HANDBOOK OF

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
EDITORIAL BOARD

John J. DiPonio Gavriel Salvendj

Ford Motor Company Professor
North American Operations School of Industrial Engineering
Dearborn. Michigan Purdue University
IVest Lafayette. Indiana
Yukio Hasegawa
Professor
Hans J. Wamecke
System Science Institute
Professor and Head
iVaseda University
Fraunhofer Institute for
Tokyo. Japan
Manufacturing Engineering and
Automation
George E. Munson
Stuttgart. H'es; Germany
Senior Fice President
Robot Systems Inc.
Norcross. Georgia John A. WTiite
Director
Roger N. Nagel Material Handling Research
Director Center
Institute far Robotics Georgia Institute of Technology
Lehigh University Atlanta. Georgia
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

Daniel E. Whitney
David Nitian
C.S Draper Laboratory Inc.
Director
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Robotics Department
SRI International
Menlo Park, California Richard C. Wilson
Professor
Charles A. Rosen Department of Industrial
Chief Scientist and Operations Engineering
Machine Intelligence Corporation University of Michigan
Sunnyvale, California Ann Arbor, Michigan
 HANDBOOK OF
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

SHIMON Y. NOF, Editor

School of Industrial Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

With a Foreword by Isaac Asimov

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New York • Chichester • Brisbane Toronto Singapore
tc^,ic?^-«-;-«g-(^"~ V'\5

Copynjhi © t9S5 John Wdey & Sons, Inc *’

All fights Ta«T\ed Published stmuluneously in Candida

Reprodiiciicm ot traMbtton of any psT" ~»<f

beyond that permitted by Seciwn 107 •

1976 UmCed States Copynghi Act wit piik,.

of the copyn|fit owficf IS unlawful R //ifp/«
pennission of further information sbf //j

the Pcnnissjonj Department, John V

Library efCongrrSi Cbrufoging in Pubhtaiiw, >

Main entry under Ulk

Handbook of mdustnat robotics

Includes index
( Robots, Induatn^ — Handbooks, ovanuals. etc
1 Nof. Shimon Y JW6-
.

TS1918H36 1985 6298’92 84-20969

ISBN 0-471.89684*5

Pnnted in the United States of Amenca

10 98765432
 This handbook is dedicated
to all of us who believe in
the wonders of human ingenuity
and robot servitude for the
betterment of our life
 CONTRIBUTORS

Gerald J. Agin, Senior Research Scientist, The Robotics Institute, Camegie-Mellon University, Pitts-

burgh, Pennsylvania

James S. Albus, Acting Chief, Industrial Systems Division, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C.

James M. Apple, Jr., Senior Vice President, Systecon, Inc., Duluth, Georgia

Robert U. Ayres, Professor, Department of Engineering and Public Policy, Camegie-Mellon Univer-
sity, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Jean-Louis Barre, Systems Engineer, Cybotech, Indianapolis, Indiana

Antal K. Bejczy, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California

Christian Blume, Institute for Information III, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, West Germany

M. C. Bonney, Department of Production Engineering and Production Management, University of

Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Wayne J. Book, Associate Professor, School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technol-
ogy, Atlanta, Georgia

Patrick J. Bowles, Applications Engineer, Advanced Technology Section, Major Appliance Business
Group, General Electric Company, Louisville, Kentucky
Rodney A. Brooks, Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
Timothy J. Bublick, Manager, Application Engineering, The DeVilbiss Company, Toledo, Ohio
Stephen J. Buckley, Staff Programmer, IBM Corporation, Boca Raton, Florida

Charles F. Carter, Jr., Technical Director, Cincinnati Milacron, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio

Richard (Ben) Cartwright, Project Engineer, Systems Division, Unimation, Inc., Danbury, Connecticut

Michael J. W. Chen, Senior Systems Scientist, Machine Intelligence Corporation, Sunnyvale, California

Fred A. Oampa, Application Consultant, Robotics and Automation Center, Ford Motor Company,
Dearborn, Michigan
Gale F. Collins, Senior Associate Information Developer, IBM Corporation, Boca Raton, Florida
Tihor Csakvary, Cyber Technologies, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Mark Cutkosky, Research Associate, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Camegie-Mellon Uni-
versity, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Michael P. Deisenroth, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering
Management, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan
R. Dilhnan, Institute for Information III, University of Karlsmhe, Karlsruhe, West Germany
Wallace D. Dreyfoos, Chief Planning Engineer, Manufacturing Research Department, Lockheed-
Georgia Company, Marietta, Georgia
Michael E. Duncan, Engineering Department, Cambridge University, Cambridge, England
Joseph F. Engelberger, President, Unimation, Inc., Danbury, Connecticut

L. Wayne Manager, Equipment Development, Advanced Technology Section, Major Appli-

Garrett,
ance Business Group, General Electric Company, Louisville, Kentucky
J. A. Gleave, Department of Production Engineering and Production Management, University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
J. L. Green, Department of Production Engineering and Production Management, University
of
Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
 ,

CONTRIBUTORS

Yukio Hasegawa, Professor, System Science Institute, Wasola University, Tokyo, Japan

Lane A. Hautau, Accounts Executive. GMF Robotics Coiporation, Troy, Michigan

Larry L. HoUingshead, Cincinnati Milacron, Inc ,

Cincinnati, Ohio
Kenneth R Honchell, Industnal Robot Division, Cincmnati Milacron, Inc , Lebanon, Ohio

Seiuemon Inaba, President, Fanuc Corporation. Nino-shi, Japan

Keoichi Isoda, Manager, Automation Engineering Department, Production Engineering Research
Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd . Tokyo, Japan
Joseph JaWonowsVu, Senior Editor, Ametv»n Machinist, New York. New York,

Peter G. Jones, Manager of Customer Support. Cybotech, Indianapolis, Indiana

James A. Kaiser, Senior Manufactunng Project Engineer. Fisher Body General Office. General Motors
Corporation, Warren, Michigan

Avinasb C. Knit, Professor, School of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University. West Lafayette,
Indiana

John A. KaWtvig, Corporate Production Technology Laboratory, Honeywell, Inc , Golden Valley,
Minnesota
Dan Kedrowski, Senior Welding Engineer. Cybotech. Indianapolis, Indiana

M. P. Kelly, BL Technology. Cowley Body Plant. Oxford. England

Keith L. Kerstetter, Manager Application Engineering, IBM Advanced Manufactunng Systems. IBM
Corporation. Boca Raton, Flonda

Jerry Kirsch, Kirsch Technologies. St Clair, Michigan

Kerry E, Kirsch, Kirsch Technologies, St Clair, Michigan
Thomas E, KJoli, Sales Manager. Maaak Corporation. Florence. Kentucky

Kazubiko Kobayashi, Manager, Industnal Robot Design Departtnenl, Narashmo Works, Hitachi Ltd ,

Tokyo, Japan
Yoran Koren, Associate Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engmeenng, Technion-Israel Institute of
Technology, Haifa, Israel
Sten Larsson, Project Engineer. Industnal Robot Division, Vasteras. Sweden
P. Levi, Institute for Information HI. Umvenity of Karlsruhe. Karlsruhe, West Germany
Duncan B. Loire, Technical Director, Taylor Hitec Limited, Lancashire, United Kingdom
Tbomis Lozano*Perez, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambndge, Massachusetts
J. Y. S. Lub, Professor, School of Electneal Engineenng. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Ralph L. Maiette, Manager, Systems Engineenng, UAS Automation Systems, Inc . Bnstol, Connecti-
cut

Ann M Martin, Deputy Director. Division of National Vocational Programs, US Department of

Education, Washington, DC
Jozsef Marton, Senior Researcher, Computer and Automation Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sci-

ences, Budapest, Hungary

William E. McIntosh, Application Engineer, Imaging and Control Systems, Honeywell, Inc ,
Golden
Valley, Minnesota

Ronald D. McOeary, UAS Automation Systems, Inc . Bnstol. Connecticut

John D. Meyer, President, Tech Tran Corporation, Naperville, Illinois

Donald Michie, Professor, Machine Intelligence, Umversity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland

Steven M. Miller, Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Industnal Administration, Camegie-Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

George E. Munson, Senior Vice President, Robot Systems, Inc . Atlanta, Georgia

Yasuo Nakagawa, Senior Researcher, Production Engineenng Research Department, Hitachi Ltd
Tokyo, Japan
David Nitzan, Director, Robotics Department, SRI International, Menlo Park, California

Shimon Y. Nof, AssociatcProfessor, School of Industrial Engineenng, Purdue University, West Lafay-
ette, Indiana
 ix
CONTRIBUTORS

Jack W. Posey, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

Ronald D. Potter, Vice President, Robot Systems, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia

Ulrich Remhold, Professor, Institute for Information III, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, West
Germany
Charles A. Rosen, Chief Scientist, Machine Intelligence Corporation, Sunnyvale, California

Gavriel Salvendy, Professor, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana

Victor Scheinman, Vice President of Advanced Research, Automatix, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts

Rolf D. Schraft, Director, Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automation,
Stuttgart, West Germany
Joachim Schuler, Fellow Scientist, Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automa-
tion, Stuttgart, West Germany
Albert M. Sciaky, Associate Director, Manufacturing Technology Center, IIT Research Institute,
Chicago, Illinois

Mario Sciaky, President, Sciaky S.A., Vitry-Sur-Seine, France

Warren P. Seering, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Insti-

tute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Bruce S. Smith, Application Engineer, ASEA, Inc., Troy, Michigan

Randall C. Smith, Robotics Department, SRI International, Menlo Park, California

Paul F. Stregevsky, Manufacturing Administrative Analyst, Manufacturing Research Department,

Lockheed-Georgia Company, Marietta, Georgia
Rajan Suri, Assistant Professor, Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts

Ken Susnjara, President, Thermwood Robotics Corporation, Dale, Indiana

Michio Takahashi, Senior Researcher, Production Engineering Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd.,
Yokohama, Japan
Kazuo Tanie, Senior Research Scientist, Mechanical Engineering Laboratory, Ministry of International
Trade and Industry, Ibaraki, Japan
William R. Tanner, President, Productivity Systems, Inc., Farmington, Michigan
William E. Uhde, Manager, Systems Consulting, UAS Automation Systems, Inc., Bristol, Connecticut
Tibor Vamos, Director, Computer and Automation Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Buda-
pest, Hungary
Michael W. Walker, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clem-
son University, Clemson, South Carolina

Martin C. Wanner, Fellow Scientist, Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automa-
tion, Stuttgart, West Germany
Hans J. Warnecke, Professor and Head, Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and
Automation, Stuttgart, West Germany
John A. White, Director, Material Handling Research Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, At-
lanta, Georgia
Daniel E. Whitney, C.S. Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts
Paul K. Wright, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Camegie-Mellon University, Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania

Y. F. Yong, Department of Production Engineering and Production Management, University of Not-

tingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Joseph P. Ziskovsky, Manager—Robotics, GCA Corporation, PaR Systems, St. Paul, Minnesota
 FOREWORD
LOOKING AHEAD

In 1939,when I was 19 years old, I began to write a series of science fiction stories about robots. At
the time, theword robot had been in existence for only 18 years; Karel Capek’s play, R.U.R., in
which the word had been coined, having been performed for the first time in Europe in 1921. The
concept, however, that of machines that could perform tasks with the apparent “intelligence” of human
beings, had been in existence for thousands of years.
Through all those years, however, robots in myth, legend, and literature had been designed only
to point a moral. Generally, they were treated as examples of overweening pride on the part of the
human designer; an efibrt to accomplish something that was reserved to God alone. And, inevitably,
thisoverweening pride was overtaken by Nemesis (as it always is in morality tales), so that the designer
was destroyed, usually by that which he had created.
I grew tired of these myriad-told tales, and decided I would tell of robots that were carefully

designed to perform certain tasks, but with safeguards built in; robots that might conceivably be
dangerous, as any machine might be, but no more so.
worked out, perforce, certain rules of conduct that guided the robots;
In telling these tales, I

rules that I dealt with in a more and more refined manner over the next 44 years (my most recent
robot novel. The Robots of Dawn, was published in October, 1983). These rules were first put into
words in a story called “Runaround,” which appeared in the March, 1942, issue of Astounding Science
Fiction.
In that issue, on page 100, one of my characters says, “Now, look, let’s start with the three fundamen-
talRules of Robotics .” and he proceeds to recite them. (In later stories, I took to referring to
. .

them as “the Three Laws of Robotics” and other people generally say “Asimov’s Three Laws of
Robotics.”)
I am carefully specific about this point because that line on that page in that story was, as far as
I know, the very time and place that the word robotics had ever appeared in print.
first

I did not deliberately make up the word. Since physics and most of its subdivisions routinely

have the “-ics” suffix, I assumed that “robotics” was the proper scientific term for the systematic
study of robots, of their construction, maintenance, and behavior, and that it was used as such. It
was only decades later that I became aware of the fact that the word was in no dictionary, general
or scientific, and that I had coined it.
Possibly every person has a chance at good fortune in his life, but there can’t be very many people
who have had the incredible luck to live to see their fantasies begin to turn into reality.
I who did not. He was Willy Ley who, for all
think sadly, for instance, of a good friend of mine
his adult life was wedded and to the dream of reaching the moon; who in his early
to rocketry
twenties helped found rocket research in Germany; who, year after year wrote popular books on the
subject; who, in 1969, was preparing to witness the launch of the first rocket intended to land on
the moon; and who then died six weeks before that launch took place.
Such a tragedy did not overtake me. I lived to see the transistor invented, and solid-state devices
undergo rapid development until the microchip became a reality. I lived to see Joseph Engelberger
(with his interest sparked by my stories, actually) found Unimation, Inc., and then keep it going,
with determination and foresight, until it actually constructed and installed industrial robots and grew
enormously profitable. His devices were not quite the humanoid robots of my stories, but in many
respects they were far more sophisticated than anything I had ever been equipped to imagine. Nor is
there any doubt that the development of robots more like mine, with the capacities to see and to
talk, for instance, are very far off.
I lived to see my
Three Laws of Robotics taken seriously and routinely referred to in articles on
robotics, written by real roboticists, as in a couple of cases in this volume. I lived to see them
referred
to familiarly, even in the popular press, and identified with my name,
so that I can see I have secured
for myself (all unknowingly, I must admit) a secure
footnote in the history of science.
I even lived to see myself regarded with a certain amount of esteem by legitimate people in
the

xi
 FOREWORD

field of robotics, as a kind of grandfather of them an. even though, in actual fact, I am merely a
—
chemist by training and a science*liction wnter by choice and know virtually nothing about the
nuts and bolts of robotics, or of computers, for that matter
But even after I thought I had grown accustomed to all of this, and had ceased marveling over
this amazing turn of the wheel of fortune, and was certain that there was nothing left in this situation
that had the capacity to surpnse me, I found I was wrong
Let roe explain
In 19S0 nine of my stones of robots were put together into a volume entitled 7. Robot (the volume,
as It happens, that was to inspire Mr Engelberger)
On the page before the table of contents, there are mscrdied, in lonely splendor The Three Laws
oj Robotics

1. A robot may not injure a human betng, or. through inaelwn, allow a human being to come to
harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would convict
with the First Law
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Law

And underneath, I give my source It is Handbook of RcAsoucs, S6th Edition, 2058 A D

Unbelievable Never, until it actually happened, did I ever believe that I would really live to see
robots, really live to seemy three laws quoted everywhere And certainly I never actually believed
that I would ever really live to see the first edition of that handbook published
To be sure, it is Handbook of Industrial where the emphasis
Robotics, for that is is now, them
early days of robotics —but I am certain that, with the development of robots for the office and the
home, future editions will need the more general title I also feel that so rapidly does the field develop,
there will be new editions at short intervab And if there are new editions every IS months on the
average, we will have the ftRy<sixth edition in 2058 D A
But matters don’t stop here Having foreseen so much, let me look still further into the future I
see robots rapidly growing incredibly more complex, versatile, and useful than they are now I see
them taking over all work that is too simple, loo repetitive, too stultifying for the human brain to be
subjected to 1 see robots leaving human beings free to develop creativity, and 1 see humanity astonished
at finding that almost everyone con be creativetn one way or another (Just as it turned out, astonishingly,
once public education became a matter of course, that reading and writing was not an elite activity
but could be engaged m
by almost everyone)
I see the world, and the human outposts on other worlds and m
space, filled with cousin>mtelIigences
of two entirely different types 1 see stlicon-mtelligence (robots) that can manipulate numbers with
incredible spe^ and precision and that can perform operations tirelessly and with perfect reproducibility,
and I see carbon-mtelligence (human beings) that can apply intuition, insight, and imagination to the
solution of problems on the basis of what would seem insufficient data to a robot 1 see the former
building the foundations of a new, and unimagmably better soaety than any we have ever expenenced,
and I see the latter building the supentruclure. with a creative fantasy we dare not picture now
I see the two together advancing far more rapidly than either could alone. And though this, alas,
I will not live to see, I am confident our children and grandchildren will, and that future editions of

this handbook will detail the process

Isaac Asimov

New York, New York

January 1985
 PREFACE

The story of modem industrial robotics unveils over three main periods. In the 1920s, the period of
early conceptualization of robots, there prevailed the physical fear of monstrous humanlike machines;
in the 1960s, following the installation of pioneering robots in industry, there appeared the
skepticism,
sometimes mixed with ridicule, as to whether robots are at all practical; in the 1980s, with increasing
robot deployment and proven success, the major issue has become whether robots are going to replace
us all. Albeit very different from one relatively short period to another, such strong feelings toward
a new technology are not surprising. Robots possess the two very crucial properties of life: free motion
and built-in intelligence. Moreover, one cannot but admire their ability and promise to humbly take
over dangerous, unpleasant, and demeaning chores —
^to perform indefatigably, with precision and no

protest, work by command.

When Isaac Asimov wrote his Three Laws of Robotics in 1940, his purpose was to guide robots
in their attitude toward humans. At present, our society is more concerned with our own attitude
toward robots. Therefore, for this first edition of the Handbook of Industrial Robotics, I offer to add
the following laws that, together with future ones, may comprise the “Robotic Codex.”

THE THREE LA IE5' OF ROBOTICS APPLICATIONS

1. Robots must continue to replace people on dangerous jobs. (This benefits all.)
2. Robots must continue to replace people on jobs people do not want to do. (This also benefits
all.)

3. Robots should replace people on jobs robots do more economically. (This will initially
disadvantage many, but inevitably will benefit all as in the first and second laws.)

The overwhelming and growing amount of information about industrial robotics, and in particular,
its multidisciplinary nature, have created the need for this comprehensive handbook. The development
of the handbook, which started in mid-1982, was guided by the following five objectives:

1. To combine up-to-date material, prepared by leading authorities on research, development,

and applications of industrial robotics, with emphasis on the industrial aspects. This is particu-
larly important in view of the current abundance of diversified mechanical, electrical, and
computer engineering robotics activity on one hand, and industrial, practical needs for integrated
robotic systems on the other hand.
2. To provide engineers and decision makers in industry with important contemporary overview
of the field of industrial robotics.
3. To present techniques that are available, or will shortly be available, for practitioners in this
area.
4. To provide in one volume significant material that can be used in courses on robotics by
university and continuing education students.
5. To motivate and encourage more investigators to become active in this field, and to further
advance its technical level.

To accomplish successfully these challenging objectives, a group of distinguished experts, comprising

the Editorial Board listed on page ii, was invited to assist me in deciding the structure and contents
of the handbook. From each of them I gained outstanding inputs, and for their
invaluable recommenda-
tions I am deeply indebted.
The many authors who contributed to this volume represent the multitude of disciplines necessary
to fully cover
the important aspects of industrial robotics. They were invited because of their
all
unique expertise in their individual subject area. These authors, from industry,
universities, and govem-

xiii
 PREFACE

ments around the tvorld, most cases they themselves

have written about theones and techniques that in
invented, developed, and proved, or that they personally impkmented Each chapter was carefully
reviewed by two independent reviewers from the Editorial Board, and by myself Recommended revi-
sions, which were intended to assure consistency and high quality, were then incorporated by the
authors I have been most pnvileged to work with all of them, and thank them for tbeir wisdom and
fnendship
With all the above, a creative endeavor of such magnitude is severely constrained by the rapid
developments and tremendous innovations in this young and dynamic technology We have made
every effort to eliminate errors and provide the most up-to-date and reliable information available at
printing time However, any shortcomings that remain are my own responsibility My consolation is
that future editions are bound to be better

handbook and is based mainly On the matenal in the previous chapters The handbook concludes

with appendixes and a detailed indei

live reference
I wish especially to thank the many people who helped me so ably in creating this handbook
From John Wiley and Sons Thurman R Poston, Editor of Handbooks, who guided me with his
seasoned advice throughout the whole project, Balwan R Singh, who meticulously supervised the
excellent copy editing provided by Nancy Burleson. Valda AIdzcns and Tina Marzocca, who painstak-
ingly coordinated the complex preproduction process, Carolyn Joseph, the designer, and Ed Cantillon,
who supervised the book through the production process From Purdue University Thanks to Jack
W Posey, who prepared the index for this handbook in cooperation with the chapter authors. Diane
Schafer, who assist^ me kindly with correspondence and other office work, Ed Fisher, Hannan Lecht-
man, Oded Maimon, Andy Robinson, Cnsty Sellers, and Bob Wilhelm, my graduate students who
provided talented assistance in a variety of editonal tasks
I am also very grateful to my gracious colleagues, who inspired my work on the handbook with

numerous suggestions Moshe Barash, Tibor Csakvary. John DiPomo, Ehud Lenz, Alan Letzt, John
Luh, Cohn Moodie, Richard (Lou) Paul, Charlie Rosen, Cavnel Salvendy. Jim Solberg, Andy Whinston,
and Dan Whitney
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife Nava for her unlinng help and counsel
throughout the duration of this project, my parents. Dr Jac^ and Yaffa Nowomiast, and to our
daughters, Monah and Jasmin, for their cheerful support

Shimon Y Nof (Nowomiast)

H'esf Lafayette, Indiana

May 1985
 CONTENTS

PART 1 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

Historical Perspective of Industrial Robotics, by J. F. Engelberger 3

The Role of Robots in Automating Work, by C. F. Carter, Jr. 9

Robots and Machine Intelligence, by C. A. Rosen 21

PART 2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

4. Mechanical Design of an Industrial Robot, by fV. P. Seering and V. Scheinman 29
5. Mechanical Design of the Robot System, by H. J. Wamecke, R. D. Schraft, and
M. C. IVanner 44
6. Kinematics and Dynamics, by M. W. Walker 80
7. Design of Grippers, by P. K. Wright and M. R. Cutkosky 96
8. Design of Robot Hands, by K. Tanie 112
9. Teleoperator Arm Design, by W. J. Book 138
10. Performance Testing, by H. J. Warnecke, R. D. Schraft, and M. C. Wanner 158

PART 3 ROBOT CONTROL

11. Design of Control Systems for Industrial Robots, by J. T. 5. Luh 169
12. Numerical Control and Robotics, by Y. Koren 203
13. Sensors for Intelligent Robots, by A. C. Kak and J. S. Albas 214
\l4. Vision Systems, by G. J. Agin - — 231
15. Interfacing a Vision System with a Robot, by U. Rembold and C. Blame 262
16. Depth Perception for Robots, by A. C. Kak 272
17. Control of Remote Manipulators, by A. K. Bejczy 320

PART 4 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

18. Elements of Industrial Robot Software, by L. L. Hollingshead 337
19. Robot Teaching, by M. P. Deisenroth 352
20. Off-Line Programming of Robots, by Y. F. Yong, J. A. Cleave, J. L. Green, and
M. C. Bonney 366
21. A Structured-Programming Robot Language, by S. J. Backley and G. F. Collins 381
22. Task-Level Manipulator Programming, by T. Lozano-Perez and R. A. Brooks 404
23. Expert Systems and Robotics, by D. Michie '
419
24. The Role of the Computer in Robot Intelligence, by U. Rembold, R. Dillman,
and P. Levi 437

PART 5 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

25. Socioeconomic Impacts of Industrial Robotics; An Overview, by R. U. Ayres
and S. M. Miller 457
26. The Impact of Robotics on Education and Training, by A. M. Martin 497

XV
 27. Industrial Robot Standardization, by Y Hastgawa 518
28. Robotics in Eastern Europe, by T. Vamot end I Sfarton 525

PART 6 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

29. Product Design and Production Planning, by WR Tanner 537
30 Robot Ergonomics' Optimizing Robot Work, by S K Sof 549
31. Quantitatise Techniques for Robotic Systems Analysis, by R Sun 605
32. Human Factors in Planning Robotic Systems, by G Salmdy 639
33. Eraiuation and Economic Justificatioii, by V Hasegawa 665

PART 7 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

34. Planning Robotic Production Systems, by 1. A llauiau and F A DiPieiro 691
35. Industrial Robots: Reliability, Maintenance, and Safety, by G E ^iunson 722
36. Modular Robots Implementation, by Af Seiaky 759
37. End-of-Arm Tooling, by R. D Potter 775
38 Strategy for Robot Applications, by F A. Ciampa 788

PART 8 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

39. An Orerriew of Fabncatlon and Processing Applications, by J. D. Meyer 807
40. Robots in the Automobile Industry, by Af P Kelly and M. E. Dunean 821
41. Robot Applications in Aerospace Masufactunng, by W D Drty/oos and
P. F Stregeviky 834
42. Robots In Casting, Molding, and Forging, by IK £ Uhde $44
43. Robots in Foundries, by S Larsson 856
44. Flexible Machining Cell with Robots, by R L. Matette 862
45. An Integrated Laser Processing Robotic Cell, by A M Sciaky 867
46. Robots In the Woodworking Industry, by K Susnjara 879
47. Robot Applications in Eastern Europe, by T Vamos and J Marion 887

PART 9 WELDING
48. Robots in Spot Welding, by M. Seiaky 899
49. Robots In Arc Welding, by B S. Smith 913
50. The Operation of Robotic Welding, by P G Jones, J L. Barre and D Kedrowski 930
51. Arc Welding of Aluminum Farts, by /. A Aofloig 940
52. Arc Welding of AC Motors, by K [soda and A A'oboyos/ii 945
53. Arc Welding and Spot Welding Cases, by K R Honchell 948

PART 10 MATERIAL HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADING

54. Robots in Material Handling, by J A White and J M. Apple 955
55. Workpiece Handling and Gripper Selection, by S. Inaba 971
56 Robotic Loading of Machine Tools, by T E Klotz 986
57. Machine Loading Application Cases, by K R Honchell 994
58. Robotic Tool Changing, by R. B Cartwright 997
59. Mobile Robot Applications, by H
/ WameekeandJ Schuler 1002
60. Gantry Robots and Their Applications, byJ. P Ziskovsky 1011
61. Rotational Workpiece Handling in FMS, byH J. Warnecke, R. D. Schraft,
and M. C Wanner 1023
CONTENTS xvii

PART 11 ASSEMBLY
62. Planning Programmable Assembly Systems, by D. E. Whitney 1031
63. Planning Robot Applications in Assembly, by T. Csakmry 1054
64. Part Mating in Assembly, by D. E. Whitney 1084
65. Applications of Robots in Assembly Cells, by S. Inaba 1117
66. Assembly Cases in Production, by K. Isoda and M. Takahashi 1130
67. Robotic Assembly of Computer Components, by K. L. Kerstetter 1139
68. Modular Programmable Assembly Research, by R. C. Smith and D. Nitzan 1151

PART 12 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

69. Applying Robotic Inspection in Industry, by J. Kirsch and K. E. Kirsch 1173
70. Advanced Robotic Inspection Applications, by K. Isoda and T. Nakagawa 1182
71. Robot-Operated Body Inspection System, by J. A. Kaiser 1205
72. Inspection and Repair of Nuclear Plant, by D. B. Lowe 1209
73. A Vision-Guided X-Y Table for Automatic Inspection, by M. J. W. Chen 1220
74. Robotic Inspection of Circuit Board Solder, by W. E. McIntosh 1231
75. Testing and Sorting of Printed Circuit Boards, by R. D. McCIeary 1240

PART 13 FINISHING, COATING, AND PAINTING

76. Robot Applications in Finishing and Painting, by T. J. Bublick 1249
77. Robots for Sealing and Adhesive Applications, by P. J. Bowles and L. W. Garrett 1264

ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY, by J. Jablonowski and J. W. Posey 1271

APPENDIX INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

Al. Industrial Robot Market Characteristics 1305
A2. Specifications of Robots 1306
A3. Robot Organizations 1318
A4. Robot Manufacturers 1319
A5. Robot Journals 1330

INDEX 1333
PART 1
DEVELOPMENT OF
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
 CHAPTER 1
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
JOSEPH F. ENGELBERGER
Unimation, Inc.
Danbury, Connecticut

Any on robotics should at the outset pay proper homage to science fiction.
historical perspective
After all, words robot and robotics were coined by science fiction writers. Karel Capek gave
the very
us robot in his 1922 play Rossum's Universal Robots (RUR), and Isaac Asimov coined the word
robotics in the early 1940s to describe the art and science in which we robotists are engaged today.
There is an important distinction between these two science fiction writers. Capek decided that
robots would ultimately become malevolent and take over the world — Asimov from the outset built
circuits into his robots to assure mankind that robots would always be benevolent. A handbook on
industrial robotics must surely defend the Asimov view. That defense begins with the history of industrial
robotics —
a history that overwhelmingly finds benefits exceeding costs and portends ever-rising benefits.
Science fiction aside, a good place to start the history is in 1956. At that time George C. Devol
had marshalled his thoughts regarding rote activities in the factory and his understanding of available
technology that might be applied to the development of a robot. His patent application for a programma-
ble manipulator was made in 1954, and it issued as patent number 2,988,237 in 1961. This original
patent was destined to be followed by a range of others that would flesh out the principles to be
used in the first industrial robot.
Also in 1956, Devol and Joseph Engelberger met at a fortuitous cocktail party. Thus began an
enduring relationship that saw the formation and growth of Unimation Inc. The first market study
for robotics was also started in 1956 with field trips to some 15 automotive assembly plants and
some 20 other diverse manufacturing operations. Figure 1.1 is a reproduction of an actual data sheet
prepared during this first market study.
Giving a fairly tight specification regarding what was needed to do simple but heavy and distasteful
tasks in industry, the original design team set to work. First came appropriate components and then
a working robot in 1959. Shortly thereafter Devol and Engelberger celebrated again — we see them in
Figure 1.2 being served their cocktails, this time by a prototype Unimate industrial robot.
By 1961 the prototype work had progressed far enough to let an industrial robot venture forth.
Figure 1.3 shows the first successful robot installation: a die casting machine is tended in a General
Motors plant.
At this juncture it may be well to step back and retrospectively evaluate whether or not robotics
should have become a successful innovation. Auseful vantage point is provided by a 1968 Air Force
sponsored study called Project Hindsight. The objective of the study was to determine what circum-
stances are necessary for an innovation to become successful. Project Hindsight concluded that there
were three essential prerequisites for success:

1. There must be a perceived need.

2. Appropriate technology and competent practitioners must be available.
3. There must be adequate financial support.

For robotics there was a perceived need, certainly in the eyes of Devol and Engelberger, although
itwould be many years before this perception would be broadly shared. Appropriate technology was
available, and very competent practitioners could be drawn from aerospace and
electronic industries.

3
 CONSOLIDATED CONTROLS CORPORATION

UNIMATION SURVET DATA SHEET

DATE : 5-14-56

OBSERVER: lUD

LOCATION:

TYPE OF WORK PERFORMED ;

Press blanking of side panels from sheet stock.

SEQUENCE ^ PRESENT OPERATION ;

Sheet steel put into die against 3 locating pins. Trln

drops through bed, stamped part wJthdravm and stacked.

APPROXIMATE CICLES PER MINUTE- 3

MAXIlRDi OF S EQUENCES -

Horizontal Vertical Rotary

8 6 4

HORIZONTAL TRAVERSE, ACCURACY, A.ND MAX. SPEED- 3 FT; +1/8"; 6 IN/SEC

VERTICAL " ' .4 FT; +1/8"; 6 IN/SEC
"
ROTARY : 270 ; +12 MIN; 60 /SEC

HAND ACTION REQUIRED :

Suction cup

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF PART : 2 LBS

NO. OF OPERATORS ; 18 per shift - 2 shifts

PROCESS MODIFICATION REQUIRED ;

None

AVAILABLE AREA; 4 FT x 5 FT

/lb
8-23-56

Fig. l.I. Reproduction of actual data sheet used in first Retd market study
 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

Fig 1 4. Cost of a typical compulaiioci function (Data according to IBM

Finally, venturesome financial support was brought to bear from such companies as Condec Corporation
and Pullman Inc
Back in 1922, and still in 1940, it was quite possible for Capek and Asimov to perceive a need
for robots There were certainly many heinous jobs that created subhuman working conditions It
might also have been possible in those times to gather financial support (witness all of the harebrained
schemes that Mark Twain innocently sponsored), however, the technology simply was not at hand
There are three technologies that were bom during or after World War II that are crucial to
successful robotics First, servo mechanisms theory was unknown before World War II Second, digital
computation came mto its own after World War II, and, finally, solid state electronics made it all
economically feasible
It IS what has happened to the cost of electronic computation since the first
interesting to look at
tentative steps were made to produce a control system for an industnal robot Figure I 4 is a semilog
plot of the cost of a typical computation function versus lime What in 1955 might have cost S14 00
by 19S2 would cost seven cents That u a lOO-fold reduction in cost It allows today's roboticist to
luxuriate in compuutional hardware and make his heavy investments in the software In 1956 one
of the design challenges was to accomplish necessary functions with frugal use of electronics hardware
One of Unimation’s tnumpbant decisions was to go solid stale in its controller design at a tune when
vacuum tube controller execution would have been substantially cheaper At that time a five-axis
controller for a numerically controlled machine tool could have been acquired at an Original Equipment

CURRENT APPLICATIONS
Die Casting Machine Loading
Spot Welding Stamping
Arc Welding Plastic Molding
Glass Handling Investment Casting
Heat Treatment Conveyor Transfer
Forging Palletizing
Paint Spraying inspection

Fig. 1.5. Current robot applications

 historical perspective of industrial robotics 7

SOME NEAR TERM APPLICATIONS

Batch Assembly
Order Picking
Wire Harness Manufacturing
Packaging
Textiles Processing
Medical Lab Handling
Fettling

Fig. 1.6. Near-term robot applications.

Manufacturer (OEM) discount price of about $35,000.00. Unimation engineers prided themselves on
a purpose-built design that could be achieved in 1959 for $7000.00.
For the first robot the cost to manufacture was 75% electronic and 25% hydromechanical. Today
that cost ratio is just reversed.
One should note was already flourishing before World War II. There were many
that automation
high-volume products that were made
in large quantities by what today is called “hard automation.”
Charlie Chaplin in his 1936 movie “Modem Times” was able to decry satirically the role of a human
floundering in an automated manufacturing scene. However, all of that automation used mechanics
that today we archly call “bang-bang.” It is ironic that the word robot has become so glamorous
that some companies, and even some countries, include mechanisms using this “bang-bang” technology
in their categorization of robotics. The Japanese recognize “limited sequence” robots, which are concep-
tually tum-of-the-century technology, as being the single largest segment of the Japanese robot population
(more about the Japanese role in this historic perspective shortly).
In 1961 the first industrial robot went to work, and Unimation’s founder and president proved
just how clouded his crystal ball was by going from 1961 until 1975 before his company was able to
show a profit. The publicity was great; it attracted many abortive competitive efforts. But those who
provided that third ingredient, money, were sorely disappointed in the slow progress. Just consider:
the first robot worked quite well! It is now in the Smithsonian Institute. Some of its brethren are
still functioning today. Many of the earliest robots built have accumulated more than 100,000 hours
of field operation and that is more than 50 man-years of working. The concept was viable, the product

FARTHER OUT APPLICATIONS

Garbage Collection
Fast Food Preparation and Delivery
Gasoline Dispensing
Animal Husbandry
Nuclear Maintenance and Cleanup
Hospital Aides
Prosthesis
Neurosurgery
Household Servant

Fig. 1.7. Long-range applications.

 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
was viable Why was it taking so long to gain sufRcient acceptance to make robot manufacture economi*
cally viable"’
In retrospect we recognize that manufacturing is an extremely conservative activity It does not
take to change lightly Worse than that, no one really needs a robot' Anything a robot can do, a
human can also do The only justification for hinng a robot is that a robot will work at a cheaper
rate Even that justification is not convincing if one’s competitors are not making extensive use of
robots The institutional load was a formidable one. and at times it seemed almost insurmountable
Enter the Japanese In the early 1960s Japanese visitors to Unimation increased in frequency,
and by 1967 Engelberger was an invited speaker in Tokyo. In the United States it was difficult to
gam the attention of industrial executives, but the Japanese filled the hall with 700 manufactunng
and engineenng executives who were keenly interested in the robot concept They foUowed the formal
presentation with three hours of enthusiastic questioning In I96S Kawasaki Heavy Industnes took a
licenseunder all of Ummation Inc 's technology, and by 1971 the fever had spread and the world’s
—
robot association was formed not in the United States but in Japan The Japan Industnal Robot
first

Association (JIRA) started out with an opening membership of 46 companies and with representatives
having personal clout m
the industnal community The first president of JIRA was Mr Ando, the
Executive Vice President of Kawasaki Heavy Industnes. a three billion dollar company
Thereafter the rest of the industnal world slowly began to awaken The Robot Institute of Amenca
was founded in 197S, well after the first International Symposium on Industnal Robotics (ISIR) was
held in Chicago in 1970 That first ISIR attracted I2S attendees despite coincidence with a cnppling
snowstorm Before this handbook is published the thirteenth ISIR will also be history, and all indications
are that 1200 will attend the conference itself, and the industnal exhibition will attract some 2S.00O
visitors
Perhaps the institutional job has finally been accomplished Look ai the industnal giants who are
attempting to stake out claims m
the robotics arena Beyond the biggest m
Japan who are already
well represented, we have such companies as General Motors, General Electnc, Wcstmghouse, IBM,
and United Technologies m
the United States, and major European industnalists such as EC G m
England, Siemens in Gennany, Renault m France, Fiat in Italy Add to these a legion of smaller
companies who fragment the market and make their mark in s]>ecialized robots, in robot penpherals,
or in consulting and in robotic system design
The governments of virtually every major industnal country m
the world, capitalist or communist,
have declared robotics to be an arena of intense national interest worthy of support from public colTers
So obviously robotics has arrived, hasn't it? Or, really, has it? We have a plethora of robot manufacturers,
very few of whom are profitable There is a shakeout under way unique in industnal history It is
occumng before any robot manufacturer has achieved great financial success
The commercially available technology is not remark^ly dilTerent from what existed 20 years
ago Moreover, none of the obvious applications is even close to saturation Figure I S lists applications
that have been proven both technically and economically and still represent great robotic opportunities
There is little imagination necessary to go beyond (he current level of commercially available technology
to the addition of rudimentary vuion or modest uclile sensing ability to accomplish another broad
spectrum of jobs such as those listed in Figure 1 6 Further, jobs outside of the industnal robot
stamping ground are already on the technically visible horizon Some of these are listed m
Figure
17
Wks( wvjirderfcrl luck fo hare Rjunded a company, nay, evwi an tndtrsfry, when one rs young
enough to participate dunng the industry's adolescence and to speculate on the tremendous technical
excitement ahead as robotics reaches its majority A
handbook on industnal robotics wiU need be a
living document for at least the balance of this century to keep up with the inevitable expansion of
the technology From the histoncal perspective one wishes the editors good health, long life, and a
proclivity for conscientious reporting
 CHAPTER 2
THE ROLE OF ROBOTS IN
AUTOMATING WORK
CHARLES F. CARTER, JR.
Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Cincinnati, Ohio

2.1. SOME PERSPECTIVES

Historically, we have automated work for three basic reasons:

1. The energy required to perform the task or the surrounding environment is beyond human
endurance.
2. The skill required to produce a useful output is beyond human capability.

3. The demand for output (product) is so great that there is motivation to seek better methods.

A fourth factor plays an important but secondary role: the availability of a new technology that can
be brought to bear on the task in question.
The role of robots in automating work fits these basic reasons as we can see from an examination
of typical applications. Further, the robot itself is made possible only because of the availability of
computer-related technology.
If we consider we can better understand the significance of current applica-
robotics as a technology,
tions by looking technology as described by Naisbitt.* During the first stage
at the three stages of a
the technology is related to what may be considered nonthreatening applications that reduce the chance
that it will be rejected. Robots are still exploiting this early stage in such applications as welding,
handling hot or heavy parts, and working in hot, unsafe ambient conditions. This first stage is also
compatible with the first in the hierarchy of reasons given for automating work.
The second stage improves on existing technologies and methods. Here we begin to see some
disruption of the status quo and a need to change organizations and systems to take advantage of
the new technology. Robot technology is now entering this phase, and, as we show in the discussion
of the role of robots in computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), significant system changes or accommoda-
tions are required on the part of users. This phase in some respects relates to the second in the list
of reasons for automation.
The second phase in the life of a technology is usually of long duration, and robot technology
will be no exception. Experts expect that the work going on now to improve sensors with tactile,

vision, and force characteristics, plus work on controls to incorporate artificial intelligence, will bring
us third- and fourth-generation robots. However, success in this work will still maintain the robot in
the second phase of the technology. This is because all of this work is aimed at imparting to the
robot human skills and judgment, replacing or enhancing existing technology —
a difficult but entirely
foreseeable task.
In the third phase of a technology new directions and uses are found that were not predicted at
the outset. As an example, rocket engine and space technology have spawned the significant business
of satellite communications, which is having a most profound influence on our lives. But early predictions
relating to applications dwelled on exploration, manufacturing in space, and military uses. In this
context the technology of the robot is too young to foretell applications beyond the enhancement of
man’s skills.

9
10 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

A CLOSER LOOK—METALWORKING
Most current robot applications are in the metalworking manufactunng industry This industry, there-
source for information concerning the nature and growth of applications As
fore, provides the best
we have mentioned first applications usually involved the handling of parts in a hostile
before, the
environment, such as that around furnaces or die-casting machines Improved accuracy and control
made applications m
spiot welding viable, and for several years almost all published colored pictures
of robots depicted this application
Next, It was logical to consider arc welding, but this application is not fully matured because it
requires sensing of process variables and related responses that require further development In parallel
with welding, painting was developed as well as more sophisticated applications requiring workpiece
manipulation
Robot technology with respect to metalworking has now amved at the phase where applications
will be considered m
the context of what needs to be done on a plantwide basis to improve manufactunng
effectiveness The incorporation of robots will now be evaluated on effectiveness in improving capital
and quality The practitioners must therefore be aware of what changes
utilization, inventory value,
will have the most impact on these factors There is not now a broad understanding of or sensitivity
to these important factors among those who plan the aulomatiofl of work
Studies show that production equipment in metalworking is poorly utilized ^ This poor utilization
IS related to the large amount of unscheduled time during the course of a year plus an inability to

achieve a good percentage of value-added lime even when the machines are scheduled Ayers and
MilIeH have analyzed this poor utilization of capital with respect to other costs and conclude that
the gams possible from improving utilization exc^ by an order of magnitude the gams possible by
merely reducing labor costs This conclusion should aid in defining the long-term role of the robot
m automating work The role ts obviously not the mere replacement of the human operator
In addition to capital equipment, another large consumer of financial resource in manufactunng
IS inventory It is not unusual for the value of in-process inventory to exceed the value of production

equipment for a manufacturer in the metalworking industry Any consideration of return on investment
must take into account this important element The actions that bring about a reduction in inventory
also tend to reduce lead time and improve response to changing demand Practitioners look for these
beneficial resultswhen they consider the introduction of new machines or methods in manufactunng
Robots wiU be no exception
The third charactenstic of the manufactunng process that acts to stimulate the introduction of
new technology is quality Improved product quality is now almost universally recognized to bnng
not only greater market sccepunce but also reduced manufactunng cost The cost of improved quality
IS by lower costs in assembly, test, rework, scrap, and warranty
usually offset
For the purpose of determining the role that robots might play in bnnging improvements to the
areas just desenbed in broad terms, it may be helpful to examine m mote detail some of the factors
leading to poor utilization and high inventory The assumption here is that a perception of underlying
factors must be gamed before solutions can be effectively applied
An estimate of manufactunng equipment utilization may be gained by refemng to Figure 2 1
Here we see that large blocks of lime are unavailable for productive use because our plants are closed
Dunng the available productive lime, various conditions reduce utilization so that a productive fraction
of only 6% is left The purpose here is not to suggest that we should change our social structure so
that manufactunng plants can be open more hours per year Indeed, it will be increasingly difficult
to find people to work in a manufactunng environment, let alone working more on second and third
shifts This figure points out that the productive fraction must be improved, and must be improved
without requinng large numbers of pieople to work at undesirable times Even when the typical machine
IS scheduled to be used, the productive fraction is only slightly more than 25% of that scheduled

lime And this productive fraction is not totally consumed in adding value
Further details with respect to individual machine utilization can also be helpful in developing an
overview A view of grinding machine utilization may be obtained by refemng to Table 2 1
Here we see that 60% of the scheduled time for a gnnding machine is consumed in activities
other than actual gnnding This does not account for the fact that schedule time is undoubtedly less
than the total time available for production
Machines dedicated to high production present no better picture with respect to utilization or
productivity Data shown in Tables 2 2, 2 3, and 2 4 show the status of productivity in an environment
where machines are dedicated and losses related to setup would not be an important factor
Table 2 2 indicates that the accepted standard for output on a typical high-production machine
or system is 80% of the calculated optimum In actual practice, only 59% of the optimum is achieved
The result of further analysis of the reasons for loss in productivity is shown in Table 2 3 The
percentage for equipment failure represents the total time charged to that element, which encludes
the time to have the proper maintenance skill respond to the problem Work force control relates to
the role of robots in automating work 11

UTILIZATION OF CAPITAL EQUIPMENT

.Vif-’

coNomoNtX
LOAD

.PROOUCWQ

8760 HOURS IN ONE YEAR

Fig. 2.1. Typical use of available time in batch manufacturing shop. Productive fraction is 6%.

the total problem of operator availability, which includes responsiveness to a particular problem plus
such general problems as absenteeism and tardiness.
It is interesting to restructure these losses as has been done in Table 2.4 to show that 64% of
total losses be attributed to the factors relating to management effectiveness.
may
The situation is not markedly improved, with respect to actual time-in-cut, by the introduction of
numerical control. The general productivity gains due to numerical control are well documented but
are sometimes misinterpreted. Improvements frequently accrue as a result of the combination of opera-
tions in one setting rather than improvements in the cycling of machines.
Table 2.5 shows the results of a study of numerically controlled machining centers. Here we see
that the actual metalcuttingtime consumes less than a quarter of the time a machine is scheduled

TABLE 2.1. TYPICAL GRINDING

MACHINE UTILIZATION
Activity Percent Time

In cycle 40
Gaging, loading 20
Setup 20
Waiting and idle 13

Repair and technical 7

TABLE 2.2. STATUS OF

PRODUCTIVITY—HIGH
PRODUCTION
Machine optimum 100 %
Established standard 80%
Actual output 59%
 12 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUCTRIAL ROBOTICS
TABLE 23. SOURCES OF
PRODucrivrrv LOSS—HIGH
PRODUCTION
Equipment failure 42%
Machine in wait mode 34%
Work force control 16%

TABLE 2.4. MANAGEMENT-

RELATED pRODUcnvnr
LOSSES
Skill trades response 14%
Machine m wait mode 34%
Work force control 16%
Percent of total loss 64%

TABLE 2.5. TIME UTILIZATION OF

MACHINING CEhnERS
Activity Percent Time

Metalculting 23
Positioning, tool changing 27
Caging, loading ^
18
Setup 5
Waiting and idle 14
Repair and technical 13

and that considerable improvement could be made mainly by management procedures to reduce waiting
and idle time One of the positive features of numencal control, that of reduced setup time, is substanti-
ated by these data
The data reported in the preceding sections are from actual measurements but depict average
values for those measurements Obviously, situations can be aied that would not correspond to these
values However, they are presented as valid, representative values from which general conclusions
can be drawn
The point to be made in presenting these data is that gains in individual machine productivity
depend on improving all aspects of machine usage Traditionally, emphasis has been given to the
redacCsan cFscttal catCuig tsme SsgnrScaat future improvement will cfepend on greater emphasis ivmg
given to the nonculting elements of machine usage Some of these can be brought about by machine
improvements Others can be achieved through changes in shop procedures For instance, the careful
selection and scheduling of the mix of parts coming to a machine can drastically reduce setup time
This IS one of the promises of group technology
The complexity of manufactunng is well recognized by all who are close to the function But
many are not aware that the conventional practices in manufactunng relating to schedules and lead
time have evolved to cope with complexity C^sider a typical part moving through several metalworking
operations to be completed The schedule is made weeks in advance The assumption is that at each
move machines, tools, and fixtures will be available and ready to work on the part If the part requires
5-20 moves, what arc the chances of everything happening as planned several weeks m advance'’
Low
Supenmposed on the inherent complexity of the process are many disturbances that cause delays
and require schedule changes Typicallydisturbancesarecaused by engineenng changes, vendor lateness,
matenal conditions, machine availability, process problems, and emergency orders, and the list goes
on
To cope with complexity and disturbances, manu&ctunng practice has evolved two procedures
The fint is to create buffers of work for each station or machine This assures that work will always
be available for a machine, but this also creates a large tn-process inventory The second procedure
involves the changing of pnonties to comply with the coirent status This is done through the use of
daily lists, vanous colored tags, and people to expedite work through the shop Of course, work that
receives special status acts as a disturbance to regularly scheduled work
THE ROLE OF ROBOTS IN AUTOMATING WORK 13

Anyone working in manufacturing knows all of this but may not recognize what action to take
to improve the situation. The diagram in Figure
2.2 helps to provide a good image of the makeup of

the shop schedule. It shows that the schedule is primarily queue and
move time. Increasing the predicta-
bility and reliability of the manufacturing process is obviously
more important than increasing the
speed.
With these details in mind we have a guide for assessing the value of introducing new technology

into the manufacturing process. Specifically with respect to robots, future applications will be justified
less on the elimination of labor and speedup of the process and more on the
impact of improving
utilization and reducing part movement, complexity, and lot size requirements. These actions will
bring about increased predictability, which in turn paves the way for reduced work-in-process and
reduced lead time.
A further understanding of the role of robots in bringing about these improvements in manufacturing
may be gained by examining the concept of the flexible manufacturing system (FMS). The physical
embodiment of this concept ranges from one machine processing a selected variety of workpieces

without operator attention for changing setups and machine cycles to a number of machines or process
stations completing the required operations on a selected variety of workpieces.
Figure 2.3 represents the single-machine configuration. Different workpieces are fixtured on the
of the machine and automatically indexed for machining. Figure 2.4 represents the
pallets in front
next step in complexity with a two-machine system serviced by a robot. The robot brings parts into
the system, transfers parts between machines, presents finished parts to a gage, and places parts on
an exit conveyance. Figure 2.5 depicts what may be termed a classical FMS with multiple stations
performing a variety of tasks.
In the figure, parts are stored at the left. Adjacent to the storage, parts are loaded (or unloaded)

onto pallets for distribution throughout the system by wire-guided carts. The black lines on this model
indicate the paths available to the carts. The lines would not be visible in an actual installation. The
machine tools appear in the center of the figure with expansion shown to the right. The computer
room is upper center, and chip handling is right of center.
Regardless of the type or complexity, all FMSs display similar requirements for successful operation.
The requirements relate to the need for much ,n}ore detailed advance planning and scheduling. Selection
of workpieces must be aimed at accommodating' the size, range, accuracy, tooling, and weight constraints

TIME ON
MACHINE

INCUT LESS THAN POSITIONING, LOADING. GAGING, IDLE, ETC.

30 * 70 *
TIME BREAKDOWN FOR AN AVERAGE PART IN
A TYPICAL BATCH MANUFACTURING SHOP

Fig. 2.2. High percentage of wait time leads to large work-in-process inventory.
 li DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

Fic 2 3. Singl«'m3chin« system arranged to work on several dilTerenl workpieces without operator
attention

of the system Scheduling of workpieces through the system must be aimed at minimizing disruption
caused by too] changes requinng manual intervenrion and maximizing machine utilization Of course,
manufactunng engineers attempt to do the same things in a traditional manufactunng environment,
but optimal results are more difficult to attain because of increased complexity (wider variety of parts)
and poorer control (part movement through more functional and organizational entities) In the case
of an FMS, the work stations (except for system load/unload) are usually numerically controlled
and therefore cycles are predictable This coupled with the requirement for planning and scheduling,
produces the desired results of short lead time, lower in-process inventory, predictable schedule, and
predictable quality level
The concept ofFMS has been applied to a wide vanety of parts, and approximately 130 systems
exist at the present time Descnplions of representative systems** are usually limited to technical
features and documented operating data, and benefits arc seldom available Generally the beneficial
results mentioned are achieved, but available data is limited However, a detailed comparison of 119
systems* concludes that Only six are rated as flexible Most systems deal with only a very limited
— —
part-number mix frequently as low as two or ihree or deal with such a narrow part classification
that a stated high part-number application is misleading in terms of required flexibility This is important
to know would be incorrect to assume that the state-of-the-art supports 130 systems producing
since it

a vanety of parts limited only by the size, weight, and accuracy constraints of the system
The reasons for the actual versus the assumed flexibility of FMS can be explained in part and
may suggest a role for robots The pnmary reason for restneted flexibility is the requirement for a
large number of tools to machine a wide vanety of workpieces Almost all FMSs m
use are limited
in tlie capability to handle automatically loo few tools for wide part selection Some additional capabilities
are now emerging, but at considerable added expense Robots may be applied to the problem The
situation IS exactly parallel to the use of a pallet changer on a tool-changing machining center Early
models had pallet changers but not enough tool storage capacity to machine very different workpieces
Pallet changers fell in populanty until tool storage capacity increased Likewise true flexibility in
robots will require a fast, reliable means lo change a vanety of gnpping or toollikc devices
In addition to enhancements required m
tcchiiK)ucs for transporting tools to the machining stations,
several other hardware-related improvements are required for true flexibility One is providing higher
accuracy of bored holes and locations of holes without hard tooling Another is a requirement for
machine configurations with greater hole-making efficiency while maintaining versatility The dnllhead
changing machine is a current answer to this prablem, but further work must be done on this configura-
tion
Obviously, numencal control allows many different shapes to be cut from a well-defined initial
geometry in turning, and numencal control is now being utilized m
high production for parts of
 Fig. 2.4. Two-machine system —turning machines loaded by a robot.

rotation. However, in both turning and grinding the initial workpiece geometry that can be machined
is limited by the lack of versatility of work-holding devices. Innovation in the area of work holding
is one of the major future requirements to be fulfilled to bring more versatility to the manufacture of
parts of rotation.
Attention must also be turned to support service improvements in mechanical aids that will be
Even though adaptive control will make a machine
required as machines receive less operator attention.
more immune to in-process variables, there is a strong requirement for improved tool regrinding and
reconditioning. The variability that results from these support activities has a direct influence on varia-
tions in size and finish. Operator attention is usually required to adjust for these variations.
Chip curl and resulting snarls are still a problem in the machining of steel in spite of developments
in chip breaker geometry on tools. Problems associated with the control of chips must be solved if

steel is to be machined in an environment with no operator attention.

All of these factors or variables are brought together in one system and act to drive the flexibility
to a low level to achieve successful operation. We can expect the increasing use of FMS to depend
on the solution of these problems.
What was thought to be the primary barrier to system acceptance has not developed. Ten years
ago, it was predicted by many knowledgeable observers that software development would represent
the greatest barrier to large-scale flexibility automation. The predictions overlooked several factors.
The rapid development of microcomputers has allowed cost-effective distribution of control tasks and
with it The development of computer operating systems designed
the logical partitioning of software.
for real-time environments has eased the burden of the applications programmer. The tremendous
16 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

Morldviide effort jimed at developing more powerful languages and improved programming techniques
produces fallout for all disciplines Univenilies, institutes, and reseairch firms have applied countless
man-hours of effort to software^related problems because this type of mvesiigacion requires little capital
investment, is suited to multiple approaches and solutions, and can utilize analysts with only limited
manufacturing knowledge
The preceding discussion should not imply (hat problems in simulation, scheduling, and real-time
control of a complex system are tnviaf The problems are large and senous The point is that in
comparison to hardware considerations, soRware problems are well in hand
With an undenunding of the foregoing assessment of the sutus of flexible automation, we should
be in a position to evaluate the conditions for the successful application of robots in similar situations
The Aral conclusion to be drawn is (hat successful applications of automation are generally related to
situations involving high volumes or a high degree of uniformity Robots readily fit into this environment
and bnng a degree of versatility greater than hard automation since they can perform multiple but
repetitive tasks at no additional cost Figure 2 6 depicts such a situation where a robot applied sealant
to an automotive body —an application requiring
versatility, but a high-volume repetitive task However,
when robots are applied to low-volume or nonuniform situations the organization of the work must
be changed to take on some of the charactenslics of high-volume production Parts must be placed
in a precise location and onentation pnor to handling Parts must be clamped or held in a specific
onentation and position for processing such as welding Figure 2 7a illustrates a welding fixture and
rotary table arrangement for the robot welding of cabinets Figure 2 7b shows the cabinet in place
for welding This is a degree of work organization not required for manual welding The processing
method must be reasonably repetitive None of these requirements is present in low volume It is
easy (o neglect the fact that low-volume processes are inherently flexible, and any attempt to bnng
automation to such processes requires a sacnficc of flexibility Of course, the reduced flexibility is
not detnmental if proper planning accompanies the introduction of these more automated methods
One beneficial result of the change to more uniformity when a robot is introduced is improved
quality Every weld is made, and made under uniform conditions Every part is propierly indexed or
positioned or inserted Every operatioR is performed In fact, the justification for some robot apphcations
in low-volume relates to improved quality

2.3. WHAT TO EXPECT

Of course, the real answer we do not know what the rate of growth should
to these questions is that
be Perhaps the rate already exceeds that which is economically justified Nevertheless, the expert

will struggle to suggest severalreasons to explain a perceived slow growth

Forecasts of the growth of robot apphcations in the United States place dollar volume by 1992 at
 Fig. 2,6. Robot applying sealant to automobile body.

anywhere from 1 and units from 20,000 to more than 250,000. Obviously
billion to 5 billion dollars
beyond the simple fact that there will be continued, significant
the projections are of limited value
growth. It will be more helpful to examine the current characteristics of robots and comment on
enhancements required to broaden the scope of applications. As these enhancements become commer-
cially viable, the observer can exp>ect a corresponding increase in applications.
The characteristics of range and load capacity should be considered together since the combination
has a direct bearing on accuracy. For instance, a robot with a reach of 100 in. and a load capacity
of 100 lb may have a repeat accuracy within a band of 0.020 in. Whereas a smaller robot with a
reach of 50 in. and a load capacity of 50 lb may have a repeat accuracy within a band of 0.012 in.
Since many simple applications requiring the positioning, loading, or assembly of parts demand greater
accuracy, improvements are required to broaden applications. These improvements will require greater
mechanical rigidity and more precise control. Improving rigidity without sacrificing range is a formidable
design task.
Presently most robots are programmed by teaching each move and position required to perform
the task. This does not present a serious problem where the task is to be performed continuously or
repeated at frequent intervals. However, this method of programming becomes impractical for applica-
tions involving low volume combined with nonrepetitive tasks. For robot applications to make serious
inroads into this enormous application area, two enhancements are required. There must be the ability
to program the robot off-line in a manner similar to numerically controlled machine tools. Such capability
is available today but on a very limited basis. In addition, the absolute accuracy capability must be

improved so that the robot can be commanded (rather than taught) to go to any position with an
accuracy approaching the repeat accuracy. Currently robot absolute positioning errors are of an order
of magnitude greater than repeat errors. The required improvement may be achieved through some
calibration technique rather than by means of greater rigidity and precision.
Most robot applications depend on the fact that the organization of the task is highly structured
and repeatable. Parts to be moved have consistent physical characteristics and are placed in a specific
location. Parts to be welded are fixtured and clamped in a repeatable and uniform maimer. However,
most tasks in the world of work are not uniform or structured. If robots are to be applied to a
significant number of work tasks, they must acquire abilities to adjust to changes in the task. At the
same time, some degree of uniformity may be added to the work environment to accommodate the
robot, but this will not always be justified. To be responsive to variability or lack
of structure in the
 THE ROLE OF ROBOTS IN AUTOMATING WORK 19

task, the robot will be required to sense and react to touch and required force. For instance, the
simple task of assembling a shaft into a hole requires the robot to sense the force and recognize
variable force limits with respect to penetration distance. This is a degree of sophistication not required
if the parts are pregaged and the task tested to known limits —conditions not present in low-volume
manufacturing.
The most widely acknowledged sense required to allow robots to work in an unstructured environ-
ment is vision. That feature is now available to a limited extent. Robots can now distinguish and
react to part shape and orientation. This allows a degree of nonuniformity. However, the assessment
of and reaction to a scene is required to meet most work situations. This total scene assessment is a
function handled almost unconsciously by a human operator, but one which requires artificial intelligence
techniques and great computational power when performed automatically.
Another characteristic required to perform many unstructured tasks is mobility. Processes currently
performed by robots such as welding cannot be performed on buildings, ships, or large pieces of
equipment. Robots have been given a degree of mobility by being placed on a track or overhead rail.
But the mobility required for tasks like those mentioned is not available.
The foregoing comments are made to emphasize that very sophisticated enhancements will be
needed to enable robots to perform tasks that are considered quite simple when performed by human
operators. There are literally millions of such tasks, and that is the motivating fact behind continued
robot development.
The primary reason that the growth rate of a technical device is difficult to forecast is because
breakthroughs in critical hardware elements cause step inputs, and unforeseen applications can become
important. On the other hand, the absence of these inputs can become important or can result in
disappointing growth. A
paper presented at the Twelfth International Symposium on Industrial Robots’,
which cataloged papers at all such meetings from the first, enables us to make some observations
about trends in robot technology.
The technique of artificial intelligence was discussed at the first symposium. It is now commercial

to a limited extentbut not widely used. In retrospect, we can say that the application of this technique
has been difficult to achieve and slower than expected 12 years ago. Applications in metalworking
continue to receive the most attention but the impending, significant broadening of applications is
signalled by a wider variety of application papers at the twelfth symposium, with applications ranging
from shearing sheep to decorating chocolates. Figure 2.8 illustrates the use of a robot to decorate
chocolate candy. It will be this broadening of applications away from metalworking, but with existing

Fig. 2.8. Robot decorating chocolate candy.

20 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
technology, that will be most important for growth tci the next three to five years Then technical
breakthroughs will allow growth in the direction of more sophisticated applications that is, sophisti- —
cated for the robot but not for the human operator

REFERENCES
1. Naisbitt, John, Megatrends Ten New Directums for Transforming our Lives, Warner Books Inc ,

New York, 1982

2 Carter, C F,Jr Toward Flexible Automation, Affl/iu/jciunng Engineering, August 1982
3. Ayres, Robert U , and Steven M Miller. Roboucs Applieaiions and Stxtal Implications, Ballinger
Publishing Co Cambndge, MA,
,
1983
4 Hutchinson, G K , Flexible Manufactunng Systems in the United States, Automation Manufactur-
ing 1979
5 Dupont-Gatelmand, C A Survey of Flexible Manufactunng Systems, Journal of Manufacturing
,

Systems, Vol !(1), 1982

6. Ito, Y Present Status and Trends in Flexible Manufactunng Systems, Journal of Japan Society
,

of Mechanical Engineers, 85(761), 1982

7. Fleck, JThe Development and Diffusion of Industnal Robots, Proceedings 12th
, International
Symposium on Industnal Robots, Pans, France. 1982
 CHAPTER 3
ROBOTS AND MACHINE
INTELLIGENCE
CHARLES A. ROSEN
Machine Intelligence Corporation
Sunnyvale, California

3.1. INTRODUCTION
The factory of the far future is composed of a complex array of computer-controlled
visualized as
processes, programmable machine and adaptive, sensor-mediated fixed and mobile industrial
tools,
robots. These systems will be operated and maintained by a small cadre of skilled technicians, and
supervised by a smaller group of highly professional engineers, computer scientists, and business people.
Planning, design, production, distribution, and marketing of products will depend critically on comput-
ers, used as information and knowledge-processing tools by the staff and as autonomous controllers

(in the general sense) for each manufacturing process. Systems of such complexity must of necessity

evolve, since, at present, major components of these systems are not yet capable of performing required
functions, or are not cost-effective when they can. Even when such subsystems have attained acceptable
performance, there will still remain the difficult and laborious problems of standardization, interfacing,
and integration into smoothly operating factory systems.
What is the difference between a so-called “intelligent” computer system and all other computer
systems? The criteria for “intelligence” vary with time. In a relatively short period of history, less
than thirty years, the explosive growth of available computer science and technology has provided us
with the means for supplementing and supplanting human intellectual functions far beyond our present
capabilities for exploitation. At an early date, arithmetic computation or "number crunching” was
considered a function performable only by intelligent natural species. In a remarkably short time (as
measured on an evolutionary scale) early pioneers realized the potential of the symbol-processing capabili-
ties of the digital computer, a revolutionary advance in abstraction rivaled by few historical events.

The encoding, manipulation, and transformation of symbols, representing objects of the world, actions,
induction and deduction processes, natural laws, theories and hypotheses, cause and effect, are intellectual
functions that are now being performed with increasing sophistication by computers.
It is now commonplace to consider important computer applications, such as storage and retrieval,

data management systems, modeling, word processing, graphics, process controllers, computer games,
and many others as merely information-processing techniques devoid of intelligence. Somewhat higher
in abstraction, pattern recognition systems, initiated by the development of optical character recognition
techniques, have led in theoryand practice to explosive growth involving the extraction and classification
of relevant information from complex signals of every type. Many of these applications have become
commonplace and are no longer considered as “intelligent” systems. At present it is acceptable to
label programs as part of “machine intelligence” or “artificial intelligence,” when they are concerned
with studies of perception and interpretation, natural language understanding, common-sense reasoning
and problem solving, learning, and knowledge representation and utilization (expert systems). After
20 years of primarily empirical development, including conceptualization, debugging, and analysis of
computer programs, only a few implementations of this technology are now being introduced into
industry, and doubtless they are already considered as “mechanistic” rather than “intelligent” systems.
In the following sections the current thrust toward implementing robot systems (that
progressively
become more and more “intelligent”) is explored.

21
22 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

3.2. AVAILABLE ROBOT SYSTEMS

3.2.1. First-Generation Robot Systems

The majonty of robots in use today are first-generation robots with little (if any) computer power
Their only “intelligent” functions consist of “learning” a sequence of manipulative actions, choreo-
” The
graphed by a human operator using a “teach-box ” These robots are “deaf, dumb, and blind
factory world around them must be prearranged to accommodate their actions Necessary constraints
include precise workpiece positioning, care in specifying spatial relationships with other machines,
and safety for nearby humans and equipment In many instances costs incurred by these constraints
have been fully warranted by increases in productiviiy and quality of product and work life The
majority of future applications in material handling, quality control, and assembly will require more
"intelligent” behavior for robot systems based on both cost and performance cntena

32.2. Second-Generation Robot Systems

The addition of a relatively inexpensive computer processor to the robot controller led to a second
generation of robots with enhanced capabiliiics It now became possible to perform, in real time, the
calculations required to control the motions of each degrec-of-freedom m
a cooperative manner to
effect smooth motions of the end-effector along predetermined paths, for example, along a straight
line in space Operations by these robots on workpieces in motion along an assembly line could be
accommodated Some simple sensors, such as force, torque, and proximity, could be integrated into
the robot system, providing some degree of adaptability to the robot’s environment
Major applications of second-generation robots include spot welding, paint spraying, arc welding
—
and some assembly all operations (hat are part of automated manufactunng Perhaps the most impor-
tant consequence has been the growing realization that even more adaptability is highly desirable
and could be incorporated by full use of available sensors and more computer power

3J2.3. Third-Generation Robot Systems

Third-generstion robot systems have been introduced in the past few years, but their full potential
will not be realized and exploited for many years They are charactenzed by the incorporation of
multiple computer processors, each operating asynchronously to perform specific functions A typical
third-generation robot system includes a separate low-level processor for each degree of freedom, and
a master computer supervising and coordinating these processors as well as providing higher-level
functions
Each low-level processor receives internal sensory signals (such as position and velocity) and is
part of the servosystem eontrollmg that degree-of-freedom The master computer coordinates the actions
of each degree-of-freedom, can perform coordinate transformation calculations to accommodate different
frames of reference, can interface with external sensors, other robots, and machines, store programs,
communicate with other computer systems Although it is possible to perform all the functions listed
with a single computer, the major trend in design appears to favor distnbuted hierarchical processing,
the resulting flexibility and ease of modification justifying the acceptably small incremental costs incurred
by use of multiple processors

3.3. INTELLIGENT ROBOT SYSTEMS

3.3.1. Adaptive, Communicating Robot Systems

A third-generation robot equipped with one or more advanced external sensors, interfaced with other
machines, and communicating with other computers could be considered to exhibit some important
aspects of intelligent behavior Interfaced with available machine vision, proximity, and other sensor
systems (e g tactile, force, torque), the robot would acquire randomly positioned and onented work-
,

pieces, inspect them for gross defects, transport them to assi^ed positions m relation to other workpieces,
do insertions or other mating functions, while conecUng its actions mediated by signals from force,
torque, and proximity sensors, perform fastening operations, and finally venfy acceptable completion
of these intermediate assembly processes Its computer would compile statistics of throughput, inspection
failuresby quantity and type, and would communicate status with neighboring systems and to the
master factory system computer The foregomg scenano is just one of many feasible today The major
functional elements of such an intelligent system are the following

1. The capability of a robot system to adapt to its immediate environment by sensing changes
or differences from some prespecified standard conditions and by computing, in real time, the
necessary corrections for trajectones and/or mampulative actions
 23
robots and machine intelligence
The capability of interacting and communicating with associated devices (such as feeders
and
2.
other robots) and with other computers so that a smoothly integrated manufacturing
system
can be implemented, incorporating fail-safe procedures and alternate courses of actions to main-
tain production continuity.

Clearly, the degree of intelligence exhibited by such systems depends critically on the
complexity

of the assigned sequence of operations and how well the system performs
without failure. At present
the state of the art in available machine vision and other sensory systems
requires considerable constraints
engineered into the system and therefore limits applications to relatively simple manufacturing
to be
processes.However, rapid progress in developing far more sophisticated machine vision, tactile, and
other sensory systems can be expected, with consequent significant increases in adaptability in the
next two to five years. The level of “intelligence,” however, will reside primarily in the overall system
design, quite dependent on the sophistication of the master program that orchestrates and controls
the individual actions of the adaptive robots and other subsystems.

3.3.2. Programming the Adaptive Robot

Programming the adaptive robot consists, roughly, of two parts:

1. The a program that controls the sequence(s) of manipulative actions, specifying motions,
first is

paths, speed, tool manipulation, and so on. Several different sequences may be “taught” and stored
and called up as required by some external sensory input or as a result of a conditional test.
The programming of these sequences has traditionally been implemented by using a “teach box”
for first- and most second-generation robot systems. This method of on-line programming is very
attractive as it is by factory personnel who are not trained software specialists.
readily learned
2. The second
a program that controls the remainder of the adaptive robot’s functions, such
is

as sensory data acquisition, coordinate transformations, conditional tests, communications with other
devices and computers. Programming this part is off-line and does require a professional programmer.

It is likely some form of “teach-box” programming will be retained for many years, even for
that
third-generation robots, since the replacement of off-line programming would require the development
of a complex computer model of the robot and its total immediate environment, including dynamic
as well as static characteristics. The master program that controls adaptive behavior and communications
will call up, as subroutines, the manipulative sequences taught on-line as described.
Machine intelligence research has, for many years, included the development of high-level program-
ming languages designed specifically for robotic assembly (see Chapters 22, 23). An appropriate language
would permit off-line programming of complex assembly operations, with perhaps some calls to special
on-line routines.
Ultimately one may strive for the goal of using a natural language to direct the robot. This may
develop at increasing levels of abstraction. For example, an instruction as part of a program controlling
an assembly task might be:

PICK UP THE BOLT FROM BIN NUMBER ONE

At this level the “smart” system must interpret the sentence, be able to recognize the object (bolt)
using a vision sensor, plan a trajectory to bin number one (the position of which is modeled in its
memoiy), acquire one bolt (after determining its position and orientation using a vision sensor), check
(by tactile sensing) that the bolt has been acquired, and then await the next high-level instruction.
In a more advanced system operating at a higher level of abstraction, the instruction might be:

FASTEN PART A TO PART B WITH A QUARTER-INCH BOLT

This presumes that previous robot actions had brought parts A
and B together in correct mating
positions. The “smarter” system, here hypothesized, would know where all sizes of bolts
are kept
and carry out the implied command of picking a quarter-inch bolt from its bin, aligning it properly
for insertion, inserting it, determining the precise position of the mating holes, and
after visually
checking it after insertion for
proper seating. A
high-level planning program, having interpreted the
instruction, would invoke the proper sequence of subroutines.
It is apparent that one can increase robotic intelligent behavior
indefinitely by storing more and
more knowledge of the world in computer memory, together with programmed sequences
of operations
required to make use of the stored knowledge. Such levels of intelligent
behavior, while attainable,
are still at the research stage but can probably be demonstrated in laboratories within five years.
24 DEVEU3PMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

3J Future Developments in Intelligent Robotic Systems

The development of intelligent robot systems is truly in its earliest stages The rapid growth of inexpensive
computer hardware and increases m software sophistication are stimulating developments in machine
intelligence, especially those to be applied usefully in commerce and industry General acceptance of
third-generation adaptive robot systems will lead to the widespread belief that much more intelligence
in our machines is not only possible but also highly desirable It is equally probable that
expectations
will be quite unrealistic, and exceed capabilities
The following sections examine some interesting aspects of machine (or “artificial”) intelligence

(AI) research relevant to future robotics systems

Sensors

Sensing and interpreting the environment are key elements in intelligent adaptive robotic behavior
(as m human behavior) Physicists, chemists, and engineers have provided us with a treasure of sensing
devices,many of which perform only in laboratories With modem solid-state techniques in packaging,
ruggedization, and miniatunzation. these sensors can be adapted for robot use in factones
Extracting relevant information from sensor signals and subsequent interpretation will be the function
of inexpensive high-performance computer processors We can expect that with these advanced sensors,
a robot will, in time, have the capability to detect, measure, and analyze data about its environment
considerably beyond unaided human capabilities, using both passive and active means for interaction
Sensory data will include many types of signals signals from the whole electromagnetic spectrum
from static magnetic fields to X-rays, acoustic signals ranging from subsonic to ultrasonic, measurements
of temperature, pressure, humidity, measurements of physical and chemical properties of materials
using many available spectroscopic techniques, detection of low<oncentration contaminants, electneal
signals denved from testing procedures (including physiological), and many more sensory modalities
One may expect that such sensors with their integrated computer processors will be made available
m modular form with standardized computer interfaces to be selected as optional equipment for robotic
systems

Knoy^ledge'Based (Expert) Systems

The technology of knowledge-based (expert) systems, typified by Stanford’s “Dendral,” “Mycm," and
SRI’s "Prospector" systems, has been develop^ sufficiently for near-term implementation in factones
In such systems, carefully selected facts and relations about a large body of specialized information/
knowledge in a well-defined restneted domain has been encoded with Ihe aid of one or more high-
level human experts in that domain A trained practitioner (but not necessanly an expert that m
domain) can access ihe encoded expertise in an interactive give-and-take interchange with the computer
program The program can include empirical rules, laws of physics, models of processes, tabled values,
and data bases of many types
It IS expected that expert systems will be highly useful for the factory-of-the-future at many levels

of the production process In CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufaclunng),

expert systems can aid the designer m selection of maienab, presentation of available purchased parts,
selection of mechanisms, analysis of stress and temperature distnbutions, methods of assembly and
details of many other manufacturing processes In particular, an expert system could be developed to
aid the designer and manufacturing engineer in the design of parts and assemblies destined to be
produced by robots, not by humans Relaxation of requirements for manual dextenty and for visual
scene analysis, for example, would greatly enhance Ihe performance of existing robot and sensor systems,
with their severely constrained sensory and manipulative capabilities Design of workpieces that are
easy to identify, inspect, handle, mate with other parts, and assemble requires a new form of expertise,
which, when acquired, can be transferred to a computer-based expert system
There are many other uses for expert systems in the total manufacturing process, such as in purchas-
ing, marketing, inventory control, line balancing, quality control, distnbulion and logistics, and others
It IS expected that many propnetary programs will be developed and be offered to the manufaclunng
community

Continuous Speech Recognition and Understanding

Word and phrase recognition systems with bmiled vocabulanes are available commercially today A
few systems can handle a few simple sentences In most instances, pnor “training” of the system is
required for each user Research is proceeding to develop a continuous speech recognition system
with an extended vocabulary and, if possible, speaker independence Such a system would depend
heavily on concurrent research in natural language processing systems
Even with only a moderately advanced phrase or sentence recognition system, an attractive on-
line programming method for “teaching” a robotic system is suggested The manipulative parts of
 25
robots and machine intelligence
joysticks, while the programmer “talks” to the computer
the task can be “taught” using a teach-box or
with instructions regarding interrupts, sensing, tests, branching,
communications, timing, setting accu-
rate positions,and so on. This combination will generate a complete program, which can be edited,
modified, and debugged on-line. No —
computer modeling is required the real world is its own model.
In future developments, special computer programs can be written that will optimize the performance
on-line, by the human.
of the robot system, given as input the relatively crude program generated,
The programming system outlined may have other attractive uses. Any advanced robot system
could be operated in teleoperator mode, that is, under continuous operator control, or under semiautono-
mous control, in which the operator sets up the robot system for some repetitive task and a subroutine
then takes over to complete the assigned task. In this mode a human can be time-shared, using the
robot system as a “slave” to do the dangerous or less intellectually demanding parts of a task.

