) EXPRESS PCB

12
3. METHODOLOGY

13
 High level and Low level programming language

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE

The low languages programming is languages that close to machine languages

such as assembler languages. There are two types of low level languages:

 Machine Language.
 Assembly Language.
Machine Language: It is the lowest and first type of programming language to be
developed. Machine Language is basically the only language which computer can
understand.
Advantages of Machine Language
i) It makes fast and efficient use of the computer.
ii) It requires no translator to translate the code i.e. directly understood
Disadvantages of Machine Language:
i) All operation codes have to be remembered.
ii) All memory addresses have to be remembered.
iii) It is hard to amend or find errors in a program written in the machine

Assembly Language:-
It was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine
language. This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master
it because very small English support is given to this language. The language
mainly helps in compiler orientations.
Advantages of Assembly Language

i) It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.

ii) It is easy to locate and correct errors.
iii) It is modified easily

14
 Disadvantages of Assembly Language
i) Like machine language it is also machine dependent.

ii) Since it is machine dependent therefore programmer should have the

knowledge of the hardware also.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

High level programming languages is languages program than use languages or
syntax which closes to human languages so; it is easy to understanding the
languages or syntax such as pascal or delphi language program.

High level languages are:

1 - Visual Basic
2 - Pascal
3 - Java
4 - C++
and many more.

Advantages of High Level Language

 User-friendly
 Similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols
 Therefore it is easier to learn.
 They require less time to write.
 They are easier to maintain.
Disadvantages of High Level Language
 A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a
translator and thus a price in computer time is paid.
 The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an
equivalent assembly language program.

15
 ATMEGA8 AVR MICROCONTROLLER
History of AVR

AVR was developed in the year 1996 by Atmel. The architecture of AVR was
developed by Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan. AVR derives its name from its
developers and stands for Alf-Egil Bogen Vegard Wollan RISC
microcontroller, also known as Advanced Virtual RISC. The AVR was one of
the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program
storage. Till that time microcontroller comes with one-time programmable ROM.

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture machine where program and data is
stored in separate physical memory systems.

AVR microcontrollers are available in three categories:

1. TinyAVR – Less memory, small size, suitable only for simpler applications
2. MegaAVR – These are the most popular ones having good amount of memory
(upto 256 KB), higher number of inbuilt peripherals and suitable for moderate to
complex applications.
3. XmegaAVR – Used commercially for complex applications, which require large
program memory and high speed.

16
What’s special about AVR?

They are fast: AVR microcontroller executes most of the instructions in single
execution cycle. AVRs are about 4 times faster than PICs, they consume less
power and can be operated in different power saving modes. Let’s do the
comparison between the three most commonly used families of microcontrollers.

AVR is an 8-bit microcontroller belonging to the family of Reduced Instruction

Set Computer (RISC). In RISC architecture the instruction set of the computer are
not only fewer in number but also simpler and faster in operation.

What is 8-bit? This means that the microcontroller is capable of transmitting and
receiving 8-bit data. The input/output registers available are of 8-bits. The AVR
family controllers have register based architecture which means that both the
operands for an operation are stored in a register and the result of the operation is
also stored in a register. Following figure shows a simple example performing
OR operation between two input registers and storing the value in Output
Register.

The CPU takes values from two input registers INPUT-1 and INPUT-2, performs
the logical operation and stores the value into the OUTPUT register. All this
happens in 1 execution cycle.

17
 Some of the features of Atmega8 are:

 8KB of Flash memory

 1KB of SRAM
 512 Bytes of EEPROM
 Available in 40-Pin DIP
 8-Channel 10-bit ADC
 Two 8-bit Timers/Counters
 One 16-bit Timer/Counter
 4 PWM Channel
 In System Programmer (ISP)
 Serial USART
 SPI Interface
 Digital to Analog Comparator.