Other Aspects of Machine Intelligence

The subfields ofproblem solving, planning, automatic programming and verification, learning, and,
in general, common-sense reasoning are all in the veiy early stages of development. They cannot
now be considered as viable near-term options for at least the next five years. Incremental advances
to enhance the intelligent behavior of our robotic systems will be incorporated at an accelerated pace
when a large number of third-generation adaptive systems are in place and functioning cost-effectively.
At that time, the conservative manufacturing community will have become accustomed to the notion
of machines that can adapt behavior according to conditions that cannot be precisely predetermined.
They will then be prepared to accept additional intelligent functions certain to result from accelerating
machine intelligence research programs now under way, worldwide.

Hybrid Teleoperator/Robot Systems for Services and Homes

developments and applications of robot systems have been considered primarily

In the foregoing sections
for themanufacturing industries. In the United States only 20% of the working populace of approxi-
mately 100 million people are engaged in manufacturing, about 4% in agriculture, about 5% in the
mining and extraction industries, and the remainder in the so-called service industries. The services
include military, construction, education, health and social, transportation and distribution, sales, fire
fighting, publicorder and security, financial, recreation, and white-collar support services. It is the
author’s considered opinion that adaptations and extensions of present robot/teleoperator systems will
be developed for service use within the next generation exceeding in number and total value all the
installations in factories. Further, one can also predict a mass market for robot/teleoperator systems
developed for use in the home. These will serve primarily as servants or aids to the aged and physically
disabled who have limited physical capabilities for activities, such as lifting, carrying, cleaning, and
other household chores. By the turn of this century it is estimated that well over 15% of the total
U.S. populace will be in this class (approximately 35 million individuals).
At present fully autonomous robots cannot cope with the more difficult environmental conditions
in the relatively unstructured home or outdoors. Common-sense reasoning capabilities would have to
be developed for a “self-acting” robot. However, a partially controlled robot (hybrid teleoperator/
robot) can be developed within the present state of the art that would be economically viable for the
majority of these service tasks. Most of the intelligence would be supplied by the human operator
with the most modem “user friendly” interfaces to control the physical motion and manipulation of
the robot, using switches, joysticks, and spoken word and phrase input devices. Subroutines controlling
often-used manipulative procedures would be called up by the operator, to be implemented autonomously
by the robot/teleoperator, fitted with available sensors. Seldom-occurring tasks would be performed
by the operator effecting step-by-step control of the robot system in the same manner that present
industrial robots are “trained” using a “teach-box.” A
specialized procedure could be stored and
called up as needed. In short, dangerous, arduous, and repetitive physical manipulation of objects
and control of simple manipulative actions would be performed by our new “slaves”; the target of
these “slaves” will be progressively to minimize human detailed control as we learn to improve our
robot systems.
One can debate making possible the cost-effective elimination of many
the social desirability of
manual tasks. There doubt that in our free-market system the development of such systems
is little

cannot be prevented, only slowed down. The thrust toward the implementation of these technologies
is worldwide, and international competition will guarantee
that these new systems will be made available.
When the market for specialized robot systems approaches the size of the automotive industry,
the price for a teleoperator/robot system will be comparable to (or less than)
that of a car, which
has evolved into a comparatively far more complicated system demonstrating the
successful integration
of electronic, mechanical, thermodynamic, and many other technologies,
together with effective “user-
friendly” control.
For the home we can visualize a small mobile vehicle fitted with a relatively slow-moving
arm
and hand, visual and force/tactile sensors, controlled by joysticks and speech,
with a number of accesso-
 DE\f.U)PMi>T OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

r>rt cUmiRf. »nd other mamrulatt'c taskv Htjh *p«^l *nd preciwon
f.x cjfTjtnj ofcjcctt.
•nukJ M S; t>rtdv»r> It would be ill-electnc. clean, and tafe to operate Its on-bcurd minicomputer
could Nr used for purposes other than fat controlling the robof/teleoperator. for eiample. for recreation,
record lecpirj. and lecunty It would be particuiarl) useful for the aged and handicapped but would
nc< te l.mted to these groups Prosiding a scrsatile asuslani for those with reduced strength and
other physical diuSlities apv«ars to be an effcctise substitute for eapensise lise-in or sssiling household
help and care
There are many oppesrt unities for iniroduongieleoperalor/robot systems for military and commercial
sersve The U S Army has iniluied a program for deseloping matcnal handling systems for support
serswes and is studying ihnr potentui use under battle conditions. Both wheeled and legged mi^itc
roNn systems are under dcselopmeni Teleoperatof/robol systems could be cffectisely used in the
construction and agncultural indusinev ApplicalioRs in space, deep seas, mining, and in the Arctic
are being ctplorcd A host of other commercial applications appear feasible, including loading and
unbiading (rucks. 6re fighting, handling dangerous and notious chemicals, painting and cleaning struc-
tures and buildings (outdoors), road maintenance, and so on These will require more eipensise and
sophisticaled machines, probably specialized for the pariicuiar applications, and ranging widely in
sire, load handling capaaty. precision, and speed FiRally, there are more imaginative applications
that will be addressed the hobby market, game playing, dynamic shop-window displays, science fiction
movies, choreographed robots for modem dance, and others.

3.4. SUM.MARV
After 23 years of laboratory researchand development, machine intelligence technology ts being exploited
to a small but rapidly growing degree irv manufacturing, pnmanly applied to improving the adaptability
of roNvis through the use of senvsrs. Lxpert systems, planning and advanced programming languages
(including natural language) will provide significant improvements within the next 3-10 years Mybnd
leleoperaior/roboi systems will be developed for the service indusines and ultimately may constitute
the largest market for “smart" robots Wc are now in a iransiiion between the solid-state revolution
and (he information age By early in the iweniy-firsi century we can anticipate enjoying the era of
the intelligeni/mechanical slave
PART 2
MECHANICAL DESIGN
OF ROBOTS
 CHAPTER 4
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
WARREN P. SEERING
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

VICTOR SCHEINMAN
Automatix, Inc.
Billerica, Massachusetts

4.1. THE DESIGN PROCESS

The mechanical design of an industrial robot requires application of engineering expertise in a variety
of areas. Important disciplines include machine design, structures design, and mechanical, control,
and electrical engineering. Traditionally, robot design decisions have been based largely on use of
simple design specifications relating to number of joints, size, load capacity, and speed. Robots have
been designed not to perform specific tasks but to meet general performance criteria. Manipulator
bearings, shafts, links, and other structural elements are selected for strength and stiffness to produce
a manipulator meeting the work envelope and mechanical accuracy requirements. Motors are sized
to meet worst case or average case gravity and acceleration torques or loads. Gearing is specified to
meet gear tooth load limits in bending and surface stress. Bearings and shafts are selected and sized
for life under estimated loads and to meet structural requirements such as deflection limits and clearance
bores for cables or air lines. Links are sized to provide the required work range and to have a loaded
deflection well below the accuracy specification. Component selection is generally made by looking
through catalogs for appropriate components and by designing and building the manipulator around
available and appropriately priced standard hardware. This produces a manipulator with unpredictable
dynamic performance and, as a result, with uncertain performance specifications.
Early robots were designed with general motion capability under the assumption that they would
find the largest market if they could perform the widest variety of tasks. This flexibility proved to be
expensive in both cost and performance. Robots are now beginning to be designed with a specific set
of tasks in mind. Overall size, number of degrees of freedom, and basic configuration are determined
from task specifications for reach, work envelope, and reorientation requirements. Also considered
are types of motion requirements, such as controlled-path motion for arc welding, continuous-path
motion for spray painting, absolute positioning for CAM-based assembly, repeatability for materials
handling, and fine resolution for precise, real-time sensor-based motions.
This chapter presents a set of considerations for the mechanical designer setting out to design a
manipulator. It can also serve as a source of guidelines for use in evaluating an existing or evolving
design or a compilation of lists of features to be considered when selecting a commercially available
robot.
The and most important phase in the process of designing a robot is defining the range of
first

tasks for which the robot is to be built. This range of tasks should be specified as carefully as possible
so that detailed manipulator properties and feature specifications may be developed. No single robot
configuration will perform well on tasks of widely vaiying description. Therefore a robot should be
designed to have only the flexibility it needs to perform the range of tasks for which it is intended.
This range of tasks must be selected even though it may be difficult to do so. (See more in Chapter

29
JO MEaiAMCAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS
AU dcsijT> dtcuions be tnade based this choice of tasWs. Several alteroauvc configurations
on
should be considered m
detail before one is chosen This detailed consideration includes sizing of the
most imponant s)-stem components and cvaliuiion of d>'Tumic system performance. On the basis of
these evaluations the design configuration best suited to the tasks to be performed should be chosen
Before detailed drawings are started it is useful to check out the d«ign by building a very simple
mockup This allows Che designer to discover and solve problems associated with system geometry,
structural mtegniy, cabling, and workspace utilization
There are many possible paths through the maze of choices encountered dunng detailed design
of an industnal robot Often design specifications place conflicting demands on system components
The following sections discuss a number of important design considerations The first two discuss
s)-vlem specifications, and the neat four deal with system configuration The final sit are concerned
wiih s)-stem performance characteristics These twelve subsections are followed by a discussion of
detailed design consideration of the major mechanical systems components of a robot The final section
presents several algonihms for choosing robot actuators and transmission ratios

4J. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4,2.1. System Specifications

Range, Reach, and Work Envelope

Manipulator work envelope layouts must include considerations of regions of limited accessabilily
(not all degrees of freedom will be fully available throughout much, if not all, of the workspace)
These constraints arise from limned joint travel range, link lengths, the angles between ates, or a
combination of these Revolule joint manipulators generally work belter in the middle of their work
envelopes than at extremes Manipulator links and joint travel should be chosen to leave margins for
reorientations required because of changes of end effectors (tool offset angles and tool lengths will
usually alter the work envelope)

Load Capacity

Load capacity, a frequent robot specification, is closely coupled with acceleration and velocity perfor*
mance In the case of assembly robots, acceleration and structural stiffness are more important design
parameters than peak velocity or maximum load capacity, as minimizing small motion times is generally
a top pnonty In ihe case of arc welding, where slow-sp^ coiUroUed*path motion is required, velocity
Jitter and path-following accuracy are imponani L<»d capacity should be seen as a variable It is

wise to design and specify a manipulator in terms of useful load capacity as a function of performance
rather than just in terms of maximum capaoiy Choice of load specification must take into account
load inertia and effective gravity and oscillation torque loads seen at the gnp points These factors
strongly affect wnst and gnpper design and drive selection In general, load capacity is more a function
ofmanipulator acceleration and peak wnst torque than any other factor The load also affects manipulator
static structural deflection, steady-state motor torque, system natural frequency, damping, and the
choice of senosysiem control gains for slabiliiy

System Configuration

Joint Configuration

Manipubior configuration is determined by motion, conirol, e^tacle avoidance, and structural require-
ments Cartesian manipulators (with or without revolute wnst ax«) have the simplwl transform and
control equation solutions Their pnsmaiic (straight-line motion), orthogonal axes make it easy and
quick to compute desired positions of the links for any gnpper orientation Because their major motion
axes do not d) namically couple (to a first order). Ibeir control equations are also simplified Manipulators
with all revolute joints are generally harder to control, but they feature less physical structure for a
given working volume It is generally easier to design and build a good revolute joint than a long-
motion pnsmatic joint The workspacesofrevolutejointtnampulators can easily overlap for coordinated
multurm laskv
Final selection of the configuration should capitalize on specific kinematic or structural features
For example, a requiremeni for a very precise vertical siraight-Ime motion may dictate the choice of
a simple pnsmatic vertical axis rather than two or three revolute joints requinng coordinated control

\umber of Degrees of Freedom

Although 6 degrees of freedom (DF) are the fnimmum required to place Ihe lip of a manipulator at
any arbitrary location within its accessible workspace, most simple or preplanned tasks can be performed
mechanical design of an industrial robot 31

with less than

6 DF
either because they can be set up carefully to eliminate certain axis motions, or

),ecause the
tool or task does not require full specification of location. Generally, adding increases DF
time and reduces
load capacity and accuracy for a given manipulator configuration and drive
cycle

system.

Joint Travel
Range

joint configurations, the shoulder and elbow joints determine the gross volume of the
For revolute
work envelope. The wrist joints generally determine the orientation range about a location within
thiswork envelope. Larger joint travel may increase the number of possible manipulator configurations
that will reach. a particular location, permitting more alternative access envelopes. This is a useful

feature when working in confined spaces or in the presence of obstacles. Wrist joint travel in excess
of 360 degrees
and up to 720 degrees can be useful for situations requiring controUed-path (e.g.,
straight-line) motion, or synchronized motion such as conveyor tracking. Continuous last-joint rotation
is desirable
in certain cases like loading or unloading a rotating machine or mating threaded parts.

Drive Configuration

Typically, a manipulator joint will consist of at least four major components: the mechanical power
source, the joint position feedback device, the transmission, and the joint axis structure. Selection of

these individual components is discussed in later sections. Depending on the sample rates and bandwidth
of the controller, a tachometer may be a useful addition. Typical sample frequencies for a digital
joint servo with just an encoder in the feedback loop are
200-2000 samples per second. By adding a
tachometer and analog velocity loop, smooth motions may be obtained with position sample rates as
low as five per second. Smaller manipulators generally require higher sample rates to be compatible
with their higher structural natural frequencies, and shorter electrical and mechanical time constants.
In low-performance manipulators (less than 0.5 g load acceleration), system inertia is not as important

as gravity torques. Here compensation for gravity torques through counterbalancing (by mass, springs,

or air pressure) can help performance. In high-performance manipulators, system inertia becomes

increasingly important. Placement of heavy drives and joints close to the first rotation or motion

axis reduces system inertia and can improve performance. Here, the trade-off between drives at the

joints with high inertia and high stiffness, and long transmission-link drives with low inertia and low

stiffness becomes important. This choice dictates the major physical characteristics of a manipulator

design.

4.2,3, System Performance

System Velocity

Maximum joint velocity (angular or linear) is not an independent value. It is usually limited by servo
bus voltage or maximum allowable motor speed. For manipulators with high accelerations, even small
point-to-point motions may be velocity limited. For low-acceleration arms, only gross motions will
be velocity limited. A general design guideline is that most motions should be performed with the
system at its velocity limit part of the time. A more detailed discussion of design with velocity limits
is presented in a later section.

System Acceleration

In mostmodem manipulators, because the payload mass is small when compared with the manipulator
mass, more power is spent accelerating the manipulator than the load. Acceleration affects gross motion
time as well as cycle time
(gross motion time plus nulling or settling time). Manipulators capable of
greater acceleration tend
to be stiffer manipulators. In high-performance arms, acceleration is a more
important design parameter than velocity or load capacity.

Repeatability

^is spaification indicates

the ability of the manipulator to return repeatedly to the same position.
Depending on the method
of teaching or programming the manipulator, most manufacturers intend
tbis figure
to indicate the radius of
a sphere enclosing the set of locations to which the arm returns
w en sent from the
same location by the same program with the same load and setup conditions.
's sphere may not include the target point because calculation round-off errors, simplified calibration,
precision limitations,
and differences during the teaching and execution modes can cause significantly
^rger errors
than those just due to friction, unresolved joint and drive backlash, fixed servo gain,
structural and
mechanical assembly clearances and play. The designer must seriously consider
e real
meaning of the repeatability specification required. Repeatability is important when performing
32 ^^ECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

precisely repetitive tasks such as blind assembly or machine loading Typical repeatability specifications
are from ±2 mm for large spot-welding robots to ±D00S mm for very precise micropositionen

Resolution

This specification represents the smallest incremental motion that can be produced by the manipulator
Resolution is important in sensor-controlled robot motion and m
fine positioning Although most

manufacturers calculate system resdution from resolution of encoders, resolvers, or analog to digital
converters, or from motor step siae, this calculation is misleading because system fnction, windup,
backlash, and kinematic configuration adversely affect system resolution Typical encoder or resolver
resolution is 2” to 2” counts for full axis or joint travel, but actual resolution may vary from one
part m2'“ to 2'* for revolutc joints and 0 2 mm
to 0 002 mm
for pnsmatic joints The useful resolution
of a multijomt senal-link manipulator is somewhat poorer than that of the individual joints

Accuracy

This specification covers the ability of a robot to position its end effector at a preprogrammed location
in space Usually a coordinate transformation is assumed between world and joint coordinates The
precision of this positioning is a function of the precision of the arm model in the computer (joint
type, link lengths, angles between joints, any accounting for link or joint deflections under load, etc ),
the precision of the world, toot, and future model, and the completeness and accuracy of the arm
solution routine Although most higher-level robot programming languages support arm solutions,
for computation speed they all use simplified solutions and model only ideal kinematic configurations
Thus manipulator accuracy becomes a matter of matching the robot geometry to the robot solution
in use by precisely measunng, calibrating, and adjusting link lengths, joint angles, and mounting
positions Robot accuracy is important in the performance of nonrepeiitive types of tasks programmed
from a data base, or for taught casks (hat have been remapped or offset owing to measured changes
in the installation Typical accuracies for manipulators range from ±100 mm for noncalibrated manipula-
tors that have poor computer models to 0 01± mm
for machine-tooMike manipulators that have
simple accurate models and solutions and precisely manufactured and measured kinematic elements

Component Ltfe and Duty Cycle

The three subassemblies in an eleccncally powered robot with the greatest failure problems are motor

million full bidirectional cyclesLarge-moiion cycle life (greater than S0% of fUll joint range) should
be typically 1 to 20 million cycles Mean time between failures should be a minimum of 2000 hours
on and ideally at least 5000 operating hours should pass between major component preventive
line,
maintenance replacement schedules
Most manipulators have individual motion-cycle times which are a small percentage of their motor
thermal time constants Short-term peak performance is frequently limited by maximum gear stress,
whereas long-term (continuous) performance is limited by motor heating Rather than design for equal
levels of short- and long-term performance, cost savings and performance improvements can result
from designing for an anticipated duty cycle This allows the use of smaller motors and amplifiers
than might be required for a 100% duty cycle robot Temperature sensors can be used to sense excessive
duly cycle conditions
In the coune of operation, unforeseen or unexpected situations may occasionally result in a crash
involving the manipulator, its tools, the workpiece, or other objects m
the workplace These accidents
may result in no, little, or extensive damage, depending in large part on the design of the manipulator
Crash-resistant design options should be considered early in the design process if the time or money
cost of such accidents is significant Typical damage due to accidents include fracture or shear failures
of gear teeth or shafts, dented or bent link structures, slipping of gears or pulleys on shafts, cut or
severely abraded or deformed wires, cables or hoses, and broken connectors, fittings, or limit stops
or switches

4.3. DETAILED DESIGN OF MAJOR COMPONENTS

4.3.1. Robot Structures

Although all robot structures are flexible to a degree, some arc substantially more flexible than others
Only two structural types, flexible and ngid, are considered here Rigid structures are defined as those
for which both the kinematic solution and the control algonthms assume all links to be ngid Most
commercially available robot arms are of this type Control of these ngid manipulators assumes that
mechanical design of an industrial robot 33

there is no structural deflection, whereas in fact, for certain loading conditions, system deflections
can be significant and will result in decreased accuracy.
Some robots have a gravity produced deflection term in their control algorithms. Others employ
strain-sensors to measure end-point loads and deflections. These “semirigid” manipulators assume small
structural deflection resulting from gravitational load and provide linear corrections to improve accuracy.
For robots with flexible structures, the control algorithms are designed to control the flexibility
as well as the gross motion. In general, flexible arms are only found in laboratory and special application
settings. Flexibility of commercially available “rigid” arms can dramatically affect their controllability.
Control of manipulators is discussed at length in Part 3 of this handbook.
The most important performance characteristics for robot structures are stiffness in bending and
in torsion. The two most common types of structures for robot manipulator arms are monocoque or

shell structures and beam structures. Although the monocoque structures have lower weight or higher
strength-to-weight ratios, they are more expensive and generally more difficult to manufacture. Cast,
extruded, or machined hollow-beam-based structures, though not as structurally efficient as pure mono-
coque designs, are the more cost-effective.
An important structural design consideration is the choice of method of manufacturing. Typical
designs include bolted, welded assemblies, and epoxied assemblies of cast elements. Although bolted
assembly is straightforward, inexpensive, and easily maintained, there are associated problems including
creep and hysteresis at the bolted connections and dimension changes resulting from assembly and
disassembly. Welded and cast structures are much less susceptible to creep and hysteresis deformation;
however, in many cases they require secondary manufacturing operations such as thermal stress relieving
and finish machining.The typical minimum wall thickness for sand castings is 5.0 mm. This is generally
thicker than strength specifications would require. Thinner walls can be obtained through the use of
plaster-mold casting, die casting, or investment casting; however, these processes are more expensive
for small volumes. Minimal wall thickness of monocoque structures is often specified for resistance
to puncture or denting, rather than just for strength.
Today aluminum and steel are the most common materials for robot structures. However, thermo-
plastics and glass or carbon-fiber reinforced plastics are beginning to be used. For large production
runs, plastic structured arms can be significantly less expensive. To decrease weight in aluminum
and steel arms, one can either taper the wall thickness or configure the gross dimensions so the links
become smaller at the end' closest to the payload.
Integration of the structure with the joint mechanisms and power train hardware poses a design
challenge. Positioning of bearings for transmission elements is extremely important, as deformation
in the joint at the bearing housings can adversely affect precision by reducing preload and allowing
backlash or free play. Inadequate structural stiffness can also adversely affect overall manipulator
precision by allowing changes in gear center spacing, excessive shaft windup, or binding caused by
large drive forces and torques.
A consideration in the design of robot structures is the effect of workplace and drive- and actuator-
produced temperature variations. Of the most commonly used materials, steel structures have the
best (i.e., least) response to thermal changes. Although change in dimension as a function of temperature
is a problem, more serious is the issue of compatibility of thermal expansion coefficients among various

elements of the robot. For example, steel structures make better housings for steel bearings, and they
will maintain center distances on steel gears where aluminum structures will not. Because the robot

is often not mounted to the same base as the workpiece, the dimensional stability of the entire robot

and workplace system must be carefully considered. Another important consideration is structural
distortion caused by localized heating from motors, transmissions, electronics, and workpieces. The
designer must carefully choose the location and mounting method of these elements to minimize the
resultant problems. Thermal and loading effects on plastic structures vary significantly, depending on
the type of plastic and manufacturing method chosen.

4.3.2. Robot Joints

Robot joints can be catagorized generally as either prismatic or revolute joints. Other types, such as
spherical or universal joints, are not discussed separately here as they are generally implemented as
combinations of the two primary classes.
There are two basic types of prismatic or linear motion joints: single-stage and multiple-stage or
telescoping joints. Single-stage joints are made up of a moving surface that slides linearly
along a
fixed surface. Multiple-stage joints are actually sets of nested or stacked
single-stage joints. Single-
stage joints feature simplicity and high stiffness, whereas the primary advantage
of telescoping joints
IS their retracted-state
compactness and large extension ratio. Telescoping joints have a lower joint
inertia for some motions because part of the joint may remain stationary.

The primary functions of bearings in prismatic joints are to facilitate motion in a single direction
and to prevent motion in all other directions, both linear and rotational.
Preventing these unwanted
motions poses the more challenging design problem. Deformations in the structure
can significantly
affect bearing surface configuration,
which affects performance. In severe cases, roller deflection under
34 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

load cause binding, which precludes motion For high-precision prismatic joints, ways must be
may
made straight over long distances The required precision grinding on multiple surfaces can be expensive
Expensive and bulky covers are required to shield and seal a prismatic bearing and way
The primary entenon for evaluating prismatic joints is the stiffness-to-weight ratio Achievmg a
good stiffness-to-weight ratio requires the use of hollow structure for the moving elements rather
than solid rods Bearing spacing is extremely important in design for stiffness If spacing is too short,
system stiffness will be inadequate no matter how great the bearing stiffness Major causes for failure
in prismatic joints are foreign particle contamination and Bnnelling of the
ways caused by excessive
ball loading and by shock loads Excessive preload can also lead to Bnnell failure The large exposed
precision surfaces in most prismatic joints make them much more sensitive than revolute joints to
improper handling and environmental effects They are also significantly more difficult to manufacture,
properly assemble, and align
Common types of sliding elements for prismatic motion are bronze or thermoplastic impregnated
bushings These bushings have the advantage of being low in cost, of having relatively high load
capacity and of working with nonhardened or supetiictaily hardened {t e chrome-plated) surfaces
,

Because the local or contact stress on the moving element is distnbuted and low this clement may
be made of thin tubing Another type of bushing in common use is the ball bushing Ball bushings
have the advantages of lower fnction and greater precision than plain bushings However, they require
that the contacting surface of the joint be through or case hardened (generally to R* 55 or greater)
and of sufficient case and wall thickness to support the point ball loads and resulting high contact
stresses
Ball slides are also commonly used in robot prismatic joints The distinction between ball bushings
and ball slides is that ball bushings operate on cylindrical surfaces whereas ball slides operate on
ground ways of various configurations There are two basic categones of ball slides, recirculating and
nonrecirculating Nonrecirculating ball slides are used pnmanly for light load or short travel applications
They and very low fnction at the expense of being quite sensitive to shock
feature high precision
and poor at accommodating moment loading Recirculating ball slides are somewhat less
relatively
precise but can carry higher loads than nonreorculating ball slides They can also be set up to carry
relatively large moment loads For a given way length, the travel is greater for a recirculating ball
slide than for a nonrecirculating ball slide
Another common type of pnsmatic robot joint is made up of cam followers or ball or roller
beanngs rolling on extruded, drawn, machined, or ground surfaces Both needle and roller beanngs
are in common use as cam followers, the ball beanngs are less common In high-load applications
the way surfaces must be hardened before they are finish ground Cam followers generally appear in
pnsmatic joints in sets of d to 16 units They can be purchased with eccentnc mounting shafts which
facilitate setup and adjustment
Two less common types of linear or pnsmatic joints are flexures and air beanngs Flexures, joints
whose motions result from elastic bending deformations of beam support elements, are used pnmanly
for small quasi-linear motions Air beanngs for prease motion require smooth surfaces and close
control of tolerances Less precise air beanngs can use machined or even cast surfaces, however such
practice results in large clearances which cause low stiffness and result in large air flows Multiple
air pads or separate ball or roller beanngs on ways are generally used to handle moment loads
Revolute (rotary motion) joints are designed to allow pure rotation while minimizing radial and
axial motions There are many design issues to be considered when designing a rcvolute joint The
most important measure of the quality of a revolute joint is its stiffness or resistance to all undesired
motion Key factors to be considered in design for stiffness are beanng shaft, housing and diameters,
clearances and tolerances, mounting configuration of the beanngs, and implementation of proper beanng
preloading Beanng size is not always based on load-carrying capacity, rather, the beanng chosen
often will be the smallest one that is stiff enough in both bending and torsion to give desired system
stiffness that will fit on the shaft Because joint shafts will frequently be lorquc-transmitting members,
they must be designed both for bending and torsional stiffness The first axis of the PUMA~ Robot
IS an example of such a joint

An important factor in maintaining stiffness in a revolute joint is choice of beanng-mount configura-

tion The interface between the mount and the structure is as important as the interface between the
mount and the beanng The mount and mounting arrangement must also be designed to accommodate
preloading of the beanngs Axial preloading of ball or tapered roller beanngs improves system accuracy
and stiffness by minimizing beanng radial and axial play Preloads can be achieved through the use
of selective assembly or spnng elements, shim spacers, or threaded collars

4.4.3. Actuators

The three most popular types of robotactuators are hydraulic, pneumatic, and electromagnetic Hydrau-
licactuators, chosen as power sources for the earliest mdustnal robots, offer very large force capability
and high powcr-to-weight ratios In a hydraulic system the power is provided mechanically from a
pump while ihe solenoid or servo control valve is dnven electncally from a lower-power control circuit
mechanical design of an industrial robot 35

The hydraulic power supply is bulky and energy inefficient, and cost of the proportional, fast-response
servo valve is high.
Pneumatic actuators are primarily found in simple manipulators. Typically they provide uncontrolled
motion between mechanical limit stops. These actuators provide good performance in point-to-point
motion, they are simple to control and are low in cost. Although a few small actuators may be run
with typical factory air supplies, extensive use of pneumatic-actuated robots will require the purchase
and installation of dedicated compressed air sources which may be expensive and are very energy
inefficient.

The most types of actuators in robots today are electromagnetic actuators, typically DC
common
motors. There are a wide variety of types of DC motors, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
The most common types of electromagnetic actuators for inexpensive robots are ste pper moto rs. These
motors provide open loop position and velocity control. They are relatively low in cost and they
interface easily to electronic drive cirucits. Recent developments in control systems have permitted
each stepper motor “step” to be divided into many incremental microsteps. As many as 10,000 or
more microsteps per revolution can be obtained. Motor magnetic stiffness, however, is lower at these
microstepping positions. Typically, stepper motors are run in an open loop configuration. In this mode
they are underdamped systems and are prone to vibration, which can be damped either mechanically
or through application of closed loop control algorithms. Power-to-weight ratios are lower for stepper
motors than for other types of electric motors. —
The permanent-magnet, direct-current, brush-commutated motor is widely available and comes in
many different types and configurations. The lowest-cost permanent-magnet motors are the ceramic
(ferrite) magnet motors. Motors with alnico magnets have higher energy product and produce higher

motor constants than equivalent sized motors with ceramic magnets. (Motor constant is defined as
torque produced divided by square root of power consumed.) Rare-earth (samarium-cobalt) motors
have the highest energy product magnets, and in general produce the largest peak torques because
they can accept large currents without demagnetization. However, these larger currents cause increased
brush wear and more rapid motor heating.
Another subset of DC permanent-magnet brush motors are ironless rotor motors. Typically these
motors have rotors made of copper conductors enclosed in epoxy glass cup or disk rotor structures.
The advantages of these motors include low inertia and negligible inductance, which reduces arcing,
extends brush life, and gives them short electrical and mechanical time constants. Because these motors
have no iron in the rotor they have very little residual magnetism and consequently very low cogging
torques. Disk-type motors have several advantages. They have short overall lengths, and because their
rotors have many commutation segments they produce a smooth output with low torque ripple. A
disadvantage of ironless armature motors is that they have a low thermal capacity due to low mass
and limited thermal paths to their case. As a result, they have rigid duty cycle limitations or require
forced-air cooling when driven at high-torque levels.
The weakest most motor designs are the bearings and brushes. Brushless DC motors,
links in
also classed as AC motors, have been developed. They substitute magnetic and optical
synchronous
switches and sensors and electronic switching circuitry for the graphite brushes and copper bar commuta-
tors, thus eliminating the friction, sparking, and wear of commutating parts. Brushless DC motors

generally have good performance at low cost because of the decreased complexity of the motor. However,
the controllers for these motors are more expensive because they must include all the switching circuitry.
There is a strong trend toward brushless DC motors because of their increased reliability and improved
thermal capacity. This improved thermal capacity occurs because in brushless motors the rotor is a
passive magnet and the wire windings are in the stator, giving them good thermal conductivity to
the motor case.

4.3.4. Transmissions

Many The purpose of the transmission is

types of transmission elements are in use in robot design.
to transmit mechanical power from a source to a load. Choice of transmission elements depends on
power requirements, the nature of the desired motion, and the placement of the power source with
respect to the joint. The primary considerations in transmission design are stiffness, efficiency, and
cost.

Gears are the most common transmission elements in robots today. Factors to consider in gear
dKign are material choice, choice of material surface treatment, and manufacturing precision. Consider-
ations in designing geared transmissions are gear ratio, type of gear, gear shaft support, control
of
center distances, and lubrication.
Spur gears are most commonly used for parallel axis transmissions or for prismatic motions in
the rack and pinion configuration. Spur gears have the advantage of producing minimum axial forces,
which minimizes the need for controlling play in the gear mount.
Helical gears are also used in robot transmissions. They have several specific advantages.
Because
gear reductions are often quite large in robot transmissions, lack of adequate
gear tooth contact ratio
can be a problem. For given gear ratios and gear sizes, helical gears have
higher contact ratios and
 36
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS
quieter The pnmary disadvantage to
as a result produce smoother output They also tend to be
helical gears is that they produce axul gear loads that
must be constrained to maintain drive stiffness
The Lmiticig factor mgear transmission stiffness is the stiffness of the gear teeth, each tooth acts
dunng the lime that it is loaded To maximize stiffness, the largest possible
as an clastic cantilever
next section
gear diameters should be chosen Choice of gear ratios is discussed in the
Rack and pinion transmissions are in common use in robots, particularly for long linear motions
in which the rack can be mounted to the structure so that the structure carries the loads applied by
the pinion Another common linear motion transimssion clement m
robot design is the ball screw
Ball screws feature high efficiency, moderate stiffness, and short leads which offer large mechancial
advantages Screws can be purchased both in precision (ground) and commercial (rolled) grades Preci-
sion ball screws are purchased with ball nuts as matching pairs They typically have lead accuracies
of better than one part in 50,000, whereas commercial grade screws have lead precisions of approximately
one part in 2,000 To obtain best possible accuracy and zero backlash, ball nuts arc used in preloaded
pairs Precision screws are preloaded withshim spacers, and nonuniformities in the system are absorbed
through elastic deformation of system components Commercial grade screws use elastic members
such as spnng washers located between preloaded nuts to take up small relative motions between the
nuts Vibration problems can result within this ball-nut-spnng system Problems can also occur as a
result of tonional vibration or windup tn the screw, particularly where long screw lengths are used
A common revolute joint transmission clement in robot design is the Harmonic Drive, a patented
unit (USM Corp ) These drives feature in-line parallel shafls and very high transmission ratios in
compact packages With selective assembly proc^urcs, near zero backlash harmonic dnves can be
produced Static fnction in these dnves is high, and manufactunng tolerances often result in cyclic
fnclion torque vanation called cogging
Power IS often transmitted in robots through torsion shafts or weight-saving torque tubes Transmit-
ting power at high angular velocities also minimizes required shaft diameter, wall thickness, and weight
Fatigue life is an important consideration, particularly if aluminum shafts are used
Several robot manufacturers use toothed positive drive belts as transmission elements They are
used pnmanly when low-cost power transtmsston is required over Urge distances, or as a simple
interface between (he motor and (he first stage of gear reduction Transmission ratios are limited
because there is generally a minimum pulley size ba^ on belt fatigue life Drive stiffness m a belt
transmission is a function of the belt material and bell tensioning system Belts conuming fine fibers
of matenals such as Kevlar which have high stiffness modulus to weight ratios, can be driven
around smaller pulleys because the Kevlar reinforcing bands themselves consist of flexible microscopic
fibers
A common transmission element in low-cost robots is the stranded cable or flat alloy steel band
These elements are easy to configure and repair and are relatively efllcient Stiffness in cables and
bands, as with stiffness in belts, is pnmanly a function of (he choice of matenal Chains are another
common transmission element They are relatively low tn cost and are good for high-toad applications
Problems with chains are weight and wear High preloads are required on chains to overcome the
effects of chain droop caused by weight This droop creates a reduction in system stiffness To minimize
droop in long sections of chains, solid or tubular push-pull rods are often substituted for lengths of
the chain The Unimation Unimate 2000 and 4000 and (he Hitachi "Process” robot both use push-
pull rods (hat connect chain segments (bat engage (he sprockets
Hydraulic lines are in fact transmission elements Heavy-wall rigid tubing provides relatively high
stiffness Flexible tubing is much more versatile but exacts a high stiffness penalty because the elastic
modulus of this tubing is small compared to that of the fluid Hydraulic systems can be used to
transmit power over long distances System performance is limited by fluid viscosity, pressure drop,
and time constant of the fluid lines
Linkages or linkage structures may be considered as transmission elements, although they are
often structural elements as well The key advantage to linkage elements is that they can be configured
to offer variable transmission ratios at different positions throughout their operaling range Though
the links tn linkage drives are usually quite stiff, the limitation of stiffness m
linkage systems is in
the beanngs and shafts that connect (he various links
The second important charactenstic tn evaluating transmission system performance is efficiency
Most robot transmission elements have good efficiencies when they are transmitting at or near their
rated power levels Transmissions with high static frKtion such as harmonic dnves with the low backlash
option or belt dnves with heavily preloaded beanngs and high belt pretension are not very efficient
at power transmission levels that are a small percentage of their rated limits Other important consider-
ations in choosing transmission elements are those tff system geometry, compactness, and simplicity
Planetary spur gears and harmonic dnves are among the most compact fomis of transmission elements
Positive-dnve belts, chains, and cable dnves are among the simplest and the easiest to manufacture

up proc '
1

Ball sc . ,
_
bands, cables, and chains consists of adjustment of tension idlers or of center distances Backlash in
mechanical design of an industrial robot 37

harmonic drives is controlled through selective assembly and adjustment of component spacing. The
setup of linkages involves length adjustment alignment and preloading of the pivot bearings.
The lubricant of choice in most robots is grease. Because configurations and orientations of the
joint vary, and because motion is intermittent and of relatively low speed, other lubricants would be
difficult to use,and grease serves adequately in most situations where transmission heating is not
severe.
Smoothness of the power transmission is another design consideration, especially where low-speed
motion is required such as in arc welding. Bands and linkages provide the smoothest drive. Ball
screws also provide smooth drives if they are clean and in good condition. Gears are not as smooth
as screws and belts, but in general they are smoother than chains and Harmonic Drives. Proper setup
is critical for smoothness of operation of gears.
In general, when large reduction be Harmonic
ratios are required, transmission elements of choice will
Drives, gears, or ball screws. For a low transmission rack and pinion drives, single-stage gearing,
ratio,

belts, cables, or chains may be used. Direct-drive systems, in which the power source is directly attached
to the joint, are also becoming increasingly attractive solutions.

4.3.5. Wiring and Routing of Cables and Hoses

Internal wiring of base and shoulder joints has never been a big problem because joints and structures
are large and access through the robot base is simple. Wiring of wrist joints is more difficult, but in
most cases careful planning can permit internal routing of cables. Selection of thin section bearings
and larger-diameter tubular shafts for joints provides stiffness, light weight, and room to pass cables
and hoses. Adequate flex lengths and coiling at joints as well as the use of high-strand and flat-
section wire or flex circuits is necessary. Supplying internal electrical power and signals or air lines
to end effectors is difficult on manipulators having three-axis wrists because their complex and compact
design leaves little flex and coil room for these lines. Many manufacturers choose to run these lines
outside the structure for ease in replacement and simplicity in design at the expense of the extra
length and of their getting in the way. Until end effector interface standards are developed, users
will probably end up adding their own extra external cables anyway.

For noise immunity most signal and power wires are shielded. A typical joint or servoed end
effector might have three or four shielded cable sets associated with if. encoder wires, motor wires,

tachometer wires, and travel limit and initialization switch wires. These are grouped and interfaced
to the controller through one to four multipin connectors mounted in the robot base.

4.4. ALGORITHMS FOR CHOOSING ACTUATORS

AND TRANSMISSION RATIOS
The choice of actuators and transmissions in high-performance machines and manipulators has a very
significant effect on the time required for a specified machine task. For systems operating with mechanical
constraints, such as limits on motor speed, designing for greatest achievable acceleration will not
always minimize move time. This section evaluates effects on performance of choices of actuators
and transmission mechanisms.

4.4.1. Maximum Acceleration in a System for a Given Amplitude of Actuator Effort

Proper choice of system transmission ratio is necessary to produce maximum system acceleration. A
typical 1 DF
mechanical system consists of a torque or force source, a transmission, and an inertial
load. One such system, a DC motor ball-screw system, is presented schematically in Figure 4.1. In

general the inertial load Af can represent a mass as in a prismatic joint or a rotary inertia as in a
rotating element. For systems with varying geometry, such as the PUMA™
robot, rotary inertia about
a given joint varies as a function of system orientation. Such systems should be designed to give
maximum acceleration at a position near the center of the workspace. For the model of Figure 4.1,
the torque source is assumed to have a rotary inertia / and to produce a torque T. The transmission
ratio r is defined as the ratio of transmission output velocity to input velocity. For a gear
transmission
system, r is the gear ratio defined as the ratio of output angular velocity to input angular velocity.
For the case of a ball-screw system, r is the lead or the ratio of output translational velocity to
input angular velocity in radians per second. For a rack and pinion system, r is also the ratio
of the
output translational velocity to the input angular velocity and is equal in magnitude to the radius
of
the pinion pitch circle.
For many high-performance applications, it is desirable to maximize system output acceleration
0- The equation of motion for the system in Figure 4. 1 is

(4.1)
38 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

A value can be found for r that mintmizes the quantity in brackets, thus maximizing acceleration
for a given actuator effort

or

(4 2)

In this equation r' is the transmission ratio that will yield the greatest system acceleration for a
given actuator elfort Note that substitution of r' for r in Eq (4 I) produces equal "impedance"
contributions for the rotary inertia and the moving mass This choice of r then gives an “impedance-
matched" system Figure 4 2 is a plot of versus r* The terms o* and r* are dimensionless parameters
defined as

(4 3)

(4 4)

where from Eq (4 1) with r ~ r'

T/VJ
(4 5)
2y/M

In Figure 4 2 o* is seen to be insensitive to small changes in r* near r = r' However, a* decreases

markedly with larger decreases in r* From Eq (4 5). peak system acceleration am„ is seen to be
proportional to T/\/7 Hence, assuming optimal transmission ratio selection, for a bigger motor to
yield a greater acceleration, the percentage increase in torque must be greater than the percentage
increase in Vj
Many systems, such as DC
servo motors with current amplifiers, can produce constant torque
output independent of angular velocity (within the maximum speed limit) For other systems, torque
IS a function of angular velocity w In these latter cases the transmission ratio calculated in Eq (4 2)

will give maximum achievable acceleration at all values of &> Peak acceleration will of course occur
at the value of a for which T is greatest

4.4.2. Effects of Changes in Driven Mass on System Performance

Let M = Me + Afp, sum

of the constant and payload masses Figure 4 3 shows the effect on
the
system performance of changes in Mp over a range of values of the transmission ratio r* Also plotted
IS a line of p>eak acceleration for variations in AIp/Mp This plot illustrates that optimal value for the
mechanical design of an industrial robot 39

Fig. 4.2. Achievable system acceleration as a function of lead choice; a* is normalized acceleration,
and r* is transmission ratio normalized about the optimum.

transmission ratio does not vary significantly through a range of small values for Mp/Mc. This is
fortunate as the transmission ratio for most systems is difficult to change during operation. Figure
4.3 also shows that for values of r* less than 0.4, system acceleration at a given torque is virtually
independent of Mp/Mp. This fact has led many system designers to choose low values of r* to simplify
the problem of system control. As can be seen from the figure, this choice imposes a substantial
performance penalty.

Fig. 4.3. The effect on system performance of increase in moving mass.

 40 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

4.4.3. Motor Selection for Maximum AcceUration

Equation (4 5) quantifies the dependence of system acceleration on system torque and inertia Assume
for the moment that Jt. the inertia of the transmission element, is small as compared with J„. the

inertia of the motor Equation (4 5) can be rewntten

~ (4 6)

for the case in which the optimal transmission ratio has been chosen
fn Figure 4 4 are plotted values of rotor inertia versus motor torque for several families of motors
ranging in size (and cost) over two orders magnitude Values for T and J„ were obtained from
manufacturers' catalogs From Eq (4 6), lines of constant can be plotted on the figure If
the moving mass of the system is known, the system acceleration produced by each of the motors
can be read directly from the chart For Figure 4 4a moving mass of 50 lb (23 kg) was chosen, and
constant acceleration lines were plotted for accelerations up to 6 G
The plot in Figure 4 4 reveals that for most families of motors, larger and mote expensive motors
do not produce significantly greater acceleration In fact, for brushless motors, the largest motor included
produces the lowest acceleration There is, however, an advantage to using larger motors Because
they have larger values of J, larger values of r' (see Eq (4 2)1 will be chosen for maximum acceleration
And for a larger chosen value of r', the peak velocity of the moving mass will be larger for a given
peak motor angular velocity
Once a transmission element for a system has been chosen and its rotary inertia J, determined, a
corrected value for system acceleration can be obtained from Figure 4 4 The addition of the inertia
J, simply shifts the location of the point representing the chosen motor upward to account for the
fact that the ordinate / is now uken to represent the sum of the inertias J, and Jm For a given
value of J„ system performance will be affected Jess for larger values of Jm
Correction of the value of J by inclusion of J, will increase the value of r' In certain cases, this
change in r\ because of limitations on transmission clement design, will necessitate a change in dimension
of a transmission clement, resulting m an increase in J, When this occurs, an iteration process must
be employed to establish optimal choices of Jt and r' It should be noted, however, that for transmission
elements such as ball screws, transmission ratios r' are only available in discrete increments This is
not a serious disadvantage, as from Figure 4 2 we again note that system performaTice is relatrvely
insensitive to small variations in r about the optimal value r = r'

Fig 4 4. Motor performance for vanous families of motors m systems with optimized lead Each
letter on the chart represents a commercially available motor T = torque, B = brushless, P = pancake,
A= air, H = hydraulic, R = rare earth
 mechanical design of an industrial robot 41

4.4.4. Motor Selection for a Given System

Many times the design engineer cannot specify all system parameters. Rather, the task may be to
specify a motor to drive an existing system. In this case Js, r, and M
are known, and the governing
system equation can be written

T= aciJu + aci (4.7)

where

Cl =- C2 = — + Mr
r r

This equation shows torque required to produce a given acceleration to be a linear function of motor
inertia.

Figure 4.5 gives constant acceleration lineson a plot of torque versus motor inertia. As can be
seen from Eq. a motor change to produce greater acceleration of the translating mass, increase
(4.7), for
in torque must be greater than (a/r) times the increase in Jm- Hence, as indicated in Figure 4.5, the

greater the initial value of a, the greater must be the change in T for a given change in Jm if system
acceleration is to be increased.

4.4.5. Determining Optimal Transmission Ratio for Velocity Limited Systems

Maximizing acceleration does not guarantee that a system will be time optimal for all moves. Top
speed (r times comai) may be reached in the minimum time, but choice of transmission ratio might
unnecessarily limit this top speed for a given allowable peak motor or transmission angular velocity.
Consider the velocity profile for one of the incremental moves shown in Figure 4.6. This move
could be produced by a DC servo motor that has constant torque but
speed limited to top speed is

(lima- Note that for r =

r' the slopes at the beginning and end of the move are steepest. The area

under the curve represents the distance traveled during the move. For the case in which the system
does not dwell at peak velocity, the transmission ratio that minimizes total move time is r = r'. If
the system dwells at top speed, r = r' is no longer the optimal ratio. Notice that for r less than r',
the slope of the velocity versus time line is decreased as is the top speed. Thus as r decreases from
r', the area under the curve willalways decrease for a move of fixed time duration. For r slightly

Motor inertia (oz-in.-s^)

Fig. 4.5.
Performance curves for motors in systems with fixed transmission ratios. Each letter on
the chart represents
a commercially available motor.
 42 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS
1
’00 1
i
^ 1 1

0 60 -

Tim«

Fig 4 6. Typical incremenial move velocity profiles

larger than r‘, the a/ea under fhe curve increases mb r Af some value of moreasarg f, tbt area
starts to decrease
For a typical move in which the system reaches peak velocity it can be shown that travel tune t,

IS

•OmnU + Mr*)
(4 8)
T
where d is the total move distance Taking ihe partial denvative of this equation with respect to
transmission ratio gives

2r^f^a„„ d
-s 0B ^
dr r «i>»..r*

or

where is the (ransnussion ratio that minimizes time required to perform a specified move d for
the case in which the system dwells af o» Wm,, =
Generally, computer-controlled robots do not have a fixed move distance Rather, they move through
a range of distances The transmission ratio of choice for a given system design is that which does
the best job of minimizing move time throughout the range of interest of moves Because optimal
lead IS proportional to the cube root of the move distance, a lead can be chosen that is close to
optimal for a fairly large range of move distances

4.5. SUMMARY
The mechanical design of a manipulator is an iferacive process involving evaluation and choice among
a large number of cngineenng and technical considerations in several disciplines The final design
should be based on a specific set of task requirements rather than on broad specification Properly
identifying and understanding these requirements is a key to meeting the design goals Design and
choice of specific components also involves Irade-oSs A
purely suiic, ngid-body approach to manipula-
tor design IS often us^ but is not always suffiaent Mechanical system stiffness, natural frequencies,
control system compatibility, and workpiece properties roust be considered Although certain detailed
mechanical design of an industrial robot 43

design decisions can be made through the application of straightforward algorithms, the multitude of
factors that must be considered transform the problem into one of good engineering judgment as
well.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.C. Motors, Speed Controls, Servo Systems, third edition, Electro-Craft Corporation, Hopkins, Minne-
sota.

Design and Application of Small Standardized Components, Stock Drive Products, New Hyde Park,
New York, 1983.
Glegg, Gordon L., The Design of Design, Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Metals Handbook, ninth edition, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1978.
Paul, R. P., Robot Manipulators: Mathematics, Programming and Control, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge,
MA, 1981.

Pieper, D. L., and Roth, B., The Kinematics of Manipulators under Computer Control, Proceedings
of the 2nd International Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanism, Vol. 2, 1969, pp.
159-168.

Roth, B., Performance Evaluation of Manipulators from a Kinematic Viewpoint, Performance Evaluation
of Programmable Robots and Manipulators, National Bureau of Standards Special Publication
459, pp. 39-62.
Seering, W. P., Directions in Robot Design, Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation
in Design, Vol. 1, March 1983.

Shigley, Joseph E., and Mitchell, Larry D., Mechanical Engineering Design, fourth edition, McGraw-
Hill, 1983.

Source Book on Gear Design Technology and Performance, American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, 1983.
Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Sunada, W., and Dubowsky, S., On the Dynamic Analysis and Behavior of Industrial Robotic Manipula-
tors with Elastic Members, Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design,
Vol. 1, March 1983.

Yang, D. C. H., and Lee, T. W., On the Workspace of Mechanical Manipulators, Journal of Mechanisms,
Transmissions, and Automation in Design, Vol. 1, March 1983.
 CHAPTER 5
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF
THE ROBOT SYSTEM
HANS J. WARNECKE
ROLF D. SCHRAFT
MARTIN C. WANNER
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufactunng
Engineenng and Automation
West Germany
Stuttgart,

5.1. THE STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

5.1.1. Kiflematics

The task of is to move a body (workpiece or tool) with a maximum of

an induscnat robot in general
6 degrees of freedom (DF) (three translations, three rotations) into another point and orientation
within the workspace The complexity of the task determines the required kinematic construction
Industrial robou according to VDI 286P are kinematic chains with several links and joints The
number of OFs of the system determines how many independently dnven and controlled axes are
needed to move a body in a defined way in space In the kinematic descnption of a robot we distinguish

Ana. An interconnected set of links and powered joints that support or move a wnst and hand
or end effector With the arm we have a one^imensional movement per axis One axis constitutes
a path, two axes a surface, three axes and more, a working space
Wrist. A set of joints between the arm and the hand that allow the hand to be onenled to the
workpiece The wnst is for onentation and small changes in position

Figure S I shows ihe following definitions

The reference system defines the base of the robot and also, m most cases, the zero position of
the axes and the wnst
The tool system descnbcs the position and onentation of a workpiece or tool with 6 DF {X. Y. Z
and X, B. C)
The robot (arm and wnst) is the Imk between reference and tool system

As far as axes are concerned we distinguish Ihe following

A rotatory axis is an assembly connecting two rigid members that enables one to rotate in relation
to the other around a fixed axis
A translatory axis is an assembly between two rigid members enabling one to have a linear motion
in contact with the other
A complex joint is an assembly between two closely related ngid members enabling one to rotate
in relation to the other about a mobiie axis

Figure 5.2 gives an overview of the symbols us«l in VDI 2861 and in this chapter The kinematic
chain can be combined by translatory and rotatory axes Complex joints are also possible Figure 5 3
shows an example of the preparation of a kinematic chain using the symbols and terms of VDI 2861
‘

44
 45
mechanical design of the robot system
Reference system Tool system

Fig. 5,1. Definition of coordinate systems for the handling task and the robot.

According to Reference 2 the number of possible variations of an industrial robot structure can be
determined as follows.

V = 6°^ V = number of variations

DF = number of degrees of freedom
These considerations show number of different chains can be built; for example, for
that a very large
six However, a large number are inappropriate for kinematic reasons.
axes 46656 chains are possible.
Figure 5.4 shows criteria and examples of inappropriate kinematic chains.
Further restrictions are given by the following facts:

Positioning accuracy decreases with the number of axes.

With the number of axes the computing time for continuous path control increases considerably.
Every additional axis produces additional costs (power train, brake, motor, measuring system,
control of the drive, memory).
Power transmission becomes more difficult as the number of axes increases.

Today the number of axes is normally have up to four principal arm

limited; industrial robots
axes and three wrist axes. Figure 5.5 shows the most important chains of today. With new developments
in the fieldof mechanical and controller design it can be expected that further kinematic chains will
enter the market with success.
With the selection of the kinematic chain important decisions are made regarding the kind of
robot control (CP, PTP) and the number of programmable axes.
Following Spur,^ Table 5.1 shows the functional relationship between the task, number of program-
mable axes, and robot control as function of the arrangement of the arm. This table points out some
fundamental problems in robot design; with translatory axes we have a complex mechanical hardware
(see Section 5.10) against a simple controller design. The opposite is true for robots with
rotatory
4« MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

System Symbol
|

Translatory axis

m
X Y Z
telesccpic
. .
j
T ranslatory axis
U . V , W
T ransverse
Rotatory axis
A B C A
Pivot
Rotatory axis
. .

Y
o o.

Hinge

Gripper <

Tool

Separation of arm and wrist 1 i 1

More than one independent Beginning (

chain in the robot system End )

Fig. 5.2 VDI-$ymbols for industnal robots

axes Therefore the selection of the kinematic chain is one of the most important decisions in the
mechanical and controller design process

5.1.2. Type of Installation

Industnal robots can also be distinguished by type of installation

1. With the floor installation the base plate is mounted on a foundation Depending on the construc-
tion, the basic unit contains cable distributor, energy supply, oil container, and so on
2. With the console installation the robot and working machine form one unit
3. Gantry installation is used when working space must remain accessible or certain operations
(e g gnpping into a high box, difficult welding operations) cannot be realized by the floor
,

installations Most common is the conversion of a floor installation robot into a gantry type
with additional translatory axes

IDOF C 2DOF C8 3DOF CBR <)DOF CBR/E 500F CBR/EP

I X
A
X
A X
^
fli'i
i
Fig. SJ. Creation of kinematic chains
 Orientation of
wrist not possible

Orientation only
possible with
large movements of
wrist and arm

Fig. 5.4. Undesirable kinematic chains: criteria and examples.

Fig. 5.5. Typical arm and wrist configurations of industrial robots.

47
 4. A new development is an industnal robot freely movable in one plane on the floor One such
development goes in the direction of a guided vehicle including robot, system control, and
magazine

From the foregoing systems many vananls can be denvcd Figure 5 6 gives an overview of the different
designs In any case the type of installation is related to the kinematic chain

5.2. TASK-RELATED DESIGN

In many cases production technology detennines the design of the robot system The most important
fields of application and their influence on the design are discussed in this section

5.2.1. Spray Painting

In spray painting the following cntena arc to be considered *

1. In most cases the surface of the workpiece complicated Spray painting must be earned
is
out at a certain angle to the surface TTicrefore a high degree of mobility of the kinematic
chain IS needed
2. Errors in the path comers lead lo overlaps (thickness of the layer) The same is true for
large variations In velocity

3. Since the robot is usually programmed by manual tracing of the desired path, it is essential
that only a low guiding power be needed within the whole working space

4. Conveyor tracking may be required

Spray-pamting robots should have an easy “teach in“ procedure and in most cases continuous path
control For safety reasons and to achieve high accelerations and decelerations, hydraulic dnve systems
are common An example is shown m Figure 5 7
 mobile robot gantry (overhead) installation

Fig. 5.6. Types of installations of industrial robots.

Fig. 5.7. Example of a spray-painting robot with six axes.

(Photo courtesy of AOIP-Kremlin.)

49
so MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

S^J. Spot Welding

In the design of robots for spot welding the followug requirements must be considered

1. High acceleration and decelerations

2. Mechanical mobility (as a rule at least five programmable axes)
3. Extreme reliability of the components
4. Spot welding is usually performed in a large working space and with high loads
5. It IS difficult to run the power supply to the working tool
6. Repeatability ^ mm 1 at visible seams, £ 3 mm at invisible seams
7. Often long and tall forearm owing to collision problems

Robots for spot welding should be designed for floor or gantry installation or both Figure 5 8 shows
a typical spot*welding robot

5.2.3. Arc Welding

The essential charactenstics for arc welding robots are the following

1 Processing of external sensor data is necessary

2. Forearm should swing m positive and negative direction (often difficult accessibility to welding
seams)
3. In most cases continuous path control is required Options like circular interpolation are useful
4. High welding velocities are to be realized
5. Often a swivelling workpiece positioner is needed
6. Programming comfort ts required in the compulation of dependences of welding current and
welding voltage, wire feeding, and welding velocity

In arc welding smaller units also have a high market share An example is shown in Figure 5 9 A
new trend proceeds m the direction of a transportable unit

5.2.4. Assembly

The requirements m assembly are essentially different from (hose of the previous technologies

1. The weights of workpieces in assembly are normally low (< I kg)

2. Very short cycle times
3. High positioning accuracy (< 0 I mm)
4. In most cases movements arc parallel to X. Y, Z, and there is small working space

Espccallfsn assembly^ c/ear direction in the devefopment ofindustnaf robots cannot yet be determined
Even m the long run, inexpensive "pick and place” units (pneumatic with one or two programmable

Fig. 5.8. Example of a spot*weIdmg robot with six axes (Photo courtesy of ASEA
 '

mechanical design of the robot system 51

Fig. 5.9. Example of an arc-welding robot. (Photo courtesy of Jungheinrich.)

axes) may keep an important share of the market. Robots with translatory axes are often used in
assembly as shown in Figure 5.10.

5.2.5. Workpiece Handling

The task of industrial robots for workpiece handling is to move workpieces from one point to another
with defined positions and orientations. The following kinds of applications can be distinguished:

I. Handling on presses.
(a) Very short cycle times.
(b) Special design, often cartesian coordinate robot.
(c) Conditions of installation and accessibility are to be considered in particular.
2 . Handling on forging presses.
(a) High speed and heavy workpieces.
(b) Robot must be resistant to dirt, heat, and CHOEnnnPjllfor'
(c) Floor installation recommended.
oasTO&ttSTV op /ooor
3. Handling on die casting and injection molding machines.
(a) Often gantry or console type installation. cSCO. Uo *'•9*#
*9a« c*^f ivct
I
4

nwsr

Fig. 5.10. Example of an assembly robot with three to six axes. (Photo courtesy of DEA-PRAGMA.)
 )

52 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

(b) Cycle times with injection molding machines are shorter than with die casting machines
(c) Very often simple movements lead to a simple programming language Changeover fre-
quency IS low
(d) High positioning accuracy
(e) Insensitive to heat and dirt

4. Handling on machine tools

(a) High positioning accuracy, short cycle times, and also quite often heavy workpieces
(b) Simple programming language owing to simple movements

Gantry-type or console-installed robots are often used in workpiece handling An example is shown
in Figure 5 11

5.3. ORGANIZATION AND STEPS IN DESIGN PROCEDURE

*
This section presents a general overview of the necessary steps in the design procedure

5.3.1. Organization

It is useful to separate exactly (he different fields of engineering and to define the links between the
different engineenng groups as early as possible A common solution is as follows

1. Group 1. Design of the mechanical system

(a) Selection of the kinematic chain, calculation of forces and moments
(b) Drive system, power tram, measunng systems (path, speed) and brakes
(c) Construction of the axes
(d) Passive sensor systems
2. Group 2. Robot control and language
(a) Development of the robot control, control of the drives, infonnation processing
(b) Operating systems and program interpreter, language development
(c) Interface to the mechanical system, external PC, and sensors

3. Group 3, Development of sensors and external data processing

5.3.2. Steps in the Design Procedure

The conception, development, and testing of the robot system require not only new ideas and experience
in the scientific field but also the ability to transform these into a methodical procedure At the starting

Fig. 5.11. Example of a gantry type workpiece-handlmg robot (Photo courtesy of DURR
mechanical design of the robot system 53

point of such a project it is useful to formulate clearly the sequence of all steps. The essential steps

for the mechanical system design are the following;

1. Analysis of the state of the art, the products of competitors, and possible gaps in the market.

2. Study of the market and setting up the requirements by worksite analysis and overall determina-
tion of important parameters of the production technology.

3. Setup of the performance specifications. Based on this step preparation of a net plan including
timetable.

4. Preparation of a sketch of overall designs. Selection by means of value analysis.

5.
10. Splitting the design into the components. Selection of possible solutions.
6. Combination of the components to an overall design. Calculation of the costs for alternatives.
and start of detailed design.
Selection of the basic design

7. Order of long-lead items and, parallel to that, testing important or newly introduced compo-
nents.

8. Performance testing of the complete system on a test stand. Correction of the faults. (See
alsoChapter 10.)
9. Working out a system for documentation and maintenance.
Start for production.

The following sections discuss these essential steps in the design procedure.

5.4, PROFILE OF THE REQUIREMENTS BY WORKSITE ANALYSIS

Usually the foundation for an analysis is the present worksite. The human worker together with the
already existing manufacturing system performs operations. The subject for the investigation is the
kind and frequency of these operations. A most useful approach was developed by Herrmann.®’^ This
procedure was tested in practical applications by some German companies and the IPA with success.
The principal steps are:

1. Detailed worksite analysis of the present system.

10.
2. Formulation and evaluation of alternative system solutions.
3. Analysis of requirements for the robot system, including peripheral devices.

Independent of the application the following data should be presented to the robot designers:

1. Number and weight of the workpieces to be handled.

2. Required movements in the working space.
3. Required working range, considering peripheral units.
4. Required positioning accuracy.
5. Changeover frequency of the production system.
6. Sensor function for recognition and quality control.
7. Gripper and tool options.
8. Kind of machining functions (e.g., drilling).

9. Peripheral units needed (e.g., vibratory hopper).

Careful examination of the production technology (see Section 5.2).

Experience has shown that more than 100 worksites should be investigated. Unfortunately this very
expensive and time-consuming research is completely ignored by many robot manufacturers.

5.5. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE ROBOT SYSTEM

The setup of performance specifications is the next logical step. These can be classified as follows:

1. Essential requirements which must be fulfilled in any case.

2. Minimum requirements (limiting values that must not be exceeded).
3. Desirable requests.

The following requirements, at least, should be established in the performance specifications before
the start of the design study:
54 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

1. The kind of motions and kinematic chain

2. Geometncal dimensions
3. Veloaties and accelerations refemng to the axes
4. Drive system and control
5. Positioning accuracy

Wth the increasing number of specifications the number of possible solutions decreases rapidly From
the engineenng point of view, this aspect is welcome in most cases

5.6. PREPARATION OF A SKETCH OVERALL DESIGN

It IS not useful to approach the overall design in too great detail because the large number of possible
solutions may lead m different directions The purpose of this section is to draw the mechanical designer's
attention to specific problems in this step

5.6.1. Geometrical Dexterity

Withm gcometnc dextenty descnbes the ability of the robot to achieve a wide
a given workspace the
range of onentations of the hand with the tool center point in a specified position, as described m
Jou and Waldron ’ Figure 5 12 shows as an example (after Jou and Waldron*) the workspace (outer
curve) of a three*link robot The hatched region is that reachable with the hand honzontally onented
The geometric dextenty is very important in practical application The designer has the choice to
compare different chains, indudmg their arm lengths, and to check the performance specifications

5.6.2. Kinematic Chain Suitable for Arithmetic Processor

With pomu of the kinematic chain the designer can give useful
the determination of intersection
contnbutions to the controller design team The axes should intersect in one plane, and the axes of
the wnst even in one point, to avoid unnecessary calculations in the forward and reverse calculation
process Other problems are singularity fields or ambiguous solutions in the coordinate transformation *

5.64. Farces and MoueDts oa the Robot Structure

For the designer of the robot structure it is most important to determine the forces and moments in
the joints as a function of the various kinematic chains and possible arm movements Two calculation
procedures are most common

1, Lagrange equations for systems of less than four joints * **

2 . Newion-Euler formulation for more general models

Fig. 5.12. Example of a geometric dextenty (After Jou and Waldron.*)

mechanical design of the robot system 55

Under certain assumptions it is possible to include friction in these models. These data must be
provided by measuring procedures. Depending on the kinematic chain and the type
of bearing, the

friction may become a factor well worth considering.

Another factor concerns the forces and moments as functions of the kinematic chain. Robots with
translatory axes have nearly independent movements of the single axes, which is not true for
rotatory

axes where coriolis, centripetal, and gravity terms lead to nonlinear couplings. The influence of these
parameters on the trailing error is described in Duelen and Wendt.*^

5.6.4. Selection of Material

The design of the arm includes an early decision about the materials used. The construction must be
stiff and light. At the moment, steel and aluminium alloy are challenged by fibrous
materials like
CFRP (carbon fiber).'* Positive properties of these new materials are:

High tensile strength.

High damping.
Low weight (one-fourth compared with steel, two-thirds compared with aluminium alloy).

On the negative side we should mention:

Reduction in strength due to temperature and humidity effects.

Considerable problems in molding complicated surfaces.

Difficult connection of the links.

Very high costs.

Taking these facts under review we must consider that with the use of the finite element method
considerable weight savings can be achieved; furthermore, only 30'50% of the total arm weight can
be affected by any of these weight-saving measures. We still need drives, gears, power transmission.
The use of fibrous materials should not be completely ruled out if the cost factor is declining considerably.

5.7. SPLITTING THE DESIGN INTO COMPONENTS

The selection of available components is an important step in the overall mechanical design.

5.7.1. Selection of the Drive System

The kind of drive system is a characteristic feature of the robot system including controller. We
distinguish:

1. Pneumatic Drive Systems. These are inexpensive, with a simple, robust construction and
low weight for fast movements. However, a closed positional control is difficult to realize.
The application range is for “pick and place” machines positioned by mechanical stops and
for short-stroke axes in assembly robots.
2. Hydraulic Drive Systems. These allow a high concentration of power within small dimensions
and weights, which is particularly advantageous for the wrist. Power train and transmission
are simple; furthermore, high accelerations can be realized. Major drawbacks are leakage losses,
the price for the hydraulic pump, friction, temperature changes, the high-input power, and,
under certain circumstances, the layout of the controller.
3. Electric Drive Systems. The most important advantages are the wide range of possible options
for speed control, the high reliability, and the simple reset after breakdown of energy.

The most important types of electric motors with their characteristics are the following:

1. DC-motor. A gear is necessary for high moments at low speed, also a measuring system
and position control. This drive system is often used for industrial robots. One disadvantage
is caused by the backlash in the power train. For a direct drive
without gear, high-torque
motors can be used. These systems are still in development, mainly for wrist axes.
2. Stepping Motor. This is controlled by providing in advance a certain number of path increments
for the desired position. It is inexpensive because no measuring system is needed. At high
56 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

moments and collisions with obstacles the stepping motor may lose steps Then feedback is
needed, and the pnce increases considerably
3 Three-Phase Motor Speed is conUolled by varying the frequency This is an expensive technol-
ogy, but there is no need of speed reduction

Figure 5 13 shows the control structure of the most ojmmonly used systems, the DC-motor with
gear and the stepping motor Electrical dnvc systems can be selected by the following cntena

1. Reliability of the total system

2. High starting torque

3. Low moment of inertia

4. Reduction of costs due to simphftcatton of the mechanical design
5. Low heat generation and reasonable dissipation of heat
6. Speed control

The arm dnves can be equipped with brakes for safely reasons

5.7.2. Selection of Path-Measuring System

Path-measunng systems are part of the mechanical construction and have the task to provide perma-
nently for each axis its position coordinate as a reference coordinate dunng the programming cycle
and as the actual coordinate for the position-control loop dunng the working cycle
Positioning accuracy is determined also by the resolution of ihe path-measunng systems These
are in close interaction with features of Ihe mechanical construction ihe ngidily of Ihe construction,
backlash, and reverse error should be related to Ihe resolution and lineanty of the path-measunng
system We distinguish translatory (potentiometer, ultrasound) and rotatory systems (resolver, absolute
optical encoder, and incremental encoder) The possibilities of the construction with the dnve systems
are as follows

1, on the robot axes Translatory movements of axes are often transformed

Directly to rotatory
movements of the path-measunng system
2. Indirectly, asbackup of the dnve system (example in Figure S 13) Backlash and reversal
error may be compensated

Common path-measunng systems are explained in Table 5 2

DC SERVO DRIVE STEPPING MOTOR

control loc^ position

Fig. 5.13 DC-Motor dnve systems and control

SYSTEMS

-ivm/\auKXiNG

57
 )

59
60 ^tECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

5.7J. Power Transmission Systems

The following arc typical tasks for power transmission systems

1. Transmission of movement Iransbtion to rotation (T/R) or rotation to translation

(R/n
2. Speed reduction Rotation to rotation (R/R), translation to translation (T/T), (R/T) and
CT/R)

Depending on the kind of application, the following cntena should be considered

1. High transmission ratio with low moments of inertia and size

2. Low beanng clearance and reversal error

3 Weight
4 Long useful life and easy maintenance
5. Power transmission at distance, movability

Table 5 3 shows the most commonly used power transmission systems with their essential characteristics
and fields of application

5.7.4. Bearings

In general bearings and guideways are under high loading For rotatory ases tapered roller bearings
or shoulder bearings are used presiressed tn asial direction Warping should be earned out by means
of screws dunng the assembly
The aim of low beanng clearance is (o keep positioning, reversal, and trailing error as low as
possible The influence and measunng procedure of these errors are desenbed m Chapter 10

5.7.5. Couplings

Unsuited couplings can create senous problems In the selection of possible components we should
review the following requirements

Fig 5.14 Power transmission oimponenls with minimum backlash

 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE ROBOT SYSTEM 61

moto.)

1. Keep the reversal error as low as possible.

2. Construct with low weight and restrict the technical expenditure.

3. Reduce vibration and overload in the drives.

4. Keep the system free of maintenance.

According to Hashimoto*® the following components are in common use:

1. ETB-Bush. These are applied for smaller forces with a possible misalignment between shaft
and hub. The bush is put onto the shaft. By means of a flange the medium of pressure lies
against the hub with constant pressure. A high torsional moment is possible.

2. CENTAFLEX-Coupllng. It is possible that thermal expansion and deformation of the bearings

may cause canting in the connection of two shafts. This leads to increased friction in the

Fig. 5.16. Application of HELICAL coupling in a drive system with stepping motor. (After
T. Hashi-
moto.)
62 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

beanngs One solution is an interconneclion with a CENTAFLEX-couplmg, which is compliant

in axial and radial direction and very ngid in torsion

3. HELICAL-Coupling. With changing moments and oscillating vibrations in the system u is

useful to interconnect a torsion spring between the dnve and the path-measunng systems
The HELICAL-coopling is able to transmit a regular rotation at a very high speed without
reversal error

Figure 5 14 shows the descnbed components of power transmission with their most important

an assembly robot of the SCARA family It connects the stepping motor with the toothed belt for
onentation of the hand axis The mam problem here is the transfer function of the belt dnve

S.S. COMBINATIONS OF THE COMPONENTS TO AN OVERALL DESIGN

After preparation of sketch overall designs and evaluation of (he components we must calculate the
hardware costs for the different solutions which arc technically on the same level After the selection
of the most promising alternative for the performance specifications we start the detailed overall design
Here it is possible to split the procedure into design for wnst and for arm For the wnst the
following parameters should be taken into account

1. Number of degrees of freedom, possibility of additional axes, gnpper options

2. Points of intersection for the wnst Avoidance of unnecessary transformation for the robot
control
3. Movabihty of the wnst and gnpper Coordination with the arm
4. Type of power transmission and guidance through the axes
5 Arrangement of the dnve system
6 Outdance of the energy supply and signal lines

7. Accessibility for maintenance

A wnst with one or two axes is far less prone to problems than a three-axes wnst
For the arm we must consider the following

I. Relation of bcanng clearance, backlash, faction, and wear in the dnve systems to the stiffness
of the axes

Fig. 5.17. General of the Hitachi “Process Robot’* with the power transmission system
 63
mechanical design of the robot system

2. Actual utilizable working space for the arm, including wrist and gripper.
3. The checking of the possibilities of active and passive counterbalance.
4. Arrangement of the drive systems.
5. Guidance of the energy supply.

As a case study we discuss in detail the overall design of the Hitachi “Process Robot.” One major
requirement was the need to keep the orientation of the wrist in all positions in the workspace by
mechanical means. The aim was to simplify the robot control and increase the speed in CP-mode.
Figure 5.17 shows the design concept. Here the rotatory axis C (1) is located in the base. The
two other arm axes (2 and 3) are coupled in a parallelogram. Axis 3 is supported by a lever arm (6)
for parallel guidance. The wrist is moved by the chains (4). This parallelogram solution of the arm
and the attached chain drive keeps the orientation of the axis E (5).
Another simplification of the controller was achieved by the symmetric mechanical design. All
arm intersect in one plane and the wrist in one point.
axes of the
The use of elastic couplings in the drive system and shock absorbers in the chain drives leads to
a structure with low reversal error. To make the design insensitive to vibrations, this case (Figure
5.17) featured shock-absorbers (5) in the wrist drive system and the fork-bearing layout of the arm
axes.With all the important drive systems near the base it was possible to keep the influence of the
moving masses within controllable limits. Sometimes the weight of the drive systems is used as counter-
balance (as in the example of the KUKA IR 100) (Fig. 5-33).
The wrist was easy to realize for the requirement of 2 DF. Figure 5.18 shows the overall concept.
Here the axis E is transformed over a chain (1) from a translatory to a rotatory movement, whereas
axis P is moved rectangular to axis E over chain (2) and bevel gear (3).