Architecture of AVR

The AVR microcontrollers are based on the advanced RISC architecture. Within
one single clock cycle, AVR can take inputs from two general purpose registers
and put them to ALU for carrying out the requested operation, and transfer back
the result to an arbitrary register. The ALU can perform arithmetic as well as
logical operations over the inputs. We can see that AVR does not have any
register like accumulator as in 8051 family of microcontrollers; the operations can
be performed between any of the registers and can be stored in either of them.

18
AVR follows Harvard Architecture format.

Figure 3

Here while an instruction is being executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched

from the program memory.

Since AVR can perform single cycle execution, it means that AVR can execute 1
million instructions per second if cycle frequency is 1MHz. The higher is the
operating frequency of the controller, the higher will be its processing speed.

There are two flavours for Atmega16 microcontroller:

1. Atmega8:- Operating frequency range is 0 – 16 MHz.
2. Atmega8L:- Operating frequency range is 0 – 8 MHz.
If we are using a crystal of 8 MHz = 8 x 10 6 Hertz = 8 Million cycles, then AVR
can execute 8 million instructions.

19
 Figure 4

20
FEATURES OF ATMEGA8:

Memory: It has 8 Kb of Flash program memory (10,000 Write/Erase cycles

durability), 512 Bytes of EEPROM (100,000 Write/Erase Cycles). 1Kbyte
Internal SRAM

I/O Ports: 23 I/ line can be obtained from three ports; namely Port B, Port C and
Port D.

Interrupts: Two External Interrupt source, located at port D. 19 different

interrupt vectors supporting 19 events generated by internal peripherals.

Timer/Counter: Three Internal Timers are available, two 8 bit, one 16 bit,
offering various operating modes and supporting internal or external clocking.

SPI (Serial Peripheral interface): ATmega8 holds three communication devices

integrated. One of them is Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins are assigned to
Atmega8 to implement this scheme of communication.

USART: One of the most powerful communication solutions is USART and

ATmega8 supports both synchronous and asynchronous data transfer schemes. It
has three pins assigned for that. In many projects, this module is extensively used
for PC-Micro controller communication.

TWI (Two Wire Interface): Another communication device that is present in

ATmega8 is Two Wire Interface. It allows designers to set up a commutation
between two devices using just two wires along with a common ground
connection, As the TWI output is made by means of open collector outputs, thus
external pull up resistors are required to make the circuit.

21
Analog Comparator: A comparator module is integrated in the IC that provides
comparison facility between two voltages connected to the two inputs of the
Analog comparator via External pins attached to the micro controller.

Analog to Digital Converter: Inbuilt analog to digital converter can convert an

analog input signal into digital data of 10bit resolution. For most of the low end
application, this much resolution is enough.

Pin Descriptions

VCC: Digital supply voltage.

GND: Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0)/XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics
with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are
externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The
Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings,
PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.
Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from
the invertingOscillator amplifier.
If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7..6 is
used as TOSC2..1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in
ASSR is set.

22
Port C (PC5..PC0): Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins
that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET: If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin.

Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of
Port C.
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low
level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset,
even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a
Reset.

Port D (PD7..PD0): Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins
that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

RESET Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse
length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running.

AVCC :AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and
ADC (7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not
used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.
Note that Port C (5..4) use digital supply voltage, VCC.

23
Dual Operational Amplifier
General Description

• The LM358 series consists of two independent high gain, internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers. It can be operated from a single power
supply and also split power supplies.

• The LM358 is available in SOP-8, DIP-8, TSSOP-8 and MSOP-8 packages

FEATURES
• Internally frequency compensated for unity gain

• Wide power supply range 3V - 32 V

• Input common-mode voltage range include ground

• Large DC voltage gain: 100dB Typical

• RoHS Compliance

APPLICATION
• Battery Charger

• Cordless Telephone

• Switching Power Supply

24
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 5

Table 1

25
 Table 2

LEDs (Light Emitting Diode)

A light-emitting diode is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator

lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. They are
manufactured in different shapes, colours and sizes. For their low price, low
power consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside
other light sources, bulbs at first place. They perform similar to common diodes
with the difference that they emit light when current flows through them.