5.9. WEAK POINTS IN THE MECHANICAL DESIGN

Robots are often used in lines linked with timed sequence, for example, spot welding and assembly.
As a rule 80% of all malfunctions can be associated with the peripheral devices, including controller, i'*
If the complete system must run with an availability of 99.5%, the mechanical system of the robot
must be designed for 99.9% availability. For this we must consider the potential weak points with
great care (Table 5.4 gives an overview):
 64
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

TABLE S 4. POTENTIAL WEAK POINTS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

calculation measuring
system method
taken

deformation of
reduce weigtit of finite element
the total structure
method
11
counte-balance

dynamic reduction of the - frequency and time

.r” inoved masses

distribuuon of masses
related methods

-<• experience of
in gear
the component r.,.r
backlash use of St ff power
manufacturer

construction of
bearing arm by FEM
experience of refer I0« 1

clearance bearings component

menu facturer

experience of
bearing clearance
the component refer |0 4I
fr iclion improve lubricaCion
manufacturer

thermal isolate heat refer |04 1

element melhoo indmat

m
finite
affects

depending on system
path measuring
c|
1 with tba meeb system

1. The deformattOT of ihe total structure and components can be compensated by the controller
with input of correction factors The designer has options like increase of stiffness, weight
reduction, counterbalance, and layout of the bearings
2. Dynamic deformation is hard to control Two methods have been investigated'^
(a) Linear control applied in velocity control loop
(b) Bang-bang control applied in the position control loop From the mechanical point of
View we can increase the stiffness, reduce the moving masses, and think about the mass
distnbution of the robot A
useful tool in the evaluation process is the expenmenlat modal
analysis descnbcd in Chapter 10
3. Backlash, bearing clearance, and fnction are nonlinear charactenstics causing inaccuracy and
instability of the servomechanism With a proper mechanical design many problems can be
solved as outUned m
Table 5 4
4. Thermal effects arc often compensated by the controUn Sometimes the isolation of the heat
source may be possible
5. A source of considerable trouble could be path-measunng systems, owing to bad connection
with the mechanical system
6. If themechanical workspace is not identical with the workspace set by the controller, scoous
malfunctions in practical application are common (See also Section 10 4)

5.10. DESIGN EXAMPLES

This section introduces industrial robots based on essentially different pnnciples of design and applica-
tion

5.10.1. Modular Design of an Assembly Robot —Bosch FMS

The Bosch system is a family of pneumatic and electrically driven handling modules that are compatible

among each other Such a system gives a fair chance to d«ign tailor-made solutions for each application
mechanical design of the robot system 65

Modular systems are very popular in workpiece handling, handling on machine, and assembly. Figure
an overview of the total Bosch system. It should be noted that a large number of gripper
5,19 gives
options are also available.

Horizontal and Vertical Slide Module: 1 and 3

Figure 5.20 shows the slide module consisting of the Bosch profile (1) and the slide unit (2), which
is guided by prestressed ball bearings (3).
Power transmission is carried out by a toothed rack drive
is protected by the cable suspension (5) parallel to the
(4). The pneumatic and electric energy supply
moving direction. The vertical slide modules are equipped with pneumatic weight balance (6) and
brakes.

Rotatory Arm Module: 2

The rotatory arm module can be assembled between the slide modules to create a cylindrical coordinate
robot.

Linear Module: 4

The electric linear module (Figure 5.21) has three major components: the block unit (1), guidance
(2), and air transmission (3). The drive system includes the motor (4), gear (5), and path-measuring
system (6). The rotation of the motor is transformed by a toothed rack drive (7) to a translatory
movement. The drive block is moved in a guide rod (8).
A special problem is energy supply electric power — is carried by a spiral cable (9), air through
special tubes.

Pneumatic Short-Stroke Module: 5

In assembly a quick vertical short-stroke axis is needed quite often. This requirement is accommodated
by the short-stroke sledge (Figure 5.22), which can be combined with the linear module and the
gripper rotation module.

Gripper Rotation Module: 6

The gripper rotation module (Figure used for rotary movements of the gripper in one axis.
5.23) is

Basic elements include the block unit (5). The block unit includes the motor (1), toothed
and turn table
belt (2), worm gear (3), and the path-measuring system (4). The hardware interface is standardized
for possible combinations with pneumatic units.
For the modular design of industrial robots the following general conclusions are possible:

1. To a large extent they are suitable only for translatory axes.

2. With increasing number of axes (more than five) the modular system becomes too complicated.
3. The design can be tailored to a specific task.

4. Optimal coordination with peripheral devices is possible if the total system includes modular
subunits.

5. Layout planning and construction can be simplified if CAD/CAM techniques are available.
6. The modular design approach is well suited for workpiece handling and assembly.

Figure 5.24 shows a CAD

drawing of the modular Bosch system for a gantry-type construction.
In a philosophy similar to the
mechanical design Bosch has developed a modular controller system
running from programmable controllers (PCs) for peripheral devices to a robot control.

5,10,2. Robot with Horizontal Rotatory Axes —Dainichi Kiko PT 300 H

The Dainichi Kiko company has developed a family of industrial robots with the following characteris-
tics:

I. The mechanical construction of the robot is very similar whether built with vertical or horizontal
rotatory axes. Figure 5.25 shows the principle. The frame system of both robots includes:
(a) V-version: B, A, and D axes.
(b) H-version: C, D, and P axes.
For the V-version we have an additional C-axis and a second wrist axis E; the H-version has
a translatory short-stroke hand axis within the basic frame system.
 )
Bosch

of

courtesy

(Illustration

robot

assembly

an

of

conslruclion

Modular

S.19.

Fig.

66
 ) )

F>S. 5^2. Pneumatic short'Stroke slide module (Illustration courtesy of Bosch

2 Senes of identical kinematic chains and different workloads, armlengths, and number of program-
mable axes
Armlength

C and D (H-Version)
Workload B and A (V-Version) Number of Axes

For (he PT SOO senes only the V->ersion is available

Fig. 5J3. Gnpper rotation module (Ulusttation

courtesy of Bosch
Fig. 5.24. CAD drawing of the modular BOSCH system. Modules are in gantry-type construction.
Notes are in the German original. (Illustration courtesy of Bosch.)

PT 300 V - 5 axes PT 300 H - « axes

Fig. 5.25. The PT 300 family of industrial robots. (After Dainichi Kiko.)
69
70
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

3 For all robots the same type of controller is available in different versions

Simultaneously
Controllable
Position Control Number of Axes Axes

RSIO PTP 5 1

A 200 PTP 6 3 +3
A 250 PTP + CP 6 3 +3
A 300 CP 6 6

The mechanical design of the PT 300 H is described in more detail in the following sections

Frame, C-Axis, Drue System of the C and P Axes

Detail X of Figure 5 25 is further shown by Figure 5 26 Here the dnve of the arm axis C
is performed

by a DC motor with an incremental path-mcasunng system (1) The motor is supportedby frame 4
Speed reduction achieved by the use of an harmomc'dnve unit (2) over the Rexspline (2b) on the
is

dnve shaft (3) The dnve shaft (3) and the arm of axis C
(6) are connected axially over a conical
clamping element (5) and radially over a flange The wnsi dnve P (onentation) (7) is assembled face
to face on axis C and secured by the frame (8) The dnve of the wnst P (7) includes a DC servomotor
(7), an incremental path-measunng system, and an harmonic-dnve gear (8) engaging a toothed-belt
dnve (9)
1.

PoHw rransmissioR of Axis P. Connection of the Axes C and D, and

Dn\e System of Axis D
Figure S 27 shows detail Y of Figure 5 25 Here the loothed-beli dnve (9) coming from axis C (6) is
transmitted over a flying mounted hollow shaft (II) to the looihed-betl dnve (10) in axis D (16)
Axis D (16) IS dnven over a DC^motor (12). harmonic dnve (13), and dnve shaft (14) Axis D u
radially connected by an ETP-bush (15)

H’mf Axes IF and P

Figure S 28 shows detail Z of Figure 5 25 For (he vertical W>axis the following options are offered

Programmable with DC motor (17) and spindle (19/20) for a iranslalory movement
2 Pneumatic dnve with fixed stop Here the cylinder (22) is performing the iranslatory movement

For both options the P-axis remains identical The P-axis is dnven over the toothed-belt dnve
(10) while the vertical axis W (18) rotates as well The P-axis is a parallelogram solution, as already
desenbed in the example of the Hitachi “Process Robot" Electnc as well as pneumatically dnven
gnppers or tools can be joined with the flange plate (21)
The concept of the PT 30Q H was denved from the SCARA tisbot famvly That means two axes
that cover a surface, a short vertical axis W. and an axis P for onentation The concept was carefully
tailored for specific tasks m assembly, palletizing, and machining, with considerable success on the
market
In summanzing the facts the following should be noted

1. All members of the robot family arc designed for certain tasks The requirements related to
the vanous tasks are covered by the total family of robots with different workloads, numbers
of axes, the kind of robot control, and so on
2. There is no expensive surplus, which is not needed for the task
3. Changes of the mechanical components are possible
4. Costs for the development of the robot control and programming language can be covered by
the total family
5. Sometimes there are very low batch numbers for certain types (nsk for the producer)

5.10.3. Hydraulic-Driven Robot with Cylindrical Coordinates —ZF T III L

The robot model designed by Zahniadfabnk Fnednehshafen for special requirements m
T III L was
workpiece handling Figure 5 29 shows the overall concept The frame system consists of four servohy*
draulic axes C, Z, R (arm), and D
(wnst) The following options are possible
mechanical design of the robot system

Fig. 5.26. Installation and drive system of the C and P axis of the Dainichi Kiko PT 300 H. (After
Dainichi Kiko.)

1. Another wrist axis P.

2. Translatory Y-axis.
3. Several gripper solutions.
4. Controller for four to six axes.

The requirements in workpiece handling of heavy parts were carefully considered, leading to the following
overall balanced design:

1. Minimum space requirements constituted the principal reason for the telescopic R-axis.
2. The long, tall R-axis was designed to meet the requirements for a very small workpiece input
channel.
3. Solutions for high temperatures and dirt had been introduced.
72 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 5.27 Connection C and D a\is niih dnve system for D axis in the Dainichi Kiko FT 300 H
(Afler Dainichi Kiko )

4. The requirement for a high load at high speed was the pnncipal reason for the selection of
the hydraulic dn>e system

Figure 5 30 shows the T III L in process of assembly at the manufacturer For the definition of
the axes, refer to Figure 5 29

R-Axts

The pnnciple of the transmission of movement and the design of the bearings is shown in Figure
5 31 (detail X
of Figure 5 29) Here the total stroke consists of a subsiroke X
of the lafette housing
(3) and of a subsiroke Y
of the tube (1) The tube (1) 1$ moved over a double gear (7) with one gear
engaging the toothed rack (4), which is fixed in the lafette housing, and the other gear the rack (2)
fixed with the tube The clearance is adjusted by a screw (6). and the pressure is produced over roll
(13) borne on a rocker The rotation of the double gear is produced by the movement of the servo
Fig. 5.29. Robot with cylindrical workspace and hydraulic drive system, the ZF T III L. (Illustration
courtesy of Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen.)
74
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Z-Axis hydromotor with

friction disc brake

Z— Axis gear and resolver

Z— Axis recirculating
ball nut and screw

Z— Axis guided slide

C— Axis cross roller bearing

C-Axis hydraulic motor

with spur gear drive

Fig. SJO ZF T III L under assembly at the manufacturer (Photo courtesy ofZahnradfabnk Fnedn-
chshafen

cylinder (12) and the support on the toothed rack (4), at the same lime, path measunng is performed
by bell drive (9) on the resolver (10)
Adjustable roller beanngs (1 1) arc part of the slide constrvction The total stroke can be changed
by the selection of different wheel sets of the double gear (7/8)

Wrist Axes D, P, and Double Gripper

Figure S 32 shows the layout with two hydraulic wnst axes Six main lines (1) supply the rotatory
drives of axes D
(2) and P (4) and the cylinder for the gnpper (8) Path measunng is performed by
the resolvers (3 and 5) The double gnpper (7) is opened and closed by the cylindnal slide valve (6)

1.
This case study gives an indication of how technological requirements lead to a special design
On the market the T III L is quite successful for applications m
difhcull environments, like bath
hardening, handling at forging presses, and milling machines It should be noted that this robot was
developed by a potential user

5.10.4. Multipurpose Robot with Six Axes —KUKA IR 100

The design principle of multipurpose robots is to cover certain different tasks at a reasonable price
One example is the KUKA IR 100/160 senes, which was designed for the following tasks

1. Spot and arc welding

2. Assembly of heavy workpieces
3. Machining with industrial robots

Figure S 33 shows Ihe KUKA IR 100/160 with six programmable axes For the design the following
specifications were most important

A high degre of mobility, different mstallations (for example, gantry type)

2 A high degree of stiffness of the axes and no beanng clearance, therefore very good repeatability
and low reversal error

3 Good long-term behavior and easy maintenance

The following more or less new design pnnciples were introduced

1. All arm axes are equipped with prestressed roller beanngs

2. Closed hydraulic counterbalance of the second axis
3. All motors of the wnst are located at the end of the third axis for static counterbalance
Universal joints are used between motor and gear of the wnst
Fig. 5.31. Translation of the R-axis: principle, construction of the the slide-bearings, and connection
with resolver. (Illustration courtesy of Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen.)

75
76 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 5J2. Two degrees of freedom hydraulic wnst axes

with gnpper (Illustration courtesy ofZahnradfabnlc Fned-
nchshafen )

Wrist D,E,P
Illustrated m Figure 5 34, the most important features of this design are the following

X Compact construction, all three axes move in one point, low moments because of the small
dimensions
2. Harmonic*dnve gear integrated into wnst

The wnst is explained by the power transmission of the different axes

1. Axis D universal joint (1) on hollow shaft (2), hannomc-dnve gear (3) on axis D (4)
2. Axis E universal joint (5) on hollow shaft (O, gear (7). toothed-belt dnve (8), harmonic-
dnve gear (9) on axis E (10)
Fig. 5.33. KUKA IR 100/160 universal robot. (Photo courtesy of KUKA Schweissanlagen and
Roboter GmbH.)

3. Axis P: Universal joint (1 1) on shaft (12), gear (13), toothed-belt drive (14), gear (15), harmonic-
drive gear (16) on axis P (17).

For this case study the following conclusions are possible:

1. A multipurpose design iike the KUKA IR 100 may lead to very high production numbers if

the price can be kept within certain limits.

2. KUKA, as many other successful robot manufacturers, entered the market from a specific
production technology know-how (for KUKA
welding), integrating the robot into the whole
production system.
3. The multipurpose robot, in general, can be used in different departments of the same company
with considerable advantages in maintenance and programming. The same approach is more
or less true for modular systems or robot families.

4. A major and important drawback is the fact that multipurpose designs are generally more
expensive because, in any case, some functions are not needed.

5.11. SUMMARY
The following conclusions should be made regarding the mechanical design of industrial robots:

1. The requirements for industrial robots are closely related to the task. A decision about the
design principle (universal robot, modular robot, or special design robot) should be made accord-
ing to the market volume.

6 7 8 9 10 16

Fig. 5.34. Wrist axis with 3 DF. (Illustration courtesy of KUKA Schweissanlagen and Roboter GmbH.)
78 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

in flexible automation
3. Only a balanced combination of mechanical design, robot control, programming language,
and penpheral units makes a highly valuable solution
4. Robots must be measured according lo intenialional delinitions, classifications, and test methods

Future development in the field of the mechanical design may go into ihe following directions

1. Simplification for the mechanical system

2. Introduction of new dnve and path-measunng syst«ns

3 Reduction on research and development time Application of CAD/CAM for design, layout,
planning, performance testing, and manufacturing

4. New techniques in coordinate transformation, robot control, and path planning

5. Considerable improvements in movability

Essential steps forward can always be expected when industrial robots emerge into new fields of applica-
tion

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mr Drexe! and Mr Kaufmann (Bosch). Mr Zimmer and Dr Worn
(KUKA), Mr Chnsten (Stiefelmayer), and Mr Sauler and Mr Manogg (ZF) for their most useful
contnbutions and suggestions to the text of this chapter

REFERENCES
1. VDl 2861, Blatt 1 und 2. Entwurf, Bezeichnungen und Kenngro/^en von Handhabungseinnchtun*
gen, VDI-Verlag

2. Wamecke, H J, and Schrafe, R D, Industrial Robots, IFS Publications Ltd. Bedford. 1982
3. Spot, G ,
Industrieroborer, Hanser-Verlag, Munich, 1979
4. SchrafI, R D, and Schiele, O, industneroboter zum Lackieren, I-Laek, February 1982, pp
65-73
5. Wanner, M
C and Weiss, K Sysiemalische Vorgehensweise bei der Kotizeption, der Entwicklung
. ,

und Ausarbeiiung von Kandhabungseinnehtungen, Technische Rundschau. February 1982, pp

16-17
6 Herrmann, G, Analyse ran Handhabungsvorgangen tm Hmbhck auf deren Anfordervngen an
programmierbare Handhabungzgerate in der Teilefertigung, Dr -Ing dissertation, University of
Stuttgart, 1976

7. Jou, T M , and Waldron, K

J , Geomeinc design of manipulators using interactive computer
graphics, 6th IFToMM Congress on Theory of Machines and Alechanisms. New Delhi, 1983
8. Schmieder, L , Kinematik und Betnebsprogramme von rechnergesteuerten Manipulatoren, Lehr-
gang Rl OS. March 1979, DFVLR Oberpfafrenhofen
9. Horn, K
P Kinematics, , statics and dynamics of Two-D manipulators, MIT iVorking paper
99, June 1975

10. Horn, K P , and Vizirani, V

Hirokawa, K , , Dynamics of a three degree of freedom kinematic
chain, MIT A / Afemo 478, October 1977
11. Takano, M
Yashima, , K
, and Yada, S , Development of computer simulation system of
kinematics
and dynamics of robots, Journal of the Faculty of Engineering University of Tokyo (B), no 4,
1982
12. Duelen, G
, and Wendt, W
, Em Regelungsverfahren zur Verminderung von Bahnabweiehungen

bei Handhabungsgeraten. ZwF, October 1982, pp 441-445

13. Hopfengartner, H
Lageregelung schwingungsfahiger Servosysteme
, am Beispiel ernes Industnero-
boters, Regelungstecknik. January 1981, pp 3-10

14. Zimmer, E, Industneroboter —mechanische Konstruktion, Konstruktion. June 1983, pp 221-

227
15 Handbook of Small Standardized Components. Master catalog 757, Stock Dnve Products, New
York, 1982
mechanical design of the robot system 79

16. Hashimoto, T., Power transmission equipments of the industrial robot, Robot, October 1981,
pp. 75-82.

17. Futami, S., Kyura, N., and Nanai, S., Intelligent servo system: an approach to control-configured
robot, 12th ISIR, Paris, June 1982, pp. 381-390.

18. Manogg, H., Industrieroboter, konzipiert flir die Handhabung von Werkstiicken, Konstmktion,
June 1983, pp. 239-245.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blume, C., and Dillmann, R., Freiprogrammierbare Manipulatoren, Vogel- Verlag, Wurzburg, 1981.
Blume, C, and Jakob, W., Programmiersprachen JUr Industrieroboter, Vogel- Verlag, Wurzburg, 1983.
Engel, G., Konzipierung und Auslegung modular aufgebauter Handhabungssyteme, VDI-Verlag, Diissel-
dorf, 1980.

ISO/TC 97/SC 8, US Contribution for Discussion of Robots: Glossary of Terms for Robotics, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, 1981.
Makino, H., A
kinematical classification of robot manipulators, 6th International Symposium on Indus-
trial Robots, IPS Publications Ltd., Bedford, 1976.

Paul, R. P., Robot Manipulators: Mathematics, Programming, and Control, MIT Press, Cambridge,
1982.

Schraft, R. D., Systematisches Auswdhlen und Konzipieren von programmierbaren Handhabungsgerdten,

Dr.-Ing. dissertation. University of Stuttgart, 1977.

Steusloff, H., Methods for Very Advanced Industrial Robots, Springer-Verlag, 1980.
Volmer, J., Industrieroboter, VEB-Technik Verlag, Berlin, 1981.
 CHAPTER 6
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
MICHAEL W. WALKER
Clemson Universily
Clemson, South Carolina

6.1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to provide a systematic methodology for the kinematic and dynamic
analysis of manipulators It is divided into four sections Introduction, Kinematics. Dynamics, and
Conclusion
In the kinematics section two coordinate systems are used to describe the position of the manipulator
joint coordinates and link coordinates The study of manipulator kinematics is concerned with the
mapping of joint coordinates to link coordinates —and the inverse mapping of link coordinates to
joint coordinates Since this is not a one-to^ne transformation, some difficulties anse and are discussed
In addition to position, themapping of veloaty and acceleration from joint coordinates to link coordi-
nates and the inverse mapping are presented
The dynamics section presents the equation of motion for a manipulator It is shown how the
equations in the kinematics section for position, velocity, and acceleration of the link coordinates can
be used with the Newton-Euler equations of motion of a free ngiid body to obtain the model for an
opcn-chain manipulator The dynamics of a manipulator containing closed kinematic chains is more
complex, and references are given for fuither sludy
The conclusion summarizes the chapter and proposes the development of computer procedures
that are suggested throughout the chapter The collection of these procedures into a library has proven
to be a valuable tool in the design, modeling, and control of a manipulator The purpose of descnbing
these procedures is not only to provide guidelines from which ihe reader can create a useful set of
routines, but also to emphasize the relationships between the vanous concepts descnbed in this chapter

TERMINOLOGY
m = number of degrees of freedom of the manipulator
q = m X vector of joint variable positions
1

q = m X vector of joint variable velocities

1

q = m X vector of joint vanable accelerations

I

Mj’i) =4X4 homogeneous transform malnx for the link i coordinate referenced to the link j

coordinate
Ai(q) — A(0,() evaluated with joint vanables equal to q
X, yi zt p,
0 0 0 1

J(q) =6X6 Jacobian malnx

w/ =3X1 vector, angular velocity of bnk coordinates i

wj =3X1 vector, angular acceleration of link cooidinates i

T( =3X1 vector, linear velocity of Imk coordinates i

Vj =3X1 vector, linear acceleration of Imk coordinates i

 81
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS

=3X1 vector, linear acceleration of link / center of mass

f. =3x1 vector, force exerted on link i by link / — 1

Hi =3X1 vector, moment exerted on link i by link i — 1

Fj =3X1 vector, total force exerted on link /

Ni =3X1 vector, total moment exerted on link /

H(q) =m X m symmetrix, nonsingular generalized moment of inertia matrix

X 1 vector specifying centrifugal and coriolis effects in the manipulator dynamics model.
Note: C(q, 0) = 0

g(q) =m X 1 vector specifying the effects due to gravity in the manipulator dynamics model

k =6X1 vector of external forces and moments on link m acting through link m coordinates.
The first three elements are comprised of the 3 X 1 moment vector, and the last elements
are comprised of the 3 X 1 force vector,

u = m X vector of torques
1 (forces) of each joint actuator
raassi = mass of link i
r, = position of link / center of mass with respect to link i coordinates expressed in the base
link coordinates

I,- =3X3 moment of inertia matrix of link i about the center of mass of link i expressed in
the base link coordinates

fi = position of link / center of mass with respect to link / coordinates expressed in link /

coordinates

l( =3X1 moment of inertia matrix of link / about the center of mass of link i expressed in
link i coordinates.

62
. . KINEMATICS
The purpose of a manipulator is to manipulate its end effector. Some other names for end effector
are hand, gripper, and tool. It is that part of the manipulator which physically interfaces with its
environment. To perform a task the robot must know where the object to be worked on is located
and what the location of the end effector should be with respect to that object. For this purpose one
needs a kinematic model of the manipulator. This section presents this model and shows how it is
used to define the position, velocity, and acceleration of each link coordinate and, hence, the end
effector.

6.2.1, Homogeneous Transforms

Figure 6.1 shows three coordinate systems. The position and orientation of system c is known with
respect to system b, and the position and orientation of system b is known with respect to system a.
The problem is to determine the position and orientation of system c with respect to system a.
Orientation can be parameterized in many ways.^® Here orientation is defined in terms of the
direction cosine matrix. This is a 3 X 3 matrix whose columns are three unit vectors that represent
the X, y, and z axes of the right-handed orthogonal coordinate system.
A convenient way of transforming both the orientation and position from one coordinate system
to another is with the use of homogeneous transforms. A homogeneous transform is a 4 X 4 matrix
of the form:

J I ?]

= [a S 0 !]

where A{a,b) is the transform of coordinate system b with respect to a; D is the 3X3 direction
cosine matrix of coordinate system b expressed in coordinate system a; and p is the vector 3X1
denoting the position of coordinate system b expressed in a. The transform for c expressed in 6 is
denoted by A(6,e). Given K{a,b) and A(6,c), the transform A(o,c) is computed by simply multiplying
these two transforms together:

A(a,c) = A(o,6)A(6.c)
Using this technique one has a simple notation and also an easy technique of computing the position
and orientation of any coordinate system with respect to any other coordinate system.
The routine
82
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 6 1. Senes of three coordinate systems

MULMAT (output = A, input = B,C> is used to multiply homogeneous transforms B and C together
and store the result in A.

The in\erse of the transform is easily computed

2.

where denotes tran$pos&

'

Any homogeneous transform can be defined in terms of the product of su special transforms
This because there are only three independent elements in the direction cosine matna and three
IS
3.
for the position These special transforms are as follows

1 A rotation about the jc axis at angle ^

4. •I 0 0 On
Rot(x.^) = 0 c«J)
0
-m
cO)
0
0
0 0 0 ij

A rotation about the y axis at angle p

cip) 0 s(ji) 0-1

RolCv. ^) =
-m
0
0 1

0
0 0
m
0 0
0
I

A rotation about the a axis at angle p

c(fi} -t(P) 0 0-1
s(P) c(P) 0 0
0 0 10
[0 0 0 1

A translation along the x axis a distance $

I 0 0 s-|
0 10 0
0 0 10
[0 0 0 ij

5. A translation along the y

1 0 0 0-1
0 10 5
0 0 10
[0 0 0 ij
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 CHAPTER 56
ROBOTIC LOADING OF
MACHINE TOOLS
THOMAS E. KLOT2
Mazak Corporation
Florence, Kentucky

56.1. WAYS OF MOUNTING LOADING ROBOTS

There are currently three major ways to mount robots for machine loading (1) robot carts, or automatic
guided vehicles (AGV), (2) floor- or machine-mounted robots, (J) gantry, or overhead robots

56.1.1. Robot Carts

Robot carts are and can be found m a variety of sizes that can handle
typically wire- or rail-guided,
part load requirements from several hundred pounds up to 20,000 pounds (100-9000 kg)
Parts are loaded directly on on pallets Sometimes the pallets can also be utilized
the cart, usually
as fixtures on NC machines In a very few applications, robots have been directly mounted on the
cart to better handle delicate or odd-shaped parts More commonly, a local robot will unload parts
from the cart, or the loaded pallet will move directly from cart to machine table The robot cart has
found a place in flexible manufacturing faalities, where there is a need to transport raw material,
finished machine parts, and in-process pacts over relatively great distances (see example m Figure
56 1)
The wire- or rail-guided robot cart can solve a number of production control problems

The cart has virtually an unlimited traveling range within the confines of the plant It has the
ability to transportraw material or finished parts over great distances without utilizing vital floor
space that could later be designated as a manufactunng area m
the plant
Prcloaded pallets can be set up m
advance so the matenal, upon demand by the machine tool
and Its local robot, can be dispatched by the use of the robot cart The carts can be designed to
handle steel pallets or mexpensive wood pallets
The wire-guided robot cart is adjustable toexistuig manufactunng floor plans because of the relatively
limited amount of floor space required to install it The robot cart can utilize the pedestnan traffic
areas and aisles, for safety reasons, carts are designed with sensors that enable them to recognize
on coming pedestnans or obstructions These sensors will cause the robot cait to slow down or
stop until the obstructions are removed from its path
Unmanned shills would require tremeiKlous amounts of material to be warehoused at the machine
tool site This warehouse affects the floor space required within the plant It also prevents elficient
placement of machine tools A robot cart bringing parts suid matenals from ao outside inventory
can solve this problem, and machine tools can be ^aced closer and more efficiently to minimize
required floor space Further details on cart-mounted robots can be found in Chapter 39, Mobile
Robot Applications

56.1.2. Gantry, Overhead Robots

The is utilized where there is a requirement for quickly moving workpieces

gantry, or overhead, robot
from machine to machine The gantry robot can move along its X
and T axes traveling over relatively
greater distances at higher traverse speeds, while still providing a high degree of accuracy for positioning
These robots can be used for auxiliary tasks beyond just loading parts For instance, gantry robots

986
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o.viavoi iviHDVivi a>iv ouna^vH ivraatviv 966

ROBOTIC LOADING OF MACHINE TOOLS 987

Fig. 56.1. A robot cart (automatic guided vehicle, AGV) for machine tool part loading in flexible
manufacturing facilities. A similar cart is used by Mazak to transport and change complete tool maga-
zines.

have been used for cleaning jobs such as removing cutting chips from large workpieces with the use
of high-powered vacuum systems in preparing the part for its next process. See also Chapter 60,
Gantry Robots and Their Applications.

56.1.3. Floor- and Machine-Mounted Robots

Floor- and machine-mounted robots are preferred for local loading tasks. A floor-mounted, pedestal
robot can serve one or more machines. (See examples Machine Loading Application
in Chapter 57,
Cases.) A machine-mounted robot is usually dedicated to a single machine and can therefore have
fewer axes of motion, typically two, three, or four (see Figures 56.2 and 56.3). In 1983 about 15%
of all Japanese and 6% of all U.S. CNC machines were equipped with some form of automatic load/
unload of parts. Some machine-mounted robots can be used to retrofit existing machinery (e.g., Fanuc
Series o).

Fig. 56.2. Electric robot arms mounted on machine tools for part loading/unloading in an FMS
line, (a) Twin-spindle machining center equipped with Mazak Flex(6)11. CNC lathe equipped with
Mazak Flex I. The teach box shown in the front is used to instruct the robot how to handle up to
60 different workpieces weighing 29 to 40 kg each.
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 MATLRIAt HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADING

Fig. J. Motions of inachinc.nioun(ed robot loaders.

Floor- and machine-moonted robots oflen use a pallet pjck-anJ-place or a conve)Of feeder to feed
parts to and from their location TTicsc robots can be programmed to pick or place parts on a geometri*
pans
cally designed surface, putting the m
rows or palletizing them m
a gnen area (Figure 56 4)
This, however, only allows the robot towork unailctidcd for a limitcvl amount of time, and thought
should be given to manipulating or moving the palleiueU parts A l)pical operation of a machine-
mounted robot IS shown m Figure 56 5

56.1.4, Robot Drive

With regard to the robot actuation m machine loading, hydraulic or electne servo motors are the
main source of power for movement and manipulation, a h>draulic robot has weighi-liding capabilities
that usually exceed those of an electric robot. H)draul)c robots are chosen for loading large workpieces
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Fig. 56.4. Parts positioned on a pallet conveyor (a) wait for robot loader. A full-capacity conveyor
can provide 6 hr of unmanned operation, assuming each workpiece has a cycle time of 6 min. (6)
Parts are positioned in jigs for accurate placement.

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Fig. 56.5. Typical operations of a machine-mounted robot (a) Standby position (body up, arm up)
This IS the initial position of robot service It also is the position awaiting completion of the process
by the machine (6) Loading/unloading of workpiece on chuck (body up, arm down) This is the
position of loading/unloading of workpiece on diuck. Maditne is still (c) Loading/unloadingof work-
piece on conveyor (body down, arm op) This is the position of loading/unloadmg of workpiece on
conveyor
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 84 NfECHAMCAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Step 3 Number the joint between link i and i — 1 as joint t

Draw in i. j = I, m.
the unit vector z,-i for the joint
Step 4
z, I = axis
of rotation if joint i is rotational
2,-1 = axis
of translation if joint i is translational
Step 5 Determine a,, i = I, m, the minimum distance between Zi-i and zi
Step 6 Draw in the umt vector z, in the direction of z,-i to Zi such that is perpendicular to
both z,-i and Zi

Step? Determine d„ i = 1, m. the minimum distance between X(-i and Xj

Step 8 Determine fli, i = I, m. the angle of rotation, positive m the nght-hand sense, about the
Z( I axis between x,-i and x,

Step9 Determine a,. I = 1. m. the angle of rotation, positive in the nght-hand sense, about the Xj
axis between xt i and z,

Since there is no link m+ I coordinate system, d„. a„, and a„ can be set to zero if joint m is

rotational If joint 1 is rotational, d* can be set lo zero

One can desenbe the position and onentation of link i coordinates with respect to link i — 1

coordinates, A{( — 1. i), as

A(i — I, i) = Trans(2, d,)Rol(A ©,)Trans(x, a,)Rot(x. a,)

c(0.) -i(0,)c(a.)
sm c($,)cia,) -c($,)s(a)
0 j(a,) c(a,) d,

.
0 0 0 1 . (6 1)

The routine KOMOJ

(output = E, input = i) is used to compute the transform A(i — 1, t) and
store the results in the array ^
To And and onentation of link i coordinates with respect to link
(he position i — 2 coordinates.
A(< — 2, (), one simply multiplies successive link coordinate transforms logelher

A(( - 2. 0 = A(i - 2. - I !)A(i - 1. 0

By using the routines MULMAT
and HOMOJ, one can obuin the position and onentation of
any link coordinate system with respect to any other link coordinate The position and onentation of
link m coordinates with respect to the base coordinates is

A(0, m) = A(0. I)A(I. 2) A(m - 2. m- l)A(m - 1. m) (62)

manipulator usually has some sort of tool attached to the last link as part of the end
Finally, the
effector This tool also has a coordinate system affixed lo it The position and onentation of the tool
coordinates with respect to link m
coordinates are denoted by TOOLM. The position and onentation
of the tool coordinates with respect to the manipulator base coordinates are denoted by TOOLS.
Note that TOOLM
is a constant matnx whereas TOOLB is a function of the joint vanables It is

TOOLS = A(0, m)TOOLM (6 3)

6J,4. Velocity of the End Effector

The velocity of the end effector is a function of the velocity of the joint vanables The procedure is
similar to computing the position of the end effector The angular and linear velocities of each link
coordinate are computed one link at a time starting at the base of the manipulator If the angular
and linear velocities of the rlh link coordinates are known, the velocity of the « + 1 link coordinate
IS easily computed based upon whether joint « + I is rotational or translational

For joint i rotational

Wj+i = w, -I-

= +Wi*i ^P,%, (6 4 )

For joint < translational

W|*l = Wi
= + Ziqi<.| + Win X (6 5 )

where p**, = p,*i — p, and X denotes vector cross product

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 CHAPTER 59
MOBILE ROBOT APPLICATIONS
HANS J. WARNECKE
JOACHIM SCHULER
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufactunng Engineenng and Automation
Stuttgart, West Germany

59.1. INTRODUCTION
Industnal robots remain, especially if including their peripheral devices, investmenMntensive automation

devices Therefore the economic application of industrial robots with acceptable amortization penods
always depends on a good utilization of the industnal robot, with the exception of the application
for humane reasons because of difficult workmg conditions (noise, heat, gases, etc ) The different
possibilities offered for such good utilization in the different application areas, and the measures to
be taken to increase that utilization, will have a great influence on further distribution of industrial
robots
Stationary industnal robots are used for too) and workpiece handling (see Chapter 56, Robotic
Loading of Machine Tools) In tool handling, for example, in coating, spot and arc welding as the
most important application areas, the mdustrul robot usually performs extensive tasks at the workpiece,
which leads to go^ utilization, both technical (operation area) as well as temporal (degree of utilization)
Apart from limitations in load capacity and in sensory ability, it is the size of the operating range
that restricts the applicability of induscna) robots in many cases Insufficient utilization of the technical
and temporal of industnal robots, especially in the area of loading and unloading of machine
availability
tools, limits the scope for an economically successful application even if a technical realization might
be possible
In workpiece handling, for example, the supply of machine tools, the relatively long machining
times cause frequent stops while the mduslna) robot “waits" for the following handling operation,
which results, consequently, m
a low degree of utilization for the robot It is not always possible to
fill this wailing time with additional
tasks such as feeding or transferring of machined components
to measurement, debumng, or washing stations Also the multiple operation of a circular arrangement
of several machine tools around a stationary robot can seldom be realized satisfactorily Often disadvan-
tages such as bad access to the machine took missing space, the required timing of machining sequences,
as well as the need, out of secunty reasons, to stop the complete manufactunng installation, even
with small failures, or with setup changes at one station, do not allow the successful application of
this kind of multiple operation
In contrast, mobile robots offer new possibilities for an increase in lechnical as well as temporal
utilization and therefore for the economic application of industnal robots • * Mobility is achieved
with an automated transport system

59.1.1, CHagsiffcafion of Mobile Robots

A mobile robot is defined as a freely programmable industnal robot which can be automatically moved,
or six axes,
in addition to its usual five m
another one. two. or three axes along a fixed or programmed
path by means of a conveying unit The robots may be classified according to the number of additional
degrees of freedom for the mobility (Figure 59 1)

Linear mobility.
Area mobility
Space mobility

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MOBILE ROBOT APPLICATIONS 1003

Linear-mobile robots are characterized by one translatory (usually) horizontal axis. Some applications
of this kind are already in service using a linear track.*-® Inflexibility in regard to branches and changes
of the travel path, as well as interruptions in other functions of the internal material flow, are the
disadvantages of this track-bound transport principle. Designs for achieving linear mobility of the
robot other than ground level, for example, with a gantry, are also known.®-*
Floor-bound mobility is obtained by battery-powered carts which either recognize their environment
by means of sensory devices and compare it with a programmed pattern or follow along wire embedded
a
lOM MATERIAL HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADING

The ease of implementing branches into the travel path and the possibility of embedding
into the floor.*'*®
the guidmg wire into the floor like a net allow servicing an area although, m fact, the cart has a
linear guidance system
Only hmited-area mobility is offered by industrial ri^ts mounted on an x^y table Figure 59 2
shows the layout of two robots facing each other, each movable in two directions Solutions to serve
an area with an mdustnal robot that is not floor-bound can be realized with the aid of a modified
loading gantiy or a stacker crane. Both cases are so expensive that such solutions are only justifiable
under certain circumstances
Space-mobile applications, with freedom rf movement in three axes, can be achieved, for example,
by a modified bridge crane Solutions with floor-bound devices, for example, with a specially designed
mductively-guided stacker crane, may also be possible Considering the present technical development,
mobile robots with area mobility may become useful in enlarging the economic apphcation of mdustnal
robots

59.2. SPEanCATION OF AREA MOBILE ROBOTS

The specifications for area mobile robots are influenced by their main tasks

Handling at the place of operation

Transport of the industrial robot
Transport and automated exchange of workpieces, components, or auxiliary means for the handlmg
operation

Because the mobile robot will be applied, for the most part, within highly automated manufacturing
systems, it must operate autonomously and as far as possible without manual intervention Independence

in regard to energy supply and control is to be provided A

possible connection with a stationary
supply unit must be executed automatically To limit the costs of the unit it should be designed modularly,
using components available on the market Assuming that most of the applications of mobile robots
will be in serving several stations, cost-mtensive functions and the “intelligence" of the system should
be implemented in the conveying device, which usually exists only once m
a system, rather than to
integrate them into every station The conveying device should not interfere with ongoing operations
of the material flow To transport workpieces, tools, and the like a universal connection between the
conveying device and goods to be transported must be provided in the form of a pallet which can be
loaded and unloaded automatically
The performance of handling casks demands sufficient stability from the mobile robot because of

Fig. 59.2. Mobile robots with carnage guide and cross slide
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MOBILE ROBOT APPLICATIONS 1005

the displacement of the center of gravity by the cantilever arm and the dynamic forces resulting
from the movement of the handling device. The achievable accuracy for positioning the mobile system
should be equal to the accuracy of today’s stationary robots.

59.3. REALIZATION OF AN INDUCTIVELY GUIDED MOBILE ROBOT

Figure 59.3 shows the design of a mobile robot developed at the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing
Engineering and Automation (IPA), Stuttgart, West Germany. It consists of the following components:

An inductively guided vehicle as a “chassis” for the industrial robot.

A freely programmable handling device, in this case, a standard five- or six-axis industrial robot.

A transport platform (rotary pallet table) for holding and transporting of pallets with workpieces,
these to be handled by the industrial robot.

A control and energy supply for vehicle and industrial robot as well as positioning aids for the
independent, fully automated supply of several work stations.

The inductively guided vehicle used as a chassis for the industrial robot and the pallet system is
designed for forward and reverse driving with equal speeds. The position accuracy of approximately
10 mm, achievable at the stopping of the vehicle, is not sufficient for distinct handling operations.
To increase the position accuracy of the mobile robot in relation to the stationary reference system,
the vehicle is equipped with a lifting platform which carries the industrial robot as well as the pallet
system. This lifting platform can be connected by means of four rigid legs with floor-positioning elements
The necessary relative movement for the fine-positioning of the lifting platform
at the place of operation.
is achieved by means of a “floating” support of the lifting platform on the vehicle, which can be
locked during movement.
The lifting platform carries, in its forward position in the main driving direction, the pallet system,
and behind this the industrial robot is positioned along the long side of the vehicle, which is preferably
facing the working or stopping stations. Thus the robot is able to reach the pallet which carries the
workpieces or auxiliary devices for the handling operations required. In 90° movements, the sequential
covering of the complete pallet area is possible. The automated exchange of pallets by the vehicle is
accomplished in respectively lifting and lowering the platform at pallet stations.
The controls of the industrial robot and vehicle are two seperate units connected by an interface.
Information and commands coming from the stationary central control are transferred inductively at
defined transferring stations to the mobile unit. Numerical working programs for the industrial robot
can also be transferred.

Fig. 59.3. Inductively guided mobile robot.

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1006 MATEIUAL HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADING

TheindustnaJ robot and the inductively guided vehicle with the auxiliary devices are supplied
with energy by one battery each Thus the mobile industrial robot is able to operate autonomously
for a limited time without external energy supply The connection to the electncal power supply
takes place at work stations, where an autonomous operation is not required The electncal connection
IS accomplished by means of a sliding contact mounted on the vehicle and a contact rail at some
work stations At the same time the battenes can be recharged

S9.4, AREAS OF APPLICATION FOR MOBILE ROBOTS

The areas of application for mobile robots with inductive guidance are to be found m
those places
not satisfactoniy covered by automation with stationary robots This applies specifically to cases where
stationary robots cannot be used because of insufficient utilization or limited operation space The
connection of both the main materul flow funcliooSv transport and handling, with an equally suitable
transport and handling unit, opens a wide field ofapphcatioiu for woikpiece and tool handling, especially
in unattended or almost unattended shills of flexible automated manufactunng systems

59.4.1. Workpiece Handling

The supply of workpieces to lathes or of manufacturing cells for rotary components (lathes combined
with a workpiece buffer) is used as an example for the application of mobile robots in workpiece
handling
If the workpiece at the machine tool is transferred directly into its machining position as shown
m Figure 59 4, the industrial robot performs, after the positioning at its place of operation, one single
but complex handling task This task consists of the removal of a machined component and the supply
of an unmachined component brought along on the vehicle The succeeding stop and go at several
work stations is heavily dependent on the machining sequences because the mobile robot must be
present at the machine tool at the end of each machining sequence to avoid stoppages A strong
machining-sequence dependency and an extensive planning operation for the disposition of the compo-
nents through the central computer are charactenstic for this application configuration
If supplying a workpiece buffer storage as depicted in Figure 59 5, the mobile robot dnves to the
appropriate manufactunng cell after removing a pallet loaded with unmachined workpieces After
positioning the platform, the mdu^tnal robot exchanges in sequential-handling operations the unmatched
workpieces brought along with the machined ones stored w
the buffer of the machine tool Thus the
loading of the workpieces is performed m
the mam machining time of the machine tool After the
workpiece exchange, the vehicle dnves with the machined components either, according to the machining
progress, to the next work stations or back to storage This wcrkpiece-supply concept, largely independent

Fig. 59.4. Loading lathes by an inductively guided mobile robot

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MOBILE ROBOT APPLICATIONS 1007

pallet loaded mobile rotary handling device I

NC-lathel
with workpieces robot workpiece buffer fixed at the
machine tool

Fig. 59.5. Loading a workpiece buffer by an inductively guided mobile robot.

from the machining sequence, shows the advantages of an integrated transport and handling system,
especiallywhen short workpiece machining times are predominant. Figure 59.6 shows the layout of
manufacturing cells for rotary components supplied by a mobile robot according to the described
principles.
A special case of workpiece or better component handling is illustrated by the example of tool
supply to manufacturing cells or machining centers for prismatic components. Recently flexible manufac-
turing cells for drilling and milling, consisting of a machining center, pallet storage, and automated
control and supervision devices, have been showing a rapid increase in applications as well as in the
number of suppliers.
The cells are used successfully in a three-shift operation for the “unmanned” machining of mixed

Fig. 59.6. Workpiece supply to turning cells by an inductively guided mobile robot.
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1008 MATERIAL HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADING

components (to a certain degree), buffered ui the pallet storage For manufacturing tasks such cells
nill be the concept for the coming years However, they will be limited by two factors

1. Short machining times per workpiece require a large stock of workpieces on pallets to last
for an unattended shift The high pallet costs are therefore a threat to the economy of a
manufacturing cell.

This situation demands a workpiece exchange not dependent on the number of pallets in the pallet
buffer Here the mobile robot appears to be a suitable solution

2. An extensile workpiece mix in the pallet buffer system, desirable because of small batch sizes
or high cost for workpiece-dependent jigs, can be realized at the control side without problems
through calhng the workpiece-specific machining program However, this Workpiece requires
a multitude of different machinmg operations for the different workpieces These tool require-
ments often exceed the capacity of the tool magazine, even if extended

Figure 29 7 shows the automatic exchange of machining tools at a machmuig center with pallet buffer
storage by a mobile industnal robot with a tool supply pallet Figure 29 8 presents the layout of the
machining center serviced by a mobile robot

59.4.2. Tool Handling

A future area of application could be tool handling with mobile robots, which requires, however,
intensive development efforts A prerequisite for the actual guiding of the machining tools is that the
reaction forces resultingfrom the machining are not too high, a condition which also applies to stationary
installed industnal robots For the machining operation, the actual tool, for example, a welding gun,
is fixed onto the robot's arm, while the auxitiary equipment, for example, the welding transfonner or
is transported on the pallet (Figure 29 9) Thus st is possible to weld or
the shielding gas c> tinders,
components from different sides If coordinated at the control side, the
to coat on large stationary
simultaneous machinmg would be possible with several independently operating industnal robots

59.4J. Drife'PaUi Layout

Possible layouts can be classified into three different categones (Figure 29 10)

1. Isolated AppUcatiaa at SingleWork Staboos. Supply of several widely spaced machine tools
or work stations with workpieces or tools, for example, flexible multiple machine attendance
2. Linear Overlapping. Attendance of several work stations arranged side by side in a Ime,
with or without overlapping of the operation areas for the machming or attendance along a
Ime. for example, welding of long seamsby joining several shorter seams by moving the vehicle

Fig. 59.7. Loading a tool magazine of a machining center by an mductively guided mobile robot
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MOBILE ROBOT APPLICATIONS 1009

rotary
pallet buffer

machining
centre

inductively
guided
mobile
robot

machining
centre

tool
magazine

Fig. 59.8. Tool supply of machining centers by an inductively guided mobile robot.

3. Area Overlapping. Laying of the drive path, netted to reach the full overlapping of the operation
area, for an area covering machining or attendance, for example, for welding, assembly, or
coating of large workpieces from different sides. The task may be even simultaneous with
several mobile robots.

59.4.4. Security Aspects

When operating industrial robots, no one is permitted to stay in the operation range.
Obstacles in
the drive path of the vehicle, if touched by the vehicle, must cause its
immediate stop. This is achieved

Fig. 59.9. Welding of large components by an

inductively guided mobile robot.
1010 MATERIAL HANDLING AND ^UCHINE LOADING

by mechanical emergency stop devices, proven on inductively guided vehicles The securing of the
operation area of the industrial robot, however, should be achieved by nontaclile methods and without
guards, to enable free access to the stations for manual setup, supervision, or maintenance operations
if the mobile robot is not m action
59,5. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
The concept of a self-dnving mobile robot allows a practically unlimited, freely selectable, and changea-
ble<area mobility, according to the guidewire laid into the floor The automation of transport and
handling (asks m
one common technical solution is possible through this combination of the inductively
guided vehicle, the industrial robot, and the automatically exchangeable transport pallet
The discussed applicacions for (he mobile robcM m
workpiece and tool handling result from the
integration of transport and handling functions From this concept important and promising incentives
can be expected, especially on the matenal flow concepts of flexible automated manufactunng areas

REFERENCES
1. N N No 40, 1981, pp 33-34
Lichlbogenschwei/Jroboter Technische Rundschau
2. Norlin, B, Roboter erweiCcm Maschinennuizungszeit. VDI-Nacknchten, Vol 36, No 16, 1982,

p 10
3. Tsao Kwangsihuan, Hsing-dao Ch , and Hsiao-tsu Ch , Loading a lathe with the aid of a robot,
The Industrial Rot>ol. Vol 8, No 2, 1981, pp 98-99
4. N N, Robot welders attract (he smaller firms. The Industrial Robot, Vol 7, No 4, 1980, p
260
5. Engelberger, J F , The Use of Industrial Robots for Loading Machine Tools, Intemationaler
Kongre/3 Metallbearbeilung, Leipzig, 1982
6. N. N BMW buys KUKA protal robots.
, The Industrial Robot. Vol 7, No 4. 1980, p 259
7. Weisel,K and Katoh, A Beachheads for robotics. Proceedings of the 5th Internaliona! Sympouum
,

on Industrial Robots, 1975, pp 1-10

8. WamecJce, H
J. and Schuler, J, Areas of Application For Mobile Robots, Proceedings oj the

2nd European Conference on Automated Manufacturing, 1983, pp 261-270

9. Wamecke, H. J. and Schuler, J , Mobile Robots —
A Solution for the Integration of Transport
and Handling Functions. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Automated Guided
Vehicle Systems, 1983, pp 185-194
10. Wada, R. and Shima, Y , Hohcrentwickcltes flexibies Fertigungssystem durch CAD-CAM-Kop-
plung, Werkstatt und Betneb, Vol 116, No 6, 1983, pp 331-336
Fig.

60.6.

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 S6 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

6.2.7 Joint Positions

This section descnbes a technique for obtaining the joint position for each joint order to obtain a m
specified position and onentation of the end effector A
manipulator with at least 6 DF is required
1 ..... u, ». .k. "'imber
of degrees

X 4 mains Tr.
This main* is input to the inverse kinematics rouune The objective of this routine
is to determine

the values of the joint vanables so that the end effector will have the same position and onentation
as denoted by Tr. Therefore the equation to solve is

TOOLB=Tr
Substituting m the expression for TOOLB from Eq (6 3) and solving for A(0, 6) gives

A(0. 6) = TraOOLM) = •

where Aa is the desired position of link 6 coordinate system

joint vanables arc obtained, the last three joint vanables are detennincd such that the end effector
has the correct onentation This is best illustrated by an example
Consider the Stanford model manipulator. Figure 6 3 This is a manipulator with six joints, five
rotational and one translational The kinematic parameters for this manipulator are given in Table
6 I Using these values in Eq (6 1) gives the A(i - 1. i) matnces given Table 6 2 m
It can be seen from Figure 6 3 that the position where the wnst axes intersect is pj. the position

of link 3 coordinates This can be obtained from Ad

jb = Pd — d»Zd
The vector gj is the first three elements of the fourth column of A(0, 3) Using Eq (6 2) gives

A(0. 3) = A(0. 1)A(I. 2)A(2. 3)

c»ca c,sj -s,df + (i)C,St-t

SiCi s,Si C|d»+</as,s»
St t/,Cj
0 0 1 J
Therefore &i, 02, and dj must satisfy the equation

-S|dt + d,cis»
1
Cidz + t/sStSj
I ~pa - dfZa (6 1 1)

[ J

Referring to Figure 6 3, the only variable that influences the length of pi is ds Therefore the
length of p3 squared should only be a function of the joint vanable dj

(PjP = (d,)*+(d,)*
= (Pd - dfiZd)*
Therefore

d» = ((Pd - detd)* — (d*)^*'*

Note that theargument to the square root function being negative is an unrealizable position If this
ever occurs, then something has gone wrong with the path-planning routine, that is, the routine that
computes the desired homogeneous transform of the end effector Tr.
The third component of Eq (6 10) is only a function of 6* and dj Therefore 02 is given by

0* = ± arccos (Alt - dsZdp)

 robots.

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1022 MATERIAL HANDUNG AND MACHINE LOADING

60.6. EXAMPLES OF GANTRY ROBOT APPLICATIONS

Material Handling

Advantages Large work envelopes

Large payloads
Fiexibiliiy

Convlrasnis Requires high ceiling, over 3 m (10 0)

Example Palletiaing, depaltctizing of instrument panels (Figure 60 S), furnace

unloading, handling large composite sections

Machine Loading

Advantages Handle many machines

Handle variety of parts
Constraints Cycle time requirements
Pa) load versus distance

H'eldtng/CuUing

Advantages Large weldment

Continuous long welds/cuts
Use arc, plasma, laser

Constraints Needs large expensive lixtunng

Examples Plasma cutting and welding of 3*m (I0>ft) diameter pipe

Painting

Advantages Cover large areas

Remove humans from environment
Constraints Cycle time requirements
Examples Painting of aircraft (Figure 60 6)

Debarring, Pouting, and Drilling

Advantages Continuous over large areas

Can work on flat floor, no vertical fixture required
Constraints Repeatability requirements may require template

60.7. SUMMARY
The gantry robot is ideal for the emerging factory of the future It provides flexibility to cover large
areas with good repeatability Gantry robots and pedestal robots can be combined to create a flexible
manufacturing system where the proper robot is applied to the proper job (Figure 60 7)

REFERENCE
1, ZisLovsky, J P The “R* Factor” of Industrial Safety, Proceedings of the I3th I S I R.. 1983.
,

Chicago, Illinois, pp. 9 1-9 12

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 CHAPTER 61
ROTATIONAL WORKPIECE
HANDLING IN FMS
HANS J. WARNECKE
ROLF D. SCHRAFT
MARTIN C. WANNER
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automation
Stuttgart, West Germany

61.1. GENERAL
Flexible manufacturing systems with industrial robots have a long and complex history including
serious technical setbacks. One
of the first really satisfactory plants in West Germany was developed
from 1975 to 1980 by the Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen (ZF) in a joint project with several institutes
including the IP A, sponsored by the Ministry of Research and Development.’ The planning procedure
and overall layout of the system is presented in this chapter.

61.2. PLANNING PROCEDURE

The aim was to develop a system for the complete machining of a defined family of workpieces used
in truck gearboxes. The following criteria for the selection of a suitable workpiece family were considered:

Number of different machining processes: 'S 10.

Number of manufacturing cells: 8-10.
Machining of different geometrical shapes: 2-3.
Number of shifts: 1.5-2.

Weight of workpieces: > 5 kg.

From gearbox designs four families of workpieces were selected (see Figure 61.1) according
different
to the aforementioned criteria. The specification for the FMS had been completed by an investigation
of the transferability of engineering. Transferability increases if:

The system has a high number of small and independent serviceable components.
The combination of the components leads to a complete FMS.
The system can be kept variable as far as size and kind of tool machines are concerned.
The system is serviceable in a low degree of automation with a possible increase to full automation.

The most important steps in the planning procedure were the following:

Planning the material flow.

Planning the manufacturing cells. Integration of machine tools, robot, workpiece carrier, and the
overall control system.

Organization of the whole system.

1023
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1024 material handling and machine loading

61J. INFLUENCE OF THE FMS ON THE ROBOT DESIGN

Ounng the layout planning of the individuaJ manufactunng cdl$ several robot designs were compared
under the following specihcations*

Working space (see Figure dl 2), including areas of collision and reachable positions
Rotatory degree of freedom m the X-Y plane
Dimensions of the workpieces diameter = 60-280 mm. thickness =* 20-80 mm, weight * 05-25

Positioning accuracy S mm
I

Speed & 1 2 m/$ec, high acceleration

Fig. 61.2. Specification of working space The dashed lines indicate area of collision
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Controller specifications: PTP-control, teach-in possible, 1000 points in workspace as minimum

requirement for one program, batch programs possible, 72 input/output channels.

The most parameters were the requirements in workspace and workload. For this application
influential
the ZF T III in detail in Chapter 5) was selected. It should be noted here that the
L (described
original T III modified to fulfill these requirements. One major modification was the
L had to be
introduction of the telescopic R-axis because of collision problems.

61.4. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

The plant layout is shown in Figures 61.3 and 61.4, and elements of the layout follow:

1. A control buffer for 180 workpiece carriers with a total of 5400-10,800 positions depending
on workpiece diameter. Each workpiece carrier has 60 (for 120 mm) to 30 positions (280
mm).
2. A CNC/DNC-controlled gantry robot is used for the handling of the workpiece carriers from
the central buffer to decentral buffers at each manufacturing cell. The gantry robot PVF has
a translatory F-axis of 40 (up to 100 m m
possible), a translatory JT-axis of 4 m, and a
vertical Z-axis of 2.3 m. Overall speed limit is 1 m/sec.
3. A DEC/PDP used for the control of the material flow from the central buffer to decentral
1 1 is

buffers, for the DNC-control of the manufacturing cell, calculation, and time schedule. An
information system for the manufacturing sequence, NC-programs, tool lists, and overall system
control is included.

4. For the manufacturing process: 13 independent cells including 14 tool machines, 14 robots
type T III L, 15 decentral buffers, central workpiece input and output station for quality
control (see Figure 61.5). In more detail:

(a) Four cells for turning (CNC/DNC).

^) One cell for internal broaching, including tool change for three internal broaches (PC).
(c) One cell for a drilling unit (PC).
(d) Three cells for bobbing (six axes) (CNC/DNC).
(e) One cell for gear grinding (PC).
(0 Two cells for gear-tooth rounding and chamfering (PC).

(g) One cell for generating by shaping (PC).

61.5. DESCRIPTION OF A MANUFACTURING CELL

Figure 61.6 shows a manufacturing cell for turning including a CNC-tuming machine, a T III L
handling robot, and the vertical turning buffer station. The overall flexibility allows economical manufac-
turing of very small batch numbers.

Fig. 61.3. Cross section of the ZF-FMS.

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1025 MATERUL HANDLING AND MACHINE LOADINc

Fig. 51.4 View of the fMS showing (from lefi to nght) roM, decentrai buffer, buffer, and gantry
robot

61.6, SUMMARY
The most inSuenti&l features of this FMS^ncepi are the following

Reduction of about 20% in manpower compared to manual systems

Reduction of about 30% m tool change time achieved by DNC-bnks from the machine tools to

the central processor unit for seven manufactunng cells

Reduction of time through the system by 25% compared to manual systems

Optimum batch numbers in (be range of 250-400 workpieces

fig. 61.5. Overall view of the total system

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ROTATIONAL WORKPIECE HANDLING IN FMS 1027

Fig. 61.6. Detail of the FMS: manufacturing cell for turning.

Increase in quality due to improved procedures.

High cost share for the buffers.

In practical application the system has shown a remarkable reliability.

61.7. HANDLING AT CNC-TURNING MACHINES

One of the projects following the described FMS is an application for loading and unloading two
CNC turning machines. Designed as an independent manufacturing cell for coupling members with
workloads up to 60 kg, the system has the ability to work in a third shift. The overall solution is

shown in Figure 61.7, and elements of the system follow.

1. Presentation of the workpieces by two indexing chain conveyors (1) including workpiece carrier.
2. Handling of the workpieces by a T III L cylindrical coordinate robot (4). Programming in
teach-in mode.
3. Turning by two CNC double-spindle machines (2,3).
4. Inspection in a quality control station.
5. Finished parts are moved to conveyor (6).
6. Scrap parts are moved into special magazines (7).

7. For the third shift three vertical buffers (5). These buffers enable the system to work for one
shift decoupled from the whole system.

Figure 61.8 shows part of the total system during assembly at the manufacturer.

REFERENCES
1. Hdrl, A., Flexibles Fertigungssystem fiir scheibenformige Rotationsteile, wt-Z. ind. Fertigung, Janu-
ary 1982, pp. 9-13.
2. Manogg, H., Industrieroboter konzipiert fiir die Handhabung von Werkstiicken, Konstruktion,
June 1983, pp. 239-245.
3. Wamecke, H. J., Steinhilper, R., Flexible Manufacturing Systems —
New Concepts, EDP-Supported
Planning, Application Examples, Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Flexible Manu-
facturing Systems, Brighton, U.K., 1982.
 ieoi

NUT

Fig.

LOCKWASHEn

alternator.)

62.3.

First
PULLEY

parts

FAN

tree

for FAN

SPACER

the

alternator:
FRONT

HOUSING

poor
BEARING

choice.

RETAINER

(See

SHORT
Figure
SCREWS

62.7

for SPACER

BEARING

picture

ROTOR

of

the
STATOR

LONG
SCREWS
Fig. 61.7. Layout of an individual manufactunng c«ll for machining coupling members
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PART 11
ASSEMBLY
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 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

TABLE 6J. A(i - 1. 1) MATRICES FOR THE STAN-

FORD MODEL MANIPULATOR
Cl 0 —ii 0 -1 r Cl 0 i* 0 1
0-? 0 0 ? °~o%
[ oooij LoooiJ
0 0 0 0 -J4 0
I *1 p c« 1
-1 0 0 0 ° ‘^‘0
AM -1^-
0 0 0 -1 0 0
[ oooij I rf,
LoooiJ
*
- Cs 0 Xj 0 - c* -Is 0 0 -1

= Si 0 — Cs 0 = Ss c* 0 0
A(5.6)
A(4. 5)
0 10 0 0 0 1 d«
. 0 0 0 1 J Lo 0 0 1 J
c, and s, denote cosine (0,) and sin (di). respectively

The reason for solving for s, and c, is that they uniquely specify which quadrant is located
in If only one element i$ used, for instance /w. then the equation would be

~iidi + djCiij — ptt — deZot

This equation is of the form

This equation can be solved by substituting for S| and c, their values as a function of ti, where ft is

the tangent of one-half of &, The result is

0, ^2 arctan(t|)

where

~
fe + c

The sign to choose is dependent on the sign and relative magnitude of a, b. and c.
The first three joint variables are used to control position, and the last three are used to control
orientation Note that since the last three axes intersect, rotating any wnst axis does not move (he
position of the point where they intersect
To solve for the last three axes, the homogeneous transform of link 6 coordinates with respect to
link 3 coordinates must first be computed It is

A(3, 6) = A(3. 4)A(4, 5)A(5. 6)

c«c»c« - *«r6 — cicjis — S4C« C.Ss dtCtSi-

XiCsCs + C«J« —l4CsI« + C4C« StSs dtStZs
—SiCt s»s» cs diCs
[ 0 0 0 1

= A(0, 3) ‘Ae
Oil On
Oil 0|4-|
On On On On I

oooij
On o„ Oj] <T]«
I

Note that the Cy are functions of the input transformation matnx and the first three joint vanabte,
which are known at this stage The Oy can therefore be evaluated now The third row, third column
gives the value of 6i

± arccos(an)
PLANNING PROGRAMMABLE ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS 1041

Designer’s Decisions and the Role of ADES

ADES is a computer program an assembly system. As such, it

that aids a designer in configuring
deals mainly with tactical issues. The must already have a firm grasp of the strategic issues.
designer
We assume, therefore, that the product’s design has been adequately studied and modified and that
one or more candidate assembly sequences are available. ADES’ job is then to select equipment or
people from a set of possible “resources” the designer provides and to assign the assembly operations
to the selected resources so that the required throughput can be met at minimum annualized cost.
Example types of resources include people; fully programmable, tool-changing robots; fixed-stop pick-
and-place robots; single fixed workheads; and complete transfer lines. ADES, in its current state,
cannot consider geometric constraints such as collisions between robots or contortions of conveyor
paths. Thus, the designer must convert ADES’ resource selections and task assignments into floor
plans. Satisfactory results are not always possible. Examples are given later.

Technical Description and History of ADES

ADES belongs to a class of systems called “resource allocation” programs and comprises several
mathematical programming techniques. It has developed through several stages to its present state.
Its original version was capable of making very general task assignments” in that several resources

could share responsibility for each operation. This led to quite efficient resource utilization but complex
system floor layouts. Also, only two types of resource versatility could be modeled: totally restricted
to one or two operations or totally substitutable and applicable to many operations. Thus totally
fixed simple workheads or rather general robots could be modeled, but anything of intermediate versatility
was difficult to model realistically. In addition, the resources’ time could be allocated to productive
work or to dwell times dictated by the need to deliver or remove work or by line imbalance. But
time devoted to tool changing, which depends on which operations are assigned to which resources,
could not be accounted for.
These limitations were removed in the second generation of ADES.” Tool change time is correctly
represented, and tool cost is approximately accounted for. Resources of different versatility are modeled
by describing which operations are individually feasible plus the maximum number of those (usually
fewer than those technically possible) the resource can support simultaneously. To achieve these increases
in ADES’ fidelity, it was necessary to restrict the generality of task assignment compared to the original
ADES. Now, operations cannot be split between several resources. It is still possible, however, to
assign several operations to one resource. This, plus tool changing, allows us to model the main economic
property of robots or other versatile machines, namely, their ability to do more than one job.
Finally, it should be noted that ADES is not limited to assembly system design but generally is
applicable to any problem of selecting resources to accomplish a given series of operations. Within
the limits of the model, one can design assembly, metal removal, administration, computation, or
other types of systems.
To use ADES,
the designer must assemble general technological data about feasible resources and
specific dataabout the assembly (or other) operations he needs accomplished, plus the desired sequence
of operations. He must then combine these data into an input table that gives the time and variable
cost for each resource to perform each operation if the combination (resource X operation) is feasible
in his judgement. The needed tools for each operation must be identified along with their variable
costs (adjustment, wear) and tool-change time.
The required annualized investment must be given for each resource. This is represented approxi-
mately by the purchase price plus a portion of the system’s engineering and installation costs, all
modified by a capital recovery factor. Finally, each resource’s “capacity” must be described. Two
factors are involved. One is its availability in minutes per hour. A
value of 120, for example, for this
datum tells ADES that two identical copies of this resource are available if needed. This gives ADES
an additional range of choices. The other factor is the technical versatility, indicated by the maximum
number of operations that can be assigned to this resource. Table 62.4 lists some representative assembly
and material-handling robots by increasing versatility.*^
Last, the designer gives the required annual production volume.
For each of input data, the program returns with its selection of resources plus the operation
set
assignments and corresponding annual operating cost (including amortization of the investment). The
percentage utilization of each resource is also given. If none is used 100%, then there is spare capacity.
Otherwise, one, sometimes more than one, resource is saturated and thus so is the system. In this
case, the annualized cost can be divided by the annual production volume to give a unit cost.
ADES can be used in several ways. A
first extension of the basic ADES procedure is to repeat it
for several different required production volumes. A
set of system designs and unit costs results, similar
to that shown in Figure 62.6, but based on a more realistic and particularized model.
The set of
deigns also represents a plan for phased introduction of automation capacity as volume grows. In
this case, it is more realistic to run the program in a series with strictly increasing volume. For each
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table 62.4. ROBOT PROGRAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION

Location Number Number Approx.
Basic Sequence Cntical Critical Of Cost
Class Sequence Alteration Pewts Points Axes Example (K$)

I Fixed Fixed Fixed 2 I Single Axis <5

Pneumatic

ll Adjust Fixed Fued 4-16 2-4 Seiko 100, 5-10

200,700

III Adjust Fixed Adjust 4-16 2-4 Seiko 400 10

IV Adjust Boolean Adjust 4-32 2-5 Autoplace 7-15

V Adjust Boolean Adjust 12-384 3 MHU 25-35

VI Prog Boolean Prog 00 3 + Wnst Fanuc 35

VII Prog. Boolean Prog. «. 5-6 Ummate 30-45

VIII Prog Algonthm Prog. CO 5-6 Puma, T» 35-70

voluine, one may include at very low cost the resources already “bought” by all the programs run at
lower volumes, simulating reuse of those resources An automation supplier can use ADES to “test
marVet” a new machine before it is buiU simply by including its pro)ecicd cost, versatility, and productiv*
ity along with data about existing competitive products Also, a system designer can test his own
selection of resources, letting ADES assign operations This method can be used to test a system's
breakdown resistance, merely by deleting a “broken” resource from the allowed set

Example Use 0/ ADES

The original version of ADES was tested on assembly of automobile alternators (Figure 62 7) The
input data are shown in Table 62 S The operations are listed along the left side, while the resources
and presumed annualized costs are listed across the top "PAX” represents a large assembly
their
robot designed by Bendix and used by CSDL to assemble alternators in 1977 >« “PUMA” represents
Unimation’s Untmale 600, a medium'Size assembly robot “Autoplace” represents typical flxed-stop
picK-and'pIace robots, which are much less versatile than PAX or PUMA and much less costly Entnes
in the table are assumed operation tunes in seconds, except for “lOO.” which represents the designer's
judgment that the operation is not feasible for that resource (parts too heavy m the case of ?UMA
or lack of tool-changing capacity m ihe case of Autoplace) These are reasonable but arbitranly chosen
times and capabilities, intended to exercise ADES They do not represent the true capabilities of any
real product, and no endorsement of or comment about any actual product is intend^
The result of a senes of runs with increasing production volume is shown m Table 62 6 Over an
8:1 range in volume there is about a 2:| gam in economy of scale Note that this is attained by
substituting less versatile, less costly resources at higher volumes More workstations are required to
meet these volumes, but each has fewer operations assigned to it, hence, less versatility is needed
The conclusion to be drawn is that between very versatile robots at low production volumes and
very restncted fixed automation at high volumes lies a nchly vaned continuum of hybnd systems
composed of stations of intermediate versatility
Figures 62 8 and 62 9 show two floor layouts created manually from solutions 2 and 7 in Tabic
62.6 The production volume capacities are greater than the computer specified because the designer
knew Chat tool-change time could be shared over several alternators as long as he provided space for
them in front of the tool-changing resource Note that the system m Figure 62 9 supports shared
operation assignments between Autoplace No. 1 and PAX Na 1, and between PAX No I and PAX
Nos 2 and 3. This requires a complex transport sequence and overlapping work regions so that one
set of part feeden can be shared The design may therefore be impractical The designs are discussed
more fully in Reference 15.
Expenence working with ADES
over the past three years shows that it is a useful tool It rarely
surprises the designer but regularly confirms his expectations and gives him confidence in the designs
As an accompaniment to a manual design procedure, the required data collection and feasibility judg-
ments enforce a useful discipline on the designer, resulting m
better designs

62.3. CASE STUDIES OF ROBOT ASSEMBLY SYSTEM DESIGN

Two specific case studies aredesenbed bnefly m
this section The first isassembly ofa small gunpowder
Ignitor, the second, assembly of part of a hand-held electnc appliance Finally, some problems of
workstation design are treac^
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 1043
PLANNING PROGRAMMABLE ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
UST OF TOOLS

33 SMALL THREE-FINGER TOOL

'J5
SCREWDRIVER
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^ ROTOR-NUT TIGHTENER
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BOLT DRIVER

12 SPACER

TRANSFER
FRONT SUBASSEMBLY
HOUSING
SUBASSEMBLY

^ is a
5 SPACER

*8 SCREWS

TOOL
1

3 PULLEY

a LOCK WASHER

1 NUT

SPRING-LOADED
PLUNGER
HEXAGONAL
POCKET
FOR NUT

MAIN ASSEMBLY BXTURE SUBASSEMBLY FIXTURE

Fig. 62.7. Exploded view of the alternator shows the sequence in which its 17 parts are assembled
by the programmable robot and identifies the tools that perform each task. The center rod in the
main assembly fixture is a spring-loaded plunger. The collar at the base of the rod contains a hexagonal
cavity that firmly holds part 1 , the nut. When the rotor (/5) is inserted, the plunger is depressed,
enabling the rotor’s threaded shaft to engage the nut. The rotor is then spun by tool 4 to thread the
shaft tightly into the nut. The time now required by entire operation, 2 rain 42 sec, could be reduced
to 1 min 5 sec if changes were made in design of tools, fixtures and the alternator.

62.3.1. Gunpowder Ignitor

The ignitor (Figure 62.10) is about an inch long and has eight parts, counting the powder charge.
The charge ignites when an electric current melts the wire. The product is currently assembled manually
with the aid of a press and simple hand tools. While production volume is expected to rise year by
year, it is unlikely to become large enough to justify conventional fixed automation. In fact, if robots
are used, they must be extremely low cost to compete economically with people, as shown by an
analysis like that in Figure 62.5. The challenge therefore is to design a robot assembly system with
inexpensive pick-and-place robots having three or four axes that move in simple arcs from one fixed
stop to another. This system must not only stack some parts under a press (not too difficult), but
must also thread the wire through them (difficult).
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TABLE 62.5. CHART OF SOLUTIONS TO OPTIMUM DESIGN PROBLEMS BASED ON

DATA IN TABLE 62.5“
Solution Number
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

PAX V
A.
V
A V
A ^
A *
2 PAX “A A A
•\.r

PUMA
2 PUMA
SP. SCR. DR. — —
AUTOPL 1 A
AUTOPL 2
One shift annual volume 63,000 108,000 168,000 192,000 330,000 360,000 480,000
One shift unit assembly S1.17 0.982 0.809 0.738 0.607 0.652 0.578
cost based on one year
payback

“ A solid line means that a machine is in a solution, while no line means that the machine is not in
the solution. Each solution is producing at the maximum production rate and .x's indicate the bottleneck
machines.
X = unit is fully loaded; x = unit is almost fully loaded

The proposed solution is shown in Figure 62.11. It is based on reversing the manual assembly
sequence so that the wire can be attached to the housing and cap in a few simple twists and sideways
moves by a fixed-stop robot and a wire-feeding station (Figure 62.12). The final system is shown in
Figure 62.13 and contains two such robots with 3 DF
each (in-out, up-down, and a 180-degree flip
about in-out). The product is built on a small nest that moves from right to left along a conveyor.
Robot No. 2 can put the final unit in the “good” or “bad” bin because its controller allows program
steps to be skipp^ based on external sensor signals. The program sends the robot to the “bad” bin
first, then to the “good” bin. When a unit tests “good” (most of the time), the trip to the “bad” bin
is skipped.
This is it follows one sequence, except at the last
not a very flexible system in the sense that
station. Butmeets the strategic and tactical needs for a low-cost system with the virtues of safety,
it

uniformity of performance, and product quality. It also shows that one can consider simple robots
for intricate assembly tasks.

62.3.2. Small Electric Appliance

This product is like many found in the home. It comes in several models of similar size and is typical
of several electric products this manufacturer makes. We consider a generic subassembly called the
“body,” shown in Figure 62.14. Ordinarily, such an item is quite difficult to assemble even manuall y
because of the need to run wires through cramped spaces between the stator and housing to interconnect
the stator, brushes, and cord. We assume, and have so advised the manufacturer, that meaningful
assembly automation requires redesigning the stator so that its wires terminate on a connector and
redesigning the housing so that some electric conductors are molded into iL Thus, wiring is submerged
in fabrication. Similar designs are starting to appear in high-volume motors and alternators.

The solutions shown here were generated with the help of ADES. Table 62.7 contains the input
data. Note the wide range of versatility and station cost. One resource, the multiple adjustable-stop
robot (MASR), is purely mythical. It was made up as a possible compromise technology to see how
it would perform against e.xisting equipment. It is presumed to contain real-time programmable
stops
so that it can stop at many points, but it has no servos or ability to perform controlled trajectories.
Thus it is of intermediate versatility and, presumably, intermediate cost.
Two of the solutions are sketched in Figures 62.15 and 62.16, designed to meet 600,000 and 1,300,000
uniu per shift-year, respectively. Each contains a rotary table for carrying assemblies between work-
stations. As in the examples in Figures 62.8 and 62.9, higher volumes are met by less versatile but
less expensive equipment Note especially that the MASR plays an important role.

62.4. ROBOT WORKSTATION DESIGN ISSUES

Robot workstation design is a large topic, and only a brief discussion is
given here. The emphasis is
on analyzing the technical requirements of the stations
before selecting robots, sensors, computers,
and other equipment.
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1046 assembly

Fig. 62.8. Design for solution 2 of Table 62 6 capable of producing 124,000 assemblies per shiB>
year [Computer’s solution is capable of only 108,000 assemblies per shifl'year 1

Robots perform pnmanly geomeIrK operations, so the geometry of the station’s task must be
determined first. This includes the gross size of moves as well a$ their directions The tolerances
required on all motions, speeds, forces, vibrations, noise, and so on, must also be known This may
bring the design to a temporary halt while the operation is reanalyzed and a better specification,
perhaps based on experiments, is created Vagueness in the specification (e g , “smooth,” “carefully''}
IS common in manual operations, but we have at present no way to convey such terms to a machine

Even to seek to convey them is pointless because they are masks for a lack of understanding of the
process A
process that is not understood cannot be automated successfully
Several design scenarios for carrying out the operation must then be created. Each must be analyzed
economically as well as technically to define the requirements of robots, computers, and tooling Errors
Of tolerances m
the performance of these items must be determined and compared to the task’s require-
ments. This may entail expenments, especially in the case of robots, because the state of knowledge
of their performance u generally poor. Manufacturers’ data usually are confined to maximum tip
speed and repeatability, which are easy to measure but oHcn hard to relate to the needs of the task
at hand
At present, it seems in vogue to sell robott based on their repeatability the smaller the better
But this also costs money, and the result may far exceed the needs of the task. Some quoted figures
appear to be easily swamped by thermal effects 8c that as it may, the task may require something
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Fig. 62S. Design for solution 7 of Table 62.6 based on fixed-sisit sequence transport configuration
and capable of producing 544,CCO assemblies/shift-year. [.Vora- the flow-s shown are the m.->Timnm
for each location. The system flow is 4.75 units per min.]

totally difierent. is economically much more significant and technically

For e.tample, stop-to-stop time
relesant than peak tip speed (which is rarely reached and fleetingly maintained in most assembly
tasks). End-point vibrations during stopping, induced by etcessise speed, can actually lengthen stop-
to-stop time.
is rarely quoted but often confused with repeatability. To define it requires
.Absolute accuracy
that the robothave a controller containing not only the robot’s internal coordinatis but also its ensiron-
ment’s (or world) coordinates, in which the “accurate" moses must occur. Finally, and cruciaL the
controller must contain a calibration (and a calibration procedure) that relates the two coordinate
systems. With these ingredients, the robot is able to go to some X. 1'. Z
point in its eniironment for
the time with such and such error. From this capabilitv' comes the abilitj' to program the robot
first

on-line using a C.AD/C.AM data base.

Some operations, such may not require absolute accuracv-, but only relatise accuracy:
as palletizing,
from here, go K mm along the X ads.
Others, such as inspection, delicate assembly, or other sensor-
based operations, will require commandable resolution, the abilitj- to make a given \ery sm->ll arose
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Fig, 62.14. "Body" subassembly

TABLE 62.7. RESOURCE SUMMARY FOR APES RUNS ON APPLIANCE BODY

Number of
Resource Tasks Station Time Tool Change Cost

Small pick-and'piace (SP&P) robot 1 Task dependent No S 10,000

Multiple adjustable stop robot 4 Task dependent No 15,000

(MASR)
PUMA Any Task dependent 3 sec

Special press tools 1 No 8,000

Dedicated station \ 10 sec No 30,000

Dedicated station 1 1 5 sec No 45,000

Dedicated station 1 20 sec or more No 50,000

Operation Time for Each Operation

by Each Resource (sec)
Body Operations
5P*P MASR PUMA Dedicated Machine

Bi-place back brg 20 20 25 10

Brplace housing, press 30 30« 25« I 5
4.(1 4a« 10“ 1.1

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Bs(l)'pl3ce, press brush 25 25 30 10
B«(2}-pIace. press brush 25 25 30 10
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0a-remove (unstable) 30» 3.0* 25*> 10

“ Special press tool required for completion of interference fits

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90 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Note that

Af<| ~ Aq — Qj “ «l»

X y(q«) + z(q,) X z(g:)

Afw» “ alo.) X x(q,) + y(q,) 2
— *n
A»T,~p(qi)-p(qi)

where tn is the orientation error vector and trf is the position error vector Define

(hen

J(q,)Aq =• tt (613)

Solving for Aq gives

Aq-J(q,)'‘e,

Two additional procedures needed to solve for Aq ERROR [(output = e,. input - A«(q,). A«(qj)J
to compute ir, and RATE (output = Aq, input = qi, e,) to compute Aq using Eq (6 13) Therefore

difference in the current estimate of the joint variables and the desired values of the joint variables
Since this is only an approximate solution, an iterative procedure must be used to solve for the joint
vanable positions The (blowing algonthiii works well

ALGORITHM 6J. INVERSE KINENUTICS

Step 1 Let < =

0 and guess the solution qi for the joint vanable positions
Step 2 Compute «r, the error vector, using the procedure ERROR [output ~ er, input ~ A«(q,).

Ad 1
Step 3 Compute (he estimate of the difference between qi and the desired solution by using the
procedure RATE (output = Aq,, input = qj, er)
Step 4 Set q(*i qi 4- Aqi
Step 5 If the magnitude of Aqi is less than some predefined stopping entenon, then STOP, else
continue
Step 6 Set 1 ** » + I and go to Step 2

The routine REVKIN (output = q, input = Ad) is used to solve the inverse kinematics problem
by implementing Algonihm 6 2 Note (hat the only additional routines needed are ERROR and RATE
The procedure RATE needs a bnear equation solution routine The library routine LIN (output = y,
input = B, x) 1$ used to solve the linear equation

y = Bx

The solution of Eq from the same problems as the solution of any other linear equation
(6 13) suffers
If the Jacobian matrix is nonsingular, a unique solution can be obtained If the Jacobian matrix is
singular, then either there exists no exact solution or an infinity of solutions exist The linear equation
routine LIN must consider the singular positions and attempt to obtain a solution in some sense
For example, the routine might minimize the sum of squares of residuals “ It is also impiortant to
note that even if the Jacobian matnx is nonsingular, it may still be ill-conditioned Ill-conditioning is

related to the fact that the Jacobian matnx k nearly singular When this occurs, the solution of the
equation becomes very sensitive to the values of the elements of the Jacobian matna Small errors in
the coefficients m
the Jacobian matrix result in large errors the answers that are computed m
PLANNING ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1061

The following list gives the data and documents required to clearly understand, justify, and implement
a programmable automatic assembly project:

Monthly and yearly production volume. These data were collected previously, but at this point it

would be a good time to check their accuracy.

Number of styles in the product family. (Same as above.)
Engineering product drawings and specifications. Drawings should be available on the completely
assembled product, on all the different styles, and on all the product parts. Material and product
operation specifications should also be collected. Information derived from the drawings and specifi-
cations such as tolerances, material characteristics, product-part surface finishes and conditions,
and so on, will have a major affect on the final configuration and cost of the system.
Engineering drawings and specifications on the equipment, tooling, and fixturing used at present
to assemble the product. Periodically it turns out that currently used equipment and/or tooling
and fixturing can be incorporated into the new system as is, or with minor redesign. If drawings
and specifications are available, this could save valuable engineering time.
Task or operation instructions on the present assembly sequence and method. When it is not available
or not updated to present date, a commentated videotape of the operation is a good substitute.
Operation time values from individual stations or operator and total cycle time. Normally two
types of time values are available: standard time values, based on measurements, tables, and calcula-
tions for each station and for the total line; actual time values, based on the operators’ and operation
efficiency. The additional time value required is the setup time for each currently existing station
involved in the assembly of the product.
Average batch size assembled for each product style and the number of batches run per month.
Part defects. These should be listed as to the type of defects and the quality. These are very
important data to collect. They will affect the cycle time and the justification of the new automated
system. If the data are not available, the next best thing is to ask the line supervisor to collect all

the rejected parts, subassemblies, and final assemblies for four or five days in a row, determine
the reasons for rejects, then tabulate the results.

Testing and inspection specification during and after assembly. Again, two types of data are needed:
quality inspection and test; functional inspection and test. The area of testing and inspection is
one of the most important areas where programmable assembly systems can contribute heavily to
the quality improvement of a product. The sensory and data-handling capabilities built into the
system can provide the base for the desired checkpoints and inspections, and selective assembly
(matching parts according to dimensions within the range of the tolerance) will improve the quality
of the product if the requirements are clearly documented at the beginning of the project.
Number of persons involved in the assembly of the product such as assembly operators, testing
and inspection operators (during assembly), and material-handling operators.
Present material-handling and feeding methods. The following data are needed on the status of
the orientation of the parts delivered to the assembly area: types of containers; degree of orientation
(zero-, one-, two-, or three-axis orientation); type of feeding devices (bins, cardboard containers,
etc.).

Incoming parts inspection methods.

Shop floor area layout and dimensions for the present assembly area.
Market forecast for the product over the next three years. Since the usual payback requirement
for a programmable assembly system is three years (for a complex system it could be up to five
years), the projected sales volume should be forecast with reasonable accuracy.

Warranty cost for at least one year.

Possibility of design changes Although at this point it is difficult to predict the

in the product.
type of design change desired, if any, a good indication can be gained from the operator assembling
the products. Chamfers, asymmetry, tolerances, material, and function of the parts are some of
the factors that manual-assembly operators could point out as candidates for design changes impor-
tant for successful automatic assembly. In fact, the ideal situation would be to conduct a “Design
for Assembly” evaluation on the product prior to implementing the programmable assembly system.
For this an excellent and practical procedure was worked out by Dr. G. Boothroyd at the University
of Massachusetts and is highly recommended.’ In many cases significant cost reductions can be
achieved in material and labor costs of an assembly when using the Boothroyd procedure for
design evaluation.
Present production planning method, data collection method, and data processing equipment. Fre-
quently it is a requirement to provide an interface for communications between the programmable
assembly systems computer and the host computer in the plant. Scheduling in-process inventory
and other reports could be some of
control, production status reports, statistical data collection,
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1062 ASSEMBLY

the reasons for the request Therefore selection of the equipment for the system will be affected
by these requirements
Environment Need to determine the range of operating temperature at the assembly area, the
range of humidity at the assembly area, atmospheric conditions such as vapors, dust, and smoU,
vibration and noise levels, type of light and li^t levels

The previous list contains the data and documentation normally required to develop and implement
a programmable automatic assembly system The depth and breadth of the data required indicate
why It IS necessary to have a product-selection method that can be used to prescreen the candidatts
and save all the time and effbrt involved m
fully documoiting a product that is not feasible for automatic
assembly
During the data collection and documentation work, it will turn out that some of the required
data are not available New products or a quite matured one are where most of the dilhculties will
be encountered when attempting to collect (he necessary data In the first case the data and drawings
may not be mature or prepared yet, in the second it could be obsolete, not updated, and/or misplaced
Effbrt should be made to make a note of it and since this type of data is needed for normal production
control. It should be developed as lime permits In the meantime, substitute or supporting data should
be collected on a best-effort base This could be a set of product parts and a completely assembled
product and descnptive information collected from the assembly operators
Although actual parts and assembled products could assist in preliminary system conliguration, it
should not be used too extensively The danger in using actual product parti for system configuration
is that one or two pans cannot define the total requirements, such as tolerances and onentation, but

It IS easy to assume that they do Product parts are a help in visualizing the setup requirements, but

when the documentation is available assistance in three-dimensional visualization should be the only
use of the pans

63J.7. Conceptual System Configuration, Parallel with Economic Evaluation

System configuration is an iterative process It starts with the evaluation of the factors affecting the
product and the assembly tasks, proceeds with the selection of a concept dependent on these facton,
and evaluates the performance of the selected concept Then, based on the results, it returns to the
starting point to either discard the system concept or refine the configuration and optimize its IKrfo^
mance The method used for conceptual system configuration could be analytical or empirical The
latter method is used here in a systematic form for two reasons first, at present analytical methods
are still under development, and second, at some points the analytical methods also incorporate empirical
steps in the system configuration process Regardless of ihe method used, a systematic approach will
produce the best end result for a given set of data The major steps involved m
the regimented empincal
procedure, used successfully for conceptual system configuration, are discussed in detail in the followmg
sections

Review Product Documentation

The purpose of the review is to become familiar with the product Its geometry, function, operation,
and peculiar characteristics should be evaluated and thoroughly understood Familianty with the product
will lead to a clear definition of the problem at hand Seemingly a simple task, the accurate description
of the problem is frequently the most difficult one. leading to misunderstandings and faction between
project team members or between customer and supplier This is the time to ask questions, clanfy
responsibilities, discuss environmental and safely conditions, request additional data if necessary, and
consider the general capabilities and restrictions

Develop Process Flow Chari

The process flow chart is Ihe graphic representation of the assembly tasks in sequence It can be
considered as the logic diagram for the conceptual system configuration work The main advantage
of developing a process flow chart is that U sunitnanzes and presents all the assembly and inspection
tasks in one easily viewable, simple format
In the chart, the principal direction of the process flow represents the sequential assembly tasks
From the pnncipal flow lin^ side lines branch out On the left side, the branches represent tasks
that involve components and subassemblies always present in the product On the nght side, the
branches represent tasks involving components and subassemblies appeanng only in certain product
styles m the product family In the chart, assembly tasks are represented by circles, inspection tasks
by squares The task symbols are interconnected by lines to integrate the flow chart Arrows on the
line point in the direction of the flow
To each task symbol two numbers are attached One three-digit number represents the operation
number. This number refere to the name of the operation contained in the lists prepared parallel
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Aiaivassv ZLOJ
PLANNING ROBOT APPUCATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1063

with the process flow chart. The second number, two digits, represents the style number of the product.
If the part is common to more than one style, all the style numbers should be marked at the operations
concerned with the part. If only one product style is planned to be assembled on the system, only
the operationnumbers should be present at the task symbol. Figure 63.3 shows the genei^ layout of
a flow chart for a family of products with three diflerent product styles.
Developing and refining a process flow chart for programmable automatic assembly is one of the
most creative phases of the conceptual system configuration. An inventive approach is in order when
starting with the layout of the flow chart. Although each product can be assembled a number of
different ways, a logical and efBcient process usually surfaces shortly after the initial layout is completed.
Attention must be paid to the following when developing a process flow chart:

During manual assembly, the operators pick up the part in random orientation, inspect and orient
the part, then assemble and inspect again. All these operations (some of tjiem are not even specified
in the operator instructions) must be disclosed and accounted for, then included in the process
flow chart

001

Fig. 63.3. Process flow chart.

STATION

*1

STATION

*Z

STATION

»3

STATION

*4

STATION

*5
1064 ASSEMBLY

Operations, ^vhe^ever possible, should be combined to reduce cycle tune. This is also an excellent
opportunity for suggesting product part redesign for ease of assembly and for reducing the number
of parts m
the assembly by combining the functions of the different parts. Although product design
or redesign for assembly is a sure way to reduce product and system cost and improve quality, u
should not be counted on to have senous effect on (he present system configuration By the tune
a suggestion related to product redesign is approved and integrated into the product, the system
IS usually up and running StilL it will provide an opportunity for future product cost and quality

improvement
The product should be divided into logical subassemblies This is most important when the product
IScomplex and contains a large number of parts The subassemblies then can be treated as individual
branches of the process flow chart

When the process flow chart is completed, it will show all the assembly and inspection tasks, the
sequence of the tasks, and indirectly list all (he product parts and subassemblies in one comprehensive
figure. It will be a solid base for conceptual system configuration Although minor changes can be
expected to occur as the system configuration progresses, expenence shows that the overall process
flow remains the same

Develop Cycle Time Chan

In manufactunng, the single most significant factor affecting production is the cycle time All system
design parameters ultimately can be related to this factor. Therefore it is desirable to define operation,
or in this case assembly cycle time, as early in the system configuration work as possible Naturally,
the data defined in the early phase of (he work will not have the reliability required for the final
system design, but they will b< accurate enough to permit the development of concepts suitable to
start the conflguration procedure
As was the case in the process flow development, graphic representation of the assembly operation
time value and the total cycle time provides a very handy tool to assist in system configuration A
cycle time chart is easy to work with since it is similar to (he popular Gantt chart The one drawback
of using this chart is that it ts cumbersome to update if one time value is changed This problem u
easily eliminated by usin^ a qersanal computer to operate Uus chan But even wuhoul a computer,
the advanuges in the use of the chart far outweigh the drawbacks
In staning to develop the cycle time chart, the first question asked is
how to determine the operation
time values when the equipment petfonning the operation is unknown Two sources are available
The one is the existing or standard time values and the other is estimated practiced time values

Since the operations are already defined in the flow chart diagram, standard time values can be assigned
to the following group of operations

Dnve-threaded components
Rivet
Solder, weld
Deposit
Form (cut, punch, cnmp, bend)
Press
Inject

Gage

If no standard time value is available, a 6 0-sec lime value for most cases is in the right range
Estimated time value of 4 0 sk can be assigned for the following groups of operation.

Orient
Slide
Twist
Insert

Pull

Remove

In both groups of operation time values, a pick-and-place task is included One more operation
must be accounted for, and this is a transfer Either a robot arm or a transfer mechanism could do
this task Although the time value depends on the distance of the transfer and the type of equipment,
an initial value of 2 5 sec is useful, lliese are all the operations involved in assembly At first glance
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AISK'SSSV
PLANNING ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1065

a task might not seem to fit in either group, but closer examination will reveal that it does, and then
the appropriate time value can be selected. Figure 63.4 shows the general format of the cycle time
chart. Note that some tasks can be performed parallel with the assembly operation, thereby significantly
reducing the overall cycle time.
Once all the cycle time charts are completed for the different product styles and summarized, the
first approach on the assembly cycle time will result in a value. The accuracy of the value is not

known, but since the foregoing figures are on the conservative side, if anything, the determined cycle
time value will be on the safe side. Using the previously determined cycle time value and additional
data collected during the product documentation phase, the following calculations can be made:

The available time per year per shift is: 8 hr X [(365 days) — (2 x 52 weekend days + 10 vacation
days)] = 2008 hr/year.
Using 90% figures for factory efficiency: 2008 X 0.9 = 1807 hr/year/shift.
The required time per year per shift is: Yearly product X cycle time —A hr/year
Using 90% figure for the assembly system uptime
A hr/year X 0.9 = required hours/year/shift.

Now, comparing the value of the available hours to the required hours, the following conclusions
can be made:

1. If the required time is equal to or less than the available time, a one-shift operation with one
programmable assembly system will produce the scheduled production volume. If the required time
is significantly more (20% or more) than the available time, two- or three-shift operations are required.
Normally, if the difference is less than 20%, clever system configuration can increase the capacity of
the system to the point where a one-shift operation is sufficient.
2. If the required volume cannot be produced even with a three-shift operation, double tooling
or a multiple system will be the answer.

Further information can be gained on the required system by considering the number of parts in
the product. The efficiency of an assembly system is significantly affected by the number of operations
it performs. The higher the number of operations, the lower the efficiency, simply because there is
more chance for jamming or breakdown. Practical experience dictates that the number of parts assembled

Oper.
Time Isec)
Task name 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
no.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1

001 Operation

002 Operation

003 Operation

004 Operation

005 Operation

006 Operation

007 Operation

008 Operation

009 Operation

010 Operation

011 Operation

012 Operation

013 Operation

014 Operation

Total cycle time: 32 sec

Fig. 63.4. Cycle time chart.

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1066 ASSEMBLY

at one assembly station or uith one assembly aim {mtb some eaceplion such as PC board assembi))
should be kept between two and five Not only the reliabihty of the s>stcm suffers when ucedhot
this number, but the available space around the equipment vv-ill be cluttered and jammed to the poiot
wheremamtcnance will be very difficult Knowing the total number of parts in the product andassu^g
an average of four parts assembled per assembly station, the number of stations required wiU be one-
fourth of the total number of pans in the product At the final sj stem configuration the numbed of
stations could change somewhat because of load balancing

Delermine Sysltn Requirement

For a programmable assembly system two basic concepts can be considered. One is the asseti^hly
centerand the other is the assembly-lme concept Although sometimes it is difficult to draw a sh^
dividing fine between thetwo concepts, each has its own mdividuaf cfiaractensncs.
Programmable assembly centers are coacentrared groups of equipment dedicated to complete
<

m:
I

.... . ,
'

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.....1.

and tooling
fixtures, feeders,
—A .r-, — >1- •
Ti

computer and a control cerminaJ complete the system. In operal>o^

asserobly

one or two robot arms complete the assembly of the product while, if ne^ed. other arms simultanecudy
preassemble the next product and/or prepare subassemblies. Figure 63 S shows a typical conceptu^
layout of an assembly center
Programmable assembly lines are. in layout, similar to dedicated or fixed assembly lines The product
IS transferred from station (o station, and progressively assembled until it is complete. In its conucp*

the programmable assembly line consists of a number of assembly stations interconnected with a buS^cd

Fig, 63Ji- Programmable assembly center

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planning robot applications in assembly 1067

transfer system. A
multilevel computer system controls the assembly line. The individual stations
can be programmable, dedicated, or manual assembly stations.
As the programmable assembly technology advances, the number of the dedicated and manual
assembly stations will diminish, but at present they still play a significant role in assembly automation.
A well-conceived programmable assembly line provides for technology advance by adding extra stations
to the line at the points where, owing to the complexity of the operation, manual assembly is used.
The geometrical layout of the system could be closed-loop branched or in-line; the choice depends
on local conditions or preference. Figures 63.6 and 63.7 show two conceptual layouts for a programmable
assembly line. Figure 63.6 is a closed loop. Figure 63.7 is an in-line arrangement.
Selecting between the two system configurations, that is, assembly center or assembly line, is empiri-
cal, although a few basic rules help in the selection. In most cases the choice will fall on the assembly

center concept. There is a definite trend toward this concept in the manufacturing industry for the
following reasons: multiarm robots used at assembly centers are very efficient. The assembly center
can accomplish complex tasks. The system is compact and takes a relatively small area on the factory
floor. The robot’s controller is used for most of the control task. Task load balancing is simple. It

can assemble products using the selective assembly principle. Transfer time is reduced or eliminated.
A programmable assembly line concept should be selected when manual operations are involved
at some point in the assembly cycle or when more than a few product styles are planned to be assembled.

Since some assembly operations, such as wire handling and soldering, are still too complex to be
reliably executed by robots, it is frequently necessary to incorporate manual assembly stations into
an automatic system. This is very easily done in a programmable automatic assembly line but not in
an assembly center. Also, assembling a number of diflferent product styles on the same system means
that additional product parts must be accommodated within the system’s boundary. For this, only a
limited area is available within the envelope of an assembly center, but there is much less limitation
existing for an assembly line.

Conceptual System Configuration

At this point the following information is available for system configuration:

The type of assembly and inspection task.

The preliminary sequence of the assembly and inspection tasks.

An estimate of the operation time values and total cycle time.

An estimate of the number of shifts required to assemble the desired number of products.
The estimated number of assembly stations.

The number of product styles plarmed to be assembled on the system.

Environmental conditions.

Fig. 63.6. Programmable assembly system, closed loop.

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1068 ASSEMBLY

Fig. 63.7. Programmable assembly system, in-line

Based on this information, the concept for the programmable assembly system can be selected
Once this done, the nest cask ts to develop a scaled layout of the selected concept
is A list of the

equipment and its overall dimensions must be determined either for an assembly center or an assembly

tine. Since each operation requires some type of equipment to perform the operation, the list of the
required equipment can be derived from the process flow chart Dimensions of the equipment can be
found from industrial catalogs and from suppliers of the equipment Once this is available, the outline
of the major components of the system is drawn and cut out to form templates These templates are
then arranged, using the process Row chart and the cycle time value charts as a guide, to lorm the
first outline of the conceptual programmable assembly system If a CAD system is available, the
making of the templates can be eliminated, and the layout can be simulated on the CRT This process
IS Iterative in nature Once the conceptual configuration of the system is available, it must be checked

against (he process Row chart to see if all the specified tasks can be accomplished and in the desired
sequence. Then, (he cycle time chart must be revised to sw if the task can be completed within the
specified time value
It IS very likely that the first approach will not yield the desired results and that the process will
have to be repeated a number of limes until the system is optimized The goal is to complete the
assembly and inspection of the product with a minimum of time and mvestment The refining of
the concept could go on for a long time lo achieve this goal, but after the third or fourth iteration,
the process amves at a point where Ihe invested tune will not be proportional with the return,
and the process should be terminated
Probably most of the problems m
selecling system components for the configuration will anse in
connection with the selection of Ihe robot What simplifies the procedure here is that there are only
two kinds of multiarm ,

arm assembly robots to c ’ «

ngidily of construction, I . --r-o a -

affecting the final choice when a robot for assembly

specifying
Speed, accuracy, degrees of freedom, and so on, although important parameters, depend heavily
on the arrangement and type of tooling and fixiunng within Ihe system and therefore should ^considered
in this framework (see S^tion 63 3 9 m
this chapter)
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PLANNING ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1069

With the selection of the robot or robots, the associated tooling, and the list of equipment previously
defined with the aid of the process flow chart, the first estimate on the economics is in order. Two
setsof figures are sought here. One is the possible savings expected, the other is the investment required
to develop and install the equipment. To estimate the savings, the number of assembly operators
saved by the proposed system must be determined.
The savings isnumber of operations required for the manual assembly minus the number of
the
operators required by the proposed system. The required number of years for payback and the number
of shifts used for manual assembly will modify the savings. When the number of operators saved is
multiplied by $25,000 to $35,000, the estimated savings can be calculated.
The investment can be estimated by multiplying the number of stations in the assembly system
by an average assembly station cost and adding the cost of robot(s) and system control to it Another
way to estimate the investment is to secure cost estimates for the list of equipment determined from
the system configuration and add to it the appropriate engineering cost (one to two times the equipment
cost). Neither way is very accurate, but it is close enough to determine a budgetary estimate without

spending excessive time on collecting cost figures.

By comparing the two sets of estimated figures (savings and investment) a reasonably good picture
can be obtained for the feasibility of the concept. If the savings are more than the investment, or the
two figures are close to each other, the proposed programmable assembly system is feasible and work
can start on refining the concept. If the investment is significantly higher than the savings, the system
concept should be reviewed and reconfigured. If the developed new concepts still point to unfavorable
economic could be Justified on environmental, quality, or technical reasons,
results, the project still
or discontinued in favor of another product. Rejection of a product is very unlikely at this point,

because the preliminary screening at the product selection procedure eliminated most of the unsuitable
products.

63.3,8. Finalize System Configuration and Economic Evaluation

Assuming the economics and other factors have Justified the feasibility of the developed concept, the
rough cutouts and sketches used for concepting must be converted to drawings depicting the final
layout, detailed outline, and major dimensions of the system and system components. Up to now,
the main effort of the concept development and system configuration was concentrated on organization
determination with a minimum amount of time spent on hardware specification. Almost any part of
this work can be substituted with available or currently developed analytical methods. To finalize

system configuration and lay down the base for system design, the work now must concentrate on
technological determination and use the developed organization as a guideline for the design of a
cost-effective, reliable, programmable assembly. For this task, no analytical procedure is available; it
must come from the creative capabilities of the designer.
The work starts with the review of the operations, the assembled list of equipment required to
accomplish these operations, and the concept developed and Justified for the assembly system. Starting
with a scaled plane-view layout of the robot work envelope or the dedicated workhead, the first station
is laid out. Fitted to the outside of the work envelope are the part feeders, transfer mechanisms,

other dedicated equipment and storage devices. Inside the work envelope are the work stage, assembly
fixture, feeder tracks, grippers, special tooling and fixturing, and test or inspection devices. The type
and position of sensory devices are listed, then marked on the layout. When an assembly center or
assembly line is being laid out, attention must be paid to provide enough space around the equipment
for troubleshooting and maintenance. Any control cabinet or console must be located in a position
that, when the operator uses the control, the equipment to be controlled is clearly visible.

If additional stations are required, the layout follows a similar procedure. If the system is an
assembly line, buffers should be provided between the stations. Statistical data prove that most break-
downs in an assembly system are caused by part Jamming, and that most Jams can be cleared within
30-60 sec. Therefore, buffer capacity should be such as to provide enough work for the stations that
the Jammed station can be stopped, the Jam cleared and the station restarted without interfering
with the rest of the system.
If at all possible, pallets should not be used in programmable automatic assembly systems as a
means of transferring in-process product or as buffer storage devices. Pallets and the associated pallet
transfer equipment are expensive, take a large amount of factory floor, and do not contribute anything
to the assembly process. For an assembly line, rotary tables, spiral silos, pick-and-place, walking beams,
and similar transfer devices can provide buffer storage and the means to transfer the part without
losing orientation. For a simple assembly center, the feeders can provide the buffer. For a multiarm
assembly center, internal buffers can be designed into the work station.
If manual assembly is required at some point in the operation, two stations should be provided
within the system. One station could be a spare for possible future automation, the other is the station
for manual assembly. Effort must be made to assure the safety and comfort (noise, light, etc.) of
the
Operator. Free access to and from the system also must be provided so the finished product can be
removed and new product components can be brought in.
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1070 ASSEMBLY

Once the plane view of the layout is completed, side views should be drawn for the more complex
equipment in the s>slem The side view will assist in visualizing the system and help to discover
interferences and other unforeseen problem areas It also helps m
defining the type and dimensions
of the major system components
AAer completing the system configuration layout, a detailed economic evaluation is m order. Deter-
mining the economics of a planned manufactunng system is normally a straightforward procedure
For a programmable assembly system, the evaluation is more complicated first, because a number of
factors additional to the usual ones must be considered, and second, because these factors, although
representing real savings, are difficult to quantify Expenence shows that the total quality improvement,
shop floor area reduction, yield improvement, warranty cost reduction, in-process inventory cost reduc-
tion, and other provide an additional 10% or more savings
Since the procedure for detailed economic evaluation ts well documented, we do not consider it
here. But it is believed that a product and a concept that pass through the two previously desenbed
screening points and are found feasible will not be difficult to justify economically
With the completion of the system configuration layout and detailed economical evaluation, the
plans should be presented for final review to all persons involved with the project Within the framework
of the basic concept, this is the time for suggesting changes, criticizing decisions, and asking questions
If product redesign changes were considered previously, a final decision must be made at this point
Interfacing to other equipment or production areas also must be finalized Environmental conditions
must be reviewed against the proposed equipment to see if they are capable of operating reliably and
safely Ounng the review, the comments should be noted and saved for future reference Prior to
finalapproval, a Gantt chart (or bar chart) should be developed showing the scheduling of the major
phases and the completion date of the project
Final approval should signal the end for changes in system configuration Minor design changes
could occur throughout the design and fabncaiion phase of the programmable assembly system, but
after approval, any change in system configuration could represent major cost increases and time
delay in completion

63.3.9. Detailed Design of tbe Selected System Configuratioo

The two branches of mechanics, kinetics and statics, provide well-developed tools and methods for
designers (o develop sound and reliable mechanical structures And modem control capability bated
on microprocessors and other LSI (large scale integrated) circuits enable designers to provide the
movement and flexibility for these structures to perform the desired tasks Therefore we examine and
discuss the programmable assembly system design procedure, not as a design task, but more in terms
of the peculianties associated with this type of system To organize the discussion, the system u
divided into the following components

Work stations

Robots
End efTeclors

Feeders
Transfer mechanisms
Assembly fixtures

Sensors
Final design review

In some instances, this division is somewhat artificial, but it contains all the major components
associated with a programmable assembly system m a conveniently usable form

Work Stations

The function of a work station is to provide a stable, well-defined place for the iropJemenlation of
the assembly and inspection tasks Its major components are the station substructure, tooling plate
or platform, and locating devices to interface with other equipment Depending on system configuration,
any or all of these components could be missing from the station For example, in the concept shown
in Figure 63 8. only a substructure ts required In the arrangement, a robot, acting as a transfer
mechanism, carries the product from station to station At each station, a component is assembled
or inspection is performed Then, at the end of the cycle, the completed product is disposed of This
type of configuration can be used successfully to replace a pallet earner transfer mechanism and eliminate
the tooling plate or assembly platform
Most of the complications associated with the work station design for a programmable assembly
center are connected to providing utilities lo the components of the station Frequently, space must
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 1

92 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

where Dj ts the upper sabmatnx of A,(q), The procedure TRFIN (output = I,, n, input
left 3 X 3
= Ai(q), Ii, f() IS used to compute I, and n usmg this equation
The total force and moment exerted on Imk i is composed of the force and moment exerted by
link 1 - 1 and link i + 1 plus the force and moment due to gravity If i ts equal to m. there is no
f„4., or n™*!, since there ts no link m + 1 Therefore fm»i and n^+i are zero In the inverse dynamics
algorithm, it is convenient to set them equal to any externa! force and moment exerted on link m.
The effects of gravity can be included in the model by setting the linear acceleration of the base,
Vo equal to the acceleration due to gravity and w# equal to zero in Eqs (6 8) and (6 9) The effect of
gravity will automatically be contained in the Fi and N|. Wo and v# are set to zero in Eqs (6 4) and
(6 5)
The total force and moment exerted on link t ts

F.=fj-f,»,
N, = 0 -n.»i-(p; +r.)Xf, +ri Xfj*,
.

Solving for f, and n, gives

fl=F, +f.M
n. =N, +n.*t + (pf +r,)X F« +p* X ft*, (6 17)

Routine LINKFOR (output = ft. n,. input = F, N|, ft*i. ni*,, p^. n) is used to compute ft

and n, using Eq (6 17)

Finally, u, is the projection of ft or n, along the axis of motion of joint !•

Zi-i'n, if joint ( IS rotational

(618)
I z,.|'ft if joint I IS translational

Routine JOTFOR (output = u,. input = ti-i. n,. ft. lypej) is used to compute u, using Eq (6 18)
Thus in a roundabout way the function for u in (6 14) has been denved A more efficient
computational procedure can be obtained by letting alt of the quantities associated with link < in the
^
foregoing equations be referenced (o link i coordinates* This simplifies the computational procedure
since r, and ft need not be computed

ti.3.2. Inverse Dynamics

For control purposes it is important to be able to compute (he required torque for specific trajectories
very quickly Depending on the power of the processor being used, it may be necessary to use approxima-
tions for these terms * '• However, if the purpose of having the model is for simulation, or if the
processor being used for control is of sufiiaent power, the foregoing equations can be used directly
This problem is referred loas (he inverse dynamics problem Given the position, velocity, and acceleration
of the joint vanables, the torque needed to move the manipulator can be computed by the following
algorithm

ALGORITHM 6.3. INVERSE DYNAMICS

Step 1 Set / = 0, A(0, 0) =

I »= the identity matnx, w# =» Wo v# 0 = ~
Step 2 Compute A(0, i + 1) by computing A(i. i I) with the procedure HOMOJ {output
+ =
A(i, + I 1), input I -i- =
IJ and multiplying it times A(0, i) using procedure MULMAT
(output = A(0 . +
1), input =
A(0, «), A(i. i + 1)1
Step 3 Compute ft*, and r,*, by calling procedure TRNINT [output = ft+i, r.*,. input
= A(0, i

+ D.I.o.ftMj
Step 4 Compute w,*, and v,*, by calling procedure VEL (output = iv,*i, v,*,, input = w,. Vi.
zi- P.%1' q>*i)
Step 5 Compute w,*, and v,+, by calling procedure ACCEL (output = w,*,. V(*i, input
=
V.. w., z„ p*,.,, q,*,. q,*,, lypc,*t)
Step 6 Compute v,*, by calling procedure ACCNT (output = v,, input = Vi. w,. r,)
Step 7 Compute Ff*, and Nj*_, by calling procedure TOTFOR (output = F,*,. N,*,, input =
ft+l, W,*,. I*|*„ w,*,. f,*0
Step 8 Set I = I -1- 1

Step 9 If I < m. go to step 2, else continue

Step 10 Set fm*, and nm*i equal to the force and moment acting through link coordinates which m
are equivalent to all of the external forces and moments exerted on link m. [nln+i Im+il
~
k'
PLANNING ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1081

Reason for Automation. Quality improvement, cost reduction.

System Description. Programmable assembly center, based on the Westinghouse Series 5000 two-
arm assembly robot. Included in the system are one vibratory bowl feeder, three magazines, one
Series 1000 robot, fixtures, grippers, sensors, and control.

System Operation;

ROBOT ARM 1: Pick up shaft and place it in the assembly fixture. Pick up plastic gear and
press the gear on the shaft. Pick up a ratchet gear and press it on the shaft.

ROBOT ARM 2: Pick up the subassembly from position 1 and transfer to position 2. Pick
up lever and position it in the assembly fixture. Insert rivet in lever and
rivet lever to gear.

ROBOT ARM 3: (Series 1000): Transfer assembly to rotary table. Inspect position and operation
of lever.

System Cycle Time. 18 sec

Required Number of Operators. 0.5

63.4.3. Case Study 3 (See Figure 63.16)

Product. Gearbox assembly

Yearly volume: 140,000
Manual assembly time: 92 sec

Number of product styles: 17 (depends on gear arrangements)

Number of parts: 14 (two subassemblies, 12 parts)
Number of shifts worked; 2
Number of batches per month: approximately 60
Average batch size: 200 units
Average yield: 88%
Weight of assembly: 1.2 kg

Reason for Automation. Quality improvement, cost reduction.

System Description. Programmable assembly line based on the Westinghouse Series 5000 and
Series lOOOR robots. Included in the system are a power-and-free conveyor guided through the
two Series 5000 robots, grease press, feeders, tooling and fixturing, screwdriver, sensors, and control.
System Operation:

STATION 101: Pick up and place housing base subassembly on the pallet. Pick up gear part
and place in housing base. Pick up shaft and insert in gear in housing. Pick
up gear and place it on the shaft. Transfer to next station.
STATION 102: Pick up spacer and place on shaft in the housing base. Pick up shaft and
insert it in the housing base. Pick up gear and place it on the shaft. Inject

grease in the housing base. Transfer to next station.

STATION 103: Pick up pin and insert it in housing base. Pick up second pin and insert it in
housing base. Pick up housing top subassembly and place it on housing base.
Transfer to next station.
STATION 104: Drive four screws in housing top.

System Cycle Time. 19 sec

Required Number of Operators. One per shift

63.4.4. Case Study 4 (See Figure 63.17)

Product. Angle bracket

Yearly volume: 3,300,000
Manual assembly time; 13 sec
Number of product styles; 1
Number of parts: 3 and 1 inspection task
Number of shifts worked: 2
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1082 ASSEMBLY

Average yield 96%

Weight of the assembly 0 20 kg

Reasoa for Automation. Volume increase, cost reduction

System Description. Double-cooled. high-speed programmable assembly center, based on the West-
inghouse Senes jOOO two-arm, long-bed, assembly robot Included in the system are two sets of
identical tooling and fixtunng mounted on two rotary tables, two spiral silo conveyor feeders,
four vibratory bowl feeders, three pick-and-place transfer arms, sensors, gnppers, and control

Fig. 63.17. Case study 4

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Aiawassv 7601
PLANNING ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN ASSEMBLY 1083

System Operation: The equipment assembles two products simultaneously on two sets of tooling.
A pick-and-place loader places a bracket in the assembly fixture mounted on a rotary table. The
table indexes, the robot arm picks up a lever, rotates it, and positions it inside the bracket. On
the next index, an air-cylinder-driven mechanism inserts a pin through the bracket and the lever.
During the next indexing of the table the lever movement is inspect^ on the fly. After indexing,
the center pick-and-place arm removes the assembly and transfers it to the delivery chute.

System Cycle Time. 5.5 sec for two products

2.75 sec for one product
Required Number of Operators. One per shift

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Messrs. R. L. Eshleman, D. L. Wolfe, and V. P.
Valeri, Managers of the Westinghouse Industry Automation Division for their support of this work.

REFERENCES

1. Boothroyd, G., Poli, C., and Munch, L. E., Automatic Assembly, Dekker, New York, 1982.
2. Boothroyd, G. and Dewhurst, P., Design for Assembly. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, 1983.
3. Csakvary, T., Product selection procedure for programmable automatic assembly technique. Proceed-
ings of the 2nd International Conference on Assembly Automation, Brighton, U.K., May 1981,
pp. 201-210.

4. Wamecke, H. J., Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Assembly Automation, Stuttgart,
West Germany, May 1982, pp. 1-14.
5. Eversheim, W. and Muller, W., Assembly oriented design. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on Assembly Automation, Stuttgart, West Germany, May 1982, pp. 177-190.
6. Captor, N. et al.. Adaptable-programmable Assembly Research Technology Transfer to Industry,
Final Report, Westinghouse Industry Automation Division, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, January 1983.
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 CHAPTER 64
PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY
DANIEL E. WHITNEY
C Draper Laboratory Inc
S.
Cambridge, Massachusetts

64.1. INTRODUCTION
Robots are being applied to a wide vancly of industrial processes welding, painting, machine loading,
gnndmg, and assembly, to name a few All these processes traditionally have been accomplished by
people, often using hand-held tools For some operations, merely attaching those (oob to the end of
a robot has been sufficient But it has been shown many times in many fields that true automation of
a previously manual operation requires considerable study to understand the process itself People
and robots have different, sometimes complementary, strengths and weaknesses This means that truly
intelligent and efficient robot automation requires that the target process be understood well enough
to make the best use of robots
This IS particularly true in the case of assembly The situation can be deceptive because it is so
often assumed that robots can do what people do. or soon will be able to And assembly looks so
easy' But it is not known
what people do when they tit two parts together, or is it necessary to
just
find out to create robot assembly On the eontrary, what people do may be irrelevant The important
thing 1$ to consider what the parts need in order to fit together easily and reliably, and then to consider
how to equip a robot to satisfy those needs This chapter approaches the problem from this point of

Thegoal of this chapter is to describe ngid part mating, that is, the assembly of parts that do
not deform substantially during assembly The chapter is divided into two mam parts, theoretical
and practical A
reader who wishes to get the Davor the theory but concentrate on practical aspects
should read Sections 64 1, 64 5, 64 4, and 64 8 Compliant part mating, where the parts do deform
by design during assembly, has abo been studied See References 3S, 36, and 37
Practical assembly system implementations require attention to many things other than part mating,
including appropnale product design, part feeding, matenal handling, inspection, and econoimc analysis
These important issues are discussed in Chapter 62, Planning Programmable Assembly Systems, as
well as in Chapter 63, Planning Robot Applications in Assembly.
Assembly is a geometnc problem, and ifparts were identical, perfectly made, and perfectly positioned,
assembly would always be successful and free of excessive mating force Practical constraints such as
cost and technical liimtacions canse parts to differ, machines and jigs to wear and, consequently,
parts to be misplaced or misaligned at the moment of assembly The theory and experiments described
delmeate the events that occur and forces that anse during eiror-comipted assembly From this we
can obtain tecluuques for increasing the likelihood of successful assembly without recourse to expensive
methods like eliminating the errors in advance or seimng and correcting them on the fiy
This chapter brmgs together new work plus several years’ prior work by the author and hiS colleagues

point contact phases only, utilizing an arbitrary insertion force vector

The key point of this chapter is that part geometry, the stiffness of jigs or gnppers supporting
the parts, and friction between the parts are the major factors m
ngid part mating Equations for
mating force versus insertion distance are derived, along with hmitations on allowed error and recommen-
dations for compliant gnpper or jig design which help avoid unsuccessful assembly. All equations
are worked out for the case of roi^ pegs inserted into round chamfered holes (modeled as tabs

and slots) with constant and identical coefficient of friction acting at all contact points Small angle

1084
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Aiawassv t-601
PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY 1085

approximations are used so that explicit solutions can be obtained and several interesting properties
derived and studied. Gravity and inertia are ignored. Experimental verifications utilize three-dimensional
parts. Assembly of holes onto pegs has not been extensively studied. However, the results given here
can be applied to good approximation.
During assembly, parts must be supported by jigs, fixtures, hands, grippers, and so on. These
supports have some compliance, either by design or accident. Rigid part-mating theory can then be
said to apply to parts that are rigid compared to the supports. Modeling the supports is an important
aspect of part-mating theory. In this chapter, a unified and fairly general method of modeling supports
is used, and the equations for mating forces contain the main characteristics of the modeled supports
in parametric form so that the influence of different values of support parameters can be studied.
The importance and desirable features of a properly designed support are major results of part-
mating theory. Supports with especially good characteristics are called remote center compliances
(RCCs).®’*® They are discussed in Sections 64.4, 64.5, and 64.8.
The chapter is organized as follows: Section 64.2 contains general descriptions and definitions.
Section 64.3 analyzes the geometric conditions of round peg-hole assembly, while Section 64.4 derives
the contact forces between parts and concludes with sufficient conditions to avoid “wedging” and
“jamming.” Section 64.5 derives the insertion force equations and, using a simplified support model,
shows how the RCC helps avoid jamming and reduces mating force. Section 64.6 presents complete
mating force equations and experimental verifications. Section 64.7 is an analysis of wedging. Section
64.8 describes practical uses for RCCs.

64.2 DEFINITIONS
Consideration of typical part-mating geometry shows that a mating event has these stages (see Figure
64.1):

Approach
Chamfer crossing
One-point contact
Two-point contact

(Under some circumstances, two-point contact does not occur. Also, one-point contact or line contact
can recur after a period of two-point contact.)
In general, the part rotates and translates during mating as initial lateral and angular errors between
the parts are corrected.Compliant supports must therefore provide both lateral and angular compliance
for at leastone of the mating parts. If certain symmetry conditions are satisfied, then any compliant
support can be represented mathematically by a compliance center plus the support’s stiffness laterally
ttt (Ki), and angularly around (Kg), this center (Figure 64.2). That is, the compliance matrix of the

support is diagonal in coordinates whose origin is at the compliance center. The support is assumed
mathematically to attach to the part at this point, marked with a black and white circle in Figure
64.2. The distinction between the mathematical attachment point and the point where the part is

actually gripped is important, and is discussed in Section 64.5. Theand moments applied by
forces
the support are reexpressed in peg tip coordinates in terms of Fi, Fz, and M. This method of representing
supports was introduced by Simunovic” and is a powerful tool for analyzing part mating because so
many kinds of support can be represented this way.
A part-mating event can then be represented by the path of the supported part (constrained by
its shape and the shape of the other mating part), the path of the support (constrained by the robot

or machine doing the assembly), the forces and moments applied to the part by the compliances of

Fig. 64.1. Four stages of assembly: (a) approach, (6) chamfer crossing, (c) one-point contact, (d)
two-point contact.
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(gb’W) jL -

suiBjqo auo ‘sjoejuoo juiod-auo oa\j jaqjo aqj Jog

S60I Aiewassv ni onixvim lava

t086 assembly

Fig. Rigid peg supported compliantly by lateral spnng K, and angular spnng Kt at distance

Lt from peg's tip The black and white arde is the compliance center

the support as these paths devute> and the rorres applied by the contact and fnctjon forces between
the two parts
Simunonc showed that successful part mating depends on maintaining certain relationships between
the applied forces and moments during tu/o-poiM contact This guarantees avoidance of jmimg, m
which the forces applied to the part point ui the wrong direction A similar phenomenon, called
"wedging," can occur if two-point contact occurs too early in the mating Avoidance of wedging
depends on control of imtui condition errors between the parts.

64J. GEOMETRV OF PART MATING

We begin by developing the ei^uations that descnbe the path of the compliance center while the part
traverses the phases of chamfer crossing, one-poinl contact, and two-point contact The compU^ce
center's location ts a basic support design parameter It wil] be placed at an arbitrary point on the

analysis would allow a general angle between the path of the support and the hole’s axis) Until the
peg touches the chamfer or hole, the compliances are relaxed In this state the initial lateral and
angular errors tg and &g (Figure 64.3) combine to place the compliance center a distaiKe to one
side of the hole’s axis Once contact occurs the compliances will deform These deformations will be
accounted for by deviations V and d — from the rest position
64,3.1. Chamfer Crossing

The geometry of peg and hole dunng eftamter crossing is shown in Figure 64 4a and the forces are
shown in Figure 64 46 The chamfer is desenbed by its angle a and width w The geometry is described
by

V, — Co + LfBo (64 1)

and

—+t.
tana
(« 2)

where z ranges from zero at the nutia) contact to ee tan a when the tip of the peg reaches the
bottom of the chamfer and one-point contact begins. We define

c« — «* — cR (64 3)
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^laiMassv 9601
PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY 1087

Fig. 64.3. Definition of terms for geometric analysis of part mating. The arrow indicates direction
of motion of the support.

where

c = R-r (64.4)
R
R and r are hole and peg radius, respectively, and c is called the clearance ratio.
A force balance yields

/i=AB
where
f2—
(64.5)
A = cos a + p. sin a
B = sin a — p cos a

and p is the coefficient of friction. The contact and applied spring support forces can be expressed in
coordinates attached to the peg’s tip by

Fx = -/i
> contact forces (64.6a)

M = hr
= -K^{Uo- U)
F^
support forces (64.6b)
M K^LgiUo -U)- Keid -
= £>o)

Combining Eqs. (64. 1) through (64.6) yields expressions for 9 and U during chamfer crossing

KAz/ian a)(L.,B — rA)

(64.7)
{K,Ll + Ke)B-K^LgrX
and

A:6(z/tan a)B
(64.8)
" {K,L^ + Kb)B - K.LgrX
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 ASSEMBLY

F/g. 64.4. Gcomeco' (o) and forces (6) dunng chamfer crossing

64J.2. One*Poiiit Contact

The dunng one-poinl contact arc

forces acting shown m Figure 64 5 A denvation analogous to ihe
above, beginning with geomefnc constraint

= + (W9)

yields the following expressions for 6 and U during one-point contact

C(^ + L,0o) + K»&o

^
(64 10)
C(l,-l) + K,
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Aigivasgv 8601
PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY 1089

where

C = K,{L,-l-ii.r)
and

= + Ido)
C/ (64.11)
CiLg -l) + Ke
Insertion depth /is defined to be zero just as the tip of the peg reaches the bottom of the chamfer.
Setting / =0 in Eq. (64.10) yields 6i, the value of 9 Just as one-point contact begins

Kj:(Lg - nr)e'g
= 6o + (64.12)
K,L,m,-fxr) + Ke

64,3.3. Two-Point Contact

Two-point contact will be analyzed for only one of the four possibilities of initial error (±€o. ±^o).
The derivations for the other cases are similar.
Geometric compatibility between peg and hole during two-point contact is governed by

R= tan 9 + r cos 9 (64. 13)

which, for small 9, becomes

19 = 2cR = cD, constant (64.14)

It is easy to show that 9 must be less than 9m. defined by

9mkVTc (64.15)

during two-point
contact. A smaller upper limit on 9 in two-point contact, based on friction consider-
ations, is discussed in the next section. Equations (64.13) and (64.15) are plotted in Figure 64.6.
To determine when two-point contact begins, we note first that during one-point contact, the geomet-
ric constraint is

Go- Lg{9a-9) + l9 ( 64 . 16 )
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1090 assembly

Fig. 61.6. Wobble angle venu$ insertion depth

Substituting Eqs (64 14) into (64 16) and calling 0 equal to Qt where two>point contact begins, tie
have

(6417)

where

(Z-i^^cR (6418)

Equation (64 17) relates Q — and U= Ut just as iwo-poinl contact starts Using Eq (64 17)m a
force balance analysis similar to ibe above (see Figure 64 7) yields for U and 6 at onset of iwo-pomt
contact

— p.r)
(64 19)
K.L* + K,~ tULgih + nr)

(64 20)
K.LI + - KzUih + nr)

To find Iz. the insertion depth at which two-point contact begins, substitute Eq (64 14) into (64 19)
This yields a quadratic for Iz

a/l-JJ/j + Y^O (64 21)

where

a = Ai(«e' + i,6a)
0 = (Lg — nr)o^ + KtLgCp + KgQg (64 22)

y = cD{KzL* + Kg- K,LgnO

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 .

94 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

of the manipulator links, a reasonably close response to the model and the real system can be expected.
For a more ojmpicx mechanism, the use of more powerful analysis packages is called for There
exist several general-purpose computer programs such as
ADAMS, IMP, DRAM, MEDUSA, and
**“'*-*•-“
DYMAC for the simulation of such mechanisms

6.4. CONCLUSION
This chapter has presented some of the theory and common practice used solving basic problems m
in manipulator kinematics and dynamics. The development of the kinematics was based upon the
use of homogeneous transfonns to describe the position and onentation of the Imk coordinates. The
mapping of jomt coordinates to link coordinates and the inverse mapping was presented the forward m
and mverse kinematics sections for position, velocity, and acceleration In the dynamics section the
equations of motion for an open-chain manipulator were presented. It was shown how the results of
the kinematics section could be used to obtain the equations of motion of an open-chain manipulator
References were made to other methods for formulating the dynamics of more complex manipulators
Wth this background the reader can assemble a collection of procedures that can be used in the

procedures- In this way one can create some useful toots as well as obtain a better understanding of
the basic problems in manipulator kinematics and dynamics.

REFERENCES
1. Denavit. J and Hartenberg, R. S . A Kinemauc Notation for Lower'Pair Mechanisms Based
on Matrices, ASME Journal o/ Applied Mechames. June 1965, pp 215-221
2. Mayer, G
£., A Systematic Approach for Obtaining Solutions to the Kinematic Equations of
Simple Manipulators, Master of Saence Thesis, Purdue University, July 1 979
3 Paul, RP . Rotor Mampulaton. Maihematicx Programming, and Control, MIT Press, Cambndge,
MA, 1981
4. Onii.D £.,McChee,R.B,Vukdbracovic,M.andHanoc'h,C,KinemalicandKinetie Analysis
of Open-Chain Linkages Utilizing Newton-Eoler Methods, Mathematical Bioseienees, Vel 43,
No February 1979, pp 107-130
1/2,

5. Stepanenko, Y and Vukobraiovic , M

, Dynamics of Articulated Open-Chain Active Mechanisms,

Mathematical Bioseienees, Vol 28, No 1/2, 1976

6. Luh. J Y S , Walker, M W . and Paul. RPC, On-Line Computational Scheme for Mechanical
Manipulators, A5.ME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control Vol 102, June
1980, pp 69-76
7. HoUerbach, J M
A Recursive Lagrangian Formulation of Manipulator Dynamics and a Compara-
,

tive Study of Dynamics and a Comparative Study of Dynamics Formulation Complexity. IEEE
Transactions an Sysiems. Man. and Cybernetics, Vo! SMC-10, No 11, Nov 1980, pp 730-736
8. Walter. M W.andOrm, D E, ElBcient Dynamic Computer Simulation of Robotic Mechanisms,
ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control September 1982, Vol 104, pp
205-211
9. Paul, B , Analytical Dynamics of Mechamsms —
A Computer Onented Overview, Mechanism
and Machine Theory, 1975, Vol 10, Pergamon Press, New York, pp 481-507
10. Kaufman. R. E, Mechanism Design by Computer. Machine Design, October 28, 1978, pp 94-
100
11. Nobel, B , Applied Linear Algebra, Prcntice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969
12. Renaud, M
, Coordinated Control of Robots-Mampulators Determination of the Singularities
of the Jacobian Matrix, Proceedings First Yugosla* Symposium on Industrial Robotics and Artificial
Intelligence. Dubrovnik. September 13-15. 1979,
pp 153-165
13. Uicker, J J. Jr , Denavit. J . and Hartenberg, R. S.. An Method for the Displacement
Iterative
Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms, ASVE Journal of Applied Mechanics, June 1966, pp 309-314
14. Uicker, J Dynamic Behavior of Spatial Linkages. Part !• Exact Equations of Motion,
J Jr,
Part2 Small Osnllations About EquiIibnum.AS.lfE/ouma/o/Engmeenng/^r/nifustO’- February
1969, pp 251-265
15. Paul, R. P , Modeling, Trajectory Calculation and Servomg of a Computer Controlled Arm,
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, AIM 177, 1972
part mating in assembly 1101

Fig. 64.17. Equilibrium sliding conditions for peg pulled by string: point a corresponds to the sliding
solution when <}> <
0; point 6 corresponds to <}) 0. >

Let us study two-point contacts in their worst case, namely, when A ~ 1 where wedging can barely
happen. Two-point contact means

/3 -1-p. (64.70)

and this plus \ = 1 reduces Eq. (64.68) to

1
tan <j)
= (64.71)
13-2(1

Using values of /3 such as

/3
= h p, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

we can graph tan <J) using Eq. (64.71) (see Figure 64.18).
As a numerical example, let us take p, = 0.2. With /3 =
10//r -f p, tancj) = 5/19 or 4> = 14.74°
Note that, for a clearance ratio of 0.005, the wedging angle is tan"'(c/p) = 1.43°. For smaller /3, <p
will be much larger, and is maximum in the RCC where y3 s l/r + (x.

Recall that we must point the insertion-force vector within ±<j) of the peg’s axis to avoid jamming,
and must point the peg’s axis within ±c/p of the hole’s axis to avoid wedging. In this example,
using quite typical numbers, we see that in terms of error angles, jamming is 10 times easier to

tan 0

Fig. 64.18. Worst case <{> to maintain sliding when wedging can barely occur (X — 1).
Iltl

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1102 ASSEMBLY

avoid than wedging, even when the center of support or pulling is 10 times farther away from the
tip of the peg than recommended by Eq (6464)
The previous discussion shows that the compliance center can be quite far from the Up of the
peg and still provide jamming avoidance It is important to realize that the analysis ignores the fact
that the peg is tilted so that an insertion force ^ong the peg is not along the hole axis and vice
versa This means that the allowable ^ region is not symmetnc about the peg’s axis When I/d is
small, this as>mmelry can be significant unless <p is several times the wedging angle
In addition, the value of ^ aflecis the amount of insertion force needed We examine this next

64.5.5. How ^^ucb Insertion Force is Needed and How This is Affected by Support Point
Location

Suppose the peg is supported laterally by a spnng of stillness Kt as in Figure 64 14 Repeating Eq

(64 48)

— +ji(H-X)Fi-AF, (64 48)

r

and descnbing the compression of the spnng by U, we have

Ff^-KjU (64 72)

M^-LfFz
^KrLfV (64 73)

Putting Eq (64 73) into Eq (64 48). and using

yields

f..Ar,(/M[2'^-^-l] (64 74)

which says that Pi depends linearly on Ai. I/,

n. and The RCC attempts to put

If = I -t fH

to achieve a one^poinc contact equilibnucn This reduces Eq (64 74) to

(M75)

the force created by a one-pomt contact For given JY*. fi, and U this is the smallest F, obtainable,
save for no contact force at ail

64.6. INSERTION FORCE WHEN PEG IS SUPPORTED BY BOTH LATERAL AND

ANGULAR COMPLIANCES
We present here models for the insertion force during chamfer crossing, one-pomt contact, and two-
point contact when the peg is supported by both lateral and angular springs To obtain Fz dunng
chamfer crossing, we substitute Eqs (64 7) and (64 8) into (64 6) to yield

iCir,A(aAan a)
* (KzL* + Kt)B - KzLfrk
To obtain F, dunng one-pomtcontact, substitute Eqs (64 10) and (64 1
1) into the
force-balance equa-
tions for one-point contact to yield

+ IOq)
p‘
CiLf-O + Ke
To obtain F, dunng two-pomt contact, substitute Eqs (64 14) and (64 17) mto (64 68) to yield
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part mating in assembly 1103

II 1 (64.78)

M = (KxL^^ -
y) + KxL,e"
-F Kg)(^do (64.79)

Putting these into Eq. (64.48) yields

(64.80)

where

D = Kx^ + Kg (64.81)

E = KxL,e, (64.82)

F = -KxLg (64.83)

Differentiating Eq. (64.80) with respect to / and setting the result equal to zero yields /, the value
of / where Fj and the contact forces /i and /a are maximum

+ 2Fixd)cD
(4D
(64.84)
2D0o + E(1 - fJid/Lg) - FiOoiid - cD)

When Lj » pir this reduces to

4KecD
(64.85)
2Ke6o ~ Kxjire'^

The stiffnesses and initial errors influence the result in each instance but it is often true that Kedo >
In this case

/ (64.86)

That is, insertion and contact forces are maximum at an insertion depth that is about twice the depth

at which two-point contact first occurs. Substitution of Eq. (64.84) into Eq. (64.80) gives the maximum
value of F- The peak contact force is approximately this F) divided by 2fj,.
Experiments were designed to test Eqs. (64.76) through (64.84). The parameters were as follows:

Support (a Draper Lab Model 4B RCC):

Kx = 7N/mm
Kg = 53000 N-mm/rad
Peg and hole (steel, hardened and ground):
Hole diameter = 0.5002 in. (12.705 mm)
Peg diameter =0.4989 in. (12.672 mm)
c = 0.0026
Initial errors:

€ = 1.4 mm and 0.85 mm

00 =0
Location of support:

ig = 45 mm and 1 mm (achieved by using two pegs of different lengths)

Coefficient of friction = 0.1 (determined empirically from one-point contact data)

figure 64.19 is a photo of the apparatus.

Figure 64.20 gives the
results of insertion force versus / for Lg 45 and to 1-4 mm, = mm =
while Figures
64.21 and 64.22 show net lateral force Fx and moment Af. Figure 64.23 shows insertion
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1X04 ASSEMBLY

Fig 64 19. Photo of the apparatus used to vcnfy Eqs (64 74). (64 75), (64 78), and geometric relations
during part mating A hardened and ground steel peg is supported by an RCC whose deflections can
be measured using integral optical sensors In this way, e and 0 of the peg can be recorded dunng
insertion The RCC is in turn held by a six-axis force>torque sensor with ten-gram threshold This
allows Ft, Ft, and Af to be recorded as well Finally, the sensor is held in the quill of a milling
machine whose motion is measured by an LVDT, allowing I to be recorded

force for L, = 45 mm and «« = 0 85 Finally, Figure 64 24 shows the insertion and lateral force
when Lg = mm
I As predicted, Iwo-point contact does not occur Figure 64 25 compares the peg's
angle d versus I with the theory of ^tion 64 3 Angle data were obtained using an instrumented
RCC (IRCC) See References 19 and 20 for descnptions and other uses of the IRCC
In all cases, theory and expenment agree as to general trends and compare fairly well as to absolute
magnitudes Since geometry, Kt, Kg, and fi cannot be predicted exactly, one can get better “‘agreement’’
between theory and expenment by searching for “better” values of these parameters Such a search
would only improveour knowledge of these values, however, and would not increase our understanding
of the problem

64.7. ANALYSIS OF WEDGING

-ri . .1 „ 1 1
. of this
• where
. llowed
^
to deform, then if the jamming conditions are satisfied, the contact forces will move to the upper
boundanes of the fnction cone and insertion will occur At some point the peg, perhaps damaged,
will be deep enough into the hole that wedging can no longer occur The contact forces now can
exert a couple about the tip of the peg and turn it parallel to the hole Pnor to ihi# point there
was

little or no moment, misalignment was not corrected, and high insertion and contact forces
occurred

We analyze these forces, using numerous assumptions. A similar analysis appears in Reference 6
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A18IV3SSV t-III
part mating in assembly 1105

Fig. 64.20. Comparison of theory and experiment: insertion force versus insertion depth with support
point 45 mm from tip of peg.

The situation shown in Figure 68.26a is wedged peg which, when pushed by F^, does
that of a
not turn clockwise but instead compresses. This approximately equivalent to the case shown in
is

Figure 64.266. We intend to use Hertz stress smalysis (not totally appropriate) to analyze this case.
To do so, we split and image the peg axially, so that the contact point can be represented as an edge
of small radius of curvature. Figure 64.266 can be analyzed to yield

F, = 2/^,i +
0 (64.85)

and Figure 64.26c can be analyzed to yield

Q =/. (64.88)

On the assumption that, for most machined parts, 9 < ix, we have

(64.89)

A Hertz stress analysis is used to find the deflection 6 at each contact point. The geometric relation
between 5 and incremental insertion motion A

5
A (64.90)
9

is used to see how far the

peg can move into the hole for given S. The result is probably an underestimate
since the Hertz analysis ignores shear stress, which is large in our case.
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Ffg. 64 . 21 . Companson of theory and experiment lateral force versus insertion depth with support
point 45 min from tip of peg

Fig. 64.22. Comparison of theory and expenment moment normal to insertion axis versus insertion
depth with support point 45 mm
from up of peg
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PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY 1107

Fig. 64.23. Comparison of theory and experiment: insertion force as in Figure 64.20 except lateral
error is smaller.

The Hertz analysis models the hole as a concave body with curvatures

1
(64.91)

and

P2
=0 (64.92)

while the peg is modeled as an ellipsoid with

Pi (64.93)
R

and

1
with /3 < <1 (64.94)

to indicate a “sharp” comer.

Following the procedure in Harris^^ and using

pi= 0.2
r= 6.35 mm
R = 6.35635 mm (corresponding to c = 10*^)

P = 10
-=

6 = 5X 10'==-
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1108 ASSEMBLY

Insertion depth / (mat)

Fig. 64.24. Companson of theory and expenmeni insertion force and lateral force as in Figures
64 20 and 64 21 except support point is almost exactly at tip of peg

»e obtain the results shotvn m Table 64 J, assuming steel peg and hole Even vrith 222 Newtons
insertion force the peg moves more than r/|0 into the hole, indicating that many wedges apparently
can be relieved force is used and galling or other damage can be tolerated However,
if sufficient

quite high stresses may occur

These results may explain the apparent fact that wedging does not seem to occur in machine-
aided assembly, although it oBen occurs in manual assembly Probably, wedging does occasionally
occur, but the assembly apparatus is strong enough to force the parts past the wedging region

64.8. REMOTE CENTER COMPLIANCE

The remote center compliance (RCQ, as analyzed earher, is a unique device for aiding assembly
insertion operations It is entirely mechanicaL denvmg its properties from its geometry and the elasticity

of Its parts Its major function is to act asamulliaxis “float,” allowing positional and angular misalign-
ments between parts to be accommodated Easy matings can be accomplished between two parts, a
tool and a part, a part and a fixture, a tool and a tool holder, and many other mating pairs
To
show why the RCC is useful and bow it works, we first discuss errors m assembly and the role of
compliance between parts The RCC is then described, and many examples of its use are listed, along

with the range of equipment it can be attached to

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PART MATING IN ASSEMBLY 1109

Fig. 64.25. Comparison of theory and experiment: conditions as in Figure 64.20. Plot of inclination
angle versus insertion depth, as shown schematically in Figure 64.8.

64.8.1. What the RCC Does, and How It Does It

The RCC designed to hold a workpiece so that the piece can rotate about its tip, that is, about
is

the point where it engages a mating part. This allows the workpiece to respond to contact forces

during insertion, which tend to realign the piece to the insertion axis. If the initial angular error is
less than 62 in Eq. (64.54), successful insertion will result in spite of the effects of friction and regardless
of the initial lateral error (within some limits.)

Fig. 64.26. Forces acting during wedging.

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TABLE 64.1. RESULTS OF WEDGING ANALYSIS

ft. N 445 222 445 2222 4450
Q. N 111 25 556 2S M(2S 5562 5 11125
8, mm 1 fix 10-* 4 57 X I0-* 7 36X 10-* 2 16X 10-* 3.56 X I0-*
A, mm 0 32 0 934 1 47 4 34 691

Acrucial feature of (he RCC is that lateral error and angular error are absorbed independently
Its design permits lateral motion in response to laterally directed contact forces (such as those experienced
during engagement) uithout any accompanying angular motion A
workpiece (hat engages a chamfer
owing to lateral error will then slide down the chamfer toward (he mouth of the hole. Thus the part
behaves as if suspended compliantly from its ri/x As long as Eq (64 54) is obeyed and lateral error
stackup can be controlled so that the chamfers engage, successful engagement and mating will occur
The size of chamfers can obviously be chosen to help achieve this, a much less costly approach than
attempting to eliminate the errors themselves.
The figures show how the RCC accomplishes these motions. One part of the device holds the
piece so thatits angular motion u forced to occur about a point in space (the remote center) (Figure
64 27) The other part of the device allows the first part to translate (Figure 64 28) Dunng a typical
assembly the lateral part does the work dunng chamfer crossing white the angular part lakes over
dunng insertion Figure 64 29 shows these functions in a commercul version of the RCC
A typical installation of the RCC places it in a workhead just behind the tool or gnpper The
combined length of the tool and gnpp^ pan should be such as to put (he part's tip at or near the
remote center, whose location u fixed with respect to (he workhead Exact coincidence of the up
and the center is not necessary because tests have shown that axial deviations of about 10-15% of
the RCC<enter distance do not degrade performance significantly
Designers contemplating using the RCC should bear in mind the following limitations. It is not
designed to cope with the case where error is so large that chamfers do not meet At present, changing
the center location dunng operations is not possible, although methods for accomplishing Ibis exist
If the RCC IS (0 be used to perform insertions along a honzontaJ axis, some counterbalancing may
be necessary Also, there are limits to (he amount of lateral and angular error that can be absorbed
by a unit of any one size because of the need to keep stresses in the RCC below elastic limits. Finally,
theory has shown that Eq (64 54) roust be satisfied m
order that the parts not jam and deform
along a line between (he contact points
Within these limits, the RCC can be thought of as a general error absorber with the special abibty
to perform close clearance insertions. The sue of errors it can absorb u large enough (typically 1-2
mm and one to two degrees) (hat system designers can relax many of iheir design constraints, such
as feeder alignments, pallet uniformity, and pari tolerances. This relaxation can be used to reduce

(fl) A two.dimensional representation of the rotational part of RCC (6) Rotational

Fig. 64,27. part

of RCC allowing workpiece to rotate counter-clockwise (c) Workpiece rotating clockwise.

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 CHAPTER 7
DESIGN OF GRIPPERS
PAUL K. WRIGHT
MARK R. CUTKOSKY
Camegic-Mellon Universiiy
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

7.1. INTRODUCTION
John Milton’s famous statement, "No man is an island,” could also be applied to tndustnal robots
The function of a robot is to interact »ith its surroundings The robot does this by manipulating
objects and tools to fulfill a given task The robot gripper or end-of-<trm tooting becomes a bridge
between the computer<ontrolled arm and the world around it The design of th« gnpper should
reflect this role, matching the capabilities of the rc^t to the requirements of th« task The ideal
gnpper design should be synthesized from independent solutions to the three considerations shown
in Figure 7 I

The first induslnal robots were nearly islands They were used pnmanly as stanij.ajone machines
for painting, spot welding, or pick^and-place work in which parts were moved fron) one location to
another without much attention paid to how
the parts were picked up or put down Por pick-and*
place work, simple beak-like gnppers were used, and the ability of the robot to gras^ and manipulate
parrs was at best epiuJ io that of a person usii^ ftn^lace .ioi)jts
Since then, robots have been put to work in more challenging applications The ot)ject$ they grasp
may have complicated shapes and they may be fragile The tasks the robots perform may involve
assembling parts or fitting them into clamps and fixtures These tasks place greater demands on the
accuracy of the arm and also the gnpper Once a part has been picked up it must be held securely
and in such a way that the position and onentation remain accurately known with respect to the
robot arm While the object is being manipulated dunng, say, an assembly task, forc^ arise between
the object held by the robot and the maling parts The robot is constrained by this contact, and the
actions of the robot and the gnpper determine whether the assembly will go smoothly ot whether
the parts will become damaged in the process For assembly, the "fingers” should hot slip, and the
gnpper, as a whole, should be compliant enough to prevent contact forces from doing any harm
The actions required of the robot and Ibe gnpper will vary, depending on the taa^ being done
The same effect is seen in the way that a human task determines the choice of gnp and the actions
of the hand If one picks up a pencil to hand it to somebody, the way one holds the pencil is entirely
different from the way it is held for wnting The remarkable thing about the humah hand is that it
can be adapted to so many different tasks writing with a pencil, kneading dough, groping in the
dark, and playing the guitar, to name a few In addition to being a gnpper, ihe human hand is a
sensory organ and an organ of communication The gnppers presented in Section ^ 3 ire all very
crude in companson, although Ihe last few examples begin to show some flexibility It would be a
mistake, however, to assume that the human hand would be the ideal gnpper for an tndustnal robot
Manufactunng represents a world much more restneted than the one for which the human hand is
designed In fact, for many manufactunng tasks the human hand is not the best gnpper, which is

why workers use pliers, wrenches, tweezers, work gloves, and numerous other tools to help them

7.2. PREHENSION AND GRIP

Human prehension combines the choice of a gnp, the act of grasping or picking ub an object, and
the control of an objectby using the hand A
desire, internally or externally generated, tnggers responses
in the eye and Ihe mmd An instant later the hand takes a position over the obje(;t, forms a gnp.
and begins with the task As shown in Figure 7 2, the process is controlled by feedback loops which
include eyesight for approximate positioning of the hand and touch for adjusting the fcsrce and position
of the fingers
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 Fig, 65.9. Aucmbiing hand (3)

1122
Fig. 65.10. Overview of assembly cell.

Fig. 65.11. Layout of assembly cell.

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serts them

(4) A! robot gnps the cover from

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(3) AO robot grips the inner rotor

from the table for workpieces,
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Outer (2) AJ robot gnps the outer rotor

rotor from rotary workpiece feeder (2)
by hand C, and inserts it

Base (1) A1 Tobot grips thebasefroin the

table for workpieces by hand B,
and puts it on the assembly
table

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C and carries it to rotary work-
piece feeder (I)

Fig 65.12. Pump assembly procedure

Fig. 6S.|3. Overview of assembly cell.

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Fig. 65.15. Assembly procedure

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 CHAPTER 66
ASSEMBLY CASES IN
PRODUCTION
KENICHI ISODA
MICHIO TAKAHASHI
Hitachi
Tokyo. Japan

This chapter describes four examples of robot applications from production lines of Hitachi, Ltd
They are all self-designed and developed by the company as well as used wiihm its factones video
tape recorder (VTR) assembly, assembly of rotary compressors, pressure gage assembly, and gear<
box assembly

66 . 1. SMALL PARTS ASSEMBLY FOR VTR MECHANISAf

66. 1 . 1. Outline of VTR Mechaoisia Assembly Process

The video tape recorder (VTR) mechanism

is comprised of pressed parts, like chassis and levers,

plasticmolded parts, electrical parts, like motors and magnetic heads, soft or flexible parts like rubber
belts,and so on (Figure 6b I) Assembly producibiliiy of the product was evaluated at the time of
introduction of the robots, according to the Assemblabihiy Evaluation Method, developed by Hitachi,
and the following improvements were made.

1. Improved construction, that is. easy-assembly design

2, Reduction in the number of parts through providing several functions to the parts
3. Breakdown of complicated parts mto functional subassemblies to simplify assembly operations
in (he assembly line
4, Conneclonzed electrical parts

Consequently, it has been possible to simplify (he assembly process and to perform automatic assembly

ui a short time cycle

66.1.2. Outline of Automation System

The system has base machines for woilipiece conveyance locating, parts supply units, and assembling
units including robots asshown in Figure 66 2 Smcethebase machines are designed to be independently
usable, a nonsynchronous assembly line erf arbitrary length can be composed by combining these base
machines Some parts are fed from a vibratory bowl feeder, others are placed in magazines, subassembled
parts are also arranged in magazines, and then these magazines are distributed from the warehouse
to the assembly stations by self-dnven vehicles
The automatic assembly units include small-size assembly robots, pick-and-place units, and single-
purpose machines such as screwing machines, oil-applying machines, spnng-fittmg machines, and rubber
belt fitting machines. The robot station is composed of a base machine, a robot, and a magazine
supply unit First, a magazine is supplied and positioned at the predetermined location. Then, the
robot grips the parts one by one, starting from the end of the magazine, and fits them onto the
chassis positionedon the base machine Figure 66 3 shows an external view of the robot station
production
Small-size assembly robots developed by Hitachi are designed for economical mass

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 98 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

in Figure 7 17) were used to pick up an irregutafly shaped ashtray from a table, the analyses m
Asada* * and Cutkosky* could predict the most secure finger onentalions

Control laws for multijointcd. three-finger gnppers have also been presented Small hands have
been built on this basis that can. for example, screw a nut onto a bolt For such movements, a kinematic
analysis of the rolling between the finger tips and the tAjcct is needed These are the few examples
of tobot hands with active, closed-loop control of the fingers In the research comrtiunity a number
of timilar hands are currently being built For the next five years, however, closed-loop control of
tbe fingers is impractical for industrial use This is because the hands are mechanically complex, it
is

s'^kward to coordinate and control the fingers, and it is difficult to transmit information between the
fingers and the robot
Gnppen for current industrial use have passive fingers In fact, a good design allows a single set
of Passive fingers to conform to several different object shapes and to be more flexible than one might
<^Pect Before explonng such designs, let us consider some of the common grips used by human
han^s
A /enew of pen>aens med)cai htersfun* revtais as maay as ejghs basic eaiegOfjes but,
for manufacturing work, only two of these are of pnmaiy importance the “three-fingered” gnp shown
in Figure 7 4 and the “wrap-around” gnp used to hold a large screwdnver or a hammer The three-
fingered gnp is used for 90% of light domestic and manufactunng tasks, it is ad^puble to many
<>bject sizes(from a pea (o a soflball), and it makes use of the stable structure of ligaments in the
back of the hand, as illustrated in Figure 7 4 However, i( is not as strong as the weap-around gnp,
whit;h mvolves fnction between the faces of all the fingers and the tool and uses the power of all five
^S>ls, including the very strong muscle running from the small finger along the outride of the hand
and into the arm

Fig. lA, The human three-fingered gnp

 —

ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS 1141

The Series/ 1 control unit monitors the position and operation of the robotic arm to respond to changes
in the work environment such as missing or damaged components and variations in position of feeders
and fixtures.
In the cartridge ribbon application, the rotary motors of the manipulator have been replaced with
a specially designed eight-position turret containing the tooling for the various assembly processes
(Figure 67.2). Currently, only six of the positions are being used, leaving two positions available to
accommodate new operations or changes in product design.
The computer also controls fixed automation devices through digital input/digital output to a
programmable controller, providing a coordinated flow of pallets through the various work stations.
This marriage of fixed and flexible automation illustrates an important point about computer-integrated
manufacturing; most often the right manufacturing solution is a proper balance between hard and
flexible machines.
The communication between computer, manipulator, and fixed automation provides the Dayton
assembly line with an important quality control feature: Each pallet has a memory pin that determines
whether or not work should be performed on the cartridge. If any errors occur during the assembly
— —
process a ribbon snapping, for example a pneumatic punch will depress the memory pin on the
pallet, and it will travel around the line with no other work done on that particular cartridge. Error
conditions are detected by external sensors, and the information is fed back to the computer.