26
 Figure 6

Condition 1:

Anode is connected through a resistor to Vcc & the Cathode is connected to the
Microcontroller pin. So when the Port Pin is HIGH the LED is OFF & when the
Port Pin is LOW the LED is turned ON.

Condition 2:

Anode is connected to the ground & the Cathode is connected through the resistor
to the Microcontroller pin. So when the Port Pin is LOW the LED is OFF &
when the Port Pin is HIGH the LED is turned ON.

LM7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:-

REGULATOR
The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of
self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is
a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated
power supply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying
individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number,

27
which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to provide (for
example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The
78xx lines are positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related
line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx
and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide both positive and negative
supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form
factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are also available
from some manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which
can be anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a
maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps
of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current
rating).

ARP 9600 IC
Features :
• Single-chip, high-quality voice recording & playback solution
- No external ICs required
- Minimum external components
• Non-volatile Flash memory technology
- No battery backup required
• User-Selectable messaging options
- Random access of multiple fixed-duration messages
- Sequential access of multiple variable-duration messages
• User-friendly, easy-to-use operation
- Programming & development systems not required
- Level-activated recording & edge-activated play back switches
• Low power consumption

28
- Operating current: 25 mA typical
- Standby current: 1 uA typical
- Automatic power-down
• Chip Enable pin for simple message expansion
General Description :
The APR9600 device offers true single-chip voice recording,non-volatile storage,
and playback capability for 40 to 60 seconds.The device supports both random
and sequential access of multiple messages.Sample rates are user-
selectable,allowing designers to customize their design for unique quality and
storage time needs.Integrated output amplifier,microphone amplifier, and AGC
circuits greatly simplify system design. the device is ideal for use in portable
voice recorders, toys, and many other consumer and industrial applications.
APLUS integrated achieves these high levels of storage capability by using its
proprietary analog/multilevel storage technology implemented in an advanced
Flash non-volatile memory process, where each memory cell can store 256
voltage levels.
This technology enables the APR9600 device to reproduce voice signals in their
natural form. It eliminates the need for encoding and compression, which often
introduce distortion.

29
Condenser MIC

CONDENSER MICROPHONE BASICS

BASIC DEFINITIONS

Microphone - Receiver that converts sound energy to electrical energy. Also

described as a sound sensor.

Condenser - Another term used for a capacitor: two plates separated by a fixed
distance capable of storing an electric charge.

Electret - An electrical property which describes the capability to retain electrical

charges.

Pascal (Pa); bar (1Pa = 10 u bars) - Unit of pressure. For microphone applications,
this unit refers to the pressure of sound on a microphone.

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPHONES

Dynamic Microphone - Operates on the electromagnetic principle, just like the

electromechanical audio transducers.

Condenser Microphone - Purely electrical system that depends upon variations in

internal capacitance for its operation.

Externally Polarized - Voltage supplied externally needed to translate the motion

of the device's diaphragm into linearly related audio output voltage.

Prepolarized - Voltage is stored permanently within the microphone, usually, in

the diaphragm or back plate.

Piezoceramic Microphone

Carbon Microphone
30
COMMON USAGES OF MICROPHONES

1. Telecommunication

2. Public Address Sound Systems

3. Voice Recognition Devices

PRINCIPLES OF THE ELECTRET CONDENSER MICROPHONE

An electret condenser microphone (ECM) consists of a very light diaphragm

(moving plate) and back plate (stationary or static plate) and has a permanent
charge implanted in an electret material to provide polarizing voltage. The
principle of operation is that sound waves impinging on the diaphragm cause the
capacitance between it and the back plate to change synchronously, this in turn
induces an AC voltage on the back plate.

1. Foil Electret Condenser Microphone (also called Middle or Classic) - Type of

condenser microphone where the electret material is the diaphragm. (Sometimes
referred to as "Front" type.)