67.2.1. Robotic Assembly

The first step in the robotic assembly process is to pick up four gears with the turret. The gears

—
two male and two female are oriented by vibratory bowl feeders. The arm inserts one male and
one female into the prelubricated journals of each cartridge using a zig-zagging motion to snap them
in place.
To minimize the number of movements the arm must make and to maximize throughput, the
manipulator works sequentially on two pallets at a time for each step of the robotic assembly process.
The sequence of events during assembly is (1) pick up four gears, (2) thread ribbon, and (3) insert
gears.
To thread the ribbon into the cartridge, the turret spins until a tweezerlike tool is positioned
directly above the conveyor. Using this tool, the arm grips the loose end of ribbon from a dereeler.
The dereeler is a staging area for the ribbon that will be fed into the cartridge. It consists of a spool

Fig. 67.2. Specially designed eight-position turret mounted to

the end of Z-axis contains tooling
required to insert gears and thread ribbon into the
cartridge.
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1142 ASSEMBLY

—
of nbbon and “stuiting box” a plastic container ulo which 13 yards (11 9 m) of nbbon is loosely
fed from the spool This device maintains the proper spool tension to prevent snapping or overfeeding
of nbbon dunng loading Each pallet is servtcot by two dereelers. So, as one spool of nbbon is depleted,
an external sensor signals the computer through the programmable controller, which automatically
activates the second dereeler

the top of the case After the nbbon is loaded, a hot wire cuts the loose end from the dereeler The
same procedure is repeated on the second pallet. The arm then returns to insert the gears on two

incoming pallets while the forward paUets, with canndges about 75% complete, proceed through the
assembly line
At subsequent stations, the nbbon is cut and bonded into a continuous loop, the cartndge top is
welded to the base, and the completed cartridge is tested at high speed to maLe sure no twisting or
binding has occurred. The completed and tested cartridge moves to the final station, where a cam*
dnven, hard-automated arm lifts the cartndge from the pallet and places it on a smaller conveyor
parallel to the fourth side of the assembly line This conveyor delivers the cartndge to an automated
bagger where it is inserted into a plastic bag and sealed, ready ^r shipment
The success of the automated cartndge nbbon line is evident m a few statistics Compared with
manual assembly, the automated line has increased production by about 300%, with a remarkably
low scrap rate of less than 0 4% In just over two years, the hne has produced more than a million
cartndge nbbons

67.3. WORD PROCESSOR ASSEMBLY

Three RS I manufactunng systems are used for on-hne assembly of IBM Displaywnter word
robotic
processing systems at the company’s Communication Products Division plant m AusCm, Texas A
fourth robot is m a laboratory cnvirooment for building subassemblies and for training and
used
application development work
The Austui Process Development Lab (PDL), the group responsible for application development,

Fig. 67 Using a tweezerlike tool, the robotic arm threads the nbbon into the cartndge and through
the two drive gears Sensors detect if the nbbon snaps or is improperly installed, and the turret wiW
automatically rotate to a punch tool to depress the memory pm on the pallet
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ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS 1143

adapted the manipulator to Austin’s particular environment and came up with a number of innovations
that reduce cost and increase throughput and productivity using the flexibility inherent to intelligent
robotic systems. The robots on the final assembly line straddle the line so that the conveyor moves
through half of the work space under the arm.
The rectangular box frame has been tilted approximately 30° relative from front to back. This
serves two purposes. First, it allows use of simple, inexpensive gravity parts feeders without losing
the perpendicular orientation of the arm to the parts being fed. And it also allowed the PDL team
to develop the cart concept, a highly efficient approach to robotic assembly in a batch-manufacturing
environment.
Mobile carts containing all —
the parts, tools, feeders, and fixtures for a subassembly a gear plate
or base plate, for example —can be positioned in the robot’s work space next to the Displaywriter
assembly line. If for some reason the robot cannot work on Displaywriter kits on the main assembly
line, the system automatically will move to the cart and perform subassembly work until it can resume
operations on the main assembly line. This cart concept allows for optimum utilization of the robotic

system. The subassembly operations performed on these carts are described after a review of the applica-
tionsperformed by the three on-line robotic systems.
Displaywriter word processing system is composed of five major elements: keyboard, display,
The
media box (disk drive), system electronics box (SEB), and printer. Robotic assembly is now used for
the media box and the SEB.
Figure 67.4 shows the layout of the Displaywriter production line and the relative position of the
three RS 1 systems. Robot performs assembly operations on the SEB, while Robots B and C work
A
together in a serial loop arrangement on the media box. Both the SEB and the media box arrive at
the assembly stations in kits which are manually assembled at different stations and then sent to the
robotic assembly stations.
Media box kits are delivered to the robotic work station by an elevator and roller conveyor. Kits
are routed first to Robot B, then to Robot C, and finally onto the main conveyor for final manual
assembly. SEB kits travel only to Robot A for assembly operations and then directly to the main
conveyor.

67.3.1. SEB Assembly

Robot A
performs two major assembly operations on the SEB. First, it secures the power supply to
the cover. In the other operation, it builds a motherboard subassembly, a structural support for the

Displaywriter system’s logic cards.

As the SEB kit comes into the robotic work area on a conveyor, a digital output-controlled air
cylinder secures it in the fixture. The arm pushes the power supply into the fixture and lines up the
holes in the power supply with screw inserts in the cover. The arm then moves to pick up a special,
multifunction tool which it uses to pick up four screws, driving them one at a time through the

power supply into the cover.

The motherboard subassembly consists of a board, two card support frames, two metal brackets,
and four screws. Boards are picked off a stack by air-cylinder-driven pickoff knives and placed in a
fixture. Using the same multipurpose tool it used to drive the screws, the robot picks up a card
support frame and uses the frame to pick up two screws for a double-headed screw dispenser (Figure
67.5). The screw dispenser was designed so that screw positions match the holes on the frame, allowing
the robot to move the frame under the dispenser to lift the screws in place. The arm places the
support frame on the motherboard, where it is automatically latched in place, then drives the screws
in sequence.
The same procedure is repeated for the second support frame, and then all clamps are automatically
The arm lifts the completed assembly by one of the support frames and places it on top of
released.
the power supply in the SEB kit. The kit is released from the fixture, and the robot pushes the pallet
back onto the main conveyor line.

67.3.2. Media Box Assembly

Robot B drives eight screws— three different types—during iU assembly work on the media box. Using
a general-purpose, multifunction air driver tool, the robot picks up the screws fed to it by vibratory
bowl feeders and rotary escapement devices (Figure 67.6).
An air cylinder pulls the kit into the work envelope where it is clamped into a fixture. The base
plate and the two disk drives are locked in place for the assembly operation. Again, the air cylinder
iscontrolled by digital input/digital output to and from the robotic system’s computer.
Holding the general-purpose driver between its fingers, the robot moves to pick up a
magnetic
driver bit and proceeds to drive two large screws to secure the
base plate to the front disk drive.
Next, the manipulator changes drive bits, picking up a smaller one
to drive one small screw into the
front of the disk drive and three small screws into the second
disk drive. The arm uses the same
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AND

KIT

BOX

MEDIA

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ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS 1145

Fig. 67.5. Holding a multipurpose tool between the gripper fingers, the robotic arm picks up a card
support frame. The frame is used to pick up screws from a double-headed screw dispenser.

magnetic drive bit to pick up two more screws and prestarts them in the base plate, saving the manual
operator time later in the manual assembly area.
When all media box moves to the work space of Robot C, where a
eight screws are driven, the
and secured and four rubber feet are attached to the base plate. After
plastic strain relief is inserted
the base plate is clamped into the fixture, the arm picks up the strain relief and places it in the
fixture (Figure 67.7). The robot uses sensory feedback to locate the strain relief, which is packaged
loosely in the kit. After insertion. Robot C picks up and drives three screws—one at a time to —
fasten the strain relief to the base plate.
For the next assembly operation, Robot C picks up four rubber feet, again one at a time, and
fastens them to the base plate. Screws are inserted into the feet by a bowl feeder prior to the robotic
assembly operation.
The final assembly operation on Robot C is to start two screws on the bottom of the base plate,
again to enhance productivity in the manual assembly operation.

67.3.3. Error Recovery

One of the keys to the Austin robotic applications — —

and to any intelligent robotic applications is
the system’s ability to detect a variety of errors in the manufacturing environment and, through program-
ming, to take corrective action to resolve the problem and complete the manufacturing process.
Any number of error conditions can occur during robotic assembly on the Displaywriter. For
e.xample, screws may have damaged threads or may be missing the slot on the head. Holes may
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Fig. 67.7.Robot uses sensory feedback to locate loosely packed strain relief and inserts it m fixture

on media box Three screws are dnven one at a time to secure strain relief

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ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS 1147

have been tapped improperly. Parts feeders can empty or jam. The robotics systems automatically
detect these conditions through sensory feedback in the gripper.
If the arm attempts to drive a screw with no slot, the screw will return with the driver. Tactile,
or force, feedback tells the system the screw is still in the magnetic bit when the arm moves to pick
up another screw. The faulty screw is rejected and another is retrieved and installed. If a hole were
to be improperly tapped or missing, the system would sense the condition and reject the component.
Typically, the system will be programmed to try an operation three times. If it is unsuccessful after
the third try, a signal is given for operator intervention.
Parts are usually fed into the work area through multiple feeders, so if one were to run out of
parts or jam, the system is programmed to move automatically to the next available feeder. Again, if
it cannot recover from the error condition, an operator is alerted.

67.3.4. Cart Concept

The cart concept developed by the PDL aptly illustrates the RS I’s error recovery capability, particularly
a gear plate assembly application performed by an To
assemble a gear plate used in
off-line system.
the paper-feed mechanism of the IJisplaywriter printer, the moves the manipulator to a
system first

reference point or “find” post on the cart which is wheeled into the robot’s work space. Using optical

sensing, the system calibrates itself to the post to determine the orientation of the parts and tools.
It should be pointed out that this capability eliminates the need for elaborate devices to ensure

that components line up exactly in the same place each time the cart is changed. The computer
simply adjusts the application steps to correspond to the data it receives during the calibration routine.
Using a general-purpose tool, the arm picks up a metal plate from a gravity feeder and places it
on a fixture. tool it picks up two gears and places them on posts on the plate, then
With the same
returns and a third gear (Figure 67.8). The arm then exchanges the general-purpose tool for
installs
a C-clip applicator and inserts clips on each post to secure the gears and, with the opposite end of
the tool, places a drop of oilon each post to lubricate the completed subassembly.
During assembly, gears may not mesh, C-clips may not fit because the post may be too short or
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im ASSEMBLY
the groove machined improperly, or parts feeders may be empty If after placing two gears on their
it fnes to pUce the thud gesr, it has been programmed Co move
posts the system feels resistance as
to the gear not seating—determined through tactile feedback— and will tap it from above If that
faJs, the arm uses the third gear to turn the others so that the teeth mesh Similarly, the system
detects errors when applying C'Chps and automatically discards damaged parts

67.4. AfAfNFRAME COMPCTTER TESTING

At the Data Systems Division plant in Poughkeepisie, NY, the company builds its largest mainframe
computers, including the IBM 3081, 3082, and 3083 computers A major component of the centra]
processor of these systems is the thermal conduction module (TCM) board, which includes thousands
of panted circuit connections Each computer has four to nine TCM boards, depending on the model
— —
A unique robotic tester a two-armed version of the RS 1 provides reliability testing of the
panted circuits m one-lwentieth the time it would take manually
The robotic tester at Poughkeepsie has two arms, each with three linear axes, equipped with specially
designed probes at the end ^ the Z-axis loperfonn (he required test of the dectiomc network uitbin
the TCM board Another modihcaiion is the extension of both Z-axes by about 4 in (10 cm) to
cover the height of the board
Each of the 1 1 robotic lesten ts connected through a communications link to a host computer
Resident withm the host is Poughkeepsie's Computer-Aided Repair and Rework System, which controls
and manages (he testing procedure for the endn; sysiem When an operator keys m the senal number
of a board to be tested, the host computer checks the senal number for accuracy and board status
(Figure 67 9) The host then sends the appropnate test data to the Senes/l work station controller
After the board has been tested, the controller sends a summary report and status of the test
results to the host system, which automatically generates a list of repair actions for all vended defects

67.4.1. Two-Armed Testing

The test sequence begins when the operator loads a TCM board into the robotic system’s workspace
The Senes/1 work station controller automatically sends a signal to a board-lifting fixture to lift the

Fig 67A TCM boards are tested for idubihQr by a two-armed robotic tester When operator keys
m senal number of a board, a host computer checks number for accuracy and board status, then
sends appropriate test data to Senes/1 work station controller
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ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS 1149

board into a vertical position. Alignment between the robotic arms and the board is done automatically
through a program that keys off three reference points on the board. From these three calibration
points, the board panel origin is calculated by a coordinate transformation routine, and directional
vectors are generated for each arm. The test points are calculated by simple vector additions.
The testing begins at a signal from the operator. Each pair of test points is calculated based on
test data sent from the host computer, and the two probes are sent to their respective destinations
and engage C-springs on the TCM board (Figure 67.10). The Series/1 computer uses its digital output
to signal a meter, and a reading is taken to determine whether that particular segment is good or
bad. If a segment fails, it is retried several times at slightly offset locations. If a good test cannot be
achieved, the failing segment is recorded and printed for later off-line analysis and rework. After
each segment is tested, the Series/ 1 work station controller prints a summary of the test and signals
the fixture to unload the board.
During the testing process, events are constantly monitored by the Series/ 1 work station controller.
For example, the system will immediately discontinue robotic motion if someone were to step onto
the safety mat, open the safety doors, or break the safety light curtain. This utilization of sensory
feedback helps maintain a safe work environment. The system will automatically resume the test when
the problem is corrected.
Use of the robotic tester allows a board to be completely tested in 2.5-5. 5 hr, depending on the
size and type of board. Manually, it would take more than 100 hr to complete the same test.

67.5. CONCLUSION
The applications in this chapter show some of the creative ways intelligent robotic systems can be
used to lower manufacturing costs and increase productivity. Adaptive, flexible automation ofiers new
tools to a wide range of industries to help meet the challenges of batch manufacturing and rapidly
changing product designs. Because they can be reprogrammed and retooled to perform radically different
operations in a relatively short time and at a lower cost than hard automation, robotic manufacturing
systems will be an integral part of the computer-integrated manufacturing plant of the future.

Fig. 67.10. Directed by the Series/1 computer, the two probes attached to the 2-axis of
each arm
engage C-springs on the TCM board. DI/DO is used to signal a meter reading to determine board
status. If a segment fails, it is automatically retried several
times at slightly offset
locations.
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1150 ASSEMBLY

REFERENCES
A Lst of publications follows m which application articles on IBM's robotic assembly have appeared

1. Robot Improves IBM Cartridge Ribbon Assembly, Assembly Engineenng, February 1983
2. Robots on the Line —An Overview, Eleciromc Packaging & Produciion, Apnl 1983
3. Hydraulic Robotic System Automates Assembly of Printer Cartridge Ribbons, Hydraulics <£ Pneu-
matics, March 1983.

4. IBM Advances Robotic Assembly in Building a Word Processor, Robotics Today, October 1982
5. IBM 7563 Robot Speeds Precision Assembly, Robotics World. March 1983
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66 SHaddiao do NOisaa
 )

100 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 7.7. Two-fingered gnpper with changeable fingemps (adapted from designs in Reference 22

of a cylindneal rubber membrane surrounding a hydraulic cylinder and a piston This is inserted
into a hole in the object to be gripped, and, as the ri^t starts to lift, the piston rises inside the
cylinder, forcing fluid into the membrane The membrane expands, gnpping the insides of the hole
When the robot puts the object down, the piston is lowered inside the cylinder, deflating the membrane
and releasing the gripped part A light spring keeps the piston normally m the lowered position The
gnpper could easily be modified to gnp the cylindrical objects from the outside
For objects with complex or irregular surfaces, a gnpper with more flexibility is required The
gnpper shown in Figure 7 5 is designed to hold turbine blades The blades come in a vanety of
shapes and sues, but they all taper and twist between the root and the tip of the blade As discussed
in Section 7 2, this gnpper combines some of the attnbutes of the human three-fingered gnp and
wrap-around gnp The upper fingers, dnven by a single pneumatic cylinder, pull the blade backward
until the rear edge of the blade rests against two teeth mounted in the lower fingers This ensures
that (he blade is correctly aligned within the gnpper Microswitches (see Section 7 6, Sensors in Gnppers)
are used to detect whether the upper fingers are fully closed and whether the rear edge of the blade
» pushed against the teeth «\ the lower fingers The gnpper shown m Figure 7 6 is designed to handle
rough forgings Like the gnpper in Figure 7 9. it uses two upper fingers that are connected by a
ball-joint linkage This gnpper is used as an example in the discussion m Section 7 S on flexibility
and compliance
Figure 7 1 1 shows a simple gnpper used for handling large, lightweight items such as cardboard
cartons TTie gnpper is an angular-motion gnpper, like the design m Figure 7 7
Figure 7 12 shows a gnpper designed for gapping fragile objects It could even be used for handling
fresh fruit The two inflated fingers are made of an elastomenc malenal When the pneumatic pressure
m them is released, they curl inward, wrapping around the object between them and pressing it gently
against the small ''palm” that is mounted between the fingers The fingers have a high coefficient
of fnction and consequently are able to hold a wide vanety of object sizes and shapes without slipping

Fig. 7.8. Rack and pinion parallel-jaw gnpper (adapted from designs in References 22 and 25)
modular programmable assembly research 1161

location (position and orientation) relative to the arm. Two examples of functions for the limited-
sequence manipulator module are as follows;

AutoCmnd(RelayStates)
Set up the AutoPlace relay(s) to the requested state(s). This command actuates the pneumatics,
but not the rotary table.

APTMove(Theta)
Turn the rotary table holding the Auto-Place manipulator to absolute position given by
theta radians.

Other Modules

We have been developing or planning other modules, such as the following:

1. X-Y-Theta Table. An x-y table whose movable surface can also be rotated about the z-axis.
The table is equipped with a translucent top and a row of fluorescent lamps underneath so
we can backlight objects resting on the surface.
2. Part Presenters. Programmable part presenters previously developed at SRI will be incorpo-
rated into the assembly system and extensions of their capabilities explored. One example is
the —
SRI “Eye Bowl” a standard bowl feeder that utilizes vision rather than mechanical blades
for part sorting and feeding.®

3. Programmable Jig. We wish to explore the concept of a multipurpose, computer-controlled

jig that is capable of accepting and rigidly holding parts of many different shapes, which it
would then present, upon request, to a manipulator or vision system in a specified orientation.
This might take the form of a rugged hand and 3-DF wrist.

68.3.3. Distributed Processing

A local area network is a natural organization of a system in which processing is distributed among
numerous computers, which are often separated from one another by, say, 1 m or more. Hardware
supporting various network topologies is available commercially. We use a system in which a coaxial
cable forms a communication bus connecting all the communicating computers. The bus-network organi-
zation serves as follows;

Allows direct communication between any two computers connected to the coaxial-cable bus.
Promotes modularity of system components by requiring only a standard network interface for
systemwide communication.
of components by permitting them to be connected to the network at
Facilitates reconfigurability
any point on the coaxial-cable bus.

Permits the sharing of expensive system resources, such as printers, graphics devices, and file-

storage units.

Each computer connected to the communication bus contains a network interface with a unique
name (numerically symbolized) assigned to it. Names are used to identify both the source and the
destination of a message. When a message is transmitted on the bus, every network interface compares
its name with the message destination and accepts receipt of the message only if there is a match. A

special type of broadcast message can be addressed so that all the computers (except the sender) will
receive it. This type of message is useful when a module needs help from the system, but does not
know the name of the unit that can furnish such help.
A communication software package has been written to provide flexible communication capabilities
through the network interface. The selected protocol and the characteristics of the network interface
are described in detail in Nitzan et al.®’^’ Briefly, the package supports a “random-access” protocol
whereby any computer may send a message to any other computer or computers if the communication
bus is idle. The message is usually one of the following:

1. A command to a module to perform one of its functions with the parameters given in the
message. The command may be to supply information, request information, or to perform a
specified activity.

2. A reply to acommand, containing any results or requested information. The reply also serves
to confirm completion of a commanded activity, which may otherwise not have returned any
results.
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1162 ASSEMBLY

Tlte communication package perfonns the following functions

Message creation, retneval, buflenng. and deletion

Message receipt, acknowledgment, and iransnussion
Automatic retransmission of unacknowledged messages
Detection of any special broadcast messages for later action

Amodule will never have more than one buflered message to transmit at any time However, it
can receive and buffer numerous messages and either attend the oldest one or search in its buffer for
an expected message of a certain type, from a certain source, or both

68.3.4. Robustness

We have recently implemented three levels of processing m each module computer

Reflex Level. To detect hardware or software faults and set the module hardware devices to
predetermined states
Bootstrap Level. To set the module-computer program at a predetermined state in response to
reflex activation, and to notify the rest of the system about this event

Program Level. To implement the mam functions of the module A

sensor-monitor routine will
be implemented at this level in the future to detect conditions beyond the capabilities of the reflex
level

Reflex and Bootstrap Levels

At the lowest processing level the modules (particularly those incorporating manipulators) need self-
protective —
mechanisms chat act as reflexes hardware responses to a set of external or internal fault
conditions Such conditions include loss of operating power, loss of program control, and human
intrusion into the assembly area If necessary, special sensors will be assigned to detect these conditions
Once enabled, a reflex device mil watch for the fairJr condition it guards against and be triggered if
that condition anses We have designed a reflex card to implement this function and fulfill the following
responsibilities

To provide a mechanism chat forces the module’s device or sensors into ''safe" default states when
a reflex is triggered

To protect the module from power loss

To protect the module from loss of program control

To provide sensor-tnggered hardware reflexes
To provide programmable-condition reflexes

may optionally force the program control in the module computer

In addition, activation of a reflex
program resident in a nonvolatile memory on the reflex card The
to transfer to a simple bootstrap
module subsequently executes a simple program at the bootstrap level that wilt do Che following

Initialize the network interface for communication

Use the network to broadcast a message notifying other module computers of this module’s current
state.

Provide capabilities for loading the program of this module through the network interface when
commanded by another module computer
Supply tools for remote diagnosis of this module through the network interface

Figure 68 3 depicts the relationship between the reflex and bootstrap control levels More information
about reflexes and the bootstrap functions may be found in Reference 9 The responsibilities at the
reflex level are descnbed in the next sections

Default State Conditioning

condition occurs The INITIALIZE signal, for example, may halt any moving device if the signal is

applied directly as an override or a shutdown signal to that device

modular programmable assembly research 1163

Pov;er-up

level

Bootstrap
level

Execute
bootstrap
program

Fig. 68.8. Refle.x level.

Power Loss Protection

Like many computers, the module computer has the capability of detecting imminent power loss
through a sensing circuit in its power supply. A
signal indicating this event is supplied to the reflex
card from the computer power supply. The reflex card triggers an INITIALIZE signal on the bus,
thus initiating a command to halt moving devices —
for instance, prior to the power loss in the module
computer. In a “power-up” sequence, the INITIALIZE signal is generated again, and program control
is transferred to the bootstrap code.

Protection from Loss of Program Control

The module computer’s program may not always be running correctly; for example, it may become
deadlocked, halted, or contain errors. For these contingencies, an independent timer, called a “watchdog
timer,” is included on the reflex card. The watchdog timer must be reset periodically by a properly
e.xecuting program in the module computer. If it is not reset, the watchdog timer reaches a “time-
out” state.This state is a reflex condition that, like any other, will cause generation of an INITIALIZE
signal by the reflex card and transfer the module computer’s program control to the bootstrap code.

Provision for Sensor-Triggered Reflexes

Certain events detected by sensors connected to the module computer may induce an emergency response
from the module. The reflex card provides such a response capability by accepting binary signals
from these sensors. The binary signals could, for example, indicate the state of contact/noncontact
or pro.ximity/nonproximity of objects with respect to a manipulator’s end-effector. One reflexive response
might be to halt a moving manipulator any time an intruder is detected in the work space. As another
e.\ample, a pro.ximity sensor on a manipulator’s hand may be used to trigger a “stop-arm” reflex to
prevent collision with unexpected obstacles; however, sometimes this reflex must be disabled to permit
the hand to reach a target object. The computer program may disable any reflex circuit on the reflex
card by transmitting a special code word. This encryption reduces the possibility that the reflexes
may be disabled accidentally. Reflex devices will always be placed in the “reflex disabled” state following
the INITIALIZE signal, so that the module will react to the fault condition once rather than repeatedly.
The triggering condition should be determined by reading the reflex status and removing it before
the reflex is enabled again. When the module program begins, it enables those reflex sensors that
should be active at that time.

Provision for Programmable-Condition Reflexes

The refle.xes just described are directly triggered by simple binary sensor signals. Certain more complex

conditions detected by the module-computer program may also warrant initiation of an orderly shut-
down. Loss of communication with other devices is one instance of a potential shutdown condition;
another e.xample is detection of anomalous conditions computed from local sensor values and internal
program states. .A RESET instruction should be supplied by the module computer to activate the
IN1TI.ALIZE bus signal from software. Utilization of this provision will be based on the estimated
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urgency of the situation After it camesout the RESET command, the program should transfer execution
to the bootstrap program

Sensor-Stale Monitoring at Program Lexel

The redex and bootstrap levels are concerned with initializing the module, getting it loaded and running,
and providing a uniform method for detecting and reacting to local anomalous conditions The mam
functions of the module are performed at the program level, that is, controlling the module's main
device or sensor The program kvel has the following responsibilities

Reset the watchdog timer periodically

Provide full, flexible intermodule commumcaiion by the network, interface
Implement the generic functions defined for the module type to control the module's devices or
sensors
Provide periodic sensor-state monitoring

Examples of module functions and a dcscnplion of module intercommunicalion capabilities have been
given in Sections 6S 3 2 and 68 3 3

Sensor-State Monitoring

A background process for moniconng the numerous sensors associated with a module is under develop-
ment, It IS presented as a pnncipal component of the program level of each module The monitonng
process is intended to read the values of local sensors penodically and to compare these values with

their expected range, which is given in a table When an actual sensor value is found outside the
expected range, a programmable-condition reflex may be executed or, less drastically, a message reporting
the anomaly may be broadcast Range entries in the sensor table will be made in one of two ways

Explicitly, through a MONITOR command given to (he module, indicating which sensor to use
aod the exited values oC (.hat. seiisiuc ua t-he next interval
Implicitly, by execution of a generic function that imposes known constraints upon a sensor's
values

A MONITOR command can be used, for example, to instruct a manipulator module to monitor
the forces and torques acting on its end eflecior and to assure that they remain within a specified
range for a given application Monitoring will then proceed independently until the MONITOR com-
mand IS cancelled
In some cases the effect of a generic function on a set of sensors is known a pnon, and sensor
monitoring can be initiated implicitly For example. let us consider two functions for a manipulator
hand GRASP and RELEASE The value of a binary touch sensor on the hand's fingers afler execution
of the GRASP command is expected to be ON
The GRASP routine itself will venfy this condition
and enter the tolerance range for the sensor value (unnecessary m
this instance) in the sensor range
table Execution of Che RELEASE routine will generate an entry in the table corresponding to the
OFF value for the contact sensors (if, indeed, (hey were off) The sensor value corresponding lo the
ON or OFF state can be checked repeatedly by a sensor monitor routine Thus, an external application
program directing the manipulator module need not venfy continuously that an object in the band
there, but will instead be notified immediaiely if the object is dropped
IS still

Other operations similarly impose anticipated constraints on associated sensors Should a discrepancy
occur between the sensor (able range and (he actual value of a sensor, the safest approach will be to
execute a "programmable-condition” shutdown reflex and enter the bootstrap level Since the reflex
does not destroy the resident program, state information can be retneved from the module by means
of the diagnostic routines available in the module's bootstrap program Such information may be
used in future work to determine why a module failed and to direct the recovery of that module or
the entire station accordingly

68.4. ASSEMBLY STATION

68,4.1, Station Configuration

Figure 68 9 shows the current configuration of our assembly station It consists of a station controller,
a binary vision module with three video cameras, and (wo manipulator modules whose black and
white arms arc called Arm 1 and Ann 2, respecuvely The end effector of Arm 1 consists of a plastic
remote center compliance device, the front end of a video camera (ihe back end is mounted on the
manipulator arm), and a two-fingered hand The end effector of Arm 2 consists of a six-axis wnsl
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MODULAR PROGRAMALABLE ASSEMBLY RESEARCH 1165

Fig. 6S.9. Assembly station.

force/torque sensor and a two-fingered hand. Not included in this configuration are the limited-sequence-
manipulator module and the other modules described in Section 68.3.2. These modules may be incorpo-
rated into the assembly station as needed during the performance of other assembly tasks.
This station configuration includes two support surfaces. The first, located between the manipulators,
is the assembly area (the binary vision module, e.tcluding its cameras, is mounted beneath it). The

second surface, located near Arm 1, supports general-purpose part feeders and pallets within reach
of that arm. Both surfaces have fi.xed cameras mounted above them, and both have a grid of holes,
which are used to provide mechanical support components and to aid in calibrating the coordinate
frames of the manipulators, the support surfaces, and the cameras relative to one another.
The station controller, a small computer, is used to control the sequential and parallel operations
of the modules by means of commands on the communication network. The station controller also
controls a printer, a speech output device, and two disks. Messages from the modules to the operator
are printed or spoken; files stored on the disks are sent to the module computers upon request. In
addition, the station controller has menus of module commands that can be e.xecuted interactively
by the user, as well as a cross-network debugger that allows him to e.xamine, alter, and set breakpoints
in the programs of the module computers.

68.4J. Calibration of Coordinate Frames

Communication of object locations (position and orientation) among modules is facilitated if there is
a common coordinate system, or reference frame, in which to define these locations. For instance, a
camera may be used to determine the location of a part; that information, expressed in terms of the
coordinates of the reference frame, will enable any manipulator within reach to access the part. Each
manipulator module will need to know only its relationship with the reference frame rather than all
its pairwise relationships with other coordinate frames in the assembly station. We therefore calibrate
all the station modules to a station reference frame.
In Figure 68.10 we two manipulators, R1 for Arm 1 and R2
define the base coordinate frames of
for Arm 2, the coordinate frames of their respective end El and E2, and two coordinate
efiectors,
frames, TI and T2. on Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Camera I overlooks Table 1 and Camera 2
overlooks Table 2. Frame Tl is chosen to be the reference frame, and the other frames must be
related to it, as indicated by the dashed arrows, by means of transforms
transformation matrices.^
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Sill AHlSaaNI NI NOIIOadSNI DIlOeOH ONIAlddV

1166 ASSEMBLY
Camera 1 Camera 2

Fig. 68.10. Suiion coor<lina(e frames and iransfonns

We u«e the following general notation The position vector (jc. y. s, 1) of a point P in an arbitrary
homogeneous coordinate frame F is denoted by PfF) The same point may be desenbed by P(Fl) or
P(F2), where FI and F2 are two different frames We denote the transform from Frame FI to Frame
F2 by (FI/F2], where P(Fl) =• (FI/FT) • P(F2) Using this notation, note that P(F2) » [F2/F1] *
P(F1), where [F2/F1] is the inverse of {FI/F2J We depict {F1/F2J by an arrow pointing from the
origin of Frame FI to that of Frame F2 (see the examples in Figure 68 10), note that the inverse of
{FVF2] would be depicted by an arrow in the opposite direction
Using the preceding notation, we obtain P(RI> =“ (Rl/Tlj • P(T1) The elements of transform
[Rl/TlJ can be determined by mounting a pcncilliLe tool on the wnst of Robot 1 and leading that
robot so that its tool tip touches three points m Frame Ti —
us ongin, a point on its +x axis, and a
point on Its +y axis Reading the robot positions in Frame Rl, the coordinates corresponding to the
ongm yield the translation vector of transform (RI/TIj. while those of the other two points yield its
rotation matrix A similar sequence usuig Arm 2 and the same calibration points m Tl may be performed
to derive [R2/TI] At this stage, the position of a part given in Frame Tl can be transformed into
the frames of both arms
Next, points in the two-dimensional image plane of each camera are related to a three-dimensional
space Consider first Camera 1, which is calibrated directly to the Table 1 gnd it views Pegs of
varying lengths are inserted into the gnd holes, which are easily ideniiiiable integer coordinates m
the gnd framework The white tops of the pegs can be seen as bnght spots by the camera A set of
known peg-top (x. y, r) positions in Frame Tl and the corresponding set of (u. v) image coordinates
in a two-dimensional Frame Cl are utilized, using a least-mean-squares fitting method, to produce
the camera calibration matnx The camera calibration matrix can be used to compute the image
coordinates (u, v) of a given point (x. y. z) in the calibration frame Generally, however, we do the
reverse —the x and y coordinates of a point in the calibration frame are obtained as a function of
the camera calibration matnx, the image point (u. v), and the known r-coordinate of that point For
Camera I. the calibration frame is equivalent to the reference frame (Frame Tl)
Calibration of Camera 2 is similar to that of Camera
except that the relation between the calibration
I,

frame (Frame T2) and the reference frame (Frame TI) must be denied The relation [72/11] is
determined by making the tool tip of Ann 1 touch points on the origin, the +x axis, and the +y
axis of Frame T2 to denve [Rl/T^J, and computing [T2/T1] [T2/R1] * [Rl/Tl] =
The hand-held camera is calibrated siinil^y to the other cameras, except that only one peg is
used and the camera is moved to view it from different locations The camera is ngidly attached to
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MODULAR PROGRAMMABLE ASSEMBLY RESEARCH 1167

the tool-mounting flange on the wrist of Arm 1; hence, points seen by the camera will be initially
referenced to a frame FL fixed in that flange. Assume that the peg is placed in a grid hole on Table
1 and that its position inFrame T1 is known. After each time the arm is moved, we compute the
peg-top position in Frame FL, using the relation Peg(FL) = [FL/Rl] * [Rl/Tl] * Peg(Tl). From
the resulting list of (x. y, z) positions in Frame FL and the corresponding (u, v) image coordinates,
the camera calibration matrix can be computed as for Camera 1 or Camera 2. Relations between the
hand-held camera and other frames are illustrated in the next section.

68.4.3. Example of Intermodular Communication

Most of the communication that occurs in the context of our assembly station is between the station
controllerand the modules it commands or queries. However, one important example of direct communi-
cation among the modules themselves involves the use of a camera mounted on a manipulator’s hand.
A stationary camera can supply information about the location of an object it views in a fixed
coordinate frame, such as Camera 1 over Table 1 in Figure 68.9, because the relationship between
the camera and the table is constant. A mobile camera, on the other hand, can supply information
about the position of a part relative only to the camera’s viewing location. If the part location is

desired with respect to a fixed frame, such as Tl, then the location of the viewing camera must be
known. Figure 68.11 shows schematically the transforms between frames associated with finding a
part PARTXl in a pallet on Table 1 by means of a camera attached to a flange FL that holds the
end effector of Arm 1. The following sequence of commands illustrates a direct communication between
a binary vision module using a hand-held camera and the manipulator module.

MoveTo (ARMl, AbovePallet). The station controller commands Arm 1 to move to Location
AbovePallet above a pallet with a desired part. Since AbovePallet is described with respect to
Tl, Arm 1 converts AbovePallet to a location in its own frame, using the relation [Rl/AbovePal-
let] = [Rl/Tl] * [Tl/AbovePallet], and moves to that location. After the move. Frames El and

AbovePallet will coincide.

SetCamera(VMl, HandCamera). The station controller commands vision module VMl to select
the hand-held camera for input.

Flange

Fig. 68.11. Using the hand-held camera.

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1168 assembly
Find(VMl,PARTX, Result) The station controller commands VMl to take a picture with
(he
selected camera, compute the location of a part of Type PARTX in reference coordinates,
and
return this result

The task of VMI is thus to compute transform [Tl/PARTXI] Since [Tl/PARTXl] = [Tl/Pn
* [FL/PARTXl], VMl will first ask and obtain from Arm the value of [Tl/FL], it will then find
I

PARTXl and compute its transform, (TI/PARTXIJ, as follows

WhereFL(ARMl. Result) The vision module asks Arm 1 for the location in TI of its tOo].
mounting flange FL to which the camera is attached The camera has been previously caltbra(ed
so that points it views will be referenced to a coordinate system fixed to the flange
Reply(VMI, Result) Reading its current value of [Rl/EI], Arm I computes [Tl/FL], usmg
the expression [Tl/FL] == [Tl/RI] • [Rl/El] • (EI/FL], and gives its value to the vision modWc
The latter then takes a picture with the hand-held camera, recognizes an instance (PARTXl) of
PARTX, if present, and determines [FL/PARTX I] on the basis of two-dimensional image features
and additional prototype information
Reply(StationControIler, Result) The vision module (ells the station controller where PARTxi
IS m Tl. using the relation (TI/PARTXIJ ® (Tl/FL] • [FL/PARTXl]

68.4.4. Assembly Detnonstradon

A few demonstrations of the assembly station have been performed, the most recent one involving
the assembly of part of a DEC LA-34 printer carnage Thai assembly contained four part types
(see Figure 68 12)

1. A fnction shaft with four plastic rocker arms, each containing a hole

i. Four plastic rockers, each of which snaps into the hole of one of the rocker arms
i. Two small rollers, each of which snaps into the front end of two adjacent rocken
4. Two large rollers, each of which snaps into the back end of two adjacent rockers

All the parts are acquired by Arm I from their locations on Table 2 (see Figure 68 9) The shaf)

and the two rollers slide into fixed pickup locations on three feeders, each consisting of two included

Fig. 68.12. Simultaneous perfoimance of initial and final assembly steps

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MODULAR PROGRAMMABLE ASSEMBLY RESEARCH 1169

rails. The rockers are presented on a sticky pallet under Camera 2 in one stable state (upright), but
at arbitrary locations.
Table 1 supports a simple fixture with “V” notches for aligning cylindrical parts, such as the
friction shaftand the rollers. The fixture is attached to a light table that backlights it and a small
surrounding area. Using Camera 1, the location of the fixture is determined usually from above by
recognizing and locating a reference target on it; the locations of a few fixture components, such as
the holding support for the friction shaft, are computed according to their relative locations with
respect to the target. Meanwhile, Arm 1 acquires a friction shaft from its feeder and places the shaft
on its support (after the latter has been located). After Camera 1 locates the fixture. Camera 2 is
used to locate a rocker on the pallet. Subsequently Arm 1 acquires the rocker and places it beside
an empty rocker arm whose hole has been located by the hand-held camera on the arm. That camera
then determines the precise location of the rocker.
Part mating with force feedback is performed next by Arm 2 because Arm 1 has no wrist force

sensor. Given the locations of each rocker and its destination hole. Arm 2 grasps the rocker and
places it in the hole while making small corrective movements based on information from its force
sensor. That information is used to determine when the rocker should be set into place as well as to
protect the assembly from excessive forces that Arm 2 might accidentally exert. An increase in the
applied force followed by a sudden drop in that force provides confirmation that the two parts have
been snapped together successfully. While the rocker is being inserted by Arm 2, Arm 1 acquires
one of the four rollers needed and places it behind the shaft support on the fixture.
The preceding cycle is repeated until all four rockers have been inserted in their respective rocker
arms and all four rollers have been placed in their fixture. Subsequently, Arm 1 turns the friction
shaft subassembly over onto the fixtured rollers and holds the shaft in place, as shown in Figure
68.13. Arm 2 then presses every rocker down until it is snapped onto the corresponding front and
back rollers; force sensing is used again to verify this operation. Finally, Arm 1 releases the friction
shaft, and Arm 2 removes the completed assembly from the assembly area.

68.4.5. Conclusions

The assembly station and assembly demonstration described in this chapter have exhibited the following
capabilities:

Fig. 68.13. Pressing rockers onto rollers.

 •

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1170 ASSEMBLY
Ko special-purpose fixtures — some parts are presented to the manipulacor on a pallet, others ar^
on a slide. The assembly is assisted by a simple fixture with “V" notches for centering cylindrical
workpieces
Utilization of medium-level module commaiuls, su(^ as MOVETO, FIND, and GRASP
Binary vision to locate and identify parts on a pallet for acquisition Three cameras are used dunn^
—
the assembly two fixed in the ceiling and one attached to the end effector of one of the manipulatory
Force feedback to actively control compliance and insertion forces m snap-together, part-mating
operations
A stationwide calibration for two manipulators and multiple cameras, enabling part locations t^
be given with respect to a common reference frame
Concurrent operation of two manipulators in a central assembly area, while the binary visioi)

system recognizes and locates pans elsewhere

Synchronization of manipulator motions to avoid collisions in the central assembly area
Simple sensors to venfy operation, including the use of finger separation to ascertain the presence
of a part in the hand, a click detector, employing a microphone mechanically coupled to th^
assembly area, to venfy that semingid parts have snapped together successfully, or to detect a
drop of a pan

These capabilities are important for the development of not only programmable assembly, but
also of programmable automation in its broadest potential range of applications

REFERENCES
1. Cook, N H , Computer-Managed Pan Manufacture, Scientific American, Vol 232, February
1973. pp 86-93
2. Nitzan, D and Rosen, C A Programmable Industnal Automation. IEEE Transactions on Com.
,

puters. Vol C-25. December 1976, pp 1259-1270

3. Nevins, J et Exploratory Research in Industrial Modular Assembly,

al , NSF Grants GI-394323(
.acid.AXA74<JRl.7.^4AL -Rr/victs .l-Jt ITopinr JjihocatAcust .Ma.<isar.tuixAU.i. .lime J,

1973, to August 31, 1975

4. Nitzan, and Whitney, D , Research in Automated Assembly and Related Areas Report of
O —
the ARC Programmable Manufactunng Systems Group, Proceedings o/the Joint Automatic Control
Conference, Vol 4, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania, October 1978, pp 21-28
5. Rosen, C ei al , Machine Intelligence Research Applied to Industnal Automation, Eighth Report,
NSF Grant APR75- 13074, SRI Project 4391, SRI International. Menlo Park, California, September
1978
6. Gleason, G J and Agin, G. J , A Modular Vision System for Sensor-Controlled Manipulatiot)
and Inspection, Proceedings of the 9ih International Symposium and Exposition on Industrial
Robots, Washington. DC, March 1979
7. Albus, J S ,
Srains, Behavior, and Robotics, BYTE Books, Subsidiary of McGraw Hill, Peter,
borough, New Hampshire, 1981
8. Whitney, D
et al , Short- and Long-Term Robot Feedback Multiaxis Sensing, Control, anq
Updating, Proceedings of the Tenth NSF Conference on Production Research and Technology,
Detroit, Michigan, February 28-March 2, 1983, pp 119-122

9. Nitzan, D et al Machine Intelligence Research Applied to Industnal Automation, Eleventh

,

Report, NSF Grant DAR80-23130, SRI International. Menlo Park, California, January 1982
10. Nitzan, D Machine Intelligence Research Applied to Industnal Automation, Twelfth
et al ,

Report, NSF Grant DAR80-23130, SRI IntemalionaL Menlo Park, California, January 1983
11. Paul, R P, Robot Manipulators, MIT Press. Cambndge, Massachusetts, 1981
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APPLVTS'G ROBOTIC INSPECTION IN EsUUSTRY 1181

Juran, I. NE et al. Quality Control Handbook, 3rd ecL, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.
Kennedy, C. W. and Andrews, D. E., Inspection and Gagins, 5th ed.. Industrial Press, New York,
1977.

Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Harulbook of Industrial Metrology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood

CliSs, New Jersey, 1967.

Teel, K. S. et aL, Assembly and inspection in microelectronic systems. Human Factors. VoL 10, 1968,
pp. 217-224.
 CHAPTER 70
ADVANCED ROBOTIC
INSPECTION APPLICATIONS
KENICHI ISODA
YASUO NAKAGAWA
Hitachi
Tokyo, Japan

In lactones, inspection is as imponant as imnufactunni itself Visual inspection by a human inspector

supports product quality to a great degree because functional testing can not alvvays inspect everything
Much of the production of microelectronics technology requires very hne visual inspection and tbi$
IS very difficult to accomplish with human eyes Thefollowingare examples of Hitachi's robotic inspection
systems developed to solve the problems

nf.I. AOTWrATfC VtStiAC fASPECnOlV OF shaoo<9.wasr: master

PATTERNS

70.1.1. Pattern Defects and Criteria of Inspection

Master Pattern

A (CPT) has a shadow-mask at the back of its front panel It is made of thin iron
color picture tube
plate, on the surface of which there are many small rectangular holes arrayed in rows, the total
number of these holes is several hundred thousand per shadow-mask
These rectangular holes are formed by contact-exposure pnntmg and chemical etching To obtain
high-qualicy shadow-masks, it is essential to keep the quality high for the master plate used in contact,
exposure printing The patterns on the master plate are damaged dunng production or when used
for contact-exposure printing many limes So the master plate should be inspected and retouched for
repetitive use
A master pattern for shadow-masks is a diy plate, the size of which is about 610 X 800 mm,
and on its surface many stnpe patterns are photo-pnnted within a frame line of a CPT panel Figure
70 1 shows examples of the stnpe patterns Two kinds of stnpe patterns, “thick stripes” and “fine
stripes,” are used to make one shadow-mask The sizes of these stnpe patterns are a little diiferent
in different sorts of CPTs Table 70 I shows an example of the sues, where an arrow in the width
W of “fine stnpes” means that the width is decreased from the center to the edge of a CPT smoothly,
"
that to say "graded
is

A designed stnpe pattern is an exact rectangular pattern, but m

real patterns there are some
distortions, something like roundness of the comer, a tiny unevenness of the edge line, and other
irregulanties Figure 70 2 shows the magnilied photograph of the real pattern In automatic inspection
these tiny irregulanties should be tolerated

Criteria of Inspection

Table 702 shows Che catena for inspection, that is, the kinds of defects and the miiMmuni sizes to
be detected. The defects can be classified into 10 kinds These defects are caused by pinholes or alieh
substances in the process of pattern making, by scratches dunng use of master plates, and by mistakes
in retouching defect patterns

1182
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Fig. 70.1. Shadow-mask master patterns.

70.1.2. Basic Concepts of Pattern Inspection

advantageous to use comparative inspection between two neighboring patterns, because the difference
It is

of sizes between neighboring patternsis small, and in fine stripes the sizes of patterns change gradually

along with inspection sequence. On the other hand it is essential to extract tiny defects by individual
inspection of patterns because the limit size of defects is small and is only a little larger than the
detectable minimum size.
With these considerations, we designed the algorithm of interpretation, as shown in Figure 70.3.
After the video signal is thresholded, the obtained binary signal of patterns is divided by pattern
extraction into effective patterns and invalid patterns. Figure 70.4 shows this process schematically.
In Figure 70.4 the left-side neighboring patterns are neglected by pattern extraction which functions
just when the bright, transparent area has appeared during a scan. The effective patterns obtained
are interpreted by six methods. Among these methods, area comparison, bridge width comparison,
maximum width comparison and center position comparison are comparative inspections between a
pattern just below the inspection area and a correct pattern inspected just previously. Width change
and center change examine just the pattern below the inspection. If any defects are detected, the
error signal is transmitted to a defect marker.

IB
w

B
TABLE 70.1.

THICK STRIPES
SIZES

0.38

0.67

0.13
1
OF STRIPE PATTERNS

FINE STRIPES

Px 0.60

Py 0. 80

unit :inm

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 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

Fig. 70.5. Stnicture oTaalomatic inspection machine

70.2. AUTOMATIC INSPECTION OF DEFECTS ON CONTACT PARTS

70.2.1. Contact Points of Relay Switch and Their Defects

As shown in Figure 70 7, 16 pairs, or a total number of 32 contact points are welded on a stainless
spnng sheet The dimensions of each pair are also shown in Figure 70 7 A contact point is made of
a Cu chip gilded with Au and Pd
Figure 70 8 shows an example of defects in appearance that will have bad effects on electrical
contact when the switch is turned on. and on insulation when the switch is turned off These defects
are caused while contact points are welded on the spring, and they are roughly classified as follows

Defects in the welding position of contact points (Figure 70 80)

Defects in the shape and surface of contact points (Figure 70 ib. c, d. /)
Defects in the surrounding of contact points (Figure 70 8e. /)

Visual inspection cntena for these defects have been as follows

1 Displacement from regular position

Displacement should be less than ±0 I mm each direction along x and y axis

Fig. 70.6, Automatic inspection machine for real

 ADVANCED ROBOTIC INSPECnoN APPLICATIONS 1187

80 mia

Fig. 70.7. A contact and relay sheet for a relay switch.

2. Deformation:
The contact size should be larger than 0.32 X 0.8 mm.
3. Scratch:
A scratch should be less than 10 fim in width as well as less than 50 ;im in length.
4. Adherence of alien substance:
Adherence of alien substance should be less than 50 fimcj).
5. Welding splash:
A welding splash should be less than 20 p.m in width at 0.2 mm from the side of contact
points.

6. Collapse:
A collapse should be less than 0.2 mm in length from the side of contact points,

70.2J. Basic Concepts of Inspection Devices

Optical System of Detection and Its Characteristics

Hgure 70.9 shows the optical system and its formation. The system
has a television camera with a
0.5 m. \adicon tube for detecting defects. Since the resolution of the
camera is 650 lines per ima'^e
window width, it is appropriate to reflect two contact points in one
image window, judging from the
sue of the defects to be detected. An objective lens of 5X
magnification was used to reflect the images
01 these two contact points on the effective °
surface of the image tube.
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ADVANCED ROBOTIC INSPECTION APPLICATIONS 1189

Movable table
(intermittent movement)

Fig. 70.9. Optical system for detecting defects of the contact points.

The method was adopted. When lighted from above, as shown in

vertical-reflected illumination
Figure 70.10, the surface of contact pointsis the brightest and the spring surface is second brightest;

on the other hand, the outline of the contact point is dark, and the scratch, welding splash, and so
on, which should be detected as defects, are also dark. Therefore we can discriminate them with
sufficient contrast.
A motor intermittently shifts a movable plate on which the contact spring is placed. To
pulse
simplify the shifting mechanism and to save shifting time, a pair of television cameras is used. In
this way, two different pairs of contact points are reflected on each television screen simultaneously.

Defects Detection Algorithm

Figure 70. 1 1 shows the defects detection algorithm.

First Field. The first field is to determine the threshold level to convert the video signal into
the binary symbol of 1 or 0.

Second Field. By converting the video signal into the binary value of 1 or 0 based on a pertinent
threshold level, decided in the first field, we search the location of the center of contact point
from its outline and inspect the displacement. Figure 70.12 shows how to locate the center point.
Third Field. We range by setting the frames and set a different new threshold
limit the inspection
level to detect the defects other than displacement.

In the first place, we set two frames (as shown in Figure 70.13) centered on the contact point
center determined in the second field. The size of the inside frame is 0.32 X 0.8 mmand that of the
outside frame is 0.72 X 1.2 mm.
Taking the size of defects to be detected into consideration, as shown in Figure 70.13, we scan
all over the inside frame with a 7 x 7 pi.xel window (54 X 54 square fzm). continuous sequence of A
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 1190 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

Fig. 70.10. Image of the contact point under vertical reflected illumination

Ts extending across the entire window represents a feature large enough to be judged a defect If
any such sequence is found. *ve decide the contact is defective
Still(aLing (he inspection enteric mto consideration, we scan with a 3 x 3 pixel window (23 x
23 square jiin) along the penmeter uf ihe outside frame, as shown m
Figure 70 13 If for any window,
all of the nine pixels indicate the symbol I. the contact is considered defective

70.2.3, S>stem Giaiiguration

Figure 70 14 shows the appearance of the device installed in the production line for practical use As
mentioned before, there arc two sets of television cameras, but the signal-processing circuit is vmgle
arid processes the signals coming from both camera sets The time necessary for the inspection of 32
contact points is 3 4 seconds, and
iij breakdown is as follows

Inspection and judgment

(33 contact points) 3 I sec
Shifting
(10 times of intermittent motions) 2 9 sec
Elimination of aflenmage and
lime lag for receiving signal 0 4 sec
Total time 5,4 sec

70.3.AUTOMATIC VISUAL INSPECTION OF SOLDER JOINTS ON PRINTED

CIRCUIT BOARDS
70.3.1. Solder Join! Defects

Examples of solder joint defects arc shown in Figure 70 15 This figure illustrates the sectional shape
of solder joints, where the soldered surface is on lop and the loaded elcclnc parts arc underneath
Although defects can be classified in detail into more than 10 categories, there arc five fundamental
Ijpes of defects, four shown m
lhi» figure- The defect not shown is a solder bridge, which can be
detected by an electric tester and ij thus excluded from those defects to be delected by automatic
visual inspection. No-solder in Figure 70 15 can also be detected by electric tester if there is noconiact.
but in general the lead of the part 1$ touching the land of the board, and clectnc contact exists So.
no-soIder cannot be detected by the tester m many cases
In detection of solder joints, it ^ necessary to detect the shape of the joint correctly without
being influenced by Ihe gloss and blur of the solder surface.
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104 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 7.17. Industrial ihrM-lingerMl hand (adapted from design in Reference 13)

people The gnpper consists of many links joined together, like a section of bicycle chain The joints
between the links have pulleys, with thin wires wrapped around them Pulling on the wires causes
the chains to change their curvature, wrapping completely about the object to be gnpped The gnppmg
pressure is uniformly distributed about the part

7.4. FORCE ANALYSIS

The intent hereis not to review classical mechanics but to emphasize the considerations that are

most important m
modeling gnppers A more extensive discussion of the static analysis of conventional
gnppers can be found in Chapter 8, which contains a number of worked examples and provides a
convenient, systematic way of detenninmg loads and actuator forces
The actuator, acting by way of the Angers, applies forces to the object or tool being held Such
forces must resist the externally applied forces and moments ansing from gravity, robot accelerations,
and contact with Axtures The external force acting on the grasped part is, in general, a six-element
vector with three translational and three rotational components Free-body diagrams drawn on a sheet
of paper are adequate for analyzing pairs of force components, provided that the other force components
acting simultaneously mand out of the paper are not forgotten If elastic deflections of the gnpper
and Its Angers must be considered, a matrix approach (similar to the approach used in modeling
clastic trusses and space frames) is preferable**

Fig. 7.18. Conformal gnpper (adapted from design in References 14, IS)
 1201
ADVANCED ROBOTIC INSPECTION APPLICATIONS
—45°), the resulU
The extraction of fine patterns is performed for four directions (0“, 90°, +45°,
of this extraction being a logical AND
for the four directions. This differs from the case of the boundary

lines in that portions including normally undetected patterns are

extracted. The production of the
permits reduc-
AND therefore precludes any undesirable influence on defect detection performance and
criteria for the distance of
tions in circuit size. Selection of q3, p3, q4, p4 regulates the detection
defects from the patterns and boundary lines inspected for fine defects.
may be set for the conductor portion ((bi)
Different inspection criteria
= 1) and the base material
portion ((bi) = 0) by altering p3 and p4.

Comparison of Extracted Features

Refer to Figure 70.30 for an explanation of extraction of pattern features and defect
recognition; (1)

Figure 70.30 shows the two patterns (f and g) being compared, (2) the images Fk and
Gk extracted
from the boundary lines in the Y direction, and (3) the images Fb and Gb extracted as fine
patterns.

Defect recognition involves the comparison of Fk and Gk (or Fb and Gb). When corresponding points

on the reference pattern and printed circuit board pattern exhibit the same features, the pattern is
determined as having no defects. If this relationship is not established, a defect is determined. In (3)
an electrical short defect (narrow in this case) is recognized.

Image Processor for Defect Detection

The following provides an explanation of a method of implementing the preceding inspection with
the use of a hard-wired circuit (refer to Figure 70.31). This circuit binarizes the image signals obtained
from a pair of linear image sensors and includes three components. First is a noise filter circuit to
remove fine, nondefect, isolated patterns (pinholes, excess conductors) from the binary signal. feature A
extraction circuit extracts local features of the pattern image after noise filtering, and a feature comparison
circuitcompares the extracted features within a fixed area.
feature comparison circuit compares each window of «
The X n pixels to determine whether or
not the same features exist and therefore permits scanning even if the two patterns are not perfectly

aligned.
The pi and qi (Figures 70.28 and 70.29) are set to small values relative to the sizes under comparison
to remove undesirable influences caused by quantization error arising when the two patterns are bina-
rized.
Figure 70.32 shows examples of detected defects. In the actual inspection system three images
are combined and displayed on a color television monitor.

Fig. 70.30. Extraction of features and comparison of the extracted feature patterns.
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70JI

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1202
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not INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

70.4,3. Inspection System

An inspection system using the technologies desenbed has been developed The scheme of the system
IS shovrn in Figure 70.33 The pnnted circuit boaid is mounted on the xB stage, a number of the
same circuit patterns being printed repeatedly above this circuit board This board is illuminated and
the corresponding portions of the arcuit pattern are projected onto a pair of linear image sensors
The image signals obtained from these sensors then are fed to the defect recognition circuit
This system is such that pixel size Aj> may be altered clectncally. and an isolated pattern (size
Dn) eliminated as noise, patterns (sizes ql, q2) extiacted as border lines or (sizes p3, p4, q3, q4) as
Une patterns, and the allowable ahgnmoil error r may be set as desired
Figure 70 34 shows a general view of the system The inspection system itself is located in the
center, the loader and unloader at either side, and the electrical circuits at nght Handling of circuit
boards is completely automated
The pnnt^ circuit boards are stored in a magazine and delivered one at a time to the x0 stage
The system includes a detector table on which two detectors are mounted, this table being capable
of movement m
the Y direction so that the distance between the detectors may be altered
The pnnted circuit board is fed to the inspection stage, and the misalignment of the two patterns
in the Y direction is detected by the two detectors, this misalignment being corrected by fine adjustment
on the 8 axis Following the completion of alignment, the inspection stage is moved in the and Y X
directions and the board inspected If a defect is detected, its coordinate is temporarily stored m the
memory and it is marked with ink later when the defect is moved under the marking head Following
the completion of inspection, the board is fed to the unloader on the side of the system opposite to
the loader Table 70 4 lists the specihcations of this system

TABLE 70.4, SPECIFICATIONS-

Minimum detectable defect size 40 jim

Minimum line width of paiiem 140 jim
Detector CCD linear image sensor
Bmanzation method of detected image signals Light intensity optimization method
Detector scanning speed 5 MHr
Inspection speed 20 cmVsec
Handling of boards Full automatic
Recording of detected defect information Marking red ink onto detected defects

Stroke of scanning stages 500 x bOO mm

‘ Pixel size 20 jim

REFERENCES
1. Ejin, M
Mese,
, M
and Ikeda, S .
, A
process for detecting defects in complicated patterns, Computer
Graphics and Image Processing. Vol 2, No 4, December 1973, p 326
2. Sterling, WMAutomatic nonreference inspection of pnnted winng boards. Proceedings of Pattern
,

Recognition and Image Processing. August 1979, p 93

3. Jams, J F , A method for automating the visual inspection of pnnted winng boards, Proceedings
of theSITEL-VLG Seminar on Pattern Recognition, Belgium, November 19. 1977, p 9 1 1
4. Hara, Y et al, Automatic visual inspection <4 LSI photomasks. Proceedings of the 5tk International
Conference on Pattern Recognition. December I9M, p. 273
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 CHAPTER 71
ROBOT-OPERATED BODY
INSPECTION SYSTEM
JAMES A. KAISER
General Motors Corporation
Warren, Michigan

71.1. DIMENSIONAL CHECK METHODS

The traditional methods of dimensionally checking automobile body openings during the body assembly
stage of manufacturing included the use of both “apply” fixtures and off-line precision-machined “hard"
fixtures. Apply fixtures were either stored on a rack next to the line or hung over the line on a
counterbalance. They were used when required by placing them in an opening (such as windshield,
door, or trunk opening) located from key points, to make the measurement. The off-line hard fixtures
were fixed to a surface plate. To use these fixtures it was necessary to remove an in-process body
from the assembly line and place it in the fixture. The checks were then made manually using feeler
gages and the fixture units mounted on a side frame. This method has many drawbacks, the most
severe of which is the limitation on the number of bodies that can be checked per shift. A
need was
recognized to gather more data more quickly in order to bring the manufacturing process under statistical
control. One of the most successful systems developed to meet this need was the ROBI (Robot-Operated
Body Inspection) system.

71 J. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The ROBI system was developed to check automobile bodies automatically without removing them
from the assembly line. The system consists of two six-axis servo-driven robots mounted on DC electri-
cally driven, multiposition tracks. (See Figure 71.1.) Laser probes are mounted on each robot wrist
to take the dimensional readings from the bodies.
The system occupies one on a stop-and-go shuttle line. The body is shuttled into the station
station
on a pallet which is then locked into place by a shot pin. Lifters then raise the body about 5.0 mm,
and the robot performs the check. On the continuously moving line, three stations are required for a
power and free shuttle to provide an idle check station. The body moves into the first station where
the line chain is disengaged. The body is then rapidly advanced into the second station on precision
rails, where it stops. A positioner locks into the front gate lock on the build truck. After the check

is performed, the body is rapidly advanced into the third station to catch up with the moving line,

and the chain is reengaged.

71.3. SYSTEM OBJECTIVES

The ROBI system objectives were set as follows;

1. To check the same points and obtain the same readings as the master checking fixture.
2. To be adaptable enough to check various styles and sizes of bodies.
3. To be fle.xible enough through programming to be able to selectively check specific points
when required (i.e., to zero in and keep detail checking specific problem areas, or to completely
check a body).
4. To provide software powerful enough to generate useful information for quality and process
control.

5. To check some portion of every body manufactured.

1205
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 1206 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

^ig. 71.1. The ROBI sysiem

^ 71.4. SYSTEM COMPONEISns

To meet these objectives, several factors had to be considered and several alternatives examined for
each of the four mam system components the probe, the n^ts, the tracks, and the computer
The probe used for the ROBI System is the Optocator produced by the Swedish firm of Selcom
AB, basically a light-source reading device The light source is a low-power infrared laser diode The
beam is reflected off the sheet metaj
surface and read by a camera which calculates the measurement
through simple tnangulation <See pigufe 71 2) Dual probes are used on each robot to obtain two-
directional readings with minimal robot movement ^ch probe includes a light source, a camera
unit with lens and detector, and probe processing electronics The output signal is linear in a digital
serial format of the distance to the
surface to be measured This particular probe was selected because
of Its accuracy and speed in obtanimg dau The reading resolution is belter than 005 mm, and the
reading range is 32 mm
In the search for the best roboj xq n,eei the goals of the ROBI system, many were considered
At the time of the search, only a electric robots were available Today, many more are on the

SEIGOM LASER PROBE

PtIINCIPlES OF DPERAIIDN

Fig. 71.2 Laser proEie pnnciple of operation

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ROBOT-OPERATED BODY INSPECTION SYSTEM 1207

market- The all-electric ASEA

IRb-60 with sL\ ases of freedom was selected, as it met the requirements
for speed, repeatability, reach, low power usage, and compatibility with external equipment. These
robots are able to obtain high repeatability without warm-up time or hydraulic temperature fluctuations.
Since no settling time was needed, more points could be checked with this robot than with the others
considered in the required span ot time.
The working en\ elope required to accommodate the larger-style bodies is significantly greater than
the envelope of a single robot. To expand the system envelope, programmable electric DC servo-
driven tracks were added. This allowed each robot to move between six locations to optimize its
position along the length of the body and to check various points at the front, middle, and rear of
each body. The robot can move along the track during the checking of a body if necessary. Covers
had to be added to protect the precision ways from grit and damage, and riser blocks of varying
heights between the robots and the tracks were used to vertically adjust the working envelope to fit
the conditions in each plant.
The system is operated by a DEC PDP 11/44 computer with two disk drives. Commands are
entered by way of a CRT keyboard. The results of inspection cycles are displayed on the CRT screen
or on a hard copy printer. The computer is interfaced with the Selcom Prob«, the lifter or the building
truck positioner, the respot line or power-and-free conveyor, the ASEA robots, and the tracks.

71.5. OPERATION DESCRIPTION

To place the system in operation the tool engineer uses the CRT keyboard to select the body opening(s)
he or she wants checked.
The robot will continue to check that opening or sequence of openings on each body until the
command is changed. The car line and style information is passed on to the ROBI computer from
the style read station. Upon receiving the style information and the “Ok to download" signal at the
end of the check cycle, the computer will download the appropriate programs to the robots. The
last
robots will then make a floor track position move if it is required. When checking the same opening
as the last body checked, no track move is made.
The next step is for the robots to position the probes at verification blocks to make readings.
This may seem unnecessary, but it will guarantee that the track has indexed properly and nothing
has been moved. If eveothing is stilt reading within the set limit of programmed position, then the
robot moves on; if not, it will abort to home position.
If the verification is within limits, the robot will move to a "ready-to-check" position that is still
clear of the moving line. The system waits for a signal that the body is properly positioned in the
station. If thereis not enough time left to complete the check cycle, the robots will abon to the

home position, and the body will index out of station. If enough time remains, the robots will then
move into the body opening, taking the probes from point to point to read the opening. When checking
is complete, the robots will go to home position and give a “clear" signal, the body will unlock and

index out. each check point a reading is taken, and it is compared to master data in the computer.
.At
The difierence or erroris printed out for each check point. Each robot can read up to 20 points per

body at a line rate of 60 bodies per hour. All check data is stored in the computer for one week so
that various summaries can be generated. Summaries can be requested by opening, body style, sideframe
gate, or building truck.
The ROBI system is considered to be highly successful in having met all its goals. However,
some problems were encountered when installing the system. All programs had to be adjusted and
fine-tuned at each plant. This took a considerable amount of time. .Availability of plant personnel to
work with the group installing the system was limited, thus making it necessary for the general olnce
personnel to do more of the programming and setup work. The usual problems with the robots,
tracks, hardware, software, and line interfacing were encountered during start-up. .All of the problems
were solved and corrected. It took about three months to debug all the systems. The system staned
with a PDP 11/34 computer and had to be upgraded to a PDP 11/44 computer to get reports and
be able to use the CRT for system changes at the same time that the robots were checking a body.
For optimum usage of and confidence in the system, it had to be correlated to the hard, off-line
checking fixture. The ROBI system is mastered by ta.king master data from a body in the ROBI
station and then checking the same body in the hard fixture. The deviations found by the hard fixture
are entered into the ROBI computer as offsets. This system of robot, track, and probe has proven to
be repeatable within ±0.2 mm
(zd).OOS in.).
The ROBI system has a tew constraints that should be noted. .At present, the system cannot
check holes for size and location; however, it has been used to check pin locations. A perfect one-to-
one correlation to the off-line hard-checking fixture cannot be obtained owing to the multiplicity of
building trucks.
The ROBI system has proven to be a useful tool in helping to monitor quality and to collect
^la tor process control. The system has been installed on-line in eight
assembly plants, and more
installations are being planned. The installation and body-programming
time in the plants for all
eight systems was about 36 man-months completed over a
10-month period. The system and mechanical
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1208 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

development time, before installation began, took two men about one year The control system design
and development and computer programming took about 60 man-months
A spin-olT of this system is a robot-operated panel inspection system (ROPI) which checks individual
body panels and subassemblies in component plants This is a prototype system utilizing a sin^e
ASEA IRB-6 industrial robot with five axes of freedom, and equipped with a double-laser-beam opticator
probe The robot positions the noncontact probe at each check point, inspecting for dimensional accuracy
of surface and tnm edges and venfying the presence of cntical holes. One of these systems is currently
installed and being evaluated at present
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 /
CHAPTER 72
INSPECTION AND REPAIR
OF NUCLEAR PLANT
DUNCAN B. LOWE
Taylor Hitec Ltd.
Chorley, Lancashire, United Kingdom

72.1. PREAMBLE
Hostile environments were thefirst to w elcome robots, and the inside of a nuclear reactor is certainly

However, the particularly sensitive and comple.x requirements of a nuclear reactor call for
hostile.
human supervisory control of any robotic devices employed. Therefore teleoperators can provide a
very useful solution.
The development of remote manipulators, or teleoperators, discussed in Section 3.3 and in Chapters
9, Teleoperator Arm
Design, and 17, Control of Remote Manipulators, is the focus of this chapter.
The nuclear power industry is under steadily increasing obligations to provide evidence that plant
and equipment is consistently satisfying safety and integrity requirements, imposed by various authorities.
Nowhere such evidence more mandatory than from regions where critical systems and components
is

are inaccessible toman or deny his involvement by their hostile state.

.At the same time there are obvious incentives for the industry to prolong the operational life of
both e.risting and future power plants, again creating a demand for evidence by safety and licensing
organizations.
A consequence common to these two influences is the need for adequate survey and sampling
equipment, the most specialized and technically advanced of which is that required for remote operation
in hostile environments. If the evidence procured by these means indicates a need for adjustment or
repair, then the scope and dexterity of the implements must be further increased.
Such are the motivations for the design and development of remotely controlled manipulators for
working in hitherto inaccessible regions of reactor interiors, and there are already firm indications
that similar devices will be called for in the processing of radioactive wastes and the decommissioning
of nuclear plants.
The predominant constraint upon the design and function of in-reactor tools is the access route
to the worksite. In e.xisting operational reactors few or no specific routes were incorporated in their
design, hence access must utilize whatever route can be used with safety (usually a fuel or control
channel) to insert and position a manipulative device at the worksite. Once there, the manipulator
responds to transmitted commands, direct or prograimned, to employ the inspection device, tool, and
so on in a predetermined task.
The foregoing describes a deployed robot, which is the essentia] nature of all the equipment to be
discussed in this chapter.

72J. DESIGN CONSTR.AINTS

In addition to the restrictions on cross-sectional dimensions imposed by the access routes, there are
further factors affecting the design approach, created by the interior environment of a nuclear reactor,
as follows:

1. Temperature. Inspection and maintenance operations employing remote equipment are carried
out with the reactor "shut down." However, the ambient temperature at the worksite can
approach 150°C.
2, Radiation. Residual radiation levels of up to 30 rads/hour in gas-cooled reactors cnn prevail
in the operational zone.

1209
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1210 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

3. R^djoactiTe Contaminatioa. Tbeaccess rou(«a a penetration into a contaminated cnvironmeAt.

Radioactive particulate mstter is deposited on the inserted equipment during its residence wiifnn
the hostJe worksite.

72.2.1. FaiiS^e
Once entered into a hostile containment, u is e^eotia] that the position m space of the device he
precisely known at all times, otherwise collision, breakage, and worse still, lodging of the device can
occur The last is of particular concent to the designer, for not only is an irretnevable device an
embarrassment and expensive, but it can afeo render inoperative the plant concerned for an extensive
period or even permanently In a nuclear reactor such a situation could create safety harards in addition
to loss of use and consequently is quite unacceptable The device and its deployment gear must theref^ire
be designed to fail m
a manner that will ensure that it can be estneat^ from whatever conlineS u
may encounter
Should an accident or malfunciion prevent withdrawal of the equipment by normal means, the
components must be so designed as to collapse sufficiently to allow extraction when extra force >s
applied The manner of collapse is critical No component must break free to be left behind, and (he
forces required to cause collapse must not inAicf significant damage to the reactor internals In ochtr
words, a fail-safe mechanism must be ensured to avoid the quite unacceptable nsk of its becoming
inextricably lodged ui a reactor

72.3. FOLDING ARM MANIPULATORS

The evolution of the deployed robot for in-rcaclor work began some 15 years ago and in its course
has drawn on the advantages of the rapid advances in technology, particularly m
remote control, to
meet the constantly increasing demands on its scope, accuracy, and dependability The first devices
that could be regarded as deployed robots were the folding arm types, which have progressed through
several generations and still have a role to play
Figure 72 1 portrays a typical foldiRg-arm manipulator which has entered the reactor core reg'on
by a vacated fuel channel An automatically aciuaied seal unit closes the top of the fuel channel to
prevent ingress of air to the COt atmosphere within the reactor containment or, conversely, escape
of that COi to the "clean" zone above the reactor

Fig, 72.1, A typical folding arm manipulatoi

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 )

MEaiANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

TABLE 7.1. COMMON GRIPPING FORCE AND ACTUATOR REQUIREMENTS FOR GRIP.
PER STt'lES IN nCURES 7.7-7.9
Velocity Fnction Gnp Actuator Pneumatic
Ratio Coefficient Force Force Cylinder
Gnpper Style (»;/»'/)• Os)* (2F)' (P)" Diameter (0)'

Gnpper in
Figure 7 7. with 30 03 2 0 cm
steel fingers (75 Ibf) (25 Ibf) (0 8 in

30 10 ICON 33 N 1 1 cm
surfaced fingers (22 5 Ibf) (7 5 IbO (04in)
Gnpper in 03 03 333 N lllON 64 cm
Figure 7 8, with (75 Ibf) (250 Ibf) (25m)
steel fingers

With rubber- 03 10 100 N 333 N 3 Sem

surfaced fingers (22 5 Ibf) (75 Ibf) (Urn)
Gnpper in 38 03 333 N 88 N 18cm
Figure 7 9, with (75 Ibf) (20 IbO (0 7 in
steel fingers

With rubber- 38 1 0 100 N 26 N I 0 cm

surfaced fingers (22 5 Ibf) (5 9 IbO (04m)
• As discussed in Section 7 4, the ratio 's CRual to the velocity of the actuator divided by the

velocity atwhich the dngertips move logelhcf The ratios in the table are typical values for when the
gnppers are nearly closed The ratio for the design in Figure 7 7 becomes considerably smaller when
the gnpper t$ only partly closed (as in gripping an oversized object)
* The coefficient of fnction ft will depend on the maienals used and on how clean and smooth the
surfaces are The numbers used conservative values for steel against steel and rubber
in the table are
against steel
' The gnp force 2F is calculated for a compact metal inject weighing approximately 25 N (S 6 Ibf)

The object is picked up with a high-speed robot, capable of accelerating 9 8 m/sec’ (586 in /sec*),
about equal to the acceleration of gravity The maximum acceleration the pan could experience is
therefore 2g, corresponding to a force of 50 N We use a dynamic safety factor of 2 so the required
gnp force is given by 2pF S 100 N
^The actuator force P is a function of the gnp force and the velocity ratio 2F »
'The pneumatic cylinder diameter is chosen so that the required actuator force will be achieved as
tong as the air supply pressure remains above 35 N/cm* (50 psi)

As an alternative, a compliant wnsi unit can be mounted between the gnpper and the robot arm
Such wnsts, called remote-cenier-of-compliance (RCC) devices, are commercially available Typically
they consist of two metal discs, 50-150 mm
(2-6 in ) in diameter, separated by angled spnngs One
disc IS fitted Co the arm and the other to the gnpper so that the gnpper can float with respect to the
arm ‘Asa result, minor "bumps” arc absorbed In assembly operations these might occur, for example,
when fitting a peg into a chamfered hole By choosing an appropnate angle and stiffness for the
spnngs, It IS possible to project the "center" of compliance out to the tip of the peg in such a way
that initial contact between the peg and the hole produces no tilling (and consequent jamming) Instead,
compliant deflections caused by the contact forces will onent the axis of the peg in the nght direction
for smooth assembly
An additional advantage of compliance is increased safety A compliant structure has the ability

to absorb impact forces Errors resulting from programming mistakes, rol»t inaccuracies, and misaligned
fixtures may arise, damage may result In fact, it is usually desirable to go
and, without compliance,
a step beyond compliance and to make the gnpper capable of breaking away or collapsing in the
event that collisions occur

7.6. SENSORS IN GRIPPERS

Sensors are increasingly used in industrial gnppers and can be divided into three categones of increasing
cost and complexity

Refer to Chapter 64, Part Mating in Assembly

A VISION-GUIDED X-Y TABLE FOR AUTOMATIC INSPECnON 1221

functions of eye movements, targets that require fine-grain pattern recognition are brought into the
foveal region which anatomically has denser cell distribution. Such arrangement by nature provides
the economy of visual processing by concentrating upon the important features of the images that
are more relevant to the species. Often manual assistance will also be necessary to bring the objects
to be inspected closer to the retina.
Unlike human vision, machine vision systems in general have even distribution of light-sensing
elements such as CCD
arrays (without foveal/peripheral distinction). To emulate human inspection
behavior using state-of-the-art technology, a dynamic machine-vision inspection system has been devel-
oped using artificial components with automated workpiece transportation, shown in Figure 73.1. A
dynamic system is defined as one that can automatically transport and dispose of parts and can adapt
to changing working environment to a certain degree. A static system, on the contrary, requires jigging,
fixturing, and alignment of the workpieces. This diagram consists of four major subsystems: the control
system, the sensor system, the image-processing system, and the workpiece-handling system. This artifi-
cial system resembles the human eye-brain-hand system in performing automatic inspection, and also
for vision-guided material handling and assembly tasks. The workpiece-handling system may consist
of X-Y-Q tables, limited-sequence arms, robots, or other positioning devices to emulate the oculomotor
or manual functions of human workers. The sensor system may consist of single or multiple visual
sensors for partial/overall viewing of scenes, and/or coarse/fine inspection (to emulate human periph-
eral/foveal or far/close vision).

73.3. MACHINE VISION

The VS-100 vision system*^ (see a commercial binary vision system. It receives a video
Table 73.1) is

gray-scale image from a solid-state or vidicon camera and thresholds it into a binary (black/white)
image that is run-length encoded (see Chapter 14, Vision Systems) for data compression and subsequent
processing. Computer algorithms perform a connectivity analysis of the encoded images, building data
structures that represent essential features of each contiguous region. The vision system characterizes
blobs on the basis of distinguishing features such as area, perimeter, minimum and maximum radii.

Sensor system

Fig. 73.1. The block diagram of a dynamic visual inspection system with automated workpiece transpor-
tation and positioning.
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1222 INSPfCTION. QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

TABLE 73.1. MODEL VS-IOO MACHINE VISION SYSTEM

i Processors

LSI-n/23 CPU with 256K bjtes panty-checled RAM

Custom image data compression logic

Two frame buffers for up to 256 X 256 pixel arrays (binary)

1 display buffer (256 X 256) for graphics and text overlay

Eight programmable image overlay buffers for up to 256 X 256 pixel arrays (binary) (standard for
VS-IOOP, optional for VS-IOO)
One 12-in TV display monitor for displaying binary image data, processed image data, and analog
images

2 Inpul/output

Four-port senal RS-232C, or RS-423 interface (DLVl U)

(three ports dedicated to TU-58 tape drive,
console terminal and pnnter, one port available for other devices)
Bidirectional 16-bit parallel TTL interface (DRVIl)
Six quad-slots or 12 dual-slots available on LSI-II backplane for customized applications

3 Cameras
Standard camera is the M1-830A, a 256 X 240 solid-state CCD array with 55 mm, f2 8 lens

Optional camera is the MI-820V, a 256 X 256 silicon vidicon with 55 mm, /2 8 lens

and number of holes, to name a few The system can be trained to analyze new objects simply by
showing them to the system Object recognition is performed using a nearest neighborhood classifier
(see Chapter 14, Vision Systems) operating on a user-seleciable set of the features Interactions with
the system are menu driven, using light pen or keyboard input Menus allow various system choices
such as selection of the threshold value, window sue. operating options, and parameters for specific
applications Calibration, training by showing, stonng and loading of prototype data can all be accom-
plished readily The vision system can also be operated as a satellite processor from an external computer
by way of a 16-bit parallel interface One example of this application is the Univision/PUMA system’
which runs under the VAL robot control language designed specifically for use with Unimation Inc
industrial robots

73.4. MACHINE VISION DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM

Since machine visionts still a general-purpose tool rather than a set of well-defined specifically oriented

products, machine vision systems (such as the Ml V5-I00) are designed to have more capabilities
than any single user can employ for a given application U is therefore, under certain stcuations,

to implement a software development system for integrating computer vision with manipulators and
other sensorsis to support and encourage the intermediate stage during which systems houses and

development laboratones identify and create the eventual turnkey packages This chapter in effect
desenbes an example of creating a turnkey application system by using the OS-IOO as the development
aid
The MI DS-IOO Machine Vision Development System’ (Figure 73 2 and Table 73 2) is a commer-
cial BASIC language programming system that is used to develop and test programs for the VS-IOO
Vision System —
Che final target system The development system enables users to use the disjoint
'
silhouettes of objects as the conceptual
pixel structure, by providing users with .

the pixel-level processing is still accessible!

mmg. concepiualizing, and implementing . ,

256K bytes of memory, serial lines. 16-bil bidirectional parallel interface

with floating-point processor,
module, disk drives, CRT
terminal, line pimter, and other components such as solid-state camera,
monitor, light pen, and dual TU'58 cassette tape dnves The DS-IOO supports a version of BASIC
language that has been extended to include calls to image-processing and pattern-recognition functions,
running under the RSX-llM multitasking operating system Programs are created and modified under
the system's lexi-cditing facilities The programs are compiled. linked with a library of vision routines,
and then executed. For the application desenbed m
this paper, X-Y-O table control routines and
robot commands were also created and linked After the program is debugged, it can be transferred
to a cartndge tape for final checkout and subsequent execution on a VS-IOO target system
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A VISION-GUIDED X-Y TABLE FOR AUTOMATIC INSPECTION 1223

Fig. 73.2. The MI DSlOO Machine Vision Development system used to develop and integrate vision,
A’-y-0 motion, and robot motion control software for this application.

The image-processing and pattern-recognition routines in the DS-lOO development system permit
the rapid development of application-specific programs. are invoked as BASIC subrou-
The commands
tines. According to their functions, they can be divided into six categories; (1) system control, (2)
image analysis, (3) measurement, (4) training and recognition, (5) graphics, and (6) factory control.
The functional capabilities of this system were discussed in a previous paper by the author.’
In addition to the foregoing, a subroutine library was created to operate an X-Y-Q table. Although
this library is not considered as part of the DS-lOO development system, it can be used as an example
of system integration of vision systems with motion actuators. The X-Y-Q table that was put under
control of BASIC-callable routines was the 8138 Taskmaster manufactured by Tri-Sigma Corporation.
This was made possible by utilizing the external-command serial-line input capability of the system.
Command strings were sent to the table processor through the control of a DLV-llE serial interface
(Figure 73.3). The table routines perform such functions as system initialization, incremental and
absolute motions in table or vision coordinates, position retrieval, and parameter setting such as coordi-
nate origin, dwell time, and feed rate. The interrelationship between the table coordinate and the
camera coordinate systems is expressed as coordinate-transformation matrices.

73.5. VISION-GUIDED AUTOMATIC INSPECTION SYSTEM

Consider the following problem. We
are to sort four kinds of parts; four- and six-sided parts with
and without defects (Figure These parts are approximately 1.5 X 2 in. in dimension. The parts
73.4).
are considered as rejects if there are missing drill-holes or if any of the edges is defective. The parts
will be singly or multiply presented to the inspection system without prealigning and Jigging. The
system should perform the inspection, transportation, and disposition of parts automatically. Using
the general guideline for designing a generic, dynamic, and automatic visual inspection system as
described before, the final design goal is reduced to integrating a vision system with high- and low-
resolution cameras for sensing, an A-T-© table for part positioning, and a robot interface for part
disposition, with machine vision being the source of control information for the application. The final
setup is shown in Figure 73.5.
The vision sensors (two solid-state television cameras) are
mounted in the optical tower above
the .Y-y-0 table (Figure 73.6). One camera
equipped with a wide-angle lens for identifying and
is

orienting the parts to be inspected; the other camera has a narrow-angle lens for accurate automatic
part alignment and detailed inspection. Applications using more than one camera in a single task
have been reported in previous studies. Two such e.xamples are the research by Mese et al.‘* of Hitachi
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table 73.2. FEATURES OF MODEL DS-lOO DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM

2
I. System Input/Output 3 Cameras

The ^ollo^Vlng input-ouiput connections are pro- The DS*I00 System supports I, 2 or optionally
vided for the system up (o 4 cameras singly or m combination from
each MI-800A (240 X 240 solid-state array (he following types
cameras) MI-800A. 240 X 240 solid-state array (standard)

2 each MI'820V cameras (256 X 240 Silicon Ml*8IOLf 256 X 1 solid-state linear array
Vidicon) M1-820V, 256 X 240 silicon vidicon

1 each MI-810L camera (Linear Array)

4 Monitor
1 each belt tngger signal
12' TV display monitor for displaying binary
Provisions for the following outputs.
image data, processed image data and analog
2 each M1-310L camera threshold images
2 each strobe lamp triggers User Console
5
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each honrontal video dnve
1
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d System Printer
1 each composite video dnve
each
The DS-lOO is provided with a 200 character
1 belt ready signal
per second dot-matnx pnnter This is a bidirec-
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tional 132<olumn device.
4 each RS-232C senal ports
7 Software features
2 each 16-bit I/O ports
Operating Systems
2 Computer/Manipulaior Communications
Interfaces
RSX-IIM
RSX-IIS
Standard RS'232C or RS'423 senal communxca-
Language Compiler— DEC BASIC-PLUS-2
tion ports for host and/or control computer in-
terface Utilities

Data rate jumper —selectable from (50 to 9600 Editor —DEC EDT and EDI Programming—
baud full set of development utilities are available

Bidirectional I6-bit parallel TTL interface may Diagnostics for both the DEC (.SI-l I and VS-
be used for manipulator control applications 100 vision system are available

diagram between vision, robot, and X-Y-Q table subsystems

fig. 73.3. The hardware interface

1224
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 • •
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Fig. 73.4. Top view of some of the parts used in the inspection process.

Fig. 73.5. The general work station setup of the high/low resolution inspection system with Jf-y-©
table for workpiece positioning and robot for part sorting.

1225
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1226 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

Fig. 73.6. The computer-controlled wide- and narrow-angle cameras used for overall viewing and
fine inspection, with the robot and the X-Y-Q (able operating in (he background

and Kawata et al of Mi(subishi Elec(nc They used (wo television cameras to view two difi'erent
portions of a chip to determine the position and orientation of the chip Trom bonding pads of the
two images in our particular setup, the high- and low-resoluiion cameras have fields of views that
overlap, instead of two cameras viewing different portions of the single object
The X-Y‘& table serves as an intelligent workpiece conveyor/presenter which loads, transports,
positions, and onenis parts On the rotary stage of the table, special backlighting is prepared to create
high-contiast images for binary vision This backlighting is under on/off control signal f^rom the computer
IFigute 73 7) in some sense, the X-X-Q uWe perfomis functionally the mechanitai countniATt trf
human oculomotor system or eye-hand coordination The low-resolution (wide-angle) system in essence
emulates the human far vision The high-resolulion (narrow-angle) system pnmanly emulates human
foveal vision Such simulation is one good example of cybernetics and artificial inielligence Through
humanlike machine behaviors can be achieved
their applications, intelligent
The is used to perform picK-and-place functions in this setup is a Yaskawa Motoman
robot that
L-3 robot which has 3 DF (swivel, lower arm motion, upper arm motion, wnsi turning, and wnst
bending) A iwo-fingcr gnppcr is installed on the robot wnst to perform gripping function TfiC parts
are picked up by inserting the two fingers of the gnpper in the centra! two large holes of the workpieces
This robot is programmed to execute the part pickup, transport, and disposition sequence by using a

hand-control teach box and by guiding it through sequences of positions that are recorded in memory
When the teaching operation is completed, the control system is switched to the playback mode
Under control signals from the interface, the robot then repeats the selected sequence of operations
The control signals include the signal to start the pickup operation and also the signal infonning (he
robot to dispose the part in one of the four chutes four-sided accept, reject, six-sided accept, and
reject (Figure 73 3)
To inmate the inspecfion, the user loads the table with single or multiple parts on the rotary
stage of the table and pushes two buttons to start the process The table then bnngs the parts within
the of view of a wide-angle camera for part identification The system selects from the scene
field
one recognizable part for further inspection If no recognizable part is found m
the scene, the stage
will return to the loading position waiting for next push-button signal If a recognizable part is
found
in the field of view, the position and onentation of this part in camera coordinates will be computed
These coordinate values are then transformed into taWe coordinates and are passed on to the table
controller to move the table accurately under the narrow-angle camera for fine, high-resoIution inspec-
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 1227
A VISION-GUIDED A-y TABLE FOR AUTOMATIC INSPECTION
aligns the part using a line that the system computes between the center
of
tion. The software first

the two large holes in the part. The selected part is then imaged, positioned, and oriented to precisely
align with the coordinate system of a previously stored “good" part image.
Once the part is precisely positioned, a comparison is made using the programmable image-overlay
feature. Any logical “difference” or mismatch is compared and displayed. If the mismatch exceeds

the tolerable error, then the part is considered a reject. The processor then directs the
X-Y-Q table
to move the part to a specified pickup location and passes
the inspection decision to the Yaskawa
it in the appropriate chute. The programmable
robot which subsequently deposits
image
Motoman
provides high-speed dimensional comparison of the parts to be inspected. This feature
overlay system
permits the incoming image to be logically combined with one or more prestored
images at video
rates, thereby providing a very fast two-dimensional inspection tool
for fixed position objects.

The software performs coordinate-transformations between the table coordinate and the two camera
coordinate systems. This forms the theoretical basis of using vision to guide the
run-time behavior of
the table. The transformations between the camera coordinates and the table coordinate can be repre-
involved (the vision
sented as matrix operations. Since only two-dimensional information processing is
translational
system perceives two-dimensional scenes, and the Jf-Y-© table performs two-dimensional
motions), the third dimension (depth) can be neglected in the computations.
and rotational planar
Instead of using a more general matrix operation for three-dimensional robot processing"® 3 X
4X4
3 matrix operations can be used since the depth is maintained fi.xed. Furthermore, if table rotation
and translation are considered separately, the matrices can be reduced to 2 X 2.
scaling factors
In the calibration phase (Figure 73.8), automatic scaling is done to obtain precise
adjustment
between the table and the vision systems. The calibration procedure is written to allow fine
of loading-point coarse/fine inspection and robot-pickup position and orientation. This
procedure also
determines the angular inclinations among the three coordinate systems.
The accuracy of the visual inspection is to approximately 0.5% (limited by the 256 X 25^pixel
digitizing) of the field of view of the high-resolution camera, which in the
demonstration provides a
visual resolution of approximately 0.008 in. (0.203 mm). Much finer inspection can be achieved if
greater magnification and higher-resolution processing are used in combination with the
higher accuracy

of table motion.
By using the preceding setup, the robot is given the equivalent functions of a seeing robot. The
robot appears to be intelligent and possesses some of the capabilities of a vision-guided one, although.

Fig. 73.7. The robot’s gripper is picking up an identified part at a fi.xed position from the stage
mounted on the rotary of the .V-Y-© table.
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A VISION-GUIDED X-Y TABLE FOR AUTOMATIC INSPECTION 1229

in effect, only the X- Y-Q table is guided by vision. The significance of this is that instead of using a
more expensive system such as the PUMAAInivision combination, we can interface inexpensive compo-
nents such as A'-T-G tables and limited-sequence arms to perform the task and to gain equivalent
functional capabilities. This will be more cost-effective and suitable for some industrial applications.
Solving an automation problem as defined requires multiple levels of hardware and software integra-
tions. The problem itself is rather complicated. All the system components, the vision system, the X-
Y table, and the robot, must function properly individually and collectively. For the system to be
sufficiently intelligent to respond properly to varying situations, different operating conditions and
contingencies must be taken into consideration. Situations such as parts touching one another, stacked
on purpose, or taken away during inspection operation are all accounted for and countermeasures
taken. To the application programmer and system integrator, the technical details are made invisible.
The task mainly to sequence vision commands logically with table and robot commands, and to
is

consider contingent situations.The development system has reduced the complicated programming
problem from coping with all the technical details to the more conceptual layout of logical flow by
taking advantage of the semantics of the system and by modularizing the functional components of
the software system. The automation task is thereby simplified and made to appear more intelligent
and user-friendly.

73.6. CONCLUSION
This chapter demonstrates that machine intelligence can be applied to industrial automation environ-
ments for parts inspection and handling. An X- Y-Q table was used for parts transfer, positioning for
coarse- and fine-grain pattern recognition, locating, and orienting for pickup by robots. The robot
can be a simple pick-and-place device performing a monotonous task. The capabilities of the software
enable the system to perform calibration, coordinate transformations among the two camera-coordinate
and the table-coordinate systems, as well as image processing and pattern recognition. No prepositioning
of the parts is required for inspection. The significance of the application described is summarized in
this section.

1. The analogy of this system to the human physiological visual system was discussed. The wide-
and narrow-angle cameras in essence emulate peripheral/foveal and far/close vision. The X-Y-Q table
partially emulates the oculomotor functions and eye-hand coordination.
2. The task of system integration was simplified through well-defined semantics of vision, X- Y-
0 table, and robot commands. The semantics are embodied in the library of subroutines for each
component. The concept of hierarchical control systems^-^’” in robotics can be more easily applied
using this method.
3. Most current robots require and jigging of the workpieces. By expanding the
costly fixturing
now work in a less structured environment.
sensory capability of the robot by adding vision, the robot can
One example of the earlier attempts is the combination of the MI VS-100 Machine Vision System
with Unimation PUMA robots.®- This system has the ability to acquire randomly located workpieces
to reduce fixturing, jigging, and part-presentation requirements. The robot receives information on
the location and orientation of the real world from the vision system. Internal transformations between
the world coordinates and the joint coordinates are performed. A common Cartesian frame of reference
is established during system calibration. In the setup described, coordinate transformations are performed
among two camera systems and the table. Since the robot is trained to pick up parts from fixed
the
position and orientation, no coordinate transformations need be established between the robot and
cameras or the table. It is demonstrated here that to attain the goal of unstructured parts presentation
and acquisition, we can either implement a more expensive vision-guided robot system with real-time
robot joints-world transformations or utilize less expensive components such as a mobile X- T-O table
and limited-sequence arms interfaced with vision system.
4. The ease of utilizing the MI Development System in conceptualization and implementation
of an application is e.xemplified in this setup. The BASIC language makes robotics and automation
programming more user-friendly and approachable. In addition, the application programmers are also
provided a tool to cope with situations limited by connectivity analysis. A strategy similar to that
described by Bolles and Cain^-® has been utilized to circumvent the touching-parts problem. It is
demonstrated that the main restriction of binary vision to isolated parts can be bypassed through
proper selection of key feature variables or utilization of the local-feature-focus method. In other
words, the users can introduce their subjective discretion in selecting certain attributes of the parts
for discriminatory purposes. They can define their own special feature variables as aids
to cope with
application-specific problems. This often shortens recognition-processing time and makes vision
opera-
tions modifiable without modifying the internal programs of the vision systems. This
is considered
an important feature that a future" machine vision system should possess. The need by the
automation
industry to have a versatile and flexible vision system has been mentioned in different
publications
(such as Agin^ and Chin®). This application demonstrated that the DS-lOO Development
System provides
a powerful solution to this demand although intrinsic requirements and
limitations of binary vision
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1230 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

(e gcontrolled lighting and lack of three-dimensional surface descnptions such as texture) are unavoid-
,

able- Despite the limitations, there are many af^lications ui manufactunng that are applicable to
this approach Furthermore, binary processing of filtered color scenes* has been attempt^ and has
proved to be a feasible approach to augment (he capabilities of binary vision systems, yet retaining
the advantage of high-speed processing

In the world of industrial automation, an important consideration is not only what can be done,
but also what can be easily integrated into turnkey syst«ns The cosl-eEfectivcness and the man-houn
required m system setup, maintenance, and improvement must be taken into consideration It is demon-
strated through setting up this inspection station (hat a turnkey system can be integrated with shortened
engineering time without requiring great expertise in computer engineenng The DS-IOO system provides
users with the tool and the environment to implcmcnl such systems with minimal effort

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to Mr Tye Shultx for shanng the software-development effort in setting up
this inspection station Also, thanks are due to Dr David Milgram, Dr ^rl Sacerdoti, Dr Charles
Rosen, Mr Gerald Gleason, Mr Ted Panofsky, Mr Dennis McGhie, and Mr Rick Held for their
valuable suggestions, and to Mr John Baxter and Ms Jane Pemer for assisting in the preparation
of the manuscripts for publication

REFERENCES
1. Agin, G J , Computer Vision System for Industrial Inspection and Assembly, IEEE Computer
Society Magazine, May 1980
2. Albus, J, Braini. Behavior, and Robotics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981
3. Albus, J Barbera,
, A
and Fitzgerald,
, M
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Proceedings of the 12 th In lernaiional Symposium on Industrial Robots. 6th Conference on Industrial

Robot Technology. 1982
4. Bolles, R and Cam. R , Recognizing and Locating Partially Visible Workpieces, Proceedings of
PRIP {Pattern Recognition and Image Processing), IEEE Computer Society, 1982

5 Bolles, R
and Cain, R Recognizing and Locating Partially Visible Objects The Local-Featu^^
,

Focus Method, The International Journal of RoboUcs Research. Vol 1, No 3, Fall 1982
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, , Gleason, J and McGhie, D, The PUMA/VS- 100 Robot Vision System,
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Isi International Conference on Robot Vision and Sensory Control Stratford-upon-Avon, V K

April 1981
7, Chen, M and Milgram, D A , Development System for Machine Vision, Proceedings of PRIP
(Pattern Recognition and Image Processing), IEEE Computer Society, 1982
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on Robot Vision and Sensory Control, Stuttgart. Germany. 1982

9. Chin, R, Machine Vision for Discrete Part Handling in Industry, A Survey, IEEE Computer
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Analysis and Machine Intelligence. Vol PAMI-4, No 6, November 1982
11. Graupe, D and Sandis, G , Pnnciplcs oflRtelligcnt Controls for Robotics. Pioslhetics, Orthotics,
Workshop on the Research Needed to Advance the State of Knowledge in Robotics, Apnl 1980
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VJ Conference. 1979
13. Machine Intelligence Corporation, VS-IOO Machine Vision Reference Manual. 1981
14. Machine Intelligence Corporation, DS-IOO Machine Vision Development System Technical Manual
1982
15. Mese, M
, Yamazaki, I and Hamada, T , An Automatic Position Recognition Technique for
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LSI Assembly, Proceedings of the 5th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence,
August 1977, pp, 685-693
16. Paul, R ,
Manipulator Path Control, Proceedings of the 1975 Internationa! Conference on Cybernet-
ics and Society, September 1975
17. —
Umvision Supplement User's Guide to VAL, A Robot Programming and Control System, Version
13(VSN), 2nd ed. July 1981
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 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

and on cntcna as discussed in Section 7 5 Finally, what sort of sensory information

task-related is

required from the gnppcr? Simple on/off devices will be adequate for most current applications

GUIDE 2; Determine addinonal requirements, not directly related to the act of acquiring and gnp-
pmg parts

It necessary for the gnpper(s) to be automatically disengaged from the wnst of the robot
may be
Environmental conditions including high temperatures or abrasive dirt should also be considered at
this time. Other factors may include stnngcnt
weight allowances or a cramped working space for the
gnppet Basic design decisions will be made in response to these requirements For example^ U may
be necessary to locate the actuators remotely from the fingers of the gnpper, to make some parts of
the gnpper from compliant materials, or to design the gnpper so that it will break away m the event
of a crash.

GUIDE 3: Determine specific solutions to the requirements in Guides I and 2

The idea here is mdependent solutions to the individual design requirements At this
to develop
stage, no single combination of sensors, mechanisms or actuators should be considered This modular
approach keeps the design flexible and open to innovation and makes it easier, at a later stage, to
evaluate how well competing designs satisfy each of the requirements
For example, if there is a requirement that power be transmitted from remote actuators, any sort
of transmission devices including cables, gear trains, chains, hydraulic lines, or rotary shafts
flexible

may do (he job Similarly, if the task requires force information, foil strain gages, piezo-electnc load
cells,or piezo-resistive device wiU work At this point it u usually not necessary (O specify details
such as whether the sensors should be mounted on the gnpper fingers or on intermediate links
As Figures 7 5-7 18 show, (here is a variety of solutions to gnppmg requirements More examples
can be found in books such as that by Lundstrom. Cleinme. and Rooks*’ which contain numerous
drawings of unusual tndustnal gnppers. Another common source of inspiration is nature The human
hand 1$ (he most obvious example, but. as discussed in Section 7 2, it is unnecessarily complex for
most manufacturing tasks Simpler designs from nature include a bird's beak, a dog's mouth, a lobster's
claw, an elephant's trunk, and the tentacles of an octopus

GUIDE 4: Begin to develop designs combinmg the foregoing modular solutions.

Experiment with different combinations of (he solutions determined in Guide 3 AddiQonal coneents
mvoke the bnds of questions habitually asked by designers h the design serviceable'* robust** economical'*
How could It be made with even fewer moving parts'*

GUIDE 5: Consider designs with two or three gnppcrs mounted together at the end of the arm

Doing this makes it unnecessary to build a single gnpper that will perform all of the robot tasks
Another advantage is that the robot becomes more productive since it does not have to move back
and forth as often For example, a robot can use one gnpper to carry a rough part over to a fimshmg
station, use a second gnpper to pick up the finished part, load the rough part with the first gnpper,
and return with the finished part

GUIDE 6: Redesign the part and/or the task.

At should be possible to see how changes in the part or

this stage it m
the robot task could
simplify the design of the gnpper and improve the ability of the robot to accomplish the task As
pointed Wit in Section 1 3, the gsippct vs a hndgt between tbe tobtn and its enviTOWncnt Thete&iK
the design of the gnpper should not be isolated frc«n the design of the fixtures and parts that it
mteracts with, but should be part of a joint design For example, if a gnpper is required to pick up
castmgs, it IS often useful to design the caslmgs with tabs or other identifying marks to make it
easier to establish their orientation The tabs or marks can be removed later when the castmg is
machined into a finished part. As another example, it has been shown that parts become easier for
robots to assemble when particular chamfers are chosen for the mating surfaces ”
TESTING AND SORTING OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS 1241

Fig. 75.1. Layout of manual testing system.

Improved Input/Output Material Handling

Although presenting boards directly to the operator on conveyors can be very cumbersome, it
circuit
is not much and
still quite productive to have fully automatic transporter systems that
less effective
carry containers of untested circuit boards to the operator with a small buffer storage spur at the
work station. In the same way the finished boards, having been tested, may be removed from the
work center, whether good or bad, by additional conveyorized transporter systems.

Use of Data Base Systems for Repair Information

Some companies with bed-of-nails test systems have been using computerized data base systems which
automatically pick up a serial number from the circuit board, then store the results of the test. This
information in the computerized data base system may then be recalled by a repair technician at the
work approach removes the need for the operator to tape a computer printout to the
station. This
circuitboard to identify the nature of the fault, thus increasing the efficiency of the operator and
improving the reliability of failed part information. As an added benefit of the data base, the manufacturer
may develop accurate statistics of the performance of the printed circuit board manufacturing facility.

Use of Dual-Station Test Fixtures

Another possibility for increasing the productivity of manual, automatic testing of printed circuit
boards is the use of two-station test nests. With a single-station test nest, the operator must wait
while the tester checks the circuit board (typically about 30 sec) before unloading and reloading another
part to be tested. With a two-station test nest, the operator can improve efficiency by approximately
10% by being able to load a second test nest while the first one is being tested. Once the test is
complete, the test machine will automatically begin testing the board in the second nest, and so
on.

75.3. FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION ADVANTAGES

In the preceding section we discussed how the efficiency of the human
operator may be significantly
improved by altering the procedures currently in use in a typical testing work center. There
are,
however, still many areas in which the overall productivity of the testing work
center can be greatly
improved through the use of flexible automation, in this case, robotics.
Advantages of robotics have been discussed in previous chapters (see Chapter
33, Evaluation and
Economic Justification). With regard to testing, these advantages can be summarized
as follows;

1. Consistency. The introduction of an industrial robot to a process greatly improves the consis-
tency of the process. Once programmed, the robot performs
its task in a very repeatable manner,
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1242 INSPECTION, QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR
both in physical positioning and ui perfonnance correctness This consistency wiU result in
productivity increases because of not passing boards by error that should have been rejecteih
or rejecting boards that should haw been passed, which then causes them to go through a
repair area and eventually be retested

2. Flexibility.The intelligent industnaJ robot allows the manufacturer to have a flexible manufaO
turing system similar to uhen the human operator was present This is a big advantage m
companies where parts are produced in small to medium lots
The robot, being a reprogrammable umt, allows for major installation alterations without obsoles-
cence Small, minor lot changes can automatically be compensated for by the robot If one
type of board is replaced by a similar board requiring diflerent test characlenstics, the robot
can sense the change and instruct the tester so that the proper test can be performed
3. High Utilization. The robot gives the manufacturer the maximum utilization of the expensive
test equipment When coupled to a buifer storage system, the robot does not stop for breaths
or shift changes, giving maximum utilization of the costly lest equipment

The greatest increase m

testing productivity can be achieved when the technology of the Rexibto
automation, robotics, is combined with the productivity improvements discussed in Section 75 2 Th^
result is a flexible manufacturing system (FMS) which can accommodate vaneties of product m a
very efficient manner

7S.4, ROBOTIC TESTING INSTALLATION

While employed by Unimation Inc (Systems Division) the author installed a system (see Figure^
75 2 and 75 3) utilizing a UNIMATE model 560 PUMA mdustnal robot This robot has a weight
capacity of approximately 5 lb (2 25 kg), repeatability ±0004 m (0 1 mm) and six fully coordinated
degrees of motion
The system, as it existed prior to the introduction of the PUMA robot, implemented many of the
Items mentioned in Section 75.2
In the manual operation, the operator has parts entering the workcell on a conveyor transporting
individual parts Good pans, after being successfully tested, were placed art another conyeyor which
took the parts to the next testing operation Rejected pans, with the computer printout taped to
them by the operator, were placed to racks which had to be manually empli^ after approximately 2
hr The work station already utilized a two-station lest fixture which allowed the operator to work
more efficiently

Fig. 75.2. Layout of robotic testing system

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 Fig. 75.3. General view of robotic testing station.

The disadvantages of the system with a manual operator are as follows: Parts entering the system
on the input conveyor would become backed up when the operator was not operating at maximum
efficiency, causing operations preceding the testing operation to be stopped since their output (the
test station’s input conveyor) was backed up.
Additionally, if the test station output conveyor became backed up due to a slowdown further
along the conveyor line, the testing operations in the work center had to be stopped since there was
no place to put the acceptable parts after testing.
Also, it was necessary for the operator on occasion to get up and replenish full storage trays for
the output of rejected parts, thus decreasing the operator’s overall efficiency.
Taking into account these areas of inefficiency, as well as the fact that the operator would occasionally
break for coffee, lunch, and so on, the overall average cycle time for the work center was approximately
23 sec per part whereas the actual testing time per part was only approximately 20 sec. With the
dual-station test fixture, had the operator been working at 100% efficiency, the cycle time per part
would have been approximately 20 sec.
To flexibly automate this system using the UNIMATE Puma 560 industrial robot required very
few modifications to the existing equipment. Those modifications that were required are as follows:

1. An accurate and repeatable stop had to be installed on the incoming conveyor with a limit
switch capable of detecting both part presence and orientation.
2. An interface had to be developed for the robot input/output to communicate with the FAULT-
FINDER test unit.

3. Accurate and repeatable buffer storage locations (existing board carriers) were utilized for
storage of overflow from the input conveyor and for overflow going to the output conveyor.
4. An accurate and repeatable system had to be developed for rejected boards and the computer
printout of reject information.
5. Photo switches and their interface had to be utilized to identify overload conditions on the
conveyors as well as empty locations for part set-down.
6. A robot hand-tooling gripper had to be developed and fabricated for picking up the circuit
boards and loading the tester, throwing a small switch on some circuit boards during test,
and for picking up, tearing off, and loading the computer-printed-out reject information into
the tote prior to loading the reject board into the tote.

7. A Val™ software program had to be developed, written, and debugged for the PUMA robot
to handle all operations.
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1244 LNSPECnON. QUALITY CONTROL, AND REPAIR

75.5. SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

In the final system configuration, the robot waited at a home position and would constantly scan a
variety of input signals monitonng the status of the vvorkceU A typical sequence of operations would
be as follows

1. Robot receives signal from test station A that the test is complete
2. Test automatically begins immediately at test station B, which was previously loaded
3. The robot checivs to see if the board has passed or failed If the board passes, the robot would
move to station A (the tester) and remove the part.
4. The robot checLs to sec if the output conveyor load station If “yes" the robot places
is empty
the part on the output conveyor station and retracts In the event that the output conveyor
load station is occupied, the robot waits I sec, then checks the station again If this station is
still occupied after 1 sec, the robot then proceeds to the output conveyor buffer storage and

places the part into the output conveyor buffer.

5. If the robot receives a signal that the part in station A was a reject part, i( then goes to the
computer printout, tears it off, and places it in the nest available compartment m the reject
part tote bin
6. The robot moves to lest station Aand removes the part and places it into the same reject
tote bin locations as the label, placing the part on top of the lalxl
7. Once the robot has completed the foregoing, check ihe input conveyor
it will station to see if

a part is present and properly onenicd If there is a part present and onented at this location,
the robot then picks up a part at the input conveyor and loads test station A
9. If (he robot hnds (hat no part is present, or that a part is present but not properly onented
in the input conveyor, it will indicate this as a fault condition, then proceed to Ihe input
conveyor buffer storage tray and remove a part from this tray and load it into test nest A

The robot (hen returns to its home position and scans through the signals, again waiting for a
signal indicating that his services are required again Should no signal be received, the robot will
attempt to do some housecleanmg chores
As an example, if no signals demanding its operations are received, (he robot will check to see if
the output conveyor load station is now empty If so. the robot will check to see if any parts are
present in the output conveyor buffer storage tray Again, if this condition is met, the robot will
unload the next circuit board in the (ray and load ii omo (he output conveyor load station This will
continue until either the output conveyor becomes backed up. the output conveyor buffer becomes
empty, or until the PUMA
robot receives a signal from (he automatic lest set indicating that its
services are required
The of the following nature either a test station has completed
services required of (he robot will be
the lest and the burd has passed or failed, (here is a circuit board m the test station that requires
an operation be perfonned on it as part of the test (flipping a switch), or a board was immediately
rejected by the tester, which would indicate that it was no( properly sealed m the test nest, in which
case (he robot would pick i( up and reload it
As previously indicated, the system, as automated by the use of the robot, now contains the following
elements which make up a good, flexible machining work center

1 . Farts are presented to (he work center by conveyor

2. Buffer storage exists for incoming pans/ouigomg parts that have been rejected
3. A two-station lest nest has been implemented as in the manual case, which allows the robot
to maintain cycle times of 20 sec per board, as no time is lost due to loading and unloading

of circuit boards

75.6. CONCLUSION
Two major improvements could be made to the system as it now exists

1. The robot still must place a computer pnntout with the boards that are rejected There u
still some room for error with this system A
better solution would be to implement the compuler
data base system desenbed earlier
2. It IS still necessary for an operator to ranove the full trays of rejected parts better soluiion A
would be a small section of conveyor that would transport the rejects to ihe repair area- This may
be hard to justify on a cost-only basis as an addition. It would be less costly and more effective to
implement this m (he early planning stage:.
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TESTING .\NT) SORTING OF PRINTED dRCLTT B0.4RDS 1145

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REFERENCES
1, CEEu R- et il, Au:t:—.sEca Eispert:;^ tszholtroi (c: ^Atud. cir-E: fccarcs). SME Pirer No.
-AD 77-729, So'‘t^c<z 1577.

cf ou ^tr. lr.urr.jz:^rjzl Cc^fi76r.:e c.t A'^zo'r.ztzc Ir-:^c:fo.t znd Przd-^c: Cc-.m:!. ScuKzm, Ger-

3, TE; aui;o-..sEcs. cf Frcc-edl-.z^ cf IEEE Ccr.fuir^^ Sc. Si. S^rotsEx: 1572.

4, CiarcEs, S., Cctno'ozcEztd By.c, VcL 5. No. 12, I5i0, pp. 44—70,
5, Hioliy, J. T„ .-i:;:;,-7;"EE TccEr.g c.zd E-E^dor. cf Dzyicl Irzeyotcd CI/Tcufdt RiSJcn PuEIisEEis
Ca, iSil.
 ssri

Fig.

76.6.

Positioning

axes,

controlled

by

servo

devices,

give

finishing

robot

greater

spacial

coverage.
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DNllNIVd a^^V ‘0NI1V03 ‘ONIHSINU 9SCI

PART 13
FINISHING, COATING,
AND PAINTING
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 CHAPTER 76
ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN
FINISHING AND PAINTING
TIMOTHY J. BUBLICK
The DeVilbiss Company
Toledo, Ohio

76.1. INTRODUCTION
Industrial finishing robots, regardless of their manufacturer, are more often than not quite similar in
appearance, componentry, and purpose. All spray finishing robots, as an example, are comprised of
three basic components: a control center, manipulator, and hydraulic unit (Figure 76.1).
The most common reasons for using spray finishing robots are to reduce labor requirements, remove
operators from potentially hazardous environments, reduce coating material and energy consumption,
reduce the number of rejects, improve quality and consistency, and assure repeatability.
Finishing areas of manufacturing facilities are normally the least up-to-date areas in the plant.

Finishing in some industries considered a function of man and a skill or art rather than a
is still

science. When consideration is given to the implementation of a robot, it is advantageous not to rely
on the methods of the past to be the only guidelines for the future.
Finishing robots in themselves should not be viewed as complete solvers of all painting problems.
Rather, they should be recognized as integral parts of an automated system. And, like other forms
of automation, finishing robots should possess the capabilities to complete their tasks and complement
the total production operations.
Today’s painting robots can consistently duplicate the best work performed by skilled production
spray painters, providing sufficient time is allowed to adjust and refine the programming. Once the
robot is programmed, it will repeat the exact motions of the sprayer/programmer and provide quality
results whether the application is a final top coat, primer, sealer, mold release, or almost any other
material.
The computer memory of the robot also provides the capability to interface with other equipment
supportive to the finishing system. These include color changers, turntables, conveyors, lift and transfer
tables, and other host computers. In fact, using the robot’s memory capabilities can alleviate many
of the design and operating concerns associated with present-day production finishing systems.
Today robots are applying automotive exterior top coat and underbody
in the finishing industry,
primer, stains on wood sound deadeners on appliances, porcelain coating on kitchen and
furniture,
bathroom fixtures and appliances, enamel on lighting fixtures, and even the exterior coating on the
booster rockets that propelled the Space Shuttle into orbit (Figure 76.2).
These proven applications speak well for the versatility of painting robots and indicate that a
great majority of production painting operations can at present, or in the future, be done economically
and efficiently by robots. The success of converting to automation depends primarily on a well-planned
program that begins with a thorough examination of robotics based on application objectives set for
the particular situation.

76.1.1. Application Objectives

Establishment of parameters is essential to the selection and successful implementation of a spray

finishing robot, and the process should begin by answering the following questions: Why select a
finishing robot. When to select a finishing robot. Where could a finishing robot be used. How to
select a finishing robot.

1249
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Fig. 7<i.2. Applying a pnmer or top coat to auto bodies is just one application of a spray linishing

robot. (Photo courtesy ofDcviJbiss)

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 no MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

GUIDE 7: Heavier manufactunng tasks that are currently done by humans using a wrap-around
gnp holding hand tools are the first candidates for “feeling” robots since such tasks
are best done by an active wnst and passive fingers

There is a gray line between those tasks involving large hand tools and lighter operations that
would best be done with active fingers using the three-fingered gnp of Figure 7 4 Using a light screwdnver
or a pair of tweezers for electronic assembly are examples However, Guide 7 can be coupled with
the following

GUIDE 8: Manufactunng tasks that involve forces or moments greater than 9-22 (2-5 IbO lead N
to the use of a wrap-around gnp on hand tools and an active wnst with passive fingers,
rather than an active three-fingered gnp

The 9-22 N figure comes from preliminary expenments that identify the force level at which the
three-fingered gnp slips dunng a task, suggesting rconenting the fingers for a wrap-around gnp Once
this level is established, the designer can consider the maximum interaction forces that are likely to
occur for a given task and then proceed to Guide 9

GUIDE 9: Manufactunng tasks can be categorized according to the trade-off among “arms, wnsts,
and fingers," and practical applications can be selected in the factory

At present, manipulators equipped with the passive fingers shown throughout this chapter are

most appropnate for industnal application However, for future sensor-based applications the last

three design guides have been included to show which manufactunng tasks are the first candidates
for active wnst/gnpper designs

REFERENCES
1. Asada, H, Studies on Prehension and Handling by Robot Hands with Elastic Fingers, PhD
thesis, Kyoto University, Apnt 1979
2 Hanafusa, H and Asada, H Robot Hand with Elastic Fingers, Seventh
, Stable Prehension by a
Internattonal i’ymporium on Industnal Robots, Tokyo, Japan, October 1977, pp 361-36S

3. Cutkosky, M R A Cybernetic Approach to Grasping and Prehension for Automated Manufactur-

,

ing, Ph D thesis, Camegie-Metion University, 1984 (expected)

4 Salisbury, J K , Kinematic and Force Analysis of Articulated Hands, Ph D thesis, Stanford
University, July 1982

5. Salisbury, J K and Craig, J J ,

Articulated Hands Force Control and Kinematic Issues, Robotics
Research, Vol I, No 1, 1982, pp 4-17
6. Okada, T and Tsuchiya, S ,
On a Versatile Finger System, Seventh Internationa! Symposium on
Industrial Robots, October 1977, pp 545-352
7. Okada, T , Computer Control of Mullijointed Finger System for Precise Handling. IEEE Transac-
tions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Vol SMC-12, No 3, May 1982,
pp 289-299
8. Tubiana, R , The Hand, WB Saunders Co , Philadelphia, 1981
9. Sanderson, A C and Perry, G , Sensor-Based Robotic Assembly Systems Research and Applica-
tions in Electronic Manufactunng, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol 71, No 7, July 1983, pp 856-
871

10. Inside Japan, /lisemh/y iluromafiOTi (CB), February 1982, pp 58

11. Taylor, P et al The Application of Robots m the Garment Manufactunng Industry,
,
Robotics
7/ijfiarive. 2nd Annua! Grantees Conference, SRC, London, September 1983, pp 37G
12. Eastwood, M
A and Ennis, G E , ICAM Robotic System for Aerospace Batch Manufactunng,
Fourth Quarterly Intenm Technical Report IR-812-8 (IV), McDonnell Douglas Corp , August
1979, U S Air Force Contract F33615-78-C-5I89, Project 812-8, Task B

13. Skinner, F , Designing a Multiple Prehensiwi Manipulator, Journal of Mechanical Engineering

Vol 97, No 9, September 1975, pp 30-37

14. Hirose, S and Umetani, Y The

, Development of Soft Gnpper for the Versatile Robot Hand,
Proceedings, Seventh International Symposium on Industrial Robots, 1977, pp 353-360
15. Hirose, Sand Umetani, Y The Development of Soft Gnpper
, for the Versatile Robot Hand,
Mechanism and Machine Theory (GB), 1978, pp 351-358
robot applications in finishing and painting 1261

Fig. 76.12. The teaching handle, attached to the manipulator arm, is used during programming of
a lead-through-teach robot. (Photo courtesy of DeVilbiss.)

wrist which is needed to perform high-speed, efficient spray finishing. The random access of multiple
programs is a requirement normally needed on production lines that paint a variety of different style
parts. It is seldom that a particular production line will paint the same style and color of parts.
The successful robot finishing installations have utilized lead-through teach-type robots which are
taught by leading the robot manipulator, or teach arm that simulates the manipulator, through move-
ments and physically spraying the part. This allows for the hand-eye coordination necessary to accom-
plish adequate spray finishing.
Programming the robotin this manner is simple. The operator attaches a teaching handle to the
manipulator arm (Figure 76.12) and plugs it into a receptacle on the robot base. He then leads the
arm through the designed program sequence to define the path and relative velocity of the arm and
spray gun. After programming, the operator switches the control from “programming" to “repeat”
and puts the robot into automatic mode. Robot applications have been used with a teach control
pendant, but this type of teach method is usually successful only when the part is stationary.
Finishing robots require some additional features that are not normally required for other types
of robots. In most cases, finishing robots must be equipped with noise filters to prevent interference
of electrical noise from electrostatic spraying devices located on the end of the robot or in the near
vicinity. Also usually required is an explosion-proof remote control operator’s panel in the spray area,
so the operator can safely turn the unit on or off, select the operation of the spray gun, or have the
robot repeat a single or multiple cycle.
Other features that enhance the robot finishing system are gun and cap cleaners and a cleaning
receptacle, into which the robot can submerge the spray gun so the gun’s exterior can be automatically
cleaned after prolonged use or after color changes.

76.3.2. System Operation

Finishing robots must be designed and operation in a dirty, solvent-filled atmosphere.

built for reliable
In most cases, the control center is an area susceptible to paint, solvent, heat, and other elements
in
harmful to computer technology. The control center must be designed to operate easily for paint
shop personnel who are not normally trained in sophisticated computer control machinery.
The equipment used in a robot finishing system must be properly maintained, especially since the
manipulator end of the robot is subjected to solvent, mist, and accumulation of overspray. Robots
will operate satisfactorily within a spray atmosphere for long periods; however, unmaintained equipment
will eventually begin to cause production downtime and loss of productivity.
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ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN FINISHING AND PAINTING 1263

76.3.3. System Design Application

The first continuous-path robotic finishing system at John Deere and Company was installed as part
of the chassis plant operation at the company’s Tractor Works plant in Waterloo, Iowa The criterion
was to provide capacity to paint tractors at 92% efficiency in an 880-min day. In addition, there
were eight basic tractor chassis models with a total of 36 paint programs to handle all variations.

The system’s goal was to paint 95% of two-wheel drive tractors and 90% of four-wheel drive tractors.
The first design consideration was the number of robots needed to store information about the different
styles and variations of chassis and paint programs.
After initial testing, it was determined that three robots could paint the tractor chassis to specifica-
tions. Figures 76.13 and 76.14 show the general layout and the cross section of the robots as they
were installed in the spray booth relative to the tractor chassis. One robot was located on each side
of the conveyor line, and the third was installed in a pit beneath the tractor chassis.
The robot in the pit sprayed the underside of the moving chassis and axles, as well as the chassis
sides. The chassis then proceeded into the next robot station where the two robots sprayed the sides,
top, and remaining areas. Owing to the size of the tractor, the system was designed so the robot
moved in and out 18 in. perpendicular to conveyor travel. This allowed the robot to paint the end of
the axle and the middle of the tractor chassis.
Robot programming was kept to a minimum to ensure a satisfactory start-up time for the new
system. To reduce the number of programs, a feature termed program linking was used. Program
linking incorporates the composite of three individual programs, one for the front end of the chassis,
one for the center, and one for the rear. By linking these three segments as required for each chassis
model, the paint code was determined.
The benefits of program linking were easier and faster programming during installation and reduced
memory storage. The latter benefit was illustrated with the two front ends, which required painting
variations on two-wheel drive chassis in addition to the option of rockshaft or no rockshafl. Without
program linking, each of the six variations would have required 4.5 min pjer program, or 27 total
minutes, to finish that model. Through program linking, each front end required only 1.5 min, or
4.5 total minutes. The middle section was the same for all chassis of the m^el, requiring 1.5 rain,
and the rockshaft/no rockshaft added another 3 min, for a total of 9 min, or two-thirds less time
than if each model had a continuous program.

76.3.4. System Monitoring

Various safety interlocks and monitoring points have been incorporated into the system. The system
monitors robots in the "home” position, so the conveyor will not start if the robot is not in its proper
position. A
limited switch failure utilizes two limit switches during the paint cycle, each acting as a
backup for the other. If either fails to function, an alarm is triggered from the main control panel.
However, the system will continue to function with either limit switch operative.
Another monitor built into the system is a manipulator safeguard. If the robot should contact or
become entangled with a solid object, the hydraulic pressure of the robot arm will be reduced, allowing
the arm to be pushed out of the way. In addition, high hydraulic temperature and low hydraulic oil
pressure are monitored to assure that no damage occurs to the hydraulic unit of the robot.
This finishing system has been in operation for some time and has proven to be a reliable production
operation. Benefits such as paint and energy savings have reached levels that were estimated, or have
exceeded these levels. Other benefits, which are difficult to evaluate, have been the reduction of touch-
up and the removal of workers from an unpleasant and possibly unhealthy atmosphere.

76.4. ROBOT PERFORMANCES

The robot is truly the ideal spray finisher. The fact that robots lack human senses makes them almost
—
immune to the environment. They can work in conditions unfit for humans they are not bothered
by high noise levels, darkness or light, or extreme temperatures.
irritating odors,
With robots, air supply and exhaust volumes in spray booths can be decreased to levels necessary
only for control of volatile materials. It is possible to save energy by lowering operating temperatures
in spray booths. These advantages open up many avenues for increasing productivity and conserving
energy.
Robots have proven to be a reliable and efficient means of finishing and are the painters of the
future. And, if implemented properly, they can begin to save money a short time after installation.
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tXoBjnaay

CLZl AooioMiixmai SDiioaoH

 CHAPTER 77
ROBOTS FOR SEALING
AND ADHESIVE APPLICATIONS
PATRICK J. BOWLES

L. WAYNE GARRETT
General Electric Company
lx>ui<vil)e, Kentucky

77.1. ROBOTIC DISPENSING SYSTEMS

Industrial robots are increasingly utilized for material dispensing, especially m application of sealants
and adhesives In this context, the example of caLe decorating by robots (see Chapter 1) is alsoappropn-
ane Four ruajor Gutors mouvate this application area'

1. Apply'ns >Iuxt the Ri^t Amount of Adhesire., Sealant, or Other Materials. UnhVe manvri
application, where operators oDen dispense too much matena) that may cause poor quality,
rotets can accurately control the amount and How of matenaJ dispens^ In addition to the
better quality, macenal cost savings can be veiy signihcant over long penods (up to about
10 %)
2. Consistent. Uaiform Matenal Dispensing. Robots can maintain, with high repeatability, a
consistent bead of matenal while laying il along accurate trajectones Furthermore, where
two or more components must be mixed while they are dispensed, as is the case, for example,
m certain adhesives, robots can provide better control
3. Process Flexibility. As m
other application areas, the robot can be used to dispense materials
according to diHerenl programs, depending on the particular operation that is required 1(
can^ «u>i\y reprogrammed when design changes occur
4. Improved Safety. The use of robots reduces the health hazards to workers from dispensed
matenaU, including allergic reactions to epoxy resins and other substances, and potential long*
term problems

These four general factors are similar in many ways to those discussed m Chapter 76 Similar to
painting and linishmg, the major applications of sealing and adhesive dispensing are in the automotive,
appliance, aerospace, and furniture indusincs In general, any process that requires joining of component
parts m
a variety of production is a potential candidate for robotic dispensing In the area ol adhesive
application, one can certainly state that adhesive bonding is as important to the assembly of plastic
parts as welding has always been to metal joming
Typical examples of robotic dispensing arc the following

Sealer to car underbody wheelhouse components

Silicone on truck axle housing
Urethane bead on windshield periphery before installation
TwO-component polyurethane Or epoxy adhesive to automobile hoods made of sheet molding com-
pound (SMC) between outer and inner shells
Sealant application in the appliance nidustry, as described in Section 77 3

An earlier version of this chapter appeared ui Adhesive Age, Apnl 1 983

1264
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AD010MIIVM3X SDIXOOOH Pin

ROBOTS FOR SEALING AND ADHESIVE APPLICATIONS 1265

77.2, COMPONENTS OF ROBOTIC DISPENSING SYSTEMS

The general structure of a robotic dispensing system is shown in Figure 77.1.

The Robot

Typically, a robot for accurate material dispensing is electrically actuated to achieve smooth motion

and high repeatability. Five- to six-axis robots are required for flexible motions. Although speeds are
usually on the order of 10-15 in. (25-38 cm) of bead per second, the robot must be able to move at
different speeds at different segments of the bead path. However, a key requirement is the ability to
maintain a constant bead size along all comers and part contours. Robots can be floor or overhead
mounted, depending on the particular dispensing orientation. A robot can be mounted on a slide
when material must be dispensed onto large parts, such as aircraft wings. Additional general consider-
ations in selecting the robot can be found in Chapter 5, and in Parts 6 and 7 of the Handbook.

Type of Dispensed Material

must be considered in the application planning.

In general, each material will have unique properties that
A good summary of adhesives used in assembly and their properties can be found in Reference 2.
Two-part adhesives usually require static or dynamic mixing devices. When a mixer is attached to
the robot manipulator, motion vibrations may cause inconsistencies in the bead. Hot-melt materials
do not require mixing, but the hot temperatures (300-400“ F or 150-200°C are typical ranges for
sealants and adhesives) may present a problem to some robots.

Container, Pump, and Regulators

Pump selection depends on the properties of the material, the container size, and the dispensing rate.
The dispensing system must track the level of material in the container and stop the automatic operation
when the material is depleted. Another issue is the timing control. Certain materials dry out, harden,
or solidify if not mixed or if left unused for a period of time. Some adhesives harden within a few

minutes after mixing and must be controlled very carefully. In such cases, the system should have
the capability to automatically purge spoiled material and clean the container and lines. Regulators
of filters and line pressure are also essential accessories that are required in the dispensing system.

Programmable Controller

A programmable controller is used to supervise the overall dispensing option and communicate between
the robot, the container, and the dispenser (“gun”). Typically, it is responsible for the on/off activation
of the dispenser in coordination with the robot motion, and for the control of the material level.

Dispenser (“Gun”)

Usually an automatic dispenser is attached to the robot wrist, together with an inlet hose for material
and one for cleaning solvent. When a mixing unit must be used, as in two-component adhesives, the
combined weight of dispenser, mixer, and three hoses necessitates mounting on the robot arm. In
this case, an additional tube is attached to the wrist and leads the mixed material from the mixer to
the workpiece.

Fig. 77.1. General structure of a robotic adhesive-dispensing system.

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Sin AOOlOMlIVHai SDIlOaOH

1266 FINISHING, COATING, AND PAINTING
An important issue is the control of bead integrity. An air jet sensor located on the dispenser

to the missing areas

773. ROBOTIC DISPENSING OF FOAMED, HOT-MELT SEALANT

In this section, a particular robotic dispensing system of foamed, hot-melt sealant is examined This
s)stem was developed and installed for sealing perforations in multiple refngerator cases at General
Electnc's Decatur, Alabama, Refngerator Plant It combines the GE
PS Robot with Nordson's Foam-
Melt System * Production results have been excellent and follow the list of potential benefits mentioned
m Section
The major appliance industry has witnessed a problem in the manufactunng of refngerators that
until recently has only found moderately acceptable solutions The refngerator outer case contains
holes and gaps necessary for fabncation and assembly To prevent foam leaks and moisture migration,
these perforations must be sealed pnor to the injection of urethane foam insulation
Hisloncalty, these perforations were manually sealed with tape or “gum putty*' Recently, General
Electnc's Advanced Technology Section, working with Advanced Manufactunng ^gineers, successfully
developed a s>stem to automatically solve this problem

773.1. The Sealing Process

The process of sealing perforations in refngerator cases with an adhesive appeared initially to be
relatively straightforward The manufactunng parameten in GE's Decatur plant vaned, however, and
an extensive evaluation was required These parameters were as follows

Two refngerator models were to be sealed with provisions for future new models
*
These models included two different case sizes, 1 1 and 14 ft

The potential sealant application points varied from 15 to 20 points

Vanous hole sizes, contours, and locations were mandated by design in each case
Production rates vaned from 15 to 18 sec
Cases were moving on a conveyor at the point of manufactunng, lying honzontally with the open
side up
The substrates for application of sealant were both prepamted and galvanized steel

Extensive planning and evaluation were required to demonstrate successfully the elements of automa-
tion proposed for case sealing Studies were performed to evaluate (1) foamed hoi-melt adhesives as
oppe^ to conventional sealants, and the suiubility of (hose matenaJs, (2) the capabilities of robotic
systems versus hard automation, and (3) the automatic matenal handling and hxtunng

77.4. AUTOMATION COMPONENTS OF THE SEALANT ROBOTIC

DISPENSING SYSTEM
The sjscem includes the following components

1. Sealant
2. Robotic system
3. Matenal-handling system

77.4.1. Foamed Hot-Melt Adhesive Sealant

In 1981 Nordson introduced a commercially available foamed hot-melt adhesive vystern Early studies
of sealing refngerator cases with convenlionaj hoi melt were unsuccessful because of the sagging and
running of the matenal. Foamed hot-melt adhesive was selected for trial in this application for two
reasons First, a foamed adhesive matenal is more cohesive than the same conventional hot-melt adhesive
This reduces matenal sag and run and enables holes to be bndged easily without penetration Second,
matenal savings arc approximately 50% greater (for a maierul with ]&)% expansion) with a foamed
rather than unfoamed adhesive.
Extensive development work was conducted in which sample refngerators were manually sealed

Registered trademark of Nordson Corporation.

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ROBOTS FOR SEALING AND ADHESIVE APPLICATIONS 1267

with a foamed adhesive. Holes were successfully bridged with the foamed sealant by raising one end
of the case, applying the sealant above a hole, and allowing gravity to cause the material to flow
over the holes. The sample refrigerators were then processed through a urethane foam injection system.
The urethane foam provides the thermal insulation and structural rigidity between the liner and case
and produced by an exothermic reaction of two particular chemicals. Therefore the foamed hot-
is

melt sealant must be able to withstand the urethane foam temperature and pressure. No urethane
foam leaks were detected from any perforations manually sealed with the foamed adhesive sealant.
The adhesive application equipment for the final production installation consisted of Nordson’s
(1) FM103A FoamMelt Unit, (2) H-20 Gun with a 12-in. (30-cm) heated extension, (3) two 16-ft
(5.3-m) hoses, and (4) specific accessories. This system proved to be successful in actual production.
In selecting the production sealant, several materials were tested. The results showed that a particular
amorphous polypropylene-based sealant met the requirements of the application. This material was
chosen for the following reasons:

The material foams with nitrogen and has excellent foamability with an expansion of more than
100 %.
Adhesion is excellent to galvanized and prepainted steel.

Material setup is fast on steel substrates.

It can withstand the temperatures and pressures encountered in the urethane foam injection process.
The material foams and applies at moderate temperatures, which reduces energy consumption.
It passes General Electric’s odor and taste tests for major appliances.
Meets the Federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved standards.

No filler is added that might cause equipment wear.

Previous studies demonstrated suitability for this application.

Fig. 77.2. Robot automatically dispenses foamed hot-melt adhesive extruded from a dispensing gun
for sealing holes in refrigeration cases.
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126S nXISHLVC, COATING, AND PAINTING

Fig. 77J. General Mew of robotic sealant dispensing cell Hydraulic device (nght) lifts and presents
refngerator cases properly fixtured and onenied to the robot &ch
case is presented at 30* to enhance
sealant Sow coverage Robot controller with programmable controller and foam container/extruder
are shown left Tbe robot is mounted on a roller track for off-line programming and maintenance

77.4 Aobotic S> stem

Sealing perforations in refnjerator cases with foamed hot-melt adhesives could be accomplished with
either hard automation or a robotic system. Based on tbe manufacturing parameters of varied case
sizes,hole sues, contours and locations, hard automation proved to be impractical Cnleru for a
robotic system meeting the manufacturuig parameters were established. DetaJed feasibility studies
and capability demonstrations were conducted involving several robot manufacturers.
The General Electric Model P5 Process Robot was demonstrated and proved tobe the most advanta-
geous for this particular application Tests confirmed the required cycle time and working envelope.
Although Selection of tbe P5 Robot involved many technical charactcnsiics, three were essential Fiisi,

robot arm positioning the P5 Robot is specified with a repeatability of iO 008 m

(:t0 203 mm)
Third, tbe application required a su-axis robot It is particularly interesting to note that although
tbe P5 Robot maneuvers with five axes, a pseudoaxis of the arm is available by offsetting the gun
centerhne with the robot wnst centerbne.

77A3. Automated Material Handling

The production process is limited without the benefits of automated material handling In the GE
Decatur plant, four constraints dictated the type ofmatenal-handling system needed for case sealing

production

Tbe cases moved continuously side-by-side along a horizontal conveyor with the open side up
The required maxunum production cycle time was IS sec
Two different size cases were processed on the line.
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1270 FINISHING, COATING, AND PAINTING
A hydraulic tip-up station was required to raise one end of the case to allow the foamed adhesive
to flow by gravity over the holes.

With these constraints m

mind, a malenat-handling system was conceived and designed (Figures
77.2-77 5) A hydraulic waiking-beam type (ransfer system was incorporated as the basis for handling
This was ne:essary because Che time required to seal a case is about equal to the designated production
cycle time, hctle time was leA for a completed case to leave the sealing station and another to enter
To account for diflerent size cases, adjustable pickup pads were designed and built
Finally, a hydraulic tip-up station was provided to allow the foamed sealant to flow by gravity
over the holes in the case. This tip-up proved to be critical for the flow concept developed in early
investigations and thus was incorporated into this equipment

77.5. SYSTEM INTEGRATION

Manufacturers today are producing many individual “cells'* of high technology Oflen, the marriage
of two Or more technologies is overlooked or simply not possible The sealing of refrigerator cases
discussed here is an example of where two high-technoIogy components are combined with the latest
in automation techniques. The G£
Advanced Technology Section engineered the entire system for
electrical control integration and intnaction with mechanical components
The electncal system was controlled by a GE
programmable controller The programmable controller
integrates the master control panel with the P5 Robot. FoamMelt Unit, hydraulic system, material'
handling system, and input-output devices Through ladder-diagram programming the controller com-
mands the sequence of operations both in the manual and automatic modes For example, the controller
instructs the robot when to move through its motions Hie robot then instructs the controller when
Co dispense adhesive The controller further instructs the FoamMelt Unit to dispense a timed quantity
of adhesive Similarly, the programmable controller sequences the operation of other system devices
Although many mechanical design features were incorporated into the system, a select few were
subtle, yet very important First, the dispensing gun was attached at an offset to the P5 Robot arm
This enabled a flve-axis robot to simulate a six-axis robot Second, the suspension of the adhesive
hoses removed restnctional forces from the robot arm This proved necessary for consistent repeatability
Finally, the robot was placed on a roller track for olMine programming and maintenance This allow^
the walking beam to continue the transferor pans while the robot was being maintained or reprogrammed
with an auxiliary case These features provided some additional support for avoiding problems
The automatic sealing of refngeraior cases using foamed hot-melt adhesive and a robot has demon-
strated a process of potential benefit to many industnes today Sealant applications are plentiful and
possibly limited only by the adhesive chemistry and robotic characiensiics For example, robots can
be used to seal body panels in the automotive industry or provide a means for in-place gasketing in
the appliance, automotive, or ocher industnes Manufacturers again have another tool for productivity
and quality improvement

REFERENCES
1. Dueweke, N , —
Robotics and Adhesives An Overview, Adhesive Age, Apnl 1983 (the Apnl 1983
issue of Adhesive Age is devoted to robotics and adhesives)
2. Larson, M ,
Update on Adhesives. Assembly Engineering, June 1983, pp 9-12

FURTHER READING
DeFrayne, G . High Performance Adhesive Bonding, SMB Paper, 1983
SaCnana, M. J Hot Melt Adhesivex Noyes Daya Cbrp
, . 1974
Shields, J , Adhesive Handbook, CRC Press, 1970
Young, J. D , The Use of Robots in the Spraying of Coating and Adhesives, Industrial Robot, Vol
7, No 1, March 1980. pp 45-46
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CHAPTER 8
DESIGN OF ROBOT HANDS
KAZUO TANIE
Ministry of International Trade and Industry
Ibaraki, Japan

8.1 INTRODUCTION
—
Generally the shipper for industrial robots is used for special purposes a device to handle limited
shapes of objects and limited functions This kind of gnpper makes designing easy and also keeps
machinery costs relatively inexpensive, but versatility and dexterity are reduced In some applications
the simplification of gnpper function may be more important than versatility and dextenty from the
point of view of economics In others, however, the gnpper will be required to handle and manipulate
many of varying weights, shapes, and matenals The universal gnppers, actually robot
different objects
hands, will be suitable in such case
Currently, the development of a universal gnpper and the investigation of manipulation using it
are under way There are no practical universal gnppers or hands at present Therefore, the mechanical
design of speciahpurpose gnppers is mainly discus^ in the following sections to complement Chapter
7 Only an outline of recent developments on umversal gnppers is desenbed. with gnpper functions
and related design factors

8.2. FUNCTIONS OF GRIPPERS AND RELATED FACTORS

Humatt'hand grasping ts divided into six different types of prehension palmar, lateral, cylindrical,
sphencal, tip, and hook, which were identified by Schlesmger (Figure 8 1) ‘ Crossley classified manipula-
tion functions by human hand into nine types trigger gnp, flipping a switch, transfer pipe to gnp,
use cutters, pen screw, cigarette roll, pen transfer, typewnte, and pen write
There are several factors relating to these variations of function Important factors are the number
of fingers, the number of joints for each finger, and Ifie number of degrees of freedom of a hand
A human arm including a hand has five fingers the thumb, the index finger, the middle finger,
the third finger, and the little finger The whole arm structure has 27 DF, 20 of which are for the
hand * Each finger except the thumb has three joints, and each can produce 4 DF motion The thumb
has two joints with 3 DF There is ! DF in the palm To approximate a subset of the human grasp
and hand manipulation, the relation between gnpper structure and Us function must be considered
To achieve minimum gnppmg function, a gnpper needs two fingers connected to each other using
a joint with 1 DF for its open-close motion If the gnpper has two rigid fingen, it has only the
capability of grasping objects of limited shapes and is not able to enclose objects of vanous shapes
Also, this type of gnpper cannot have manipulation function because all degrees of freedom are used
to maintain prehension
There are two ways to improve the capability to accommodate the change of object shapes One
solutionIS to put joints on each finger The other is to increase the number of fingers up to a maximum

of The manipulation function will also emerge from this To manipulate objects it is usually
five

necessary that the gnpper have more fingers and joints dnven externally and independently than
does the gnpper used only for grasping objects The more fingers, joints, and degrees of freedom a
gnpper has, the more versatile and dexterous it can become Table 8 1 shows approximate relations
between the numbers of fingers and joints and the functions of gnppers

8.3. GRIPPER CLASSinCATION

A gnpper can be designed to have several fingers, jomts. and degrees of freedom, as mentioned before
Any combination of these factors gives different grasping modaliiies to a gnpper Also, a gnpper can

112
ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGT' 12S1

FTeii-Ana: A
rr-inipaiiror arm desizned to ha'.e as much friedom as the human 'Arist and esp<anai!y
suited to spray finishing apphniticns. The design provides fhii arching -Arthout regard to the pitch-
and-}aA' axis, miainsizes the arm size, and eliininates the nesti for electrical 'Airing, h>draul:c hoses,
and actuators cn the end of the arm. The arm can he fitted 'Atth a seventh axis to further increase
gun mocrility so the arm has bener reach and access than a human spray finisher.

Flciiiaity (Gripperh The ability of a gripper to conform tc> parts that hate irregular shapes and to

adapt to parts that are inaccurately oriented vAith respect to the gripper.

FleiihUity, ^Icchanicnh Pliable or capable of bending. In robot mechanisms this may be due to
joints, lirAs, or transmission elements. FIe.xibility allosAs the endpoint of the robot to sag or defiect
under a lead, and sihrate as a result of acceleration or deceliration.

Flexibility, Operational: Multipurpose robots that are adaptable and capable cf being redirected,
trained, or used for new purposes. Refers to the reprogrammnhthty or multi-task capability of rcbots-

Fleiihflity-EfficiencT Trade-oS: The trade-otf between retaining a capability tor rapid redesign or
reconfiguration of the prcduct to produce a range cf dinerent products, and being emcient enough to
prcduce a Large number of products at high le'.els of production and low unit cost.

Flexible Arnu A robot arm with mecharucal flexibility.

Flexible Nlanufacturing System (F^ISh .An arrangement of machine icols that is capable of standing
alone, interconnected by a workpiece transpoa system, and controlled by a central computer. The
transpon sub-system, possibly including one or more robots, carries work to the machines on pallets
or other interface units so that accurate registration is rapid tttiri automatic. FNIS may base a variety
cf parts being processed at one time.

Fleiioa: Orienmriaa or motion toward a position where the joint angle between two connected bodies
is small.

Float In rigid part assembly a common error-absorbing techtuque in which a part is allowed motion
by a sliding bearing and, possibly, centering springs. Bearing fnetioo, however, may result in failure
to avoid Jamming; therefore float can be an unreliable technique for error absorption.

FIcor-Moonted Robot Also known as pedestal robot- .A robot with its base permanently or semi-
permanently attached to the floor or a bench. Such a robot is working at one location with a ma.ximum
limited work area and in many cases servicing only one machine. Floor-mounted robots often use a
pallet pick-and-place or a conveyor feeder to feed parts to and from their location.

Floor-to-FIoor Time: The total time elapsed for picking up b part, loading it into a machine, carrying
out operations and unloading it (back to the floor, bin, or pallet, etc.). This time measurement generally
applies to batch production.

Folding .Arm Mxnf p nl.xt nr- A

manipulator designed to enter an enclosed area, such as the interior
cf a nuclear reactor, throuzh a narrow opening. .A control console outside the enclosed area is connected
to the manipulator by an umbilical cord which carries cccnmand si gna ls, telemetry, and services.
Once inside the enclosed area, the manipulator unfolds and/or e,xtends into a working position- Visual
feedback from the work zone employs closed-circuit television through a remotely controlled camera
on the manipulator feeding a visual display unit in the control console. Fligh-intensity lamps on the
m-mipulator provide iilumination- The manipulator is designed to allow all relevant motions to be
recovered in an emergency situaiion.

Force Reflection: .Also known as bilateral master-slave cotitroL A

category of teleoperator control
incorperating the features of simple master-slave control and also providing the operator with resistance
to modons of the master unit which correspoeds to the resistance expenenced by the slave unin

Force-Torque Sensors: The sensors that measure the amount of force and torque e.xened by the
mechanical hand along three hand-referenced orthogonal directions and applied around a point ahead
and away from the sensors.

Forearm: Tnat portion of a jointed arm which is connected to the wrist and dhow.
Fortran: .A high-levd computer language devdoped at IB.^1 in 1954. Fortran is the acronym for
fcrmula Tru.-:slator. and is applicable in scientifle work. ScmC dedicated robet-programming languages
are based cn Fcrtran.

Forward Dynamics: The computation of a trajectory rcsultinz from an applied torque.

Forward Kiaecalics: The computation of the position or motion cf each link as a function cf the
jcin: variables.

FTIEDDY: .a pioneering robotsystem devdoped at Edinburgh University, Scotland, in the mid-1970s

tnat uied televistcn cameras, a tcuch-sensitive manipulaioc, and a tnatnc-caaccaUed. mihile. vicwvng
plaricrm to study the acquisition cf perceptual descriptiens.
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1282 ROBOnCS TERMINOLOGY
FUNKY: Robot sofiuare developed by IBM for advanced motion guiding that produces robot pro-
grains through the use of a function Le)board and manual guiding device. Considered a point-to-
point level language that is inherently unstructured. FUNKY has support for gripper commands,
tool operations, touch sensor commands, and interaction uilh external devices

Gantry Robot: An overhead-mounted, rectiluieaf robot mth a minimuni of three degrees of freedom
and normally not exceeding six Bench-mounicd assembly robots that have a gantry design are not
included m
this definition A
gantry robot can move along its x and y axes traveling over relatively
greater distances than a pedestal-mounted robot at high traverse spe^s while still providing a high
degree of accur^y for positioning. Features of a gantry robot include large wori envelopes, heavy
payloads, mobile overhc^ mounting, and the capability and flexibility to operate over the work area
of several pedestal-mounted robots.
Gantry Robot Cborduate Sjstamt The x. y. and z axes of a gantry robot consist of the following
components
X axis Runway The longitudinal axis, nonnally the passive side rails of the superstructure of the
ganto robot
y axis Bridge The transverse axis, an active member of the robot nding on the runway rails and
supporting the carnage of the gantry robot
z axis Telescoping tubes or masts The vertical axis, supponed by the carnage
Geometric Deztenty: The ability of the robot to achieve a wide range of oncntacions of the hand
with the tool center point ui a specified position

Geomrtnc Modeller A component of an off'-line programming system which generates a world model
from geometric data. The world model allows objects to be referenced during programming

GraceflJ Failure: Failure in performance of some component pan without immediate major tmemip-
tion or failure of the system as a whole

Grasp PhumlDg: A capability of a robot programming language to deiennine where to grasp objects
UI order to avoid collisions dunng grasping or movujg The grasp configuration is cbo&eo so that
objects are suble ui the gnpper
Gra)>Scale Picture: A digitized unage in which the brightness of the pixels can have more than
two values which are typically 128 or 256 A gray-scale picture requires more storage space and
more sophisticated unage processing than a binary image
Gnppen The grasping hand of the robot which marupulates objects and tools to fulfill a given task.

Gnpper, ExtemaL A type of mechanical gnpper used to grasp tbe exienor surface of an object
with clc^ fingers.

Gnpper, lotemali A type of mechanical gnpper used to gnp the uiiemal surface of an object with
open fingers.

Gnpper, Soft* A type of mechanical gnpper which provides the capability of conforming to part of
the penphery of an object of any shape

Gnpper, Siring Type; A type of mechanical gnpper which can move its fingers m a swinging motion.
Gripper, Translaboiul: A type of mechanical gnpper which can move its own fingers, keeping them
paraUel

Gripper, Universal: A gnpper capable oT bandlmg and manipulating many different objects of varying
weights, shapes, and materials
Gripper Desi^ Factors: Factore considered dunng tbe dest^ of a gnpper in order to prevent senous
damage to the tool or facilitate quick repair and alignment The factors include parts' or tools' shape,
dimension, weight, and material, adjustment for realignment m
the x and y direction, easy-to-remove
fingers, mechanical fusing (shear pins, etc ), locating surface at the gripper-arm interface spring loading
m the z (vertical) ducction, and specification of spare gnpper fingers.