2. Back Electret Condenser Microphone -Type of condenser microphone where

the electret material is the back plate.

3. Front Electret Condenser Microphone -Type of condenser microphone where

the electret material is the inside of the case of the microphone.

31
COMMON SPECIFICATION TERMINOLOGY

Unit of Measure - There are two different, commonly used units of measure to
define the key parameters of Signal to Noise ratio (S/N Ratio) and Sensitivity.
One is "Pascal" and the other is "IJ bar" (micro bar). We use "Pascal" as the unit
of measure in all of our specifications. "Pascal" is currently the most commonly
accepted, however, "p bar" is still used. To convert from "IJ bar" to "Pascal,"
simply add 20dB. For example:-62dB(0dB=1 V/u bar) = -42dB(0dB= 1 V/pa).
(Careful, you are adding a positive number to a negative number)

Sensitivity - Usually expressed in V/Pa (V/10 u bar) at 1 kHz, sensitivity is the

output voltage measured when a sound wave is detected by the microphone in a
specified load condition. It is expressed with a specified resistive load and supply
voltage since the output resistance tends towards constant current characteristics.
Sensitivity (dB) = 20 log (V/Pa)

Directivity - Directivity is a characteristic of sensitivity according to the infliction

angles of sound waves in the microphone.

1. Omni directional - The directional property that has identical sensitivities

originating from all directions.

2. Bi-directional - The directional property that has identical frontal sensitivity

and rear sensitivity values while side sensitivities are weaker. Also referred to as
"cross-talking" and "noise canceling." (Noise canceling, cross-talking - used in a
circumstance of loud noise, eliminates the sound coming from a long distance and
picks up the sound coming from only a short distance. Used in cellular phones and
headset microphones.)

3. Uni directional - The directional property that has the rear sensitivity relatively
weaker than the frontal sensitivity.

Output Impedance - The effective output resistance is determined mainly by the

value of load resistance. It can be made higher or lower by the value of load

32
resistance with a corresponding change in sensitivity. To get the maximum output,
the load should be matched to the output resistance.

Frequency Response Frequency response is the microphone's sensitivity

performance in the frequency range of 0 to 20 kHz. Compared with the dynamic
types, ECMs tend to have an extended response both at low and high frequencies,
which is also smoother. In the case of dynamic types, the response limits are
defined where the sensitivity has fallen by 3 dB relative to its value at 1 kHz. It is
not stated in such terms for ECMs since they have a much wider frequency
response.

Signal to Noise Ratio - Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the straight frontal
sensitivity of the microphone to the proper noise voltage. Proper noise is the noise
in the microphone which is not produced by the action of electromagnetic
induction, vibration or natural wind. It is the noise produced by the microphone
itself. This ratio gives an idea of how well the signal is detected by the
microphone. S (dB) = 20 log (VS/VN)Where: VS = Signal expressed in voltsVN
= Noise expressed in volts

VOLTAGE REDUCTION

This is the reduction in sensitivity with specified load when the supply voltage is
reduced from its nominal value. A lowering of the specified load resistance will
also reduce sensitivity.

INSTALLATION

To obtain the best results, avoid placing near reflective surfaces. If possible,
mount in soft rubber to insulate from vibration. Treat ECMs as static sensitive.
Use specified heat sinking when soldering to ECMs. Use as little heat as possible
for shortest time consistent with good joint. Avoid subjecting ECMs to high
temperature and humidity that can degrade performance.

33
RESISTORS:-

A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it is mostly

used for either controlling the current in the circuit or developing a voltage drop
across it, which could be utilized for many applications. There are various types of
resistors, which can be classified according to a number of factors depending
upon:

(I) Material used for fabrication

(II) Wattage and physical size

(III) Intended application

(IV) Ambient temperature rating

(V) Cost

Figure 7

Resistors may be classified as

(1) Fixed

(2) Semi variable

(3) Variable resistor.