Gnppiag Suzfaces: The surfsixs, such as the msrde of the fingere. on the robot gnpper or hand
that are used for grasping

Gross Volume of Work Envelope: The volume of the work envelope determined by shoulder and
elbow joints
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aqi ‘XisiioauBj[nuiis sauiqaBiu [BjPAas uiojj paAiaaaj ajB (s{{Ba aaujas) sjBuSis jj Jaiuaa SuiuiqaBui
aiqnay b jo Jajuaa aqi ]b loqoJ b (OJiuoa oi past) uiBjSojd loqoj b jo ajniBaj iXjipqBds^ Xjijouj y
jJBd BpunojB apis jqSiBJis aqj .,dBJM„ puB puBdxa oi jjsq paqqu aqj sasiiBa XiUBo aqi Suilty
ajnssajd Jiy saspq omj aqi uaawjaq jib pazunssajd joj XlUBa b puB 'Jisq paqqu atio 'paipUBq aq oi
UBd aqi SJ3BJU03 jfBq jqfiBJis auo seq icqi aaisap dnqaid aiiBuinaud y :sJa3uij pazijnssaj,j

•aarjjns pajaBjuoa aqi jo sjuiod jtB o]

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sasnBa jib pazunssajj aqj punojB jo in paasid si jappBjq paiByap aqi ucd aqi jo adeqs aqi o;
UBd
miojuoa 0) Xj[Bi3adsa pauSisap XpBjauaS si qaiqM aaiAap dnixaid aiiBuinaud y uappE^g pazunssajj

uo 05 puB *ioqoj jaqiouB

‘uosjad B Xq bojb jo ppy qans jpM iBqi auo pUB (s)ioqoj b punojB bo/b jo
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uoiinaaxa Suunp *X[iBaicuBuXp ‘JOiBJado aqi
Xq pauasui saSuBqa jo qasqpaaj aAiidBpB Xq payipoui jo iqlnei uoiieiaauo pUB uoijBao; aqi ui qajo]
s.ioqoj aqi 01 pappu aq oj uiBas aq) luasajd oi japJO ui »xb [[B sjojihoo janojiuoa joqoj aqx saxB
joqoj jBUOijippB pajapisuoo saoiijauios ojb aiqBj aqi jo saicB ajqBAOui aqj. papjaM aq oi saaaid uonisod
puE p(oq 0 ] JuipjaM OJB oiioqoj ui pasn aaiAap jaoomsod sb uMOuq osiy aiq«i Snjao^isog
y
sUBd jaqio qiiM paiBUi Jo
JOiBjndiUBui B Xq padsBJ^ aq ubo Xaqi os siaaTqp atsaoi oj niBJsXs uoisia b jo asn aqx iSnipay uoqiso^

AOOlOMHVHai S3I10a0H
ROBOTICS TERMLNOLOGY 1283

Group Tecimolog}': A technique for grouping parts to gain design and operationaJ advantages. For
e.tample, in robotics group technology is used to ensure that different parts are of the same part
family when planning pan processing for a work cell, or to design widely useable fixtures for part
families. Part grouping may be based on geometric shapes, operation processes, or both.

Growing (Image): Transformation from an input binary image to an output binary image. Growing
increases the pixel for purposes of smoothing, noise elimination, and detection
number of one type of
of blobs based on approximate size.

Guarded Motions: The motion required of a robot when approaching a surface. This motion is required
because of uncertainty in the world model and the inherent inaccuracy of a robot. The goal of the
zuarded motion is in achieving a desired manipulator configuration on an actual surface while avoiding
excessive forces.

H
Hand: A fingered gripper sometimes distinguished from a regular gripper by having more than three
fingers, and more de.xterous finger motions resembling the human hand.
Handchanger: A mechanism analogous to a toolchanger on a machining center or other machine
tool, that permits a single robot arm to equip itself with a series of task-specific hands or grippers.

Hand Coordinate System: A robot coordinate system based on the last axis of the robot manipulator.

Hard Automation: Also known as fixed automation, or hard tooling. A

non-programmable, fixed
tooling which designed and dedicated for specific operations that are not easily changeable. It may
is

be reconfigured mechanically and is cost effective for a high production rate.

HELP (High Level Procedural Language): A robot programming language, based on PASCAL/
Fortran, developed at theDEA Corporation in Turin, Italy. HELP supports structured program design
for robot operation and features flexibility to multiple arms, support of continuous path motion, force
feedback and touch sensor commands, interaction with external devices, and gripper operation com-
mands.

Heuristic Problem Solving; In computer logic, the ability to plan and direct actions to steer toward
higher-level goals. This is the opposite of algorithmic problem solving.

Hierarchical Control: A distributed control technique in which the controlling processes are arranged
in a hierarchy and distributed physically.

High-Level Language: A programming language that generates machine code from function-oriented
statements that approach English.

High-Level Robot Programming; The control of a robot with a high-level language that contains
commands that perform computations of numerous elementary operations in order to simplify compli-
cated robot operations.

Hold; .A. stopping of all movement of the robot during its sequence in which some power is maintained
on the robot; for e.xamp!e, on hydraulically driven robots, power is shut off to the servo valves but is
present in the main electrical and hydraulic systems.

Home Robots: Small mobile vehicles fitted with a relatively slow-moving arm and hand, and visual
and force/iactile sensors, controlled by joysticks and speech, with a number of accessories specialized
for carrying objects, cleaning, and other manipulative tasks.

Homogeneous Transform: A 4 x 4 matrix which represents the rotation and translation of vectors
m the joint coordinate systems. It is used to compute the position and orientation of any coordinate

system with respect to any other coordinate system.

HRL (//igh Robot Language): Robot motion software, based on LISP and Fortran, developed at
the University of Tokyo. HRL used to describe manipulator motions for mechanical assemblies
is

and disassemblies. Its features include language extensions, world models, and orbit calculation com-
mands.

Hybrid Teleoperator/Robot Systems: A partially controlled robot for performing ser.ice tasks. .Most
cf the intelligenceis supplied by a human operator interfaced in a user-friendly manner to control

switches, joysdcks, and voice input devices to control the physical motion and manipulation of the
rccct.

HydrauHc .Motor An actuator consisting of interconnected valves and pistons or vanes which converts
high-pressure hydraulic or pneumatic fluid Lnio mechanical shaft translation or rotation.
zaun^^uj .‘q ‘-f-j) nxrd copuxj ojirifinisrp oj p?rr. 5r}v;p .vjc^j?c v 3r°.T copicSwsjj

jq: ui pjp-pai 3jr ?p'jrurj.'D3

nrnoj p” ‘jpdduz ‘yczqp^j ?:^qj ;in -conoui qird sr^onmirrco o-j ?ra :nq uopouj ;a;]- 2 n?rai:s par
rjdrats suoddns qo'H 'xrri joqoj r qrrjdactarr oj p5p?;'j sdj:s_jo ^rajnbrs r izmzzojd oi r.j_v; ;o
Jinjpraj rrjnssftjoj a?rj?ssu?-jj jr p>dop\sp rfmtirq p;rj;_iio-puraiu;M ‘pvr]-.‘'>qtiir?Tr ay
TOH
uird uTBruro par ^ojiudd pojoj ‘
ppon ;;qrirpdn
'Sup^rrjj 5rurpa?d?pui -'o:rp.d!imi! ‘capri'jssrjdrj
‘ropduc^p
‘noTiTLigsiiii josTirs joicp;dpn:in ;pnp'ji s?jni~_i qojraDS joqaj jds sprur-.s
sifED uffir.Cs ?\!inirpd jo i?s r .Cq srrrj Mp?ds oi Tinapuj jo .\ 2 :sj?\n;pj rr.pjnj rr p?do;5 ‘.;p par
rrrnfirq sqj co p?STq uijjsas gunjiuirjfojd joqoj y
:(.trcjqi 7 .. 7 „ 10 JJD 07 joqojf)
7338
nwfQo pjpojiuor sap jo .<2pop\ psjiwp rqi si jndci ?qi pszqv. in?2S.AS jojiuaj y qojqccQ airy
•.?[qii2?ssrqas ” tn sjz^fqo uaarjsq sdnisaoprpj faiquasap JOj sirraia srq par ( z;? ‘sarri par
saioq ‘sjspnq.sn) s?j-n2r?2 jptp jo sauai in sircfco saqurspp lyyy -psrrpo:>S in qfjr.qiqpg jo stirs
-jaiiaq aqi ir p^dop'.ap agmamr] gcnnunufoid loqoj p‘.?[-vsn p?srq-XdV iry KXcfK JC«?ojf) XdYH

'conss'dsm iioddns
02 siriuistior Atmu qiin nori-qndnma hue par uoisia io lOJinoa joj •siiasr.qrrssrj^^ miaqig ‘raj
‘iiincoiny Aq p?dop\ap par ‘7y3Syy co pssrq adcnrirq fuimumfojd loqoj pazipjraag y rjjyy
siaoioo
fciiinicopar “sadrqs ganjnrifansTp "notintiaiio gtinniiiiaiap joj siSAirarr agrmi m pasn aar .'taqx qo;q
r JO sioi»\ sarprj jo las aqi caojj paindtnoo sajnicaj a»drqs ?jr sriisiins asaqj. »usiins srrpry

rc]
‘noarmni^ Xq pazitrpaaaraaoo jair] sris irqi icxjoj na>.up Apraiiioap “pairiiirnar ‘azts-tiur-nruinq
r Joj noiiirapads aqi ci pciinsaj par conraodjo^ sioiojq pasaao ir loafoad inuaicdopiap c;gi
r sr pJiraEUO qraisi ‘.Aiqinassp' joj aarqorjv psaasing aiqnauirjzoJt/ joj m-Cuojrr uy ryjstnd
r jaio asjairji oj 31 snogr qziqsi
"cajE rijoii
sapqs CO paianom par coatsod pauasm aqi in pafjrsrJi loqoj pasapad y qoqoy -Cqurg-opnasj
sjaqio pur ‘sjaf jp trojj ajnssajd qarq ‘sppg anaaznn
•siaajjno Xppa paanpai-Aitsaaiui ‘panos paioagaj joj aura pasdrp ‘iqrn psioas®-* jc noarpJnrpi jo
sajdiaaud aiji co ^josi XpraidAi sjosaas Aiiuipcojg ri ji Ariir jrj .sioq sajnsraoi jo/par ‘.Cmr (laaj jo
saqain “.aj r ‘-f-a) aaarjsrp uoas r stpo si loafoo ur jrqi sasaas qznj'ft aoisap y uosaag Anapiojy

-uur aqi jo joioaaa paa aqi ujojj Xrsir inq asrq aqi 01 asojo loqoj r no rajr aqx qnariojy
•sjauarqo coaraia
-nimiico qf nojqi nrp zaiijiaisurji par f uiAiaoaj joj riiaiuo zniqsqqnsa jo saraaj paaca? y qoooiojy

Sana]
irrtaaq JO saoaaanj iso; joj sajiunsqns irqi acisap jo joirjr.drann ajqnauirjgojd y aoqojj opaqisojy

qojiaoo ssaoojd in
-•t[(rpadsa pasg ar.dir.o irrurr pajiisram aqi par ( 2 ndino pajisap) indai aqi uaasuaq aaaajanp aqi jo
aMlTAijap aina par *arnajanip aai jo pazaicn aiuii •arapjanip aai jo ums paiqgpn r sjmba joimirr aai
sasup qoiutt prafK aqi stcajaar. aaiaaos joJiuoa y
qoxinoQ ((j/j) aApriuag-pugainj-pniopJodojj

'indino {nuar pajnsraai aai p-ar (irdiao pajreap) panim:c>o indai aqi caastiaq aaaaja^q) aqi 01 pairpj
Anraruoioaoai si joirrjar aip sasup qaiq*;. fnizre aqi Acajaqr, aaiaqos jojiuoo y qoJincQ jraopjodoiy
aac •pasodra jo
-uojl~j:dr.T
dn cuiarj apis psaioaiojd jo qarq aqi qiin copisod r pjr“.oi copoia jo copnuapo aqx moprcojy

a-sn papaaiin sii

uuouad 01 loqoj r joj pajinbaj saoprajisai jojicoo aqi fcipLAOjd jo lar aqj_ qioqoyj gnnacrrjfojy
(craaiq
r Xq pajjOJinoo si qajqsi ‘joirpidninn fratmn 01 pasoddo sr) jaindiaoo [OJinoo sii in pajois nrrjzaid
r copnoara Xq sioafoo faijrp'.dmrai 10 a;qrdro si qorqiA lusiuraoaai y noirjndpirji^ ajqnnTarjgojy

TSU-ss lEOpaajj-jo
-aajfap-aajqi par parq pazziu r jo nuoj aq: aqn iqgpc siqx -L-oriniz^po paapads r ci laaissts cojsji

C6n A0070Kn\'H3i SOLLOaoa

1284 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

linage Analysis; The interpretation oS data received from an imaging device For the three basic
analysis approaches that exist see image buffering, edge detection, and windowing

Image Buffering: An image analysis technique in which an entire image is digitized and stored in
computer memory Computer software uses the image data to detect features, such as an object’s
area, centroid location, orientation, penmetcr, and others

Imaging: The analysis of an image to derive the identity, position, orientation, oi condition of objects
m the scene Dimensional measurements may also be performed

Induction Motor; An alternating-current motor wherein torque is produced by the reaction between
a varying or rotating magnetic field that « generated in stationary-field magnets and the current that
IS induced in the coils of the rotor

Inductosyn. Trademark for Farrand Controls resolver, in which an output signal is produced by
inductive coupling between metallic paliems, versus glass-scale position resolvers that use Moire-fnnge
patterns

Industrial Robot: See the mtroduccion to this terminology

Inspection (Robotic). Robot manipulation and sensory feedback to check the compliance of a part
or assembly with specifications In such applications, robots are used in conjunction with sensors,
such as a television camera, laser, or ultrasonic detector, to check part locations, identify defects, or
recognize parts for soning Application examples include inspection of pnnted circuit boards, valve
cover assemblies for automotive engines, sorting of metal castings, and inspecuoit of the dimecistonal
accuracy of openings in automotive bodies

Integral Control, A control scheme whereby the signal driving the actuator equals the time integral
of the error signal

Intelligent Robot: A robot that can be programmed to execute performance choices contingent on
sensory inputs

Interactive Manual-Automatic Control: A type of remote robot operation Data from sensors integrated
with the remote robot are used to adapt the real-time control actions to changes or variances in task
conditions automatically through computer control algonthms

Interface: A
shared boundary which might be a mechanical or electrical connection between two
devices, It might be a portion of computer storage accessed by two or more programs, or it might he
a device for communication with a human operator

interface Box llnput/Output); This provides the robot system’s interface with equipment required
for an application, but not part of the robot system For example, in spotwelding, an interface box
can be used to control cooling water, shielding gas, a weld gun servo controller card, power supply,
and AC input
Interfacing (Robot With Vision): Calculating the relative onentation between the camera coordinate
frame and robot coordinate system so that objects delected by the camera can be manipulated by
the robot

Interference Zone: Space contained in the work envelopes of more than one robot
Interlock: To arrange the control of machines or devices so that their operation is iciterdcpendent
in order to assure their proper coordination and synchronization

Interpolaror: A program m a system computer of a numencally controlled machine or robot that

detenmnes the calculated motion path (eg, linear, circular, elliptic, etc), between given end point*

Inverse Dynamics* The determination of torques to be exerted at the joints to move the manipulator
along a desired trajectory, and to exert the desired force at the end effector

Inverse Kinematics: The determination of joint displacements required to move the end effector to
a desired position and orientation

Islands of Automation. An approach used to introduce iactory automation technology into manufactur-
ing by selective application of automation Examples include numencaiiy controlled machine tools,
” '

robots for assembly

machining systems
of forming integratcu - -

station to entire departments

 uoucuiojne paxy jo soavuuopsd ituojiun sqj pur ^jdosd jo .t|iiiqtx9[f dqi jo suios qitw
sMirujiijr ur «J3Jo Xjqmwr loqoH Jsuubui a|qi$e3j XneauuDUOsa put ^ipoiSojouqjsi e ui Xiqmassr
JO swdJnd 9qj JOJ wiSoiouqsaj jsqio pur ‘3|(foad *5)01)09 jo uoiiruiqujco :X(q(n»<5v stjoqoa

'uoi)935 stqi o) uoi)onpoj)ui aifi UI ..loqoj {rui<npu;^ jo uoijtucfsp 9qi 93^ noqoa
uom^^ pue uoti33]3p uoisiiioo suoddns X3Q0tf oiloqoJ ejo [ojjuoo aqi joj Xuruusf) jo aqqndaa
[ei3p3j 3n; to AJOiBjoqe^ iooj_ oi/iqoejv )* psdopjisp utfjtO SuiuiiusjSojd 3uq-£o uv •X3Q0^
X|9ncB p|3q ?q oi [ooi jo aosid^jon e situusd irq)
uSissp 90)0903 pu3 puT ]5ra| aqi uo sofSiq ‘)5U4i sqi ui SJtsS ]3^3q [rjidt pauspjrq pur
‘soxE
punoj? "sSAUp fmr uo s-najoi /{eq uomoa/d wrq uoit-tteo b st qonr sojnjeoj Aq pOAOJdcui aq
f/r
UM X]ipt8ta ^u^u»AC^^l pur ^uipro] jspun snujijf s)i urrpj oi ioq09 r jo Xuadojd aqx ;X|ip^ra

•sqird psieadOJ
(rj3Aas JO spua aqi jr psqavsj sMHietuauo pae suonnod aqt uafMiaq uoumsp sq± uOifS {esjataiJ

uoDiud 90 uoiioui iua^jdai jrqj s[ru3is

Ir30j33[3 Sojrur oi uonoiu [roiurqoatu suaAiioo letji »0LOp ^atqpMj jrauq jo Xirioj v uaijosaa

sioqoj ur (OJiuoo nxe airuipjooo psuioirjfojd 9ut*3iqoe joj poquui (ruoii

'Finduioo r sr pur sjojrindiiietujo [ojxjoo lenurui ui pasn si siqj. aiqtssod si ( oja ‘spjio ‘auq)
ssuoioafej] jo suoijosjip psgioads 9uo(e juiodpus aqi jo tuajsXs siruipjopo aqi ui uot|Oj^{ {OJIuoo
J33jtp J3pUn SI JUtodpUO sql JO JOJOSa X)DOpA 3IJI )«() os S3*r S.lOqOJ r JO UOIjeuipJOO^ 'I
)ins3j pajisop aqi
auiqor o) saiuoopA jeinSur luiof aqi $auiuua)ap jsindmoo aqi )i uiojj pur papuruiuioo si

uur Joieindiueto e jo imodpua aqj jo joiooa XtioopA pajtsap aqi XqaJ3q« auiaqos [ojiuoo y 'f

rrojjnco »l*M ooijojv paj|osaa

Xoc/nooe joieindiaeui aqi ja uo/frorpar auo

SB sSiUas ‘JOirindturui aqi Xq paanpojd oq uro tpiqn uoiioui [nuatuajoui jssiiruis scu. motiniossa
jatsrui «oi[d99 aqt jo luiof
furpuodsaxtoo aqi oi J9{e;ndrurcu aqi jo tuiof qaea gutoiJasAq pa^aiqot si {ojiuoo ganp^i joirfndrurca
asTSMd joj sSAjas pur 'odrqs ui uur Joie(adiurui r $a)roi|dnp qoiqM aouap (ojjuoo U9)srj\' niidaa y
passitu
8J9« irqi SDoiirJsdo lojujjrd oi aut[ r jo ptsa aqi le skx}oj {t^sui oi si Xe« jaqiouy joqoj Xi{nrj
r JO :|JOA Sinssiui aqi joj aiesuaduioo Xcjroiiruioinr O) sioqoj »ui| jaqio 2ui|ioj]uoo Xq si Xliiiqucsy
luauiMTidM umir 0) Xr.« auQ (9ui[0O) jo loqoj) sitnuodutoo sn jo auo jo ajnprj jo )U9 a» sqi ui aiej
paarpaj r je airjsdo oj anutjuao uro aui; ooijonpojd e qoiqw q)t« »sr3 diu tX)i;iqnr»u ]aaDMt;da}j

/oojnooo qiiM tsejiuoO -s»)oXo jriituis irjaA»s Jo pua sqi le

paqaeaj suotjriuauo pur suoiitsod aqi u^Miaq uoiiriAOp aqi tooJj peuiriqo si )i -suouipuoo aum sq)
japun sapAa pajvadaj Joj uoijisod mod fOO) toqoj aqt jo aot^urt jo ado/SAua atjx jXjipqriKKlda

sjird Suijru; Jaqio Xurm pur ‘sspioq {Ooi

t pur (00 ) r “ajoirq t pur jjsd r ‘md e pur (ooi f "surd omi uoa-niaq Suiiriu jiijssaosns o^qrua u
A/ ni }s .({p^aiej u^hm St/u^Hu tRoqihK f>i jo At fjt a/rfcu o/ itad o
SAtoflr 33a *qi, psirpoiumooar oq oj surd loaMpq s)uauiuSi|es)iu jrinSur pur [tuoiiisod Suiiiopr
snte-iiinio c sr job oJ si uonounj JOfrio sij puitu sii ui aiouin pJo,s\ aqi joj uosbpj aqi pur

inj) P3iA3p uoddns OAissrd r 'Xiquossr urd pi0u uj :ODW Mf^aU PPaniouiuj jjjupj uiuuij^j

soiruipjooo parg jo pijom o) paDbipj ssaoui ui3uo

PsoqiA luajsXs aiFuipjooo y 'uipjsXs ajFuipjooo |ooj sr u«ou^ osjy nuajsCs airntpjoo^ aAD^ay
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uoqom luior pajrutpjooo joj oiScq |Oj)ooo qPB[ Xrui loqoj stqj, -uonoPSJaiui aqj jr
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r Xq X[uranJd ppuyap ajr larr joirindiuno pqj jo luopppjj jo sppjSpp sqj, jno pur ui pur ‘uviop
pur dn S3uq )q9irJ)s ui saAotu ]rq> )OqoJ y
)oqoj 9F3uip)03J JO ‘loqoj ajruipjooo jrpuipioaj *]oqoj
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uiajsXs ou3$ joqoJ Pqi o) ijoeq
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Pqj ‘-OoiosfBJi
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uoips^
3jr spuo]oprrj] ppjispp 0uo]r s)uiod (roDuo aqj ipiq« Joj JO)r|ndiurta y qoqoa qarqXrjj-pJOPaa

AD(no\Tiva 3X souoaoH f6Zl

ROBOTICS TERMLNOLOGY 1285

Jamming: In part assembly, jamming is a condition where forces applied to the part for part mating
point in the wrong direction. As a result, the part to be inserted will not move.
Job and Skill Analysis: A
method for analyzing robot work methods. Job analysis focuses on what
to do while skills analysis focuses on how.

Job Shop: A discrete parts manufacturing facility characterized by a mi,x of products of relatively
low volume production in batch lots.

Joint: A rotary or linear articulation or a.xis of rotational or translational (sliding) motion in a manipu-
lator system.

Joint Coordinate: The position of a joint.

Joint Coordinate System: The set of all joint position values. In non-Cartesian robots, actually not
a coordinate system.

Joint Level Control: A level of robot control which requires the programming of each individual
joint of the robot structure to achieve the required overall positions.

Joint Rate Control: A category of teleoperator control which requires the operator to specify the
velocity of each separate joint.

Joint Space: The space defined by a vector whose components are the angular or translational displace-
ment of each joint of a multi-degree-of-freedom linkage relative to a reference displacement for each
such joint.

Kinematic Chain: The combination of rotary and/or translational joints, or axes of motion.

Kinematic Model: A mathematical model used to define the position, velocity, and acceleration of
each link coordinate and the end eflTector, excluding consideration of mass and force.

Kinematics (of Robot, Manipulator); The study of the mapping of joint coordinates to link coordinates
in motion, and the inverse mapping of link coordinates to joint coordinates in motion.

lama (Zainguage for .l/echanical .Assembly): Robot programming software that is part of a system
capable of transforming mechanical assembly descriptions into robot programs. LAMA allows a pro-
grammer assembly strategies. Force feedback
to define is accomplished in the system by force sensors
on the wrist that are capable of resolving X, T. and Z components of the force and torque acting
on the wrist.

LAMA-S: An APL-based manipulator-level language developed at Project Spartacus, Iria, France,

and designed as a research tool for robot programming. This supports parallel tasks at the execution
level and incorporates force feedback by reading gripper motor currents.

Laser Scanner A laser device used in the three available distance measurement techniques: phase
shift, time of flight, and triangulation.
Laser Sensor: A
range-measuring device which illuminates an object with a collimated beam. The
backscattered light, appro.ximately coaxial with the transmitted beam, is picked up by a receiver.
The range, or distance, is determined by either:

1. Measuring the time delay for a pulse of light to travel from the sensor to the object and
back.
2. .Modulating the beam and measuring the phase difference between the modulations on the
backscattered and the transmitted signals.
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1286 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Lateral Resolution: The ability of a sensor, such as an ultrasonic sensor, to distinguish bemeen
details in the direction of a scan In simple ulliasonic sensors, lateral resolution is poor but can be
improied by using the concept of bacL ‘propagation

Lead'Through Programmutg: Also known as lead>Chrough teaching, programming by guiding, or

manual programming A technique for programming robot motion, usually following a continuous
path motiiKi, but sometimes refernttg also lo teaching point-to-point motions by using a teach box
For continuous path motions, the operator grasps a handle which is secured to the arm and guides
the robot through the desired task or motions whde the robot controller records mosement information
and any activation signals for external equipment Thts contrasts with olf-iine programming, which
can be accomplished away from the manipulator

Learning Control: A control scheme whereby expcnence is automatically used to change control
parameters or algonihms

Level of Automation. The degree to which a process has been made automatic Relevant to (he
level of automation are questions of automatic failure recovery, the vanely of situations which will
be automatically handled, and the conditions under which manual intervention or action by human
beings IS required

Light-Section lospecDon: The use of a slit projector to project a slit of light on an object to be
tnspected, and an image detector to interpret the slit image of the object Depending on the speciSc
application, the projectorand image detector may be onented to provide a direct reflection or difused
rejection A
feature of light-section inspection is that the detection process is essentially sequential,
thereby allowing relatively easier image analysis compared lo other three-dimensional inspection tech-
niques

Limit Detecting Hardware. A device for slopping robot motion independently from control logic

Limited-Oegree-of-Freedom Robot: A robot abfe to posilioft and onent its end elTector in fewer than
SIX degrees of freedom

Limited Sequence Manipulator: A non-servo manipulator that operates between fixed mechanical
stops Such a manipulator can operate only on parts in a fixed location (position and oneniation)
relative to the arm

Umlt Switch; An electnca) switch positioned to be switched when a motion Umn occurs, thereby
deactivating the actuator that causes the motion

Linear Interpolation; A computer function aulomaiically performed m

the control that defines the
continuum of points in a straight line based on only two taught coordinate positions All calculated
points are automatically inserted between the taught coordinate positions upon playback

Link: A basic member of a robot arm that Iransmiis motion between joints, and to the end effector

Link Coordinate. A coordinate system attached to a link of a manipulator

LISP: A high-level computer language implemented at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

in 19iS LISP, the acronym for /at processing, is useful in artificial intelligence applications

Load Capacity: The maximum total weight that can be applied to the end of the robot arm without
of any of the applicable published specifications of the robot
sacrifice

Load Deflection;

1. The diflercncc in position of some point on a body between a nonloaded and an extemaliy
loaded condition
2. The difference m of a mampuhlorhandorta^, usually with the arm extended between
position
a nonloaded condition (other than gravity) and an extemaliy loaded condition Either or both
static and dynamic (inertial) loads may be considered

of workpieces, accessories, and tools within a workstation Typical factors to be considered are transport
time or costs, workstation dimensions, iranspoiler reach, fixed costs, and capacity limits

Logic: A means of solving complex prcdilcms through the repeated use of simple functions which
define basic concepts. Three basic logic functions are AND. OR. and NOT.

Long-Term Behaiion The characicnstic time required lo achieve thermal stability

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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOOi' t:s7

M
Lazgiiage: The lo’issi-Ie'.ei leux— used directly by a ruachine.

Machiae Lcadiag/L'alcadiag (Rcbodc): The use cf the recce’s maripalad-.e and transport capabilities
in *a;.s t^ierally mere sophisticated than simple material handling Robots can be used to grasp a
icricpiece fretn a ccnvev’or belt, a machine, orient it correctly, and then insert or place it
lift it to
cc the machine. unloads the ticrkplece and transfers it to another machine
.After prccessinz, the robot
or cccseyor. Some applicanccs include leading and unloading of; hot billets into forging presses;
machme tools such as lathes and machining centers; and stamping presses. .Another application is
±e tending cf plastic injecnon molding machines. The primary mod-.anen for recede machine leading/
r— Vndmg is the reducticn cf direct labor cost. O'.erail productivity is also increased. The greatest
e^iency is usually achieved when a single rccoc is used to service se’<eral machines. single robot A
may also be used to periorm other operadons while the machines are pen'orming their primary funcdocs.
Macniae-Maentad Rococ A robot usually dedicated to the machine it is mounted on. The rebet is

designed to swivel is arm to load a part for one machine operaden and then set the part down and
repick it at a diferent orientation for the neat eperadon. FLtrures are used to hold and maintain
part pcsiricn during these modccs.
Maciiiae V'isica laspectica Sjsiemt The combinadon of a control system, sensor system, image process-
ing system. and workpiece handling system to automadcally inspect, transport, and handle the disposition
of objects. The system also can adapt to changing working environments to a certain degree. The
workpiece handling svstem may consist of x-y-d tables, limited sequence arms, robots, or other posidon-
ing devices to emulate the oculomotor or maniuil functions cf human workers. The sensor system
may cercsist of single or multiple visual sensors tor partial/overail viewing cf scenes and/or coarse/
fine tnspectica (to emulate human peripheral/ fovea! or far/clcse vision).

Machining (Robotic): Robot manipulation of a powered spindle to periorm drilling, grinding, routing,
or ether similar operations on the workpiece. Sensory feedback may also be used. The workpiece can
be placed in a nature by a human, another robot, or a second arm of the same robot. In some operations,
the robot moves the workpiece to a stationary powered spindle and tool, such as a buffing wheel
Because cf accuracj' requirement, eipensive tool designs, and a lack of appropriate sensory feed'oack
capabilities, robot applications m
machining are limited a: present and are likely to remain so until
both improved sensing capabilities and "cetter positioning accuracy are achieved.

.Machining Center; memlcuttiag machine tool that uses tools like drills or
.A numerically controlled
milling cutters equipped with an automatic tool-changing device to e.tchange those tools for different
ind/cr fresh ones. In some machining centers, programmable pallets for part itturing are also available.

Magnetic Kclcip Devices: A r.-pe cf end-of-arm tooling that can be used to handle parts with ferrous
centmn Etiier permanent magnets or electromagnets are used, with permanent magnets requiring a
stripping device to separate the part firom the magnet during part release;

Main Reference: A geometric reference which must be maintained throughout a production process,
far e.tample; spot welding. The compliance with the references of the component elements cf a sub-
assembly guarantees the geometry of the complete assembly.

Major These a.tes may be described as the independent directions an arm can move
.Anas (Motionsh
and end effector relative to a point cf origin of the manipulator such as the base.
the attached wrist
The number cf rocce arm a.xes required to reach world coordinate points is dependent on the robot
connguraticn.

M-AL (d/altipcrpcse .Assembly language): This is a Fortran-based robot programming software devel-
oped by tbe Milan Polytechnic Institute of Italy, primarily for the programming cf assembly tasks.
-Multiple robot arms are supponed by MAL.

.Manipulatica (Robotic): The handling cf objects by moving, inserting, orienting, twisting, and so
on, to be in tbe proper position for machining, assembling, or some other operation. In many cases
!t is me reel that is being manipulated rather than the object being prccessed,

.Mmipulatoc: .A mechanism, usually consisting cf a series of segments, or hrtics, jemted or sliding

relanve to one another, for grasping and moving objects, usually in several degrees of freedom. It is
remotely controlled by a human (manual nuinipulator) or a computer (prcgrarmnable manipulator).
.A ma-mpulatcr refers mainly to the mecha.nical aspect cf a robot.

.ALiaijulaKr Level Ccntrol; .A level cf robot control which involves specifying the robot movements
:n terms cf world positices ct the manipulator stracrare. Mathematical techniques are used to
determine
:b.e mmv.dual jcin: values for these posiffcns,

.Manaal .Mmijuluar: .A manipulator operated and controlled by a human ocerator. See uUczirctor.
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•inu3js X3jaua-A\oi aqj 01 inuoiuodojd si qoiqAi A\op

piny X3jaua-jaq3tq n si jndjno pun ‘|nu3js X3jaua-M0| n si jndui asoqM jaanpsunjj y laApAOAjag

•uoijisod pajisap aqj saqanaj uun aqj pjun sanuijuoa ssaaojd siqj_ -jainduioa
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•ajnj jo/pun uoijisod pnjan

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sapnjsqo pajoadxaun
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ieri AOOiONiivaai sduohoh

1388 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Manual Teaching: A method of robot programming m which

an operator using a control box (called
a teach pendant) moves each axis of the robot manually until the combination of all axial positions
yields the desired position of the robot The position coordinates are then stored in the computer
memory The process is repeated for each required position until the task program is completed
Manual teaching is usually used for point-ti>point motions, as opposed to lead-through programming
MAPLE: PL/l-based robot language developed by IBM and used for computations with several
A
extensions for directing a robot to execute complex tasks MAPLE
supports force feedback and proximity
sensory commands, gnpper commands, coordinate transformations, and simple and straight-Ime motion

Mass Production. The large-scale production of parts or material in a virtually continuous process
uninterrupted by the production of other parts or material

Masler-Slare Control: A leleoperator control that allows an operator to specify the end position of
the slave (remote) end effector by specifying the position of a master unit, sometimes with a change
of scale in displacement or force

Matenal Hamiling (Robotic): The use of the robot’s basic capability to transport objects Typically,
motion takes place in two or three dimensions with the robot mounted stationary on the floor, on
slides or rails that enable it to move from one workstation to another, or overhead Robots used m
purely material handling operations are typically non-servo or pick-and-place robots Some application
examples include transfernng parts from one conveyor to another, transiemng parts from a processing
line to a conveyor; palletizing parts, and loading bins and fixtures for subsequent processing The
pnmary benefits in using robots for maienal handling are reduction of direct labor costs, removal of
humans from tasks that may be hazardous, tedious, or exhausting, and less damage to parts dunng
handling It is common to find robots performing material handling tasks and interfacing with other
maienal handling equipment such as containers, conveyors, guided vehicles, monorails, automated
storage/retnevaJ systems, and carousels

MCL (il/aoufacturing Control Language): A high-level programming language developed by the

McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Company and designed for off-line programming of work cells that may
include a robot MCL is structured with major and minor words that are combined to form a geometric
entity or a descnption of desired motion (i supports more than one lype of robot and penpheral
devices, as well as simple and complex touch and vision sensors Robot gnpper commands are included
The language is a combination of Fortran and assembly based on a modification to IBM 360 APT
Mechanical Crip Deuces: The most widely used lype of end-of-arm tooling tn pans handling appltca-
tions Pneumatic, hjdraulic, or electrical actuators are used to generate a holding force which is trans-

ferred to the part via linkages and fingers Some devices are able to sense and vary the grip force
and gnp opening
Memory: A computer device that accepts data, holds it. and permits it to be retrieved

Microprocessor: The basic element of a central processing unit that is constructed as a single integrated
circuit

Minor Axes (Motions): The independent attitudes relative to the mounting point of the wnst assembly
on the arm by which the wnst can onent the attached end effector
Mobile Robot’ A freely moving programmable indusina) robot which can be automatically moved
in addition to its usual five or six axes, m
another one, two, or three axes along a fixed or programmed
path by means of a conveying unit The additional degrees of freedom distinguish between linear
mobility, area mobility, and space mobility Mobile robots can be applied to tasks rcquinng workpiece
handling, tool handling, or both

Mobile Robot, Area: A mobile robot whose mobility is charactenzed by translation in two axes
Area mobility can be achieved by an X^Y table, inductively guided vehicle, gantry with lifting device,
rail-guided stacker crane, or X-Y-gantry or bndge crane

Mobile Robot, Linear: A mobile robot whose mobility is characterized by one translational axis,
usually horizontal Linear mobility can be achieved by rail or carnage guides, a gantry, or standing
or hanging lifting devices

Mobile Robot, Space: A mobile robot whose mobility is charactenzed by translation in three axes
Space mobility can be achieved by an inductively guided stacker crane. X-Y-gantry, or bndge crane
with lifting device

Modal Analysis: A ground vibration test to determine expenmentally the natural frequencies, mode-
shapes, and associated damping factors a structure

Modular Robots: Robots that are built of standard independent building blocks, such as joints, ann^
wnsts, gnppers, controls, and utility lines, and arc controlled by one general control system Each
modular mechanism has own dnve umt and power and communication links Different modules
its
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ROBOTICS TECSHNOLOGT' 12S9

can c<: standard interfaae to provide a variety of kinemanc stntatares desi^.ed to best
ccnifcir.ed fay
"Mccot," a contraction for /ncdtilar rofaot is a tradename of
scive a riven application requirentent.
the Mccot Corporation of San Diego.

Modulator/Dciaodulator (MODEM): An electronic device that decodes for reception and is used
to send and receive digital data over votce telecommunication lines. The digital signals are used to
modulate or encode carrier signals that travel over the communication line for sending

Monitoring: The comparison of the actual periormance of a rcfcorics system with management goals,
and ascertaining the economic (and other) returns from the automated operations.
Mono-Articulate Chain Marupulator: A marapulator at the end of a special type of chain used to
enter an enclosed area through a narrow opening. The chain is constructed of bo.t section links in
such a manner as to allow the chain to articulate in one direction but not another. This results in a
chain which can be reeled or coiled but which forms a rigid element when extended.

Motion Economy Principles: These are principles that guide the development, troubleshooting, and
improvement of work methods and work places, adapted for robot work.

Motion Hold: A
means of e.xtemaily mtemiptmg continuance of motion of the robot from any further
sequence or action steps without dissipating stored energy.

Motion Planning, Fine; Dealing with unceriamty in the world model by using guarded motions
when approaching a surface and compliant motions when m contact with a Surface-

Motion Planning, Gross: Planning robot monons that are transfer movements for which the only-
constraint is th.-ir the robot and whatever it is carrying should not collide with objects in the environment.

.Motion-Velocity Graphs: Graphs which show regons of maximum movement and velocity combina-
ticns for common arm and wnst motions. Such charts are used to ascertain the applicabtiiD' of a
robot for a particular task.

Mounting Plate: The means of attaching end-of-arm tooling to an industrial robot. It is located at
the end of the Last axis of motion on the robot. The mounting plate is sometimes used with an adaptor
plate to enable the use of a wide range of tools and too! power sources.

.Mnltigripper System: A
robot sys:eai with several grippers mounted on a turret-like wrist, or capable
of automatically e.xchanging its gripper with alternative grippers, or having a gripper for multiple
parts. .A type of mechanical gripper enabling ecective simultaneous execution of two or more different
jobs effectively.

.Multiple Stage Joinc A linear motion jomt consisting of sets of nested single-stage joints.

Nearest Neighbor Classifier: .A method of object classification by statistical comparison of computed

image features from an unknown object with the features known from prototype objects. The statistical
distance between object and prototype is computed in the multidimensional feature space.

-Noncontact Season A
tyT'^ of sensor, including pro.ximity and vision sensors, that functions without
any direct contact with objects.

Nulling Time: The time req-uired to reduce to zero, or close to zero, the difference between the
actual and the programmed position of every joint.

Numerical Control: A methcd for the control of machine tool systems. A part program containing
all the information, in symbolic "numerical” form, needed for processing a workpiece is stored on a
medium such as paper or magnetic tape. The information
read into a computer controller which
is

traasUies the part program instructions to machine operations on the workpiece. Also see computericed
r.urr.irfccl carUrcL

o
Object Level Control; .A typ:e of robot control where the task is specified in the most general form.
-A cccprehensiv e database containing a w orld model and know ledge of application techniques is required.
"Ir-teihgent” algorithms are required to interpret instructions and apply them to the knowledge
base
to aummatically produce optimized, collision-free robot programs.
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1290 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Ofr>Line: Devices oot under the direct contnd of the present computer operatini system The processor
operates independently of penphera] equipment which is olT-line

Off-Line Programming: Developing robot programs panially or completely without requuing the
use of the rolxit itself The program
is )oad«) into the robot's controller for subsequent aatomalic
action of the manipulator An off-line programming system typically has three mam coraponenu
geometric modeller, robot modeller, and programming method TTie advantages of off-line programming
are reduction of robot downtime, removal of programmer from potentially hazardous environments,
a single programming system for a variety of robots, integration with existing computer-aided design/
computer-assisted manufactunng systems, simpbfication of complex tasks, and verification of robot
programs
One-DimensionaJ Scanning: The processing of an image one scan line at a time independent of all
other scan hnes This simplifies processing but provides limited information It is useful for inspection
of products such as paper, textiles, and glass

On-Off Controh A
type of teleoperator control in which joint actuators can be turned on or off m
each direction at a fixed velocity

Open-Loop Control: Control of a manipulator in which preprogrammed signals are delivered to the
actuators without measuring the actual response at the actuators This is the opposite of closed'loop
control

Operating System: A
software that controls the execution of computer programs and one that may
provide scheduling, allocation, debugging, data management, and other functions

Optimal Control: A control scheme whereby the system response to a commanded input, given the
dynamics of the process to be controlled and (he constraints on measuring, is optimal according to a
specified objective function or cntenon of performance

Orientation: Also known as positioning The consistent movement or manipulation of an object into
3 controlled position and attitude in space
Orientation Hndiog: The use of a vision system to locate objects so they can be grasped by the
manipulator or mated with other parts

Overshoot: The degree to which a system response (o a step change in reference input goes beyond
the desired value

PAL: A robot motion soffware developed at Purdue University m Indiana, by which robot tasks
are represented in terms of structured Cartesian coordinates PAL incorporates coordinate transforma-
tion, gripper, tool, and sensor-concrolled operation commatids
Pallrtixing/DepaJleUzing; A
term used for loading/unloading a canon, container, or pallet with parts
in organized rows and possibly in mufetpfe layers

Pam

1. Onentation of a view, as with a video camera, m aeimuth

2. Motion m the azimuth direction

Parallel Program Control. A robot program control slructuie which allows the parallel execution
of independent programs-

Part Oassification: A coding scheme, typically involving four or more digits, which specifies a discrete
product as belonging to a part family according to group technology

Part Orientation: See onentoiwn.

Part Program: A collection of instructions and data used in numerically controlled machine tool

systems to produce a workpiece

PASLA (Programmable Assembly Robot Language): A robot programming language developed at

Nippon Electric Company, Ltd (NEC), of Japan, that incoiporates coordinate guidance and sequencer
functions. It is a motion-directed language that consists of twenty basic instructions

Path Accuracy: For a path-controlled robot, this is the level of accuracy at which programmed
path curves can be followed at nominal load
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114 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

t*o. »nd fi>e-finger types. For mdustnalappitcattons. the two-finger gnppcr is the most popular
three-.
The three- and five-finger gnppere. with some exceptions, are customanly used for prosthetic hands
for amputees-

smglc gnppcrs.
Classification of the mode of grabbing results in external and internal systems The external gnpper
(Figure 8 3) IS used to grasp the extenor surface of t^jecls with closed fingers, whereas the interna]

gnpper (Figures 4) grips the internal surfaceofobjects with open fingers There are two finger-movement
classifications translational finger gnppers and swinging finger gnppers The translational gnpper can
move Its own fingers, keeping them parallel The swinging gnpper involves a swinging motion of
fingers.
Another classification may be possible according to the number of degrees of freedom included
by gnpper structures. Typical mechanical gnppers belong to the classification of 1 DF A few gnppers
can be found with more than 2 DF
Modality 2 IS a special-purpose device for holding objects Vacuum cups and electromagnets are
• .
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,yp
thir . • '
. '
.

than one joint on each finger which provides the capability to perform a wide vanety of grasping
and manipulative assignments Almost all gnppers in this category are under development, as mentioned
in Section 8 I The following sections concentrate on finger gnppers

8.4. DRIVE SYSTEM FOR GRIPPERS

valves which control their directions of movement by etecinc signal For adjusting the speed ofactustor
motion, needed A compressor is used to supply air (maximum working
air flow regulation valves are
pressure, 10 kg/cm’) to actuators through valves
The pneumatic system has (he ment of being less expensive than other methods, which is the
mam reason that many industnal robots use it Another advantage of the pneumatic system relates
to the low degree of stiffness of the air*dnve system This feature of the pneumatic system can be
used effectively to achieve compliant grasping, which $ necessary to one of the most imponant functions
of gnppers to grasp objects with delicate surfaces carefully On the other hand, the relatively limited
stiffness of the system makes precise position control difficult Air servo valves are being developed
for this purpose but are not practical enough for widespread use
The clectnc-dnve system is also popular There are typically two kinds of actuators, DC moton
and step motors In general, each motor requires appropriate reduction gear systems to provide proper
output force or torque Direcl-dnv« torque motors (DDM) are commercially available* but are loo
expensive to be used in normal industrial application There are few examples of robot gnppers using
DDM In the electnc system a servo power amplifier is also needed to provide a complete actuation
system Electnc dnve has a lot of ment for actuating robot articulation First, a wide vanety of

Fig. 8.2. Multignppcr system

ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1301

Training By Showing: The use of a vision system to view actual examples of prototype objects in
order to acquire their visual characteristics. The vision system can then classify unknown objects by
comparison with the stored prototype data.

Trajectory: A sub-element of a cycle that defines lesser but integral elements of the cycle. A trajectory
is made up of points at which the robot performs or passes through an operation, depending on the
programming.

Transducen A device that converts one form of energy into another.

Translation: A movement such that all a.xes remain parallel to what they were (i.e., without rotation).

Transport (Robotic): The acquisition, movement through space, and release of an object by a robot.
Simple material handling tasks requiring one- or two-dimensional movements are often performed by
non-servo robots. More complicated operations, such as machine loading and unloading, palletizing,
part sorting, and packaging, are typically performed by servo-controlled, point-to-point robots.

Triangulation Ran gin g: Those range-mapping techniques that combine direction calculations from a
single camera and the previous known direction of projected light beams.

Ultrasonic Sensor A range-measuring device which transmits a narrow-band pulse of sound towards
an object. A receiver senses the reflected sound when it returns. The time it takes for the pulse to
travel to the object and back is proportional to the range.

Unit Task Times: A method of predicting teleoperator performance in which the time required for
a specific task is based on completion of unit tasks or component subtasks.

Universal Fixture: A fixture designed to handle a large variety of objects. See programmable fixture.

Universal Transfer Device (UTD): A term first applied to a Versatran robot (Versatran was one of
the pioneering robot manufacturers that was later acquired by Prab (Company of Michigan) used for
press loading at the Canton Forge Plant of the Ford Motor Ckjmpany, and later to other robots at
Ford plants. The was discontinued in 1980.
use of the term

Upper Amu That portion of a jointed arm which is connected to the shoulder.

Vacuum Cups: A type of pneumatic pickup device which attaches to parts being transferred via a
vacuum
suction or pressure created by a venturi transducer or a vacuum pump. They are typically
used on parts with a smooth surface finish, but can be used on some parts with non-smooth surface
finishes by adding a ring of closed-cell foam rubber to the cup.

VAL (Versatile Assembly Language): An assembly-level robot programming language developed by

Unimation, 1970s and an outgrowth of work done at California’s Stanford University
Inc., in the late
that provides the ability to define the task a robot is to perform. VAL’s features include continuous
path motion and matrix transformation.

VAL-II: An enhanced and expanded assembly-level robot control and programming system based
on VAL and developed by Unimation, Inc VAL-II includes the capabilities of VAL as well as a
capability for communication with external computer systems at various levels, trajectory modifications
in response to real-time data, standard interfaces to external sensors, computed or sensor-based trajecto-
ries, and facilities for making complex decisions.

Velocity Control: A
method of control of the motions of a robot driven by electric motors. The
robot arm is treated as a load disturbance acting
on the motor’s shaft. The velocity of the robot arm
is controlled by manipulating the motor voltage.

Vision, Three-Dimensional: The means of providing a robot with depth perception. With three-dimen-
sional vision, robots can avoid assembly errors, search for out-of-place parts, distinguish between similar
parts, and correct positioning discrepancies.

Vision, Two-Dimensional: The

processing of two-dimensional images by a computer vision system
to derive the identity, position, orientation, or condition
of objects in the scene. It is useful in industrial
applications, such as inspecting, locating, counting, measuring, and controlling industrial
robots.
13Q2 ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY

Vision System: A
system interfaced with a robot which locates a part, identities it, directs the gnpper
to a suitable grasping position, picks up the part, and brings the part to the work area A
coordinate
transformation between the camera and the robot must be earned out to enable proper operation of
the system

w
Warmup: A procedure used to stabiliae the temperature of a robot's hydraulic components. A warmup
usually consists of a limitedpenod of movement and motion actions and is earned out to prevent
program positioning errors whenever the robot has been ^ut down for any length of time
Weaving: In robotic arc welding, this is a motion pattern of the welding tool to provide a higher-
quality weld The robot controller produces a weaving pattern by controlling weave-width, left-and-
nght dwell, and crossing time
Wedging; In ngid part assembly, a condition where Iwo-point contact occurs too early in part mating,
leading to the part that is supposed to be inserted appearing to be stuck in the hole Unlike jamming,
the cause is geometric rather than ill-proportioned applied forces

Welding (Robotic): Robot manipulation of a welding

too) for spot or arc welding Robots are used
in welding applications to reduce costsby eliminating human labor, improve product quality through
better welds, and, particularly in arc welding, tominimize human exposure to harsh environments
Spot welding automotive bodies, normally performed by a point-to-point servo robot, is currently the
largest single application for robots In such applications, robots make from about 40 to over 15
percent of the total spot welds on a given vehicle

>VeIding Positioner: The equipment, sometimes programmable, used to place parts to be welded in
a precise position the robot can reach, thus maximizing the productivity of the we/ding process by
positioning the parts for the most appropnate welding
Windowing (Image): An image analysis technique in which only selected areas of the image are
analyzed The area, or windows, may surround a hole or some other relevant aspect of a part in the
held of view Various techniques can be used to study features of the object the window m
Windup: A colloquial term describing the twisting of a shaA under torsional load that may cause a
positioning errori the twist usually unwinds when the load is removed
Worlt Envelope: Also known as the robot operating envelope The set of points representing the
maximum extent or reach of the robot tool in all directions

Working Range:

t. The volume of space which can be reached by maximum extensions of the robot's axis
2. The range of any vanable within which the system normally operates

Worksite Analysis: A prcKedure to analyze existing manual or automated worksites m order to prepare
performance specifications for the robot system

Workspace: The envelope reached by the center of the interface between the wnst and the tool
using dl available axis motions.

Workstation: A location providing a stable, well-defined place for the implementation of related pro-
duction tasks Major components may inciude a station substructure or platform, tool and material
storage, and locating devices to inteiface with other equipment The workstation is traditionally defined
as one segment of fixed technology, a portion of a fixed transfer machine, or a person working at
one worksite Now station can mean one or more robots at a single worksite, a robot dividing its
time among several worksites, a robot serving one or several fixed workheads, or any other useful
combination.

World-Coordinate Programming: Programming the motton of each robot axis such that the tool

center pointis the center of the path with no regard to tool pose.

World-Coordinate System: A
Cartesian coordinate system with the ongin at the manipulator base
X Z
The and Y axes are perpendicular and on a plane parallel to the ground, and the axis is perpendicular
to both X
and Y It is used to reference a workpiece jig, or fixture.
World Model: Amodel of the robot's environment containing geometnc and physical descnptions
of objects, kinematic descnptions of linkages, descnptions of the robot system charactemtics, and
P^nynuo:,
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ROBOTICS TERMINOLOGY 1303

explicit specification of the amount of uncertainty there is in model parameters. This is useful in
task-level programming.
Wrist: A set of joints, usually rotational, between the arm and the hand or end effector, which
allow the hand or end effector to be oriented relative to the workpiece.

Wrist Force Sensor: A structure with some compliant sections and transducers that serve as force
sensors by measuring the deflections of the compliant sections. The types of transducers used are
strain-gauge, piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, and magnetic.

X-Y-0 Table: This is used primarily for positioning parts by translational and rotational planar motions.
Itcan be integrated into a vision system and serve as an intelligent workpiece conveyor/presenter
which loads, transports, positions, and orients parts.

Yaw: The angular displacement of a moving Joint about an axis which is perpendicular to the line
of motion and the top side of the body.
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 APPENDIX
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND
THE WORLD

The intent of this appendix is to summarize the current market for industrial robots, project some
near-term directions of development, and present an overview of the characteristics of selected robots
from around the world. It is divided into five sections:

A.l. Industrial Robot Market Characteristics

A.2. Specifications of Selected Industrial Robots
A.3. Addresses of Industrial Robot Organizations
A.4. Addresses of Industrial Robot Manufacturers
A.5. Robot Journals

The following is a list of tables and figures which appear:

Table A.l. World Robot Population, End of 1982

Table A.2. Robot Density by Country, End of 1981
Table A.3. Forecasted Growth of Annual Robot Production, Worldwide
Table A.4. Cumulative Installed Robots in U.S. Industry
Table A.5. Japanese Estimates of High- and Low-Grade Robot Share of Annual Production
Table A.6. Installed Operating Industrial Robots by Application and by Industry
Table A.7. Robot Specifications
Figure A.l. World Market Shares by Country — 1980, 1985, and 1990
Figure A.2. Robot Arm Joint Configurations
Figure A.3. Common Robot Work Envelopes

A.l. INDUSTRIAL ROBOT MARKET CHARACTERISTICS

Worldwide robotic sales passed the 1 billion dollar mark in 1981 and could near 10 billion dollars
by the year 1990, according to U.S. Department of Commerce figures.* Output is expected to climb
from 15,000 to near 135,000 robots per year over the same period. (See Figure A.l.)
Table A.l gives the world robot population at the end of 1982. Figures are given for each major
robot-producing country in actual numbers and as a percentage of world robot population. Japan
with 51% and the United States with 18% are clear leaders in this category.
Another interesting indicator of robot use is robot density, defined as the ratio of the number of
robots to the active industrial work force. Table A.2 gives figures for robot density by country, with
Sweden and Japan far outranking other countries in this indicator of robot use.
Projected patterns for world robotics development are summarized in Table A.3, Forecasted Growth
of Annual Production, and Figure A.l, World Market Shares by Country —
1980, 1985, and 1990.
Growth in robotics both for new applications and for replacement will be shared by all of the
advanced industrial countries, with Japan continuing to produce and employ the majority of the world’s
—
output for most of this decade. At the same time. Western Europe especially West Germany, the
—
United Kingdom, Sweden, France, and Italy will make up yet another market of roughly the same
magnitude or larger than the United States. Conservative figures imply that the U.S. market will
steadily increase in relative importance, comprising 20% of world demand by the end of the decade
(versus its present 13% value share).
The growth dynamics of a particular country can be seen in the U.S. market, where more than

Data for this appendix were collected by E. L. Fisher from Purdue University.

1305
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130« INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE nORU)

1985 Total value*- S3 45 bil

Fig. A-1. World market shares by country /Vole the value for the United Kingdom for 1990 may
be caaggeraled, but il is based on substanti^ current government support (Based on Reference 4

50 firms are currently manufactunng mdustnal robots Table A

4 summarizes both present and forecasted
cumulative robots installed in the United States through 1990
The robot production can be split into two groups (1) simple, task-repetitive robots and (2) more
sophisticated robots, having enhanced sensory as well as other mtcliigcnt capabJities The Japanese
have attempted to quantify this trend as shown in Tabic A
5, and their estimates should be representative
of patterns observed m the United States and worldwide
The world's mdustnal robots are busily working in anumber of difierenf application areas We
conclude this section with a breakdown of robot population by application area for the two largest
robot producers. Japan and the Unned States. This summaiy appears in Table A 6

AJ. SPECIFICATIONS OF ROBOTS

The purpose of this section is to review speafic cbaracienstics of some current robot models found
worldwide- Industnal robots arc commonly classified in a number of different wajs. for caamplc. by
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130S INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

TABLE A.4. CUMULATIVE INSTALLED ROBOTS IN U.S. INDUSTRY

1980 1981 1982 1983 1985« 1990“

Cumulative installed
(year end) 3100 4500 fi2O0 8200 14400 30000

Source. Revised from Reference 2

“ Forecast

TABLE A.5. JAPANESE ESTLMATES OF HIGH- AND LOW-GRADE ROBOT SHARE OF

ANNUAL PRODUCTION
1980 1985 1990

Units Value Units Value Units Value

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

High-grade
robots (having
instruction retneval.
sensory, and
reader functions) 74 305 185 442 24 8 55 2
Low-grade
robots (simple
task-repetition 92 6 69 5 81 5 55 8 75 2 448
capabilities only)

Soune. Reference 4

sue, geometry, control type, orspplication Forgenerel purpose there is no one preferred way Regardless

of their type, tt can be said that indusinal robots generally have three major components

1. Mechanical System. The robot's body, arm, wrui. and end effector The latter can be in
the form of grippers, robotic "hands,** or similar special-purpose devices (welding or painting
mechanisms, for example)
2. Servo-System and Sensors. Precisely controls and positions the robot’s mechanical compo-
nents
3. Computer-Control System. Contains specific programming tasks and sequences that direct
and control the robot operations.

One of the key components of a robot’s mecbanical system is its ‘‘ann,’’ which allows it to achieve
a position in x-y-z space Several joint configurations of robot arms are available, each producing a
distinct working geometry These are (see Figure 2) A
Rectangular
Cylindrical

Sphencal
Articulated (or jointed) ann

Figure A3 illustrates work envelope shapesproduced by these joint configurations Another compo-
nent of the mechanical system is the end effector This component must often be designed to fit a
specific application A
number of examples which are generally available are given in Chapter 37,
End-of-Arm Tooling
Several pertinent charactenstics for indu&tn^ robots are now defined, with a summary specific

values given for a number of robot models in Table A7

Important Note:
An attempt was made to include selected models from a number of countries in this table It
should be emphasized that Table A.7 includes a sample of robots, and m
no way includes a complete
list of current robots. The models that are included were chosen to demonstrate specific detail
Another
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INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD 1309

TABLE A.6. INSTALLED OPERATING INDUSTRIAL

ROBOTS^
(I) By Application

United States
Japan
(1982) (1982) (1990‘>)

Welding 25% 35% 23%

Material handling 20% 20% 12%
Assembly 20% 2% 12%
Machine loading 8% 15% 19%
Painting 3% 10% 6%
Foundry 2% 15% 11%
Other 22% 3% 17%
100%> 100% 100%

(2) By Industry

SIC' Industry United States

33 Primary Metals 18%

34 Fabricated Metals 15%
35 Machinery, Nonelectrical 11%
36 Electrical Machinery 3%
36 Electronics 3%
37 Automotive 43%
37 Aerospace 0.5%
All Others 6.5%
100.0%

Based on reports by the Japanese Industrial Robot Associa-

“

tion (JIRA) and the Robotic Industries Association (RIA):

—
Japan approximately 18,000 robots installed (U.S. defini-
tion); United States —
approximately 6,200 robots installed.
Forecast.
' Standard industrial classification.

caution: robot specifications change rapidly, and manufacturers must be consulted directly for accurate,
up-to-date data. The following is a legend for the entries of Table A.7.

Velocity

Velocity at the end effector is given as available and is a ma-ximol value in millimeters per second
unless noted otherwise.

Actuator Type

The actuator type given is one of three categories: electric, hydraulic or pneumatic. Some models
may employ more than one type, or in some cases a particular model may be available in more than
one acuator type.

Repeatability

The repeatability of a machine indicates the proximity of a repeated movement, under the same precise
conditions, to the same location. It is given in Table A.7 as ±.x, where x is in millimeters.

Payload

The payload given in Table A.7 is the ma.ximal rated lift capacity for each robot model in kilograms.
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116 MEaiANlCAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

linkage gnpper using a pneumatic c> linder * Gnpping action is performed by means of one-directional
pneumatic action, while the spnng force is used for automatic release of the fingers This method
considerably simplifies the design of the pneumatic or hydraulic network and its associated control
system
The spring force can also be used for grasping acticm In this case, the grasping force is obviously
influenced by the spnng force To produce a strong grasping force, it is necessary to use a spnng
with a high degree of stiffness This usually causes the undesirable requirement for high-power aetuaton
for the release action of the fingers Therefore the use of spnng force for grasping action is limited
gnppers for handling small machine parts such as pins, nuts, and bolts
in low-grasping-force
The reason the force can be used for a one-directional motion of the pneumatic and the
spnng
hydraulic actuator that the piston can be moved easily by the force applied to the output axis
is

(piston rod) The combination of a spnng and electric motor is not viable because normal electnc
moton include a gear reduction system which makes it difficult to transmit the force inversely from
the output axis
Another interesting method uses electromagnets The electromagnet actuator consists of a magnetic
head constructed with a ferromagnetic core, conducting coil, and actuator rod made of ferrous materials
When the coil is activated, the magnetic head attracts the actuator rod, and the actuator displacement
IS locked at a specified position When the coil is not activated, the actuator rod can be moved freely

This type of actuator is usually employed with a spnng and produces two output control positions
Figures 6 shows a gnpper using the electromagnetic dnve Theeleciromagnetic actuator (1) produces
the linear motion to the left along the L-L line The motion is converted to grasping action through
the cam (2) The releasing action is performed by the spnng (3)
The actuator displacement that this kind of actuator can make is commonly limited to a small
range because the force produced by the magnetic head decreases according to the increase of the
actuator displacement Therefore (his dnve method can be effectively used only for gnpping small
workpieces
In the design of effective gnpper systems, the selection of dnve system is a very important problem
Selection depends on the kinds of jobs required of the robot Bnefly, if a gnpper has some joints
that need positional control, an electnc or hydraulic system is a better choice If not, a pneumatic
system is belter For robots required to work in a combustible environment, for instance a spray>
painting environment, pneumatic or hydraulic systems are suiuble If force'conirol function is needed
at some joints, for example, to control grasping force, electnc or pneumatic systems are recommended

8,5, MECHANICAL GRIPPERS

Several kinds of gnpper functions desenbed in Section 8 3 can be realized using vanous mechanisms
From observation of the usable pair elements in gnpping devices, as Chen found,* the following bnds
are identified (I) linkage, (2) gear-and-rack, (3) cam. (4) screwr, (S) cable and pulley, and so on The
selection of these mechanisms is affected by the kind of actuators to be employed and the kind of
grasping modality to be used In the past, many gnpper mechanisms have b«n proposed However.

electromagnetic chuck
absorption surface

w “'guide bar for washers

Ftg 8.6 Gnpper using an electromagnetic drive (Courtesy of Seiko-seiki Co ,

Ltd
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD 1321

91170 Vitry-ChatiUon 29100 Piacenza

FRANCE ITALY
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Saitama Pref
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(Tel: 03/501 5261)
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via Alba 18 JAPAN
21052 Busto Arsizio (Varese) (Tel: 06/349 7361)
ITALY
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PATA-Bisiach & Carru Kosiacho Nakakoma-gun
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Yamanashi Prefecture
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ITALY
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(Tel: 05528/2 5581)
Gaiotto Impianti SpA
StateleMilano-Crema km 27 Fanuc Ltd.
26100 Vaiano Creraasco (Cremona) Engineering Administration Dept.
ITALY 5-1 Asahiugaoka 3-chome
Hino City, Tokyo
Jobs SpA JAPAN
via Marcolini 11 (Tel: 0425/84 1111)
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1322 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

Fuji EJectnc Co Ltd Kai^asaVi Heavy Industries Ltd.

12-t Vuraku-cho 1 cbome Hydraulic Machinery Div
Chi>oda-ku, Tokyo 100 4-1 Hammatsu-cho 2-chome
JAPAN Minato-ku, Tokyo
(TeL 03/211 71]}) JAPAN
(TeL 03/435 6853)
FujiUu Ltd
1015 Kamiodanaka NaLaiura-Lu Kitamura
Kav>asa1u-City Kana 211 1870 Toide-cho
gawa-Prcf TalcAoka City, Toyama Pref, 939-11
JAPAN JAPAN
(TeL (044) 777-1111) TeL (0766/63-11000)

Harmo Japan Kobe Steel Ltd

7621-10 Fujizuka M^hincty & Enpneenng Div
Nuha-minoco, Ina-City 8-2 Maninouchi 1-chome
Nagano Pref Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
JAPAN JAPAN
(TeL 399-45) (Tel Q3/2iS 7553)

HiraU Induatna] Machines Komatsu Ltd

N-4 Myotaiji'tnachi 3-6 Akasaka 2-chome
Kumamoto 860 Mmaio-ku, Tokyo 107
JAPAN JAPAN
<re/ 03/584 7111)
Hitachi Ltd
Indiistntl Component &
Equipment Dtr Koyo Automation Systems Co Ltd
4-1 HamniaCsu<ho 2-chome 26-3 Toyocho l<home
Minato-ku.
1- Tokyo Koto-ku. Tokyo 133
JAPAN JAPAN
(TeL 03/4J3 4272) (Tel 03/615 2611)

HiUvia Industry Co Ltd ,

Kurogane Crane Co Ltd
22-1 FuUmuradai ]<hom« 60 Shibacho. Minami-ku
Toyoake*Cuy
2- 470-11 Nagoya Cily 437
Aichi'Pref JAPAN
JAPAN (TeL 052/822 3211)
(TeL (05613) 4-I6I1)
Kyonuu Engineenng Co Ltd
IchiWoh Engineering Co Ltd Miyado Building, 6-19 Hacchobon
1297-J Ninomiya-cho Naica-ku Hiroshima Pref
Maebashi City JAPAN
JAPAN (Tel 0822/28 9747)
(Tfl 2072/65 2131)
Kyoshin Electric Co Ltd
Ikegai Iron Works 21>'7 Jkegami 6<honie
21 Shiba 4<hon]e Ota-ku, Tokyo 146
Mmato-ku JAPAN
Tokyo (Tet 03/751 2131)
JAPAN 108
(TeL (03 ) 452S1I1) Marol Company Ltd.
1 34 2<home. Ohashi-cho

Ishikawajima-lUnma Heavy Nagata-ku. Kobe

Industries Co . Ltd JAPAN
Shm-Ghtemachi Bldg. 2-1. Ohlenuchi (TeL (078) 611 2151)
chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100
JAPAN Matsushita Industrial Equipment Co Ltd
(Teb (03 ) 244-6496) 2-7 Mauuba-Cho
Kadoma City, Osaka 571
Kajaba Industry Co Ltd. JAPAN
Engineering Administration Dept. (TeL 06 901-1171)
4-1 Hammalsu-cho 2-cbome
Minalo-ku, Tokyo Meidensha Electnc Mfg Co Ltd
JAPAN Mechatronics Business Oiv.
(TeL 03/435 35/i) 2-1-17 Osaki Shtnagawa-ku,
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industrial robotics around the world 1323

Tokyo JAPAN
JAPAN 104 Tel: ((0773) 42-3111)
{Tet 492/1111)
Okamura Corporation
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation 29-44 Urarato 5-chome
Engineering Dept. Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Pref. 237
2-3 Marunouchi 2.choine JAPAN
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo {Tet 0468/65 8201)
3-
JAPAN 100
(Tel: 03/218 2111) Oki Electric Industries Co., Ltd.
7-12,Toranomon l<home, Minato-ku,
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co. Ltd. Tokyo 125
Precision & Machinery Division JAPAN
5-1 Marunouchi 2-choine {Tet (03) 501-3111)
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
JAPAN 100 Osaka Denki Co., Ltd.
(Teh 03/212 3111) 31, 4-Chome, Nishimikuni Yodogawaku
Osaka 532
Mizano Iron Works JAPAN
Kanimachi Kanigun {Tet (06) 394-1191)
Gifu Pref 509 02
JAPAN ORIl Corp.
6 Suzuhawa, Isehara City,
Motoda Electronics Co. Ltd. Kanagawa Pref. 259-11
Kainikitazawa 4-chome JAPAN
Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156 4-
{Tet 0463 93-0811)
JAPAN
{Tel: 03/303 8491) Osaka Transformer Co. Ltd.
1-11 Tagawa 2-chome
Murata Machinery Ltd. Yodogawa-ku, Osaka 532
3 Minamiochiai-cho Kishoin Minami-ku, JAPAN
Kyoto City ICO {Tet 06/301 1212)
JAPAN
(Tet (075) 681-9141) Pental Co. Ltd.
1-8 Yoshi-cho, 4-chome
Nachi-Fujikochi Corporation Soka City
Machine Tool Division, World Trade Centre Saitoma Pref. 340
4-1 Hammatsucho, 2-chonie, Minato-ku JAPAN
Tokyo {Tet 0489 22:1111)
JAPAN
(Teh 03/435 5111) Sanki Engineering Co. Ltd.
Sanshin Building
Nagoya Kiko 1 Yurakucho 1-chome Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo,

38 Mori Koshi, Shinden-cho JAPAN 100

Toyoake City {Tet 03/502 6111)
Achi Pref
JAPAN Sankyo Seiki Mfg. Co. Ltd.
{Tel: (0562) 92 7111) 17-2 Shinbashi 1-chome
Minato-ku, Tokyo
Nippon Electric Co. Ltd. JAPAN 105
Production Facilities Development Div. {Tet 03/503 1156)
1-17 Shibaura 2-chome
Minato-ku, Tokyo Shawa Kuatuski
JAPAN 3-19 Kanda-Sakumacho
(Ttfi- 03/451 5131) Chiyada-ku, Tokyo
JAPAN
Nippon Robot Machine Co. Ltd.
73Yoge Nihongi-cho Shinko Electric Co. Ltd.
Anjo City, .Aichi Pref. 446 3-12 2 Nihonbashi
JAPAN Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103
{Tet 0566/74 1101) JAPAN
{Tet 03/274 1111)
Nitto Seiko Co., Ltd.
Umegahata 20, Inokura-cho, Ayabe City Shinmeiwa Industry Co. Ltd.
Kyoto 623 1-1 Shinmeiwa-cho
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1324 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

Takarazuka City, Hyogo Pref 6-1 Ohtemachi 1-chome

JAPAN 665 Tokyo
iTel. 0798/52 1234) JAPAN 100
(Tel 03/2174111)
Shoku Corporation
1010 Minomdai, Mataudo City Yasui Sangyo Co Ltd
Chiba Pref 3711 Mannohara-Shinden
JAPAN Fujinomiya-Shi
(TeL 0473/64 1211) Shmioka-ken,
JAPAN
Co Ltd
Star Seiki (Tel. 05442 62124)
252 Kawachiya Shirden
Komaki City, Aichi Pref 485 Norway
JAPAN
iXel- 0568/75 5211) Oglaend
4301 SandesPB HS
Sumitomo Heavy Industry Ltd NORWAY
Shumisho Building, 1 Mitoshirocho (Tel 04 605000)
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
JAPAN Trails
(TeL 03/296 5183) PO Box 113
N 4341 Bryne
Taiyo Ltd NORWAY
48 Kitaguchi-cho (Tel 04 48 1800)
Higaahiyodogawa-ku
Osaka Spain
JAPAN 533
(Tel 06/340 1111) Campania Anomma de Electrodos
Infanta Carlota 56
The Japan Steel Works Ltd Barcelona
Hibiya Mitsui Bldg l-‘2 Yurakucho t-chome SPAIN
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100 (TeL (93) 666 50152)
JAPAN
(Tel (03) 501-6111) Inser $A
Jose Ortega y Gasset 62
Tokico Ltd Madnd
6-10 Uchikanda 1-chome SPAIN
Chiyoda-Lu, Tokyo,
JAPAN 101 06cma Tecnica Comercial (OTC)
(TeL 03/292 8111) Padilla, 382 5®
Barcelona
Tokyo Keiki Co Ltd SPAIN
2-16 Minami Kamata (Tel (93) 309 6462)
Ohta-ku, Tokyo 144
JAPAN Sweden
(Tel 03/732 2111)
ASEA AB
Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co Ltd
,
Industrial Robot Division
1-6, Uchi-Saiwaich 1-chome S 72183 Vasteras
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo SWEDEN
JAPAN (Tel 021 lOOOOQ)

Toshiba Serfci Co Ltd ASEA AB (Preetously Electrolux)

14-33 Higashi Kashtwagaya 5-chome Industnal Robot Division Stockholm
Ebina City, Kanagawa Pref Fagelviksvagen 3
JAPAN 243 S-145 53 Nofsborg
(Tel 0462/31 Sill) SWEDEN
(Tel 046 753 89100)
Toyoda Mechine Works Ltd
1Asahi-cho, 1-chome Atlas Copco
Kana City Aichi Pref 448 S-I05 23
JAPAN Stodcholm
(Tel 0566/22 2211) SWEDEN
Yaskaiva Electnc Mfg Co , Ltd. ESAB AB
Chiyoda-ku Box 8001
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INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD 1325

S-40277 Gothenburg Thurmaston, Leicester LE4 SDH UK

SWEDEN (Tel: 0533 693396/7)

Satt-Kaufeldt AB British Federal Welder and Machine Co. Ltd.

P.O. Box 32 006 Castle MillWorks
S- 126 11 Stockholm Birmingham New Road
SWEDEN Dudley, West Midlands DYl 4DA, UK
{Tet: 08 810100) (Tel: 0384 54701)

Spine Robotics AB Cirrus Equipment Ltd.

Flojelbergsgaten 14 Heming Road
S 43137 Molindal Redditch
SWEDEN Worcs B98 ODN UK
(Tel: 031 870710) (Tel:0527 27882)

Torsteknik AB Fairey Automation Ltd.

Box 130 Techno Trading Estate
S-385 00 Torsas Bramble Road, Swindon
SWEDEN Wilts SN2 6HB, UK
(Tel: 0793 481161)
Switzerland
Frazer Nash
Automelec S.A. Vine House
Case postale 8 143 London Road
137, rue des Pondireres Kingston-upon-Thames
CH-2006 Neuchatel Surrey KT2 6NW UK
SWITZERLAND
H.H. Freudenberg Automation
Cod Inter Techniques S.A. Cobden House, Cobden Street
16, rue Albert-Gos Leicester, LEI 2LB UK
CH-1206 Geneve
SWITZERLAND GEC Robot Systems Ltd.
Boughton Road
Ebosa Rugby CV21 IBD UK
Rapellstrasse 26 (Tel: 0788 2144)
CH 2540 Grenchen
SWITZERLAND George Kuikka Ltd.
Hill Farm Avenue
Microbo
Leavesden, Watford
3 avenue Beauregard
Herts, UK
CH 2035 Corcelles (Tel: 09273 70611)
SWITZERLAND
(Tel: mi 3831 5731)
Haynes & Fordham
Unit Moorfield Ind Est
Schweissindustrie Oerlikon Buhrle AG 4,

Birchstrasse 230
Yeadon
8050 Zurich Leeds LS19 7BM, UK
SWITZERLAND (Tel: 0532 507090)
(Tel: 01 301 2121)
INA Automation Ltd.
United Kingdom Forge Lane, Minworth
Sutton Coldfield
Airstcad Industrial Systems Ltd. West Midlands B76 SAP, UK
New England House (Tel: 021 351 4047)
New England Street
Brighton BNl 4GH, UK Lamberton Robotics Ltd.
Tel: 0273 689793 26 Gartsherrie Road
Coatbridge
Ajax Machine Tool Ltd. Strathclyde ML5 2DL, UK
Knighton Heath Estate (Tel: 0236 26177)
847/855 Ringwood Road
Bournemouth BHl UK Lansing Industrial Robots
Kingsclere Road
ATM Engineering Ltd. Basingstoke
Unit Earls Way-
9.
Hants, UK
Church Hill Ind Est (Tel: 0256 3131)
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1326 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

Lincoln Electnc Ltd Aerobe Positioning Systems Inc

Welwyn Garden City 3219 Dohttle Dnve
Herts AL7 IQA UK Northbrook
{Tel 0707i2 24581) Jlijnois 60062 USA

Martonair Ltd Action Machinery Co

St Margarets Road PO Box 3068
Twickenham TWI IRJ UK Portland
(Tei 01 892 4411) Oregon 97208 USA

Admiral Equipment Co Ltd

Marwin Production Machines 305 West North Street
Waddons Brook Akron
Wednesfie/d Ohio 44303, USA
Wolverhampton WVll 3AA, UK (Tel 216 253 1353)
{Tel 0902 65363)
Advanced Robotics Corp
Modular Robotic Systems Ltd Route 79
30/31 St George's Square Newark Industrial Park
Worcester WRl IHX UK Hebron. Ohio 43025. USA
iTel 0905 612881) (TW 614 929 1065)

Pendar Robotics Ltd Ameco Corporation

Unit 10, Rassau Industrial Estate PO Box 385
Ebbw Vale Menomonee
Gwent NP3 5SD, UK Wisconsin 53051 USA
(.Tel 0495 307070)
Amencan Robot Corp
Remek Micro Electronics, Ltd 201 Miller Street
35, Barton Road, Water Eaton Winston-Salem
North Carolina 27103. USA
Indusinal Estate
Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK2 3HV (Tel m 748 8761)
UK
Anorad
1 10 Oser Avenue
Rjngway Power Systems Ltd
Churchill House. Talbot Road Hauppauge
Old Trafford New York 11788, USA
Manchester MI6 OPD, UK (Tel 516 231 1990)
(Tel 061 872 6829)
Armax Robotics Inc
38700 Grand River Avenue
Taylor Hitec Ltd
Famitnglon Hills
77 Lyons Lane
Michigan 48018, USA
Chorley, Lancs PR6 OPB, UK <rel 313 478 9330)
(Tel 02572 65825)

ASEA Inc
Wickman Automated Assembly Ltd
1176 £ Big Beaver
Herald Way, Brandon Road
Troy, Michigan 48084, USA
Bmley
(Tel 313 528 3630)
Coventry CV3 2NY, UK
(Tel 0203 4S0S0) Automation Corporation
23996 Freeway Park Dnve
WRA Ltd Farmington Hills
Units 2/3. Wulfnin Trading Estate Michigan 48024, USA
Stalford Road
Wolverhampton, UK Automatix Inc
(Tel 0902 711201) 1000 Tech Park Dnve
Billenca
United States Massachusetts 01821, USA
(Tel 617 667 7900)
Accumaiic Machinery Corp.
3537 Hill Avenue Barnngtoi) Automation Ltd
Toledo 1002 South Road
Ohio 43607, USA Fox River Grove
(Tel 419 535 7997) Illinois 60021 USA
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LVDUSnUAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD 1327

Blnli Cor?. Fared Rc-botic Systems Inc.

9101 W. Belmont Aie 3S60 Revere Street, Suite D
Franklin Park, lUincis 60131, US.A P.O. Box 39263
{Tet 312 671 3K0) Denver, Colorado S0239. US.A
[Tet 303 3 71 5363)
Ceeris Intemaiicnal Ino
1055 Thomas Jeuersoa St. NW’ Fletdinalioa Systems Cerporarien
S:e414 53 Second .Avenue
Washinztca DC 2C>D7, US.A Burlington
[Tet 202 342 S4Vj) hlassacnuselts 01S33 Ub.A

Cmoinnati Nlilacron GC.A/PAR Systems

Icdosuial Rebel Division 3460 Le.xinztDa .Avenue. North
215 S. West Street, Lehar.ca St Paul
Ohio 45036, US.A Minnesota 55112, US.A
[Tet 6/3 932 4400) (Tet 612 484 7261)

Comet Welding S«tems Genera] Electric

900 Nicholas Read -Automation Systems
Elk Gros e k dhtse 1235 Boston Avenue, Bridgepon
lllincis ySSTi, US.A Conneciicm C6602, US.A
[Tet 312 956 0/26) [Tet 203 332 2876)

Control .Auiomadoa Inc. Genera! Numeric Corp.

PO Box 2304 390 Kent .Avenue
Princeton Elk Grove klllage
Nev.' Jerse;.' 0S54O US.A Illinois 6CC07, USA
[Tet 312 640 1595)
Cybciicb Cor?
P.O. Bex SS514 GMF Roicncs Corp.
Indianapolis 56CO Nr- King Street
Indiana 46203, USA Troy
[Tet 317 293 5136) •Michigan 43393 US.A

Cjcicmatic lac. Graco Robotis Inc.

7520 Ccr.ey Conn 1239'9 Wesimore .Ave
San Diego. California 92111 US.A Livonia, NCchizan 43150. US.A
[Tet 714 292 7440) [Tet 313 261 3270)

Dependaile-Fcrdath Inc. Hellstar Cerperation

400 SE Wilihnetie St. 16CO N. Cnesmut
Sher-aoed Wahoo
Oregon 97140 UnA Nebraska 63066 US.A

DeMl'ciss Company
Hoban Brothers Co.
337 Airpen Bccle'.'ard
cOO W. .Main
.Ann .Artor.
Troy
.Michican 4S1C4, US.A
Ohio 45373 US.A
[Tet 313 4-53 6765)

Hodges Robotics Iniemationai Corp.

410 Forest Street
3710 North Grand River Avenue
.Marlboro Lansing
.Massachasetts 01752 US.A .Michican 43906. L'S.A
[Tet 517 323 7427)
E-.ere:tyCtar!es
.Actcmaiicn .Mccules Inc. IBM .Advanced Manufacturing Systems
9645 ,Arro« Rente, Scite ,A 1020 .NW 5Ist Street
Rancho Cucam.ccga, Cahferria 9173-3, US.A Boca Raton
(Tet 714 910 1525) P.crida 33432, LS.A
[Tet (305) 993-20/50)
£43 .AB .Amertca
292 W. PaUane Read Industrial .Automates Lnc.
6123 W. .NUtcheil Sl
Ulmers oilCSO US.A .Milwaukee
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1328 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

Wisconsin 53214, USA Micfoboi Inc

iTeL (,414) 327 5656) 453-H Ravcndale Dnve
Mountain View
Intarm California 94043, USA
P O Box 53 (Tel- 415 968 8911)
Da>'ton, Ohio 45409, USA
(TeL- (518) 294 0334) Mobot Corp
980 Buenos Avenue
Intelledex Inc San Diego
33840 Eastgate Circle California 92110, USA
Corvallis (Tel 714 275 4300)
Oregon 97333 USA
pickomatic Systems Inc.
International Robotoiation Intelligence 37950 Commerce Dnve
2281 Las Palmas Drive Sterling Heights
Carlsbad Michigan 48077, USA
California 92008, USA (Tel- 313 939 9320)
(Tel 714 438 4424)
Posifcch Corporation
ISI Manufacturing Inc 1 14 Rush Lake Road

31915 Groesbeck Highway Laurens

Fraser Iowa 50554 USA
Michigan 48026, USA
(Tel 313 294 9500) Prab Robots Inc
5944 E Kilgore Road
Keller Technology Corporation Kalamazoo
Robotics Automation Systems Michigan 49003, USA
2320 Military Road (TeL 616 349 8761)
Tonawanda
New York 14150, USA Precision Robots Inc
6 Carmel Circle
Lamson Corp Lexington
PO Box 4837 Massachusetts 02173, USA
Syi$cuse (Tel 637 862 3124)
New York 13221, USA
(Tel- 315 432 5467) Reeves Robotics Inc
Box S
Livemois Automation Co Issaquah
25313 Kean Washington 98027, USA
Dearborn (Tel 206 3 92 1447)
Michigan 48124, USA
(TeL (312) 278 0201) Ron-Con Ltd /Bra-Con Industnes
12001 Globe Road
Lynch Machinery Corp Livonia
2300 Crystal St Michigan 48154 USA
P O Box 2477
Anderson, Indiana 46018, USA Robotic Sciences International Inc
2709 South Halladay
(Tel (317) 643 6671)
Santa Ana
Machine Intelligence Corp California 92705, USA
(TeL 714 979 6831)
330 Potrero Ave.
Sunnyvale, California 94086, USA Robotiks Inc
(Tel 408 73 7 7960)
507 Prudential Road
Horsham
Mack Corp Pennsylvania 19044, USA
3695 East Indusinal Dnve (Tel 215 674 2800)
Flagstaff
Anzona 86001, USA Sandhu Rhino Robots
(Tel 602 526 1120) 308 S State Street
Champaign
Manca Inc Illinois 61820. USA
Link Dnve (TeL 237 352 8485)
Rockleigh
USA Schrader-Bellows
New Jersey 07647,
(Tel- (201) 767 7227)
US Rt IN
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INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD 1329

Wake Forest West Germany

North Carolina IISST, USA
(Tel: 919 556 4031) Carl Cloos Schweisstechnik GmbH
D-6342 Haiger
Seiko Instruments USA Inc. WEST GERMANY
2990 W. Lomita Boulevard (Tel: 02773850)

Torrance
California 90505, USA Fibro GmbH
(Tel: 213 530 3777) Postfach 1120
D 6954 Hassmersheim
Sigma Sales Inc. WEST GERMANY
6505C Serrano Avenue
Anaheim Hills Gebr. FeIss
California 92807, USA 7535 Konigsbach Stein 2
(Tel: 714 974 0166) Gutensbergstr. 4
WEST GERMANY
Sterling Detroit Company
261 E. Goldengate G.D.A.
Detroit 5 Am Bahnhof
Michigan 48203, USA D-8915 Fuchstal
(Tel: 313 366 3500) WEST GERMANY
(Tel: 08243 2012)
Sterltech
PO Box 23421 Jungheinrich KG
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53223, USA Friedrich-Ebert-Damm 184
(Tel: 414 354 0493) 2000 Hamburg 70
WEST GERMANY
TecQuipment Inc. (Tel: 040 66 43 50)
PO Box 1074, Acton
Massachusetts 01720, USA KUKA Schweissanlagen + Roboter
(Tel: (617) 263 1 767 Zugspitzstrasse 140
D-8900 Augsburg 43
Thermwood Corporation WEST GERMANY
P.O. Box 436 (Tel: 0821 7971)
Dale
Indiana 47523, USA Mantec GmbH
(Tel:812 93 7 4476) Postfach 2620
D-8520 Erklangen
Unimation Inc. WEST GERMANY
Rock Lane
Shelter (Tel: 09131/ 16200)
Danbury
Connecticut, 06810, USA Messer Griesheim GmbH
(Tel: 203 744 1800) Landsbergerstrassc 432
D'8000 Munich 60
United Stales Robots Inc. WEST GERMANY
1000 Conshohocken Road
Conshohocken Nimak-MAG
Pennsylvania 19428 USA Postfach 192
D-5248 Wissen
United Technologies Automotive Group WEST GERMANY
5200 Auto Club Drive (Tel: 02742 4024/4025)
Dearborn
Michigan 48126 USA
Ottensener Eisenwerk GmbH
Steinwerder
D-2000 Hamburg 11
VSI Automation Assembly Inc.
165 Park Street
WEST GERMANY
(Tel: 040 306859)
Troy
Michigan 4S0S4 USA Pfair
Postfach 3020/3040
Wcstinghouse Electric Corporation
D-6750 Kaiserslautern
See Unimation Inc.
400 Media Drive
WEST GERMANY
(Tel: 0631 881)
Pittsburgh
Pennsjlvania 15205, USA Produtec GmbH
(Tel: 412 778 4347)
Heilbronnerstrasse 67
 9

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1330 INDUCTBIAL ROBOTICS AROUND THE WORLD

D-7000 VFW Fokker GmbH

Stuttgart 1 Hunefeldstrasse 1-5
WEST GERMANY D'2800 Bremen 1

WEST GERMANY
Robert Bosch GmbH
Geschaftsbereich Industneausrustung
7000 Stuttgart 30, Kruppstrasse 1
Volkswagen AG
Postfach 300220 Industrie Robot Division
WEST GERMANY 3180 Wolfsburg
(Tel- 0711 811 5225)
WEST GERJAANY
Siemens AG Walter Reis GmbH & Co
Rupert-Mayer-Strasse 44
D-8753 Obemburg
8000 Munchen 70, Postfach 70 00 75
WEST GERMANY
WEST GERMANY {Tel 04 188 113)
{Tel 089 722 26126)

Union Carbide Deutschland GmbH ZF

(Sec also Ntmak-MAG) Postfach 25 20
Postfach 133. D-5248 Wissen D-7990 Fnednchshafcn 1

WEST GERMANY WEST GERMANY

{TeL 02742 751) (Tel 0754! 701-1)

A.S. ROBOT JOURNALS

Australia Hebezeuge und FordermiCiel
Maschtnenbauiechnik
Australian Machinery and Production —
Messen Steuem— Regeln
Engineering MetalKerarbeitung
Australian Welding Journal Schweisstechnik
Eiecincal Engineer SeewinschaA
Journal of the Institution of Engineers, Australia Sozialisiische RaiionaJizierung in der
Metals Australia Elektroiecbnik/EIektronik
Technische Cemeinschaft
Austria VEM —Elektro— Anlagenbahn
Die WirtschaA
Schweisstechnik
Diagramm
Wissenschafllich —
Technische Informationen
WtssenschaftlicheZeuschnA der Techmschen
Hochscbule Ilmenau
Belgium ZeitschnA fur angewandte Mathematik und
Mcchanik
Manutention mecanique ct automation
Revue M(Mecanique)
ZIS— Mitteilungen

Finland
Bulgaria

Mashinostroene Konepajamies
Problemi na tekhnicheskata
France
kibemetika t robotikata
Teoretichna i pnlozhna
Energie fluide. Hydrauhque, pneumatique
mekhanika asservissements. lubnhcation
Foitdeur aujourd'hui
Canada Machine modeme
—
Machine outil
Canadian Machinery and Metalworking Manutention
Metaux deformation
Czecbosloralda Nouvel automatisme
Soudage et techniques connexes
Sievarenstvi L'Usine nouvelle
Strojirenska vyroba
Technicka prace Hungary

East Germany Automatizalis

Banyiszati cs kohiszati Japok ontode az orszigos
Feingcratetechnik magyar b^yaszati es kohaszili egyesulet
Fertigungstechnik und Betneb lapja
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118 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

produces the rotation of the link element CD. uhich produces a bending motion of the finger Second.
8 slider-crank mechanism activated by a cylinder piston can be used to rotate the clement AD or
SC The loner illustration in Figure 8 lib depicu this type of dnve The finger-bcndiag motion can
be obtained in the same way as with rotary aciuatoia The use of a cross-four-bar link offers the
capability of enclosing the object with the finger This mechanism can be used with gnppers of more
than three fingers as well as in two-finger gnppers.

rraRs/dfiona/ Gripper Mechanisms

Translational mechanisms are used widely in gnppers of indusinaJ robots The mechanism is a little
complex compared to the swinging type
The Simplest translational gnpper uses the direct motion of the piston cylinder Figure 8 13 shows
this type of gnpper using a hydraulic piston cylinder As depicted m the figure, the finger motion
corresponds to the piston movement without any connecting mechanisms between them The drawback
to this method is that the actuator size decides the gnpper size This can sometimes make it difficult
to design the desired size of gnpper The method ts suiuble for the design of wide-opening translational
gnppers.
Figure 8 14 shown a translational gnpper using a pneumatic or hydraulic piston cylinder, which
includes a dual-rack gear mechanism and two pairs of the symmeincally arranged parallel-closing
linkages. Thisis a widely used translational gnpper mechanism The pinion gears are connected to
the elements A and A respectively When a piston rod moves toward the left, the translation of the
rack causes the two pmions to rotate clockwise and counterclockwise, respectively, and produces the
release action, keeping each finger direction constant The grasping action occurs when the piston
rod moves to the nght in the same way There is another way to rotate the two pinions Figure 8 15
shows the mechanism using a rotary actuator and gears in lieu of the piston cylinder and rack
Figure 8 16 shows two examples of translational gnpper mechanism using rotary actuators. Figure
8 16(3 consists of an actuator and rack-pinion mechanism The advantage of this bnd of gnpper is

Fig. 8.9. Schematic of swing-block mechanism

INDEX 1341

job selection for robot, 669 magnetic pick-up devices, 1287

long-term considerations, 674 mechanical grip devices, 1288
manufacturing methods comparison, 668 mounting plate, 1289
noneconomic considerations, 670-671 multifunctional, 785-786
operation analysis, 671 pneumatic pick-up device, 1291
steps of,666 for programmable assembly system, 1074-
of programmable assembly system, 1069- 1075
1070, 1152 relation to robotic system, 775-776
robot cost survey, 1308-1318 sensors for, 779
of robotic arc welder, 944 types of 779-782
robot price list, 1316-1318 see also Gripper
and robot task criteria, 540 End-of-a.\is control, 1279
robot/worker replacement ratio, 538 End effector:
for sealant application, 1178 acceleration of, 85
of spray finishing robot, 1257-1260 control parameters, 447-148
for spray painting, 1 177 definition, 1279
and system planning, 609 engineering for, 544
Economics (of production), see Production homogeneous transform, 84
Edge detection, 1279 and manipulator dynamics, 93
Edge finding, 252-255, 1279 orientation transformation, 88
Edinburgh University: position.transform, 86-90
FREDDY project, 423-424 for programmable assembly, 1152
image analysis research, 424 and proarammable assembly system design,
Education; 1074-1075
continuing engineering education, 508 and robotics systems production planning,
in Eastern Europe, 532 712-716
in industry, 510 Robot-Man chart for, 553
industry-university collaboration, 509- turret, 1279
510 velocity of 84-85
minorities’ role in, 515 Endpoint control, 1279
occupational forecasting for, 500 Engineered compliance, 1098
programs needed, 502-503 Engineering, see Application of robot,
robot educator shortage, 499 engineering for
for robot technician, 508 Environment (operating), 723-726
and skill shift, 502 Environmental constraints, 553-554
and skill twist, 502 Equipment utilization, 10-11
sources of, 502-503 Ergonomics, see Robot ergonomics
two-year college curriculum, 508-509, 511 Error (steady-state), 178-181
university-level curriculums, 503-508 Error recovery, 1145-1147, 1162-1164, 1280
vocational school-level, 514-515 Error reporting software, 348-349
women’s role in, 515 Euler angles, 169-170
damping coefficient, 173
Effective European applications, 887-896. See also
Effective inertia, 173 names of countries
Elbow, 1279 Exoskeleton, 1280
Electric drive system, 55, 114-1 15 Expert system:
Electromagnetic actuator, 35 back translation, 420
Electromagnetic drive (gripper), 114-116 and CAD/CAM, 24
819
Electronics processing, definition, 419, 1280
Emergency stop, 1279 for error analysis, 443
EMILY programming language, 1279 example of, 420-421
Employmenf 501-502, 527, 601. See also for flexible manufacturing system, 443-
Social impact of robotics 445
Encoder, 1279 for intelligent robot systems, 24
End-of-arm tooling: knowledge refining, 419
definition, 777 learning, 429-432,434, 1295
design of: manufacturing, use in, 24
786-787
checklist for, for programmable assembly, 1 153
782-784
criteria for, for robot programming training, 427-429
and process analysis, 785-786 sensor integration with, 445
and system design integration, 776-777 and uncertainty in robot system, 444-445
and workpiece analysis, 784-785 see also .Artificial intelligence
elements of, 777-779 Extension, 1280
engineering for, 544 External gripper, 1 13
e.\ample of 775 External sensor, 448, 1280
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1342 INDEX

Eye-in-hand camera, 275 planning for, 1023

Eye-irhhand system, 218, 1280 and productivity improvement, 13, 479-481
robot design for, 1024-1025
Facility location,614-615 robot use. 14-15
Factory of future, 21, 24 single-machme configuration, 13
Fad safe, 1280 supervisory control, 657-660
Fail soft, 1280 testmg center for, 1241*1244
Feature analysis, 243 See also Binary image see also Programmable assembly system
processing Flexion, 1281
Feature extractor, 1280 Flexures, 34
Feature set (image), 256-257, 1280 Float, 1100, 1281 See also Compliance;
Feature values (image), 233, 1280 Remote center comphance device
Feature vector (image), 1280 Floor-to-floor time, 1281
Feedback, 174, 198-199, 215, 1280 Flooi-mounted robot, 46, 1281
Feedback systems, 837-838 Folding arm mampulator, 1210-1213, 1281
Feeder (programmable), 1292 Food processmg, 819
Feedforward, 182 Force feedback. 198-199
Feedforward gam. 174 Force rellection, 1281
Feedrate, 207-208 Force reflection control, 143-144
Feelmg robots, 109-110 Force sensors. 228-229, 323-324
Fettling, 856-857 Force-torque sensors, 1281
Fme motion planning, 406, 413-415 See also Ford Motor Company
Task-level programmmg appbcations of robots, 790
Finishing corporate strategy for robot application,
aerospace application, 836 788
definition, 1280 rettaming program. 513
in Eastern Europe, 890 Robotics and Automation Applications
m furniture manufactuiing. 880-881. 884- Consulting Center. 792
886 Forearm, 1281
Finland Forging, 723, 816. 852-855, 890
robot association, 1318 Forming, 8 1
robot journals of, 1330 Forward dynamics, 93-94, 1278, 1281
robot manufacturers m, 1319 Forward kinematics, 83, 1281
First-generation robot systems, 22, 96, 1280 Foundry, 723. 816, 856-860, 890
Fitts law, 144-145 Fourth-generation robots, 9
Fued assembly system, 1280 France
Fixed automation, 1283 robot association, 1318
Fixed coordinate system, 1280 robot journals of, 1330
Fixed-stop robot. 1280 robot manufacturers m, 1320-1321
Fixture, 1292-1293, 1301 standardization, 520
Flexi-aim, 1253, 1281 FREDDY robot system, 423-424, 1281
Flexibility, 1281 Friction, 55
Flexibility-efficiency tradeoff, 470-472, 475, Friction torque. 181
1281 FUNKY programmmg language, 1281
Flexible arm, 1281 Furniture manufacturing applications, 879-
Flexible automated manufacturmg cell 886
control system, 872-873
example of, 867-872 Gantry robot
operation sequence, 873-874 application examples, 1022
research facilities for, 867 coordinate system, 1282
robot integration with, 870-872 definition, 1011, 1282
see also Programmable assembly system features of, 1011
Flexible automation, 16 for flexible manufactuiing system, 1025
Flexible machme tool cell, 862 implementation guidebnes, 1015-1017
Flexible machinmg cell, 862-866 for machme loadmg/unloading, 986-987
Flexible manufacturmg system (FMS) manufacturer specifications for, 1012-1016
CAM integration with, 479 material handling, 52
capital cost of, 483-484 pedestal robot comparison, 1014
defimtion, 1281 repeatability of, 1014-1016
in Eastern Europe, 530 and robot design, 46
example of, 1025 safety aspects, 1017-1018
features of, 1026-1027 lemunology, 1011-1012
requirements of, 14-15
flexibility Gated feeders, 1036
operation requirements for, 13-14 Generalized bilateral manual control, 325-328
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INDEX 1343

General Motors retraining program. 513-514 pressurized bladder, 1292

GEOMAP programming system, 374-375 pressurized fingers, 1292
Geometric dexterity, 1282 and programmable assembly system design,
Geometric modeler, 1282 1074-1075
Glassmaking, 819 sensors for, 106-108,455-462
GMI Engineering and Management Institute, soft, 126, 1282
504-508 special purpose, 114
Graceful failure, 1282 spring-drive, 115
Grasping (human), 112 swing, 1282
Grasping force, 1 16 swinging finger, 114
Grasp planning, 406, 411-413, 1282. See also and task design, 108
Task-level programming and task variability, 96
GRASP programming system, three-finger, 130
Gravitational force, 189-190 for tool changing, 997-998
Gravitational torque, 175, 179, 183 translational, 1282
Gravity casting, 848-849 translational finger,1 14

Gray scale image, 1276, 1282 two- finger:

Gripper: actuator for, 128-129
active, 109 grasping force, 127-129
actuator, 114-121, 126, 128-130 swinging, 117-118, 122, 124-126
actuator selection, 104-105, 108 translational. 118-122. 125
angular-finger, 99 universal, 134-137, 1282
applications of, 96, 99-104 universal finger, 114
automatic hand changer, 1117 vacuum, 101
112-113
classification of, velocity ratio, 105
combination, 100 see also End-of-arm tooling
compliance of, 105-106, 114 Gripping surfaces, 1282
compliance requited for, 107-108 Gross motion planning, 406, 409-4 1 1, 529.
458
control of, 98, See also Task-level programming
definition,1282 Gross volume of work envelope, 1282
degrees of freedom of, 1 12 Group technology, 12, 1283
design of, 96, 737, 1282 Growing (image), 1283
design guidelines, 107-110, 1075 Growth (of robotics), see Population
drivesystem for, 1 14-1 16 Guarded motion, 390,413, 1283
environment of, 108
example of, 105, 453, 977-983, 1234- Hand:
1235 definition, 1283
e.xternal,114, 1282 human, 96, 98, 1 12
finger configuration, 121, 129 Handchanger, 1283
five-finger, 132-134 Hand coordinate system, 1283
flexibility of, 105, 107-108 Hard automation, 7, 1283
flexible, 103-105 Hard tooling, 1283
for flexible objects, 101 Harmonic drive, 36
force analysis of, 104-105 Heat treatment, 723, 816-817, 871
force requited for, 107 HELP (High Level Procedural Language),
friction coefficient, 105 1283
functions of, 112 Henry Ford Community College retraining
grasp modalities, 127 curriculum, 5 13
grip categories for, 98-99 Heuristic problem solving, 1283
grip selection for, 97 Hierarchical control, 22, 452, 1283
history of, 96 High-level language, 1283
inflatable, 100-101 High-level robot programming. 1283
interchangeable, 101 History of robotics, 3-8, 96, 788-790
internal, 99-100, 114, 1282 Hold, 1283
for machining cells, 864-866 Home robot, 25-26, 1283
magnetic, 101 Homogeneous transform:
mechanical finger, 113 definition, 81, 1283
mechanisms for, 116-121, 129 differential transformation, 185
multigripper system, 114 for end effector, 84-90
multiple, 108 inverse, 82
multipurpose, 1074-1075 for Joint, 91
parallel-fingered, 99 for link, 84-85
passive, 109 and multiple joint control, 185-189
prehension, 96 rotation matrices, 82
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1344
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Ilomosencaus tranilonn iContmueJi contact points, 1187-1190

for (ool coorduiates) stems. S4 flexible machining ccIL 863-S64. 872
iransbtioful nutxtces, 82-83 part proctssmg. 812-813
varutiorul operator. 188 punted circuit boards, 1148-1149, 1190.
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Hydraulic actuator. 34-35 safety check. 757
Hydiaulic drive, 55. 112 slail-up. 720
Hydraulic lines. 36 training. 719-720
Hydraulic motor, 1283 Integer programming. 61
Integral control. 1264
lUM Austin Process Oeselopment Lab, 1 142- Integral dynamics, 1278
1143 Intelligent computer system, 21
ICaM (Integrated Computer-Aided Manu- Intelligent robot
facturing). 349-321 and adaptive control. 213
Illinois Institute ofTechnoIogy 1 Icxible Auto- as adaptive robot, 1273
mated ^lanufacturing Technology components of, 214
Lsaluation Center, 867 dctinition. 1284. 129?
Image. 232 ui Lastcin Europe, 529
Image analy sis, see binary image processing. knowledge representation for. 215
Computer vision object level control for, 1289
Image buffering. 1284 sensors and. 214, 419
Image processing, see binary image processing. Intelligent robot sy sterns, 22. 24-26
Computer vision Interactivemanual automatic control. 328-
Imaging, 1284 5ee c/so binary image 339. 1284
processing: Computer vision Interface
Implementation. 631-832 See also Applicatiuit dcftnilion. 1284
of robot programming and contioKcr.
for off line
Index ofdiflUTilly. 144 369-370
Induction motor. 1264 robot with viiion. 1284
Inductive learning. 431-432. 434 for teaching pendant programming. 338-329
Inductosyn. 1284 for icleoperalor. 143-144
Inertia. 30. 173 Intctfacc box (input/uuiput). 1284
Infrared wnsor, 428 Intcrfctcncc rone. 699-701. 1284
Injection molding. 850-851. 890 Interlock. 1284
Inspection Internal gripper, 99-1 00. 1 1

applications Inictnal sensor, 448

aerospace, 636 International business .Macliincs (IbM) Auitm
applunce painting. 1 1 77 Ptuccss Development Lab. 1 142-1 143
automatic vtuon-guiJcd, 1223-1229 International population, see Population
automotive, 1205-1208, 1295 Intcriuisonal Siandaid Organiration. 520
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INDEX 1345

International Symposium on Industrial definition, 1285

Robotics, 8 and manipulator dynamics, 93
Interpolation, 1276, 1286 multiple stage, 1289
Interpolator, 207-209, 1284 position of, 93
Interrupt routines, 360 position transform, 86-90
Inventory reduction, 10 prismatic, 33-34, 44, 521
Inverse dynamics, 92-93, 1284 revolute, 34
Inverse kinematics, 85-90, 213, 1284 single-stage, 1298
Investment casting, 848-849 telescoping, 1300
Islands of automation, 969, 1284 travel range, 3
Italy; velocity, 31, 84-85, 93
robot association, 1318 velocity transform, 91
robot journals of, 1331 Joint coordinate, 83, 1285
robot manufacturers in, 1321 Jointed-axm robot, 1274
Joint level control, 1285
Jacobian matrix, 85, 90 Joint rate control, 143, 1285
Jamming, 1092-1095, 1097, 1285. See also Joint space, 1285
Part mating Journals on robotics, 1330-1332
Japan:
application of robotics study, 660-662 Kinematic chain, 44-46, 70, 76-77,
employment levels and robotics, 487 1285
and history of robotics, 8 Kinematic loop, 93-94
manufacturing strategy, 1032 Kinematic model, 81, 1285
metalworking robot population, 469-470 Kinematics (of robot);
motion-velocity graphs of population, 566- definition, 1281, 1285
570 history of, 527
near-accident survey, 646 inverse, 85-90, 213, 1284
nonmanufacturing industry robots, 470 of joint coordinate, 83
robot association, 1318 of link coordinates, 83-84
robot Journals of, 1331 of link coordinate system, 83-84
robot manufacturers in, 1321-1324 and performance testing, 164-166
robot population of, 7 see also Homogeneous transform
robot use history, 467-468 Knowledge-based systems, 24
social impact of robotics in, 660-662 Knowledge representation, 215
standards, 519, 522
union reaction to robots, 492 Labor, see Social impact of robotics
work characteristics of robot population, 557- Lagrangian formulation, 182-183
566, 570-572 LAMA (Language for Mechanical Assembly)
worker acceptance of robots, 491 programming system, 405, 1285
worker age and robotics, 494 LAMA-S programming language, 1285
Japan Industrial Robot Association, 8 Language, see Programming languages
Job and skiU analysis, 573, 575-578, 1285 Laser scanner, 235-236, 459-462, 1285
Job creation, 501-502, 601 Laser sensor, 307, 1285. See also Depth
Job displacement; perception
definition, 500 Lateral resolution, 1286
e.\ample of, 639-640 Layout:
number of workers displaced, 819 classification of, 587
by occupation, 500 e.xample of, 583, 701
and retraining, 494, 513, 640-641 motion economy principles for, 582
and robot job selection, 551-556 and production planning for robotics systems,
robot/worker replacement ratio, 538 699-703
and skill slrift, 502 requirements of, 583, 613
and skill twist, 502 techniques for, 583-588
United Auto Workers union response to, work characteristic effects of, 583
640 Layout planning, 543, 614-615
Job shop, 1285 Lead-through programming, 342, 353, 363-365,
Joint: 1286. See also Teach programming
acceleration of, 31, 85, 93 Lead-through teaching, 211, 1286. See also
complex, 44 Teach programming
components of, 3 Learning, 429-432, 434, 1295
configuration, 30, 1308 Learning control, 1286
control of, 171-175, 177-182, 182-190, Level of automation, 1286
1285 Lifetime (robot), 7
coordinate system, 204, 206. 1285 Lift capacity, see Payload
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1346 INDEX

Lighting (for vision). 233 equipment, 742-743

Light-secfion inspection, 1286 of hydraulic system, 734-735, 737
Limit defecting hardware, 1286 >n-house advantage, 737
Limited-degree-of-freedom robot, 1280 lubrication. 735
Limited sequence manipulator, J160'1161, part replacement schedule, 736
1286 of pneumatic system, 735
Limited-sequence robot, 7 of robotic spot welder, 905
Limit switch, 1286 and robot system operauon, 623
Linear interpolation, 1286 skids lequiied, 740
Linear motionjouits, 33-34, 44 spare parts, 743-746
Linear programming, 610-611 training, 740-741
Line tracking. 362, 712-713 see also Preventive maintenance
Lmk, 84-85, 91-92, 1286 Major axes (motion). 1287
Lmkagc structure (transmission), 36 MAL (Multipurpose Assembly Language),
Link coordinates, 83-84, 1286 1287
Lmk coordinate system, 83-84 Maltese Cross sensor. 199
LISP, 1286 Man^ment
Load capacity, 1286 S'ee d/ro Payload lack of robotics commitment, 499
Load deflection, 1286 robot expertise shortage in, 499
Load torque, 175 of robot sy stem mtroduction, 823
Location analysis. 6H-615, 1286 Manipulation (robotic). 112, 80S. 1287
Lockheed-Georgia Company robotic nveling Mampulator, 552-553, 1287, 1293
ceU. 839-842 Manipulator level contioL 1287
Logic, 1286 Manipulator model, 91
Long-term behavior, 1286 Man-machine communication, 425
Lobncant, 37 Man-machine interface. 143-144. 321, 353.
601-602 Jee tf/ro Teleoperator
Machine cell, 971 Manual assembly. 1057-1059
Machine intelLgence, 21, 24-25 Manual manipulator, 1287
Machine loaduig/unloading (robotic) Manual programming, 210, 1288 Seealso
automotive application. 790 Programming, Teach programming
benentsof,8LQ Manual teaching, 210. 1288 Seealso
capability for, 809 Programming. Teach programming
definition, 1287 Manufacturers of robots, 1308-1330
example of, 809, 887, 994-996. 1027 Manufacturing. 12-14. 24
by gantry robots, 986-987, 1022 Manufacturing Control Language (MCL), 838.
by machine»mounted robots, 987- 1288
988
mixed parts handling. 991
roJnjf carfs; use of, 986
by self-standing robots, 987-988 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 503
workpiece handlir^ for, 991 Mass production. 471-472. 1288
Machine-mounted robot, 1287 Master-slave control, 143, 1288
Machine tooL 207, 527-528 See also Master-slave manipulator, 1275
Numerical control Matenal handbng
Machme vision, see Computer vision denniUon, 955
Machme vision lystem, see Computer vision equipment requirements of, 613
system mtegrated systems for. 969
Machining (robotic) matenal handling equation, 955-956
capability for, 812 motion economy principles for, 582
deflmtion, 1287 objectives of, 95 7
example of. 817, 890 pnnciples of, 956-957
gantry robot, use of. 1022 in programmable assembly, 1077-1078
obstructions to. 817 robotic
Machining center, 562, 1287 benefits of, 808
Macomb County Community College, 509 capability for. 807-808
Magnetic pickup device, 1287 definition, 1288
Mam reference, 1287 design for, 51-52
Mamtenance ui Eastern Europe, 887
checklist, 746 example of. 808, 829, 834. 836. 960-967.
of control system, 735-737 1176
cooling au, 735 gantry robot, use of, 1022
cost as percentage of sales, 734 guidelines for, 968-969
and end-of-arm tooling design, 784 handling system interface, 968
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INDEX 1347

island of automation integration, 969 Motor-tachometer, 177

Material handling robots, 1041 Mounting plate, 777-778, 1289
Material handling system, 124, 957-960 MTM (Methods time measurement), 590,
MCL (Manufacturing Control Language), 592
1288 Multichannel stereo, 292-294, 296-298
Measurement, 233 Multigripper system, 113, 1289
Meat processing, 726 Multimanipulators, 426
Mechanical finger, 113 Multiple-stage joint, 34, 1289
Mechanical grip device, 1288 Multistation assembly line, 1071-1072
Memory, 1288 Multitasking, 386
Metalcutting, 726
Metalworking, 10-11, 834-835, 839-842 National Bureau of Standards Automated
Methods time measurement (MTM), 590, 592 Manufacturing Research Facility, 867
Michigan Industrial Technology Institute, 510 Natural language programming, 23
Microprocessor, 1288 Nearest neighbor classifier, 1289
Military robot,26 Netherlands:
Minot axes (motion), 1288 robot association, 1318
Mixed integer programming, 611 robot journals of, 1331
Mobile cart, 1143 Network location model, 615
Mobile robot: Newton-Euler equations, 91, 190
accuracy of, 1005 Newton’s method, 89-90
applications of, 1006-1008, 1131-1134, New Zealand robot journals, 1331
1207 Noise, 166
area, 1288 Noncontact sensor, 215, 1289
definition, 1002, 1288 Nonservo robot, 1280
inductively guided, 1005-1006 Norway robot manufacturers, 1324
justification of, 1002 Nuclear reactor applications:
linear, 1288 control for, 1213
path layout, 1008-1009 decommissioning, 1216-1219
requirements of, 1004-1005 design constraints, 1209-1210
and robot design, 48 foldingarm manipulator for, 1210-1213
safety aspects, 1009-1010 monoarticulate chain manipulator for, 1213-
space, 1288 1216
types of, 1002-1004 teach programming for, 1213
Mobility, 19 see also Teleoperator
Modal analysis, 1228 Nulling time, 1289
Modular robot: Numerical control:
applications, 765-768 acceleration 209
definition, 759, 1288-1289 and adaptive control 211-213
design of, 759 axis of motion, 203-204
design principles for, 64-65 continuous path, 206-209
drive system, 764-765 coordinate system, 204
end-user advantages of, 759 DC motor control, 210
robot manufacturer advantages of,
759 deceleration, 209
Modulator/demodulator (MODEM), 1289 definition, 1289
Monitoring, 1289 machine tool comparison with, 203
Monoarticulate chain manipulator, 1213- and off-line programming, 367
1216, 1276, 1289 operator for, 203
Monocoque robot structure, 33, 1275 part program, 203
Motion (prismatic), 1292 part programmer for, 203
Motion economy principles, 579-583, 1289 point-to-point, 206
Motion hold, 1289 postprocessor, 211
Motion planning, 1289 and productivity, 11-12
Motion-velocity graphs, 566-570, 1289 programming, 210-211
Motor: robot control contrast, 210-211
AC, 35 and robot programming systems, 437
and acceleration, and robot systems, 203
40
air, 1273 tool center point, 204
•^C, 35, 55, 209-210
hydraulic, 1283 Object level control, 1289
induction, 1284 Object-oriented programming, 425-427
s'^pper, 25,
55, 1298 Obstacle avoidance, 406, 409-41 1, 529.
three-phase,
55-56 See also Task-level programming
Ke also Actuator Off-line,1290
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8?CI
 INDEX 1349

of Eastern Europe, 530 for robot appUcations, 546

of East Germany, 529 for small parts assembly, 1130
factors promoting robot use, 661 Production:
at Ford Motor Company, 803 batch manufacturing, 471-472 838-839
growth trends, 467, 497-498 1142-1143,1275
of Japan, 7, 1306 capital cost of,
483-484
in manufacturing industries, 470 and configuration design, 613-614
in metal casting, 856 cost curves for, 472
in metalworking industries, 468-470 flexibility vs. efficiency trade-off, 470-472
in nonmanufacturing industries, 470 inventory reduction, 483
parameters of, 556-571 job shop, 471, 1285
robot density, 1305 mass production, 471-472, 1288
of United States: and robot task application criteria, 539-
by application, 808, 813,1306 540
diffusion history,467-468 system operation, 623-628
growth projection, 819, 1305-1306 unit cost elasticity, 474, 482-483
by industry, 813, 1306 unit costs, 472-474
of USSR, 529 and work-in-process reduction, 483
work characteristics of, 557-566, 570-572 Production planning:
world growth projections, 1305, 1308- and accuracy, 703
1317 and end-effector, 712-716
Positional control, 171-175, 177-182. See also and installation, 717-720
Control layout, 699-703
Position control, 520, 1291. See also operations analysis, 703-710
Control operation verification, 710
Positioner, 1292 process planning, 546-548, 695-696, 702
Position finding, 1292 product design, 693-694
Positioning, 1290 robot geometry, 696-699
Positioning table, 1292 robot motions, 705-709
Post processor, 211 Productivity improvement:
Power, 166 in arc welding, 924-927, 948-949
Prehension, 96, 112 in assembly, 1 140
Presence sensing, 1292 and automated factory, 481-483
Press forging, 854-855 and capabilities of robot, 807-808
Press loading/unloading, 788, 887 capital cost of, 483-484
Pressurized bladder, 780, 1292 capital role in,516
Pressurized fingers, 780, 1292 in casting cleaning, 857
Preventive maintenance: by downtime reduction, 479-481
checklist for, 735 economic consequences of, 470
for end-of-arm tooling, 740 education’s role in, 516
for gripper, 737-740 factors promoting robot use, 661
kit for, 743 from flexible automated manufacturing cell,
procedure, 734 874-877
program for, 741-743 flexible machining cells for, use of, 862
reasons for, 732 of flexible manufacturing system, 1026-
and robot system
operation, 627-628 1027
see also Maintenance for individual machines, 12
Printed circuit board testing, 1241-1244
for inspection station, 1176-1177
Priority capability,
1292 of inspection task, 1 148-1 149
Prismatic joint,
33-34, 44 521 , by inventory reduction, 483
Prtsmatic motion,
35-36, 1292 labor’s role in, 516
ProbabUistic models,
607 for manual board testing, 1240-1241
circuit
Procedure skeletons,
415 in material handling,639-640
Process control,
520, 1292 by output rate increase, 807
Process models,
1032 and production planning for robotics systems,
Process planning,
546-548, 695-696, 702 . 703-704
5ee also Production
planning; Robot by production time availability increase. 478-
ergonomics
479
roduct design
evaluation, 1061 and robot application benefits, 808
Product development:
for robotic circuit board testing, 1241-1 244
and assembly
by robots, 823 and robot task application criteria, 540
tor assembly
systems, 1032 for sealant applications. 1 178
^ P™^'^^rnmable assembly system desie for spray painting, 1177
1064.1153
for tool changer, 1000
 1 1

1350
INDEX

Produclivjty improvement (Continued) objccl-onented, 425-427

unit cost reduction, 482-483 off-line
by utilization improvement, 470 and accuracy, 370-371
of vision-guided robot, 1229 for adaptive robot, 23
of wave solder inspection, 1231 advantages of. 366-367
by vvork-in-process reduction, 483 for aerospace applications, 838
Productivity loss, 10 and CAD/CAM, 349-351. 367
Programmable assembly, 1152-1156 cootroUerinterfacefor, 369-370
Programmable assembly line, 1292 definition, 366, 1290
Programmable assembly system geometnc modeler for, 369, 374
assembly cell for, 1153-1156 interface for, 369-370
assembly centers, 1066-1067 method of. 369
assembly Imes, 1066-1067 numencal control ongin of, 367
components of, 1055, 1152 positioning error sources, 370
definition, 1292 requuementsfor, 368
design of, 1070-1079 robot modeler for, 369, 374, 376-377
dislnbuted processing for, 1161-1162 software for. 349-351
example of, 1079-1083, 1130-1134, 1142- solid-body modeling, 376
1148, 1164-1170 standards for, 370
features of, 1054, 1151 off-line programming system
hierarchical oigaiuzation for, 1 156- 1 57 commercjally available, 371, 374-375
for mass production, 1151 example statements for, 371-374
modulesfor, 1157-1161 graphical. 374, 376-379
operation of, 1055 textural, 371-374
planning procedure on-line, 23-25
assembly cycle tune, 1065 postprocessor, 211
assembly method determination, 1057- for programmable assembly. 1 153
1059 robot level, 424
cycle time chart, 1064-1066 task programming language for, 211
data coUection, 1060-1062 training system for. 427-429
economic justification, 1069 see also Programming languages, Software,
process flow chart, 1062-1064 Teach programming
product limitations, 1059-1060 Programming by guiding, 1286
product redesign, 1064 Programming languages
product selection, 1059-1060 AL, 374-375. 405, 1273
product suitability, 1056-1057 AML (A Manufacturing Language), see
project approval, 1070 AML
project imtiatioa 1055-1056 ANIMATE/PLACE. 374-375
project team, 1060 APLfA Programming Language). 1274
robot selection, 1068 AUTOPASS, 374-375.405, 1275
system configuration, 1066-1067. 1069- CATIA, 374-375
1070 classification of, 381-382
system refinement, 1068 for computer vision, 445
worker notification, 1060 debugging 394-395
aids,
program processing levels, 1 162-1 164 definition, 1275
robot selection for, 1068, 1072-1074 EMILY, 1279
sensors for. 1078 explicit, 437
Programmable automation, 1292 features of, 437
Programmable axes, 45 FUNKY. 1281
Programmable carnage, 765 GEOMAP, 374-375
Programmable controller. 998-999, 1292 GRASP, 374-376
Programmable feeder. 1076, 1153, 1292 HELP (High Level Procedural Language),
Programmable fixture. 1292 1283
Programmable manipulator, 3. 1292-1293 implicit, 437
Programming (of robots) LAMA (Language for Mechanical Assembly),
of adaptive robot, 23 405, 1285
and applications planning. 17, 543 LAMA-S, 1285
for contmuous path system, 21 list of. 437
definition, 1293 MAL (Multipurpose Assembly Language),
by guidmg, 1286 1287
high-level, 1283 MAPLE, 1288
lead-Ihrough, 342, 353, 363-365, 1286 MCL (Manufacturing Control Language), 838.

lead-through teaching. 211, 1286 1288

manual, 210, 1283 NC language-based, 437
122 MEaiANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig, 8.15, Translational gnpper including paraltel-closing linkages dnven by a rotary actuator and
gears

contacts the object at two spots on the contact surface of the cavity during the gripping operation
The two-spot contact applies a larger grasping force to a limited surface of the grasped object and
may sometimes distort or scratch the object However, there are many tasks where this problem is
not significant, and the device has a great advantage over the gnpper with object-shap^ cavities
One advantage is that it can accommodate a wide range of diameter vanalions m
the cylmdncal
workpiece, allowing the shape of the cavity to be designed independent of the dimensions of the cylmdncal
object Another advantage is that it is easy to make, resulting in reduced machinery costs Figure
8 18(1 gives a typical gcometncal configuration of a grasping system for a cylmdncal object using the
gnpper including (wo fingers, each with a V-shaped cavity There is some relation between the configura-
tion parameters of the V-shaped cavity and the diameter of possible cylmdncal workpieces to be
grasped Suppose that parameters of the grasping system, y, {i, R, R'. L. a. and b. symbols £. C,
I,

Q, B'. C, Q, and 0. and the coordinate system O-xy are defined as shown in the figure
From the geometncal conditions, the cylmdncal workpiece grasped and the gnpper construction
cannot intersect This leads to the following inequality

x-R<tiS (8 1)

where As is the width of the gnpper element as shown m

Figure 8 18 The distance between the
center of cylmdncal workpiece and ongin O
is Ji; which can be expressed as the following equations

In the swmging-type gnpper, ^ keeps a constant value dunng the grasping operation If ^ = 90°.

which IS often used, Eq {8 2) becomes

jr = (8 3)

Using the translational gnpper in which each cavity block is kept parallel to every other, the following
equation can be obtain^
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•saijiABo aidpinm

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oj aAtjoaja si
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uojsid japuqXo e Huisn jaddu3 ibuoijbjsubjx 'Cl'S

I I

/z///z//yy//

I B /77777^

IZl SQNVH loaofl do NOisaa

224
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

i><26lany (8 6)

where D is (he diameter of (he cylindncal object and equals 2R

If the swinging gnppcr is assumed, another condition must be considered because the longitudinal
direction of each finger vanes with objects of differing size Obviously, to hold an object safely m
the gnpper without slippage, the extended line QC
must cross the extended line Q'C at point P in

front of the gnppcr The upper diameter limit of an object that can be grasped by the gnpper with
cavities of given structural parameters results m the following inequality

f)<2siny L tanf— — ylH (8^)

L \2 7 Un(ir/2-y)J

becomes
For the speaal case I equal to 0, which corresponds to Figure 8 10, the preceding inequality
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/ X. uis \ 1
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 )

126 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

£> </nm)

Fig. 8.19. The relation between the dtameter of Ihc grasped object D and the value Dev = x — L
iy * l-tO”)

effect
To provide the capability to completely conform to the periphery of objects of any shape, a soft-
gnpper mechanism has been proposed, which is shown in Figure 8 20 * The segmental mechanism is
schematically illustrated in Figure 8 21 The adjacent links and pulleys are connected with a spindle
and are free to route around it This mechanism is manipulated by a pair of wires, each of which is
driven by an elecinc motor with gear reduction and clutch One wire is called a gnp win, which
produces thegnpping movement The other ts a release win. which pulls antagonistically and produces
the release movement from the gnpptng position When the gnp wire is pulled against the release
wire, the linger makes a bending moment ft'om the base segment During ihis process of wire traction
the disposition of each gripper's link is determined by the mechanical contact with an object When
the link I makes contact with an object and further movement is hindered, the neat link, (i + 1),
begins to rotate toward (he object until it makes contact with the object This results in a linger
motion conforming to the penpheral shape of the object In this system it is reported that the proper
selection of pulleys enables the finger to grasp the object with uniform grasping pressure

Release

Fig. 8 JO. The soft gnpper (Courtesy of Hirose et al .

Reference 8
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SI

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'(z'%)
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uaaMjaq uoijEpj aqj =
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i'pajapisuoa aq jsnui uoijanpaj aqj ajaqAj ‘sqsBj auios joj aiqBjisapun
aq qiAs uoijBiAap aqx '0 = 1 qjiM jadduS b Xq padsEjS sjaafqo pazis-juaaajjip oasj jo suoijisod jajuaa
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'

•juBjsuoa jdaq ajB Xjiabo padsqs-^ aqj puB jaSug aqj jo

sapnjijjB aqj asnsoaq pajouSi aq ubo (g-g) jo (x' 8) XjiiBnbaui aqj ‘pasn si jadduS ibuoijbjsubjj aqj jj

(8 8) ^X_£^ubj 7 /tuisjx/
.

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jaSug-OAjj Suisn jaafqo iBaupuqXa e joj uiajsXs SuidsBjS jo uopEjnSguoa [Baujauioao (p) 'gj-g -Sy

)
 1

128
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

F
1

1
JVS.j

^ B f
l-J, *„f ^
1 1

— ©
]

J
)
NA' r S'B'

T m ft

Fig, 8.22. (d) A

swing gnpper grasping ih« cylindncal object on two spots and keeping the center
of gravity of the object inside the line between the two fingers (6) A translational gnpper grasping
the object with a Rat surface on two spots and keeping the center of gravity of the object outside
the line between the two fingers 0
Center of gravity of c^ject, W
weight of object

FA < uNA (8 12 )

FB< ftNB
The grasping 226 can be evaluated in the same way Fnction and
forces for Figure 8 acceleration
forces at contact points and the inequalities of grasping force are given as follows

(8 14)

(8 15)

FA < tiNA. FB < p.NA (8 16)

After the maximum grasping force or lordue has been determined, the force or torque that the
of
actuator must generate can be considered The calcubtion of those values requires the conversion
the actuator output force or torque to the grasping force or torque, which depends on the kind of
actuator used and the kind of mechanism employed Table 8 2 shows the relation between the actuator
output force or torque and the grasping force in gnppers that include the vanous kinds of mechanisms
and actuators desenbed above
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Q soo A. S03 y
(ITS)
(0 - SOO

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g SOO X. SOD ^7

(ors) = VJ
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LZX sajMVH loeoH jo Noisaa

 )

130 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

8.5J. Mechanical Hands with Three or Fi?c Fingers

Three-finger Hand

The increase of thenumber of fingers and degrees of freedom will greatly aid the improvement of
the versatility of gnppers However, this also complicates the design process Although design methods
for this type of gnpper have still not been established there are a few examples that have been put
into practical use
The simplest example is a gnpper with three fingers and one joint dnven by an appropnate actuator

this purpose Figure 8 23 gives an example of this gnpper Each finger motion is performed using a
ball-screw mechanism Electnc motor output is transmitted to screws attached to each finger through
bevel gear trains which rotate the screws When each screw ts rotated clockwise or counterclockwise
the translational motion of each finger will be produced, which results in the grasping-releasing action
The configuration of the grasping-mode switching system using three fingers* is shown by Figure

8 24 This includes four electnc motorsand three fingers and can have four grasping modes, as shown
in Figure 8 25, each of which can be achieved by the finger-turning mechanism All fingers can be
bent by motor-dnven cross-four-bar link mechanisms, and each finger has one motor
The finger-turning mechanism is called a double-dwelt mechanism, which ts shown in Figure 8 26
Gears that rotate the fingers are shown and double-headed arrows indicate the top edge of the finger’s
bending planes for each prehensile mode This mechanism transfers the stale of gnpper progressively
from three-jaw, to wrap, to spread, and to tip prehension The gears for fingers 2 and 3 are connected
to the motor-dnven gear directly, whereas the gear for finger I is connected to the motor-dnven
gear through a coupler link Rotating the motor-dnven gear in three-jaw position, finger 1 rotates,
passes through a dwell position, and then counterrotates to reach the wrap position Similarly, finger
1 IS rotated out of its spread position but ts returned as the mechanism assumes tip prehension Finger

2 is rotated counterclockwise 60* from its thrce-jaw position to the wrap position, then counterclockwise
120* into the spread position, then counterclockwise ISO* into the tip position Finger 3 rotates through
identical angles but m
a clockwise direction A
multiprehension system of this type is eS’ective for
picking up vanous-shaped objects

Five-Finger Hand
A small number of
five-finger hands have been developed in the world, with only a few for industnal
use Almost all of them are prosthetic hands for amputees In the development of prosthetic arms,
cosmetic aspects are more important to the mental slate of the handicapped than functions This

Fig. 8.23. Gnpper using three-point chuck mechanism (Courtesy of Yamatake Honeywell Co Ltd ,
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132
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

requires anthropomorphism in (he design of prosthetic hands For industnat use, the function is more
important than cosmetic aspects of the gnpper Therefore anthropomorphism is beyond consideration
in the design of mdustnal grippers This is why there arc only a few five-finger industrial gnppers
Nevertheless, five-finger gnppers that have been developed so far for prosthetic use are descnbed in
the following part of this section because they include many mechanisms that will be effective in the
design of mdustnal gnppers
A handicapped person must produce control signals for operation of a prosthetic arm The number
of independent control signals available determines how many degrees of freedom the prosthetic device
can have Typical models of a five-finger gnpper for prostheses have only one degree of freedom
Each finger is connected to a motor by appropriate mechanisms
Figure 8 27 shows an example, called the WIME Hand •• Each finger is constructed using a cross-
four-bar link mechanism which gives the finger proper bending motion One element of each of the
five sets of cross-four-bar links includes a crank rod All crank rods are connected to the spnng-
loaded plate (1), which is moved translationally by a electnc motor dnve-screw mechanism (2) When
the motor rotates clockwise or counterclockwise, the plate (1) moves toward the left or the right,
respectively, and activates the cross-four-bar link of each finger to bend the finger and to produce
the grasping operation To ensure that the gnpper holds the inject with the equilibrium of the forces
between the fingers and the object, the arrangement of fingers must be carefully considered In typical
five-finger hands, the thumbfaces the other four fingers and is placed equidistant from the index
finger and middle finger so the tips of the fingers can meet at a point when each finger is bent (see
Figure 8 28)
If each finger connects to the dnve system ngidly, finger movements are decided by the
motion

of the dnve system The finger configuration can not accommodate the shape change of grasped objects
To remedy this problem, the motor output can be transmitted to each finger through flexible elements
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T«p of the
in<tex finger

Fig. 8J«. Three-point pinch

Figure 8 29 shows examples of this type of gnppcr •• There are two pairs of fingers the index
and the middle fingers, and the nng and the little fingers Each pair is connected to lever 1 through
a pivot Also, lever 1 is connected to lever 2 through lever 3 at joints A and B Lever 2 has a
fulcrum point at D and is supported by the spnng S The grasping operation is executed by pulling
lever 2 at the end C Assuming that the index and middle fingers touch the object, movements of
these fingers will stop, but the third and little fingers can still continue to move till those fingers
touch the object because lever 2 can rotate at joint A This causes the fingers to accommodate the
shape of the object
It IS possible to move each finger independently, if the cross-four-bar link for each finger is dnven

by a different motor Usually this type of gnppcr requires small motors to be installed in the finger

8.6. UNIVERSAL GRIPPERS

Universal gnppers with many degrees of freedom like the human hand have been researched by several
investigators Increasing the degrees of freedom causes several problems One difficult problem is how
to install in the gnppcr the actuators necessary to activate all degrees of freedom This requires miniature
actuators that can produce enough power to dnvc the gnppcr joint Commercially available actuators
are too large to attach at each joint of the finger The use of SME (shape memory effect) actuatois
IS one solution, but it is not practical at present The most frequent solution to this problem is to
use cable and pulley mechanisms that enable a motor to be placed at an appropriate position away
from the joint
There are two examples of universal gnppers Each uses cable pulley mechanisms and DC motor
dnve Figure 8 30 shows an example of the gnpper. which includes three fingers a thumb, an index
finger, and a middle finger ** Usually three fingers provide enough functions for universal gnppers
Each finger contains two or three segments made of 17-mm brass rods bored to be cylmdncal The
tip of each segment is truncated at a slope of 30^ so that the finger can be bent at the maximum

Lever 1

Engi-
Fig 8.29. Prosthetic hand equipped with accommodation mechanism (Courtesy of Mechanical
neenng Lab , MITI, Japan )
.n.pu,„,

WIME

Hand

Crank

rods

(
 ) )

136 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Wire and hose

Fig. 8J2. Wire-pu!ley dnve system with wire-guiding hoses supported by spnngs (Courtesy of Sugano
et al , Reference 13

—
angle of 45^ at each joint not only inward but also outward This makes the workspace of the
finger more eilensive than that of the human finger
The thumb has three joints Each of the index and the middle fingers has four jomts. Each joint
includes 1 DF. which u dnven using a wire-pulIey mechanism and electric motors pulley is placed A
at each joint, around which two wires arc wound after an end of each wire is fixed on the pulley
The wire is guided through coiUike hoses so (hat it cannot interfere with (he compbcated finger motioo
Using coillike hoses is effective in protecting the wire and also m
making it possible to elimuiate
relayug points for guiding wire. To make the motions of the fingers flexible and to make the gnpper
system more compact, the wires and hoses are installed through the finger tubes The section drawing
of the gnpper system m
Figure 8 31 explains the joint dnve mechanisms Motors for dnving respective
joints are located together within a trunk separated from the gnpper system

Fig. 8J3. Five-finger hand with 14 DF (Courtesy of Sugano et al ,

Reference 13
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Q-Q UOIJO0S

(•Z\ aouajaja:^ Jo Xs3}jno3) uiajSiCs jaSug aiijBSJSyY ’ocg "S.y

 CHAPTER 9
TELEOPERATOR ARM DESIGN
WAYNE J. BOOK
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta. Georgia

A teleoperatora manipulator that requires the command or supervision of a human operator The
is

manipulator remote from the operator, as is implied by the name The manipulator arm for a
is

teleoperator has many design problems in common with the arm for an autonomous robot Unlike
the robot, however, the teleoperator has a human involved with each execution of the task As a
consequence, the human interface of the teleoperator is more cntical than for most autonomous robots
The operator can exercise his judgement and skill m
completing the task, even in the face of unforeseen
circumstances The distinction between the robot and the teleoperator is blurred when the operator
only supervises the operation of the teleoperator or when a robot is being lead through a motion by
Its human programmer
Industnal applications of teleoperators are numerous and typically involve work conditions insppro-
pnate for the human The environment may be hazardous or unpleasant, or the forces and reach
may be greater than (he human can directly provide If the task is predictable and repetitious, an
autonomous robot is appropriate If the judgment and skill of a human are needed, or if the task is
one of a kind, use of a teleoperator should be considered Examples include the nuclear and munitions
industnes, foundnes, and resource exploration and extraction Teleoperator technology applies to cranes,
backhoes, and other matenal-handling equipment As the industnalization of space becomes a reality,
teleoperators such as the remote manipulator system on the space shuttle and smaller arms will ^
essential Figure 9 1 shows a range of applications As autonomous robots are applied to tasks with
smaller batch size, thus reqviinng more frequent TepTOgrammiTig, the behavior of these systems during
teaching wiU be more cntic^ Programming of the robot raises many of the same issues as teleoperation
The intent of this chapter is to present those issues and alternatives m the design of mechanical
arms that are unique to their use as teleoperators The material is presented in a general way to
apply to the diverse range in configuration, size, type of human interface, and puipose found in teleojxra*
tors Design trade-offs in teleoperator arm design can be made if performance of the arm can be
predicted as a function of the design parameters and the task to be performed The difficulty in predicting
the performance of teleoperators is due to the vanability of that unique and essential component of
the system the human operator As a consequence of this rather poorly understood component, one
should not expect to predict performance of teleoperators with the certainty possible for autonomous
robots that have only mechanical and electrical components It is important, however, to struggle
with the often incomplete results available at this time to build a qualitative and quantitative model
of the effects of design decisions on the effectiveness of the teleoperator man-machine system The
designer should also have reference to a suitable handbook on human factors, as such information is

not duplicated here One example of such is the Human Engineering Guide lo Equipment Design.'

9.1. TELEOPERATOR SUBSYSTEMS AND TERMINOLOGY

The terminology used in this chapter b introduced in this section and in Figure 9 2 A teleoperator
system consists of a remote unit which cames out the remote manipulation, a control unit for input
of the operator’s commands, and a commumcafions channel for linking the control and remote unit
The remote unit generally consists of the manipulator arm with an end effector for grasping or
otherwise engaging the workpiece and special tools Each articulation or joint of the manipulator
provides a degree offreedom (DF) to the manipulator Commonly used joints are rotational or hinge
joints providing one axis of rotation and prismatic or sliding joints with one direction of translation
The motion of the joints determines the motion of the end effector A minimum of 6 DF are necessa^
for the end effector to be arbitranly positioned ui the workspace with arbitrary onentation Usua y

138
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 144 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

except for the end effector In other cases the master unit expenences reduced resistance to
amplify the operator’s strength and reduce bis or her fatigue This interface is also called
bilateral master-slave control

5. Resolved motion rate control allows the operator to specify the velocity of the end effector

natural way (As many as six have been implemented ) Another approach to controlling 6
DF IS to use two joy sticks or handcontrollers, one for translation and one for rotation

6. Supervisory control takes many forms, but «i general allows the operator to specify some of
the desired motion symbolically instead of by analog The computer interpreting the symbolic
commands then issues the joint commands This mode of operator interface results in a hybnd
between leleoperator and robot discussed in more detail in other chapters of this handbook
It is

9.3. THE DESIGN CONTEXT

The design of a teleoperator ultimately involves the specification of components and parameters These
components and parameters result in characlensiics of the manipulator behavior Knowing the character-
istics of the teleoperator and the characterKtics of the task one can determine the relative performance

of that teleoperator by some performance index Optimization of a design requires that the penalties
associated with the cost and rehabihly of (he components be considered as well as their performance
This chapter considers only the relationship between performance and charactenstics unique to teleopera-
tors For a wide range of opinions on p^ormance evaluation the reader is referred to the report of
a workshop on the subject sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards ^

9.3.1. Performance Measures for Teleoperators

The most relevant quantiflable measures of performance for teleoperators are based on task-completion
time Measures that are considered here are the task total time, time-eCfectiveness ratio (time relative
to the unencumbered hand), and unit-task time (lime for elemental task components) Operator fatigue,
and satisfaction are hard to quantify but nonetheless important Quantifying these perfor-
success ratio,
mance measures requires that the task or a range of (asks be specified They are task-dependent measures
to some extent The most relevant tasks to be specified are the tasks for which the teleoperator will
be used Unfortunately, the tasks are not oRen known in advance with great certainty owing to the
general-purpose nature of teleoperators The performance measures have been combined in various
ways in an attempt to explain expenmenlal results better

irtformalion-Based Performance Measures

One successful measure is the information transmission rate achieved by the teleoperator This is not

totally task independent but has been correlated with simple charactenzations of the task The informa-
tion transmitted by (he operator is equal to the reduction in uncertainty in the relative position of
rfie end edecCor and the target, usualfy measured in bits The time required to transmit f&e information

determines the information transfer rate The experimental determination of these correlations is based
on measunng the task completion time, calculating an index of difficulty, and then normalizing the
result The index of difficulty la proposed by Fitts* for use in direct manual positioning tasks (unencum-
bered hand) is

where A = the distance between targets m a repetitive motion

B — the width of the target

This index of difficulty and its vanations have been applied to teleoperators by Book and Hannema*
for a simple manipulator of programmable dynamics and by McGovern® for more complex manipulators
with fixed dynamics Hill® combined this measure with the unit-task concept, desenb^ later, to predict
task times He and his co-workers document claims that only the fine-motion or final-positioning
phase IS governed by information transmission The grass-motion phase of manipulation is governed
by arm dynamics, both human and manipulator

Time-Effectiveness Ratio

One popular and easily understood measure of performance is the task time multiplier or time-effective-
ness ratio When multiplied by the task time for the unencumbered hand it yields the task time for
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146 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

9.3^. Teleoperator Characterbtics

The important characteristics of a tcJeoperator in predicting performance should be traceable to the

design decisions that resulted in those charactensUcs With the wide vanety of teleoperators of interest
It IS more productive to work with abstract
charactenstics that will be relevant to most if not all
designs Relating these characteristics to parameters and components for teleoperators is similar for
robots and other systems Some of the characteristics can be presented quantitatively whereas others
can only be discussed
Characteristics considered by vanous researchers, designers, and authors include

Reach and workspace shape and volume

Space occupied by the remote unit and command unit
Dextenty
Degrees of freedom
Velocity, acceleration, and force obtainable with and without payload
Accuracy, repeatability, and resolution of position, force, and velocity
Backlash, dead band, or free motion between the input and response
Coulomb or dry fnction and viscous fnciion of command and remote unit
Bandwidth or frequency response of the remote unit to smalt amplitude inputs
Time delay between issuance of a command and initiation of the resulting action by the remote
umt
Rigidity or compliance of the remote unit to ertemally applied forces

Inertia of the remote unit and of the command unit

Static loads that must be counteracted by the actuators of the remote unit or the operator

The relative significance of each of these charactenstics is subject to interpretation Their effects
on performance are discussed later with the design decisions commonly afTecling the charactenstic
Some of the effects were already presented in Table 9 I

9.4. PERFORMANCE PREDICTIONS

Many researchers have predicted performance of an existing manipulator for hypothetical tasks to be
remotely performed For design purposes one must predict the performance of a manipulator that
does not yet exist so that design decisions can be made to achieve specified or desired performance
The limited existing results are presented in the context of design, and qualitative discussion of other
charactenstics is given Also, the evaluation of existing manipulators is summanzed and referenced

9.4.1.Task Time Based on Index of Difficulty for Varying Bandwidth. Backlash, and
Coulomb Friction

Perhaps the most methodical results obtained applicable to design are altnbuted to Hannema and
Book * The results are based on expenments using a simple. 2>DP manipulator with programmable
charactenstics The charactenstics considered arc among the most important for determining manipula-
tor performance arm servo bandwidth, backlash (lost motion), and coulomb or dry fnction The
task considered was a simple repetitive positioning task that involved moving to and tapping within
a tolerance band The layout of the expenment is shown schematically in Figure 9 3 The relative
task times for vanous values of task and manipulator parameters were obtained The following caveats
should be observed when applying the results

Only positioning tasks were considered, and the task had only one degree of constraint since position-
ing anywhere within a linear band was permitted Tasks involving the application of force are
not addressed in these expenments
Simple master-slave control was used, with no force reflecting or bilateral capabilities

Combinations of manipulator characteristics were not considered Vanations were made in only
one charactenstic while holding all other characteristics constant This allowed the effects of that
charactenstic to be isolated

The Information Transmission Model

An extended mformation transmission model similar to the one proposed by Welford'® as an extension
of Fitts’ model was used It allows for different information transmission rates for the gross-movement
or travel phase and the fine-movement or positioning phase reflecting different channel capacities
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146 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS
9^J. Teleoperator Characteristics

The important characienstics of a teiet^ierator in predicting performance should be traceable to the

design decisions that resulted m those characteristics With the wide vanety of teleoperators of interest
It IS more productive to work with abstract charactenstics that will be relevant to most if not all
designs Relating these charactenstics to parameters and components for leleoperators is similar for
robots and other systems Some of the charactenstics can be presented quantitatively whereas others
can only be discussed
Charactenstics considered by vanous researchers, designers, and authors include

Reach and workspace shape and volume.

Space occupied by the remote unit and command umt.
Dexterity
Degrees of freedom
Velocity, acceleration, and force obtainable with and without payload
Accuracy, repeatability, and resolution of posiiion, force, and velocity
Backlash, dead band, or free motion between the input and response
Coulomb or dry fnction and viscous fnciion of command and remote urut

Bandwidth or frequency response of the remote unit to small amplitude inputs

Time delay between issuance of a command and initiation of the resulting action by the remote
unit

Rigidity or compliance of the remote umi to externally appbed forces

Inertia of the remote urut and of the command unit
Static loads that must be counteracted by the actuators of the remote unit or the operator

The relative significance of each of these characteristics is subject to interpretation Their effects
on performance are discussed later with the design decisions commonly affecting the characteristic
Some of the effects were already presented in Table 9 I

9.4. PERFORMANCE PREDICTIONS

Many researchers have predicted performance of an existing manipulator for hypothetical tasks to be
remotely performed For design purposes one must predict the performance of a manipulator that
does not yet exist so that design decisions can be made to achieve specified or desired performance
The limited existing results are presented in the context of design, and qualiutive discussion of other
charactenstics is given. Also, the evaluation of existing manipulators is summanaed and referenced

9,4,1. Task Time Based on Index of Difficulty for Varying Bandwidth, Backlash, and
Catsiomb Frictioa

Perhaps the most methodical results obtained applicable to design are altnbuted to Hannema and
Book.* The results are based on experiments using a simple, 2-DF manipulator with programmable
The charactenstics considered arc among the most important for determining manipula-
characteristics.
tor performance- arm servo bandwidth, backlash Oosi motion), and coulomb or dry fnction. The
task considered was a simple repetitive positioning task that involved moving to and tapping within
a tolerance band The layout of the experiment is shown schematically in Figure 9 3 The relative
task times for vanous values of task and nuuupulalor parameters were obtained The following caveats
should be observed when applying the results

Only positioning tasks were considered, and the task had only one degree of constraint since position-
mg anywhere within a linear band was permitted Tasks involving the application of force are
not addressed m these expenments
Simple master-slave control was used, with no force refiecting or bilateral capabilities

Combinations of manipulator charactenstics were not considered Variations were made in only
one characteristic while holding all other characteristics constant This allowed the effects of that
characteristic to be isolated.

The Information Transmission Mode!

extension
An extended information transmission model similar to the one proposed by Welford'® as an
Fitts’ model was used It allows for different information transmission rates
for the gross-movement
of
capacities
or travel phase and the fine-movement or positioning phase reflecting different channel
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149 MEOIANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS
• here

fi = /« + logi U’ + b, logj^,

W'
»» = 6»1o8i-^
^ .

Chooung IF =
8 cm as a rerermce distance is arbitrary but convenient since all values of B Mill
then contnbute a positive time to L Figures 9 4 through 9 6 plot h and tj separately versus the two
task parameters log] A' and log] B. The total lime is represented as the vertical distance between
two curves of the same value of manipulator charactcmtic For example, a natural frequency of 14
rad/sec can be found on Figure 9 4a Find on the two ordinate scales the values of interest for A'
and B for example. A' = 32 cm. fl = 2 cm The value of i, is read from the », axis where the
upper w = 14 line crosses A' = 16 cm The value of tj is read from the it axis where the lower
(i> = 14 line crosses
£* = 2 cm The total predicted time for 30 repetitions is h + It
The manipulator design problem poses a question that is better answered by Figures 9 46. 9 36,
and 9 66 In these figures limes (i and ij are plotted versus the manipulator charactenstics, natural
frequency, coulomb friction, or backlash The task parameters are constant along the lines shown
This information can be coupled with a design strategy to optimize the design
Other values could be chosen for H' that would result in a diRereni intercept but the same slope
The constant r* has been included tn it The data have been used to estimate the transition distance
from gross to fine motion, B'a, This value and the regression coefficients are shown in Table 9 2

I
S
i

Width B (cm)
(j1 (61

Fig. 9 4. Regression results natural frequency (a) Gross and fine It motions (6) Design format
(Source' Book and Hannema *)
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TABLE REGRESSION COEFnCTENTS FOR MANIPULATOR CHARACTERISTICS

Natural Coulomb Back- Regression Coefficient
Frequency Fnction lash Correlation Transfer
(rad/sec) (%) (“) bi bi to Coefficient Point

6 0 0 947 12 89 13 14 987 14 35

14 0 0 5 39 8 48 11 81 980 14 17

22 0 0 482 703 8 47 987 14 23

30 0 0 5 45 709 4 96 979 8 07
30 25 0 4 83 864 12 25 976 9 30

30 50 0 503 10 83 18 16 979 8 77

30 75 0 5 43 1208 20 75 983 8 67
30 0 5 25 3 72 990 23 67 .961 14 27

30 0 1049 3 42 II 29 32 10 968 1690

30 0 15 74 366 1209 36 52 971 20 17

For changes m
natural frequency (Figure 9 4) the information rates bi and bt remain roughly m
the same proportion, indicating equal transmission rates in gross- and fine-motion phases, as would
be assum^ by Fitts’ model Increasing <> beyond 30 rad/scc bnngs little improvement based on the
trends observ^
For coulomb fnction vanations (Figure 9 5) the gross-motion times and fVo, are almost constant,
but the fine-motion times are noticeably influenced If the simulated fnction had reduced the maximum
torque as real fnction does, the gross-motion lime would be expected to suffer as well
Backlash (Figure 9 6) greatly increases fine-motion lime and as if the visual feedback available
dunng fine motion were needed The amount of bacUash simulated is large, greater than most teleopera-
tors would contain Hannema'* discusses some aspects of this in more detail
Examples of how the expenmenul information could be used in design follow but are not intended
to be all-inclusive

EXAMPLE 1: How much increase in task time should be expected when a leleoperator end effector
ISchanged to a heavier one. increasing the arm inertia and thus reducing the jomt
natural frequencies from 22 to 14 rad/sec’ The design task involves moves of 32
cm to a target width of 2 cm
The experimental data presented showed an increase from 26 to 30 sec for a similar
repetitive task The designer should expect about 15% increase in task time

EXAMPLE 2: If a backlash of 5^ can be ebmmaled. what is the expected reduction m task time
for a short gross motion (8 cm) with 1 cm tolerance’'
The value of r, was reduced in the expenmcnts from 5 to 0 sec, and f* was reduced
from 30 to 21 sec, for a total percentage reduction on the order of 40%
EXAMPLE 3: What IS the most likely payoff for a precision teleoperalor design improving joint

natural frequency beyond 30 rad/sec or reducing a substantial coulomb fnction"'

Little if any improvement is expected from improving the bandwidth beyond 30
rad/sec, whereas lowenng fnction shows considerable sensitivity

Results for Multiple Degrees of Constraint

By using the concept of degree of constraint it ts possible to extend the index of difficulty to more
complex tasks This has been done for two manipulators with quite different characteristics and the
results presented The total task time was assumed to be the sum of travel, positioning, and insertion
times "The positioning and insertion tunes were related to the degree of constraint, with the index of
difficulty being the sum of the indices for each constraint taken separately
One of the useful concepts of this work was that the positioning and insertion task may invol«
one. two, or three phases If the index of difficulty is low enough (less than 5 bits), it may be accomplished
of
with only the open-loop travel phase, dependent on only gross-motion characteristics If the index
Fine-
difficulty IS between roughly 5 and 10 bits, it will be completed within a fine-motion phase
motion characteristics influence both the time required and the upper limit on bits for completion
m
manipulator,
this phase If the task tolerances are very high relative to the fine-motion capabilities of the
about the
a third phase may be required In this phase a random vanation of end position occurs
nominal target The probability of completing the task any given lime interval is constant an
m
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Fig. 98. Normalized time for muittdegree of constraint

~ task time Tor constrained assembly Index of assembly Te lero degree of constraint
•=
time. To difficulty based on an initial open-loop move
(Source Hill**’)

Vcrtut presented his results in terms of time-dfecuveness ratio, that is, compared to the times of
the unencumbered human hand The general lime-^cs^iveness ratio predictions are shovm Figure m
9 9 for manipulators of six types The types are generally the same as listed under categones previously
with the abbreviations as follows

Light-duty master slave—bilateral (LD)

Heavy-duty master slave —bilateral (HD)
Position control — unilateral master sbve (PC)
Resolved motion rate control (RMRC)
Rate control (RC)
On-off control (OOC)

The task types are descnbed as follows

Pick and Place (PP). A

positioning task plus a grasp and release task It consists