34
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic
components, very commonly for resistors. Resistor values are always coded in
ohms, capacitors in pico farads (pF), inductors in micro henries (µH), and
transformers in volts.

Figure 8

 band A is first significant figure of component value

 band B is the second significant figure
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will
have first digit 4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2
(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real
resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.

A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten color codes matches the
first letter of the color code, by order of increasing magnitude is as follows:-

B. B. Roy of Great Britain has Very Good Wife.

Example:-

From top to bottom:

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 Green-Blue-Brown-Black-Brown
o 561 Ω ± 1%
 Red-Red-Orange-Gold
o 22,000 Ω ± 5%
 Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold
o 470 Ω ± 5%
 Blue-Gray-Black-Silver
o 68 Ω ± 10% (this wide of a tolerance is now seldom seen)
 Brown-Black-Brown
o 10 Ω ± 20% (this wide of a tolerance is now seldom seen)
 Black
o zero Ω

Color Coding of resistor is given in the following table:-

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Figure 9

37
 Figure 10

Regulated Power Supply:

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 Figure 11

Here I have used 230V to 9V transformer. It has a 300ma rated current. In

microcontroller based projects we do not need 300ma. But these are the
commonly available transformers in the market. Follow my post to get more detail
about selecting a suitable transformer.

Then common full rectifier circuit with four 1N4002 diodes. I think that i do not
need to explain how does this bridge work.

470uF capacitor has been connected between the output terminals of the bridge.
This capacitor is very important. Without this, there is a significant change in
power output. It increases the supply voltage to the rectifier and make smooth the
waveform. If you connect a LED to a microcontroller pin and supply power
without this cap most possibly you will see flickers. Other caps also do the same
work.

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Finally about the regulator. Regulators are designed to supply required voltage
without fluctuations. That means we do not need to use regulators with DC power
supply. But most of us use these regulators. Why? We use them to reduce the
voltage to a desired value. Here we have used AC supply and the regulator does
both of those things. It supplies a constant voltage and reduces 9V to 5V.

This is a good time to explain how select a regulator from the market for this type
of project. Normally last digits of the regulator indicates the output voltage. Eg:
7805 : 5V, 7806 : 6V, 7809 : 9V. Regulators with wide range of voltages available
in the market. Normally input voltage should be 2V greater than the output
voltage. If you need to regulate negative voltage you can use 79XX series.
5V/12V Regulated DC Power Supply

A Direct Current (DC) supply is needed by most circuits as a constant reference

voltage. Also, some components would be damaged by the negative half-cycles
of an AC supply. A DC supply, stays at a fixed, regular, voltage all of the time,
like the voltage from a battery. Following is a block diagram of a power supply
system which converts a 230V AC mains supply (230V is the UK mains voltage)
into a regulated 5V DC supply.

Figure 12

A simple power supply circuit that includes each of these blocks is given in the
following diagram.

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Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge

configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for either polarity
of input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of
alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a
bridge rectifier. In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner
of the diamond is positive (Fig. A), and the input connected to the right corner is
negative, current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red
(positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via the blue
(negative) path.

Figure 13

When the input connected to the left corner is negative (Fig. B), and the input
connected to the right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply
terminal to the right along the red path to the output, and returns to the upper
supply terminal via the blue path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output
negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes
called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-
powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or when the
leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the
equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

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Smoothing
Most circuits will require 'smoothing' of the DC output of a rectifier, and this is a
simple matter since it involves only one capacitor, as shown in figure 1.

The output waveform in shows how smoothing works. During the first half of the
voltage peaks from the rectifier, when the voltage increases, the capacitor charges
up. Then, while the voltage decreases to zero in the second half of the peaks, the
capacitor releases its stored energy to keep the output voltage as constant as
possible. Such a capacitor is called a 'smoothing' or 'reservoir' capacitor when it is
used in this application.

Figure 14

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Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18
and 24V) or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current
they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive
current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').

Figure 15

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a
hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

TRANSFORMER:-
TRANSFORMER

Definition: -
The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one
alternating voltage (current) into another voltage (current). However, power
remains the same during the transformation. Transformers play a major role in
the transmission and distribution of ac power.
Principle: -

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer

consists of laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary and
secondary coils are wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame, linked by
the common magnetic flux. When an alternating voltage is applied across the

43
primary coil, a current flows in the primary coil producing magnetic flux in the
transformer core. This flux induces voltage in secondary coil.

Figure 16

Figure Step-Up Transformer

Figure 17

Figure Step-Down
-Down Transformer

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 Transformers are classified as: -

Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.

1) Core type transformer

2) Shell type transformer

(a) Transformation ratio:

1) Step up transformer
2) Step down transformer

a) Core & shell types: Transformer is simplest electrical machine, which consists of
windings on the laminated magnetic core. There are two possibilities of putting up
the windings on the core.

1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer

2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer.

b) Step up and Step down: in these voltages transformation takes place according to
whether the primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.

1) Lower to higher-> Step up

2) Higher to lower-> Step down

DIODE:-
DIODE

Figure 18

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 Figure 19

Figure Diode

A diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes between

which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional
electric current property.

The unidirectionality most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the

rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric
current in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block the
current in the opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode
can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve.

Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off directionality but have a more
complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which depends on the particular type
of diode technology. Diodes also have many other functions in which they are not
designed to operate in this on-off manner.

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4.RESULTS AND
DISCUSSIONS

47
IMPLEMENTATION

Steps for making hardware

P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING

P.C.B. LAYOUT
The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B. board
respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and most
important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing process. First of all
layout of component side is to be made in accordance with available components
dimensions. The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of
P.C.B.

1. Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained.

2. High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at sufficient

distance from semiconductor and electrolytic capacitors.

3. The most important points are that the components layout is making proper
compromise with copper side circuit layout.

Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the disadvantages of
conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin wires for connecting the
components; they are small in size and efficient in performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the
copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with
the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at
which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between them.

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DRILLING

After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are drilled at

desired points where we have to fix the components.

ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is
known as etching. From this process the copper clad board with printed circuit is
placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about
10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the
P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in
order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor performance of
the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft
piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the
layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where two
metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called soldering
iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and
converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and
durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also
present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES:

These are basically two soldering techniques.

• Manual soldering with iron.

• Mass soldering.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 20

50
LAYOUT

Figure 21

51
5. CONCLUSION AND
FUTURE SCOPE

52
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

A sound level meter is simply a device with audio-frequency sensing capabilities

that is controlled essentially by a microcontroller in turn measuring, comparing
and regulating audio signals all in a bid to reduce noise level in a library as well as
maintain a stable audio frequency throughout the library environment. This
project focuses on measuring the various sound levels present in a library all in a
bid to limit unnecessary noise in the library through audio announcement once the
critical sound level has been exceeded.

This sound level meter consists of a Condenser microphone (used as an input

device to convert the sound into electrical signal), Pre-Amplifier (amplifies the
electrical signal), Microcontroller (with internal ADC programmed to compare the
input signals with a critical value to detect when there is noise), Play and Record

Chip (to play a pre- recorded message to alert users of the library to increasing
sound level), Power Amplifier (amplifies the output of the play and record chip).

The Sound Level Meter measures sound level in decibels and can be used for
activities such as environmental noise studies, sound level comparisons,
investigating room acoustics, sound isolation modeling, sound propagation
modeling etc. It can be applied in libraries, hospitals, laboratories, lecture rooms,
meditation rooms amongst many others.

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6. REFRENCES

54
 REFERENCES

1. Wikipedia – The free encyclopaedia

2. www.roboticsbible.com
3. www.electronicsproject.com
4. www.embedvision.com
5. Microcontroller and Embedded system – K.Y LANE

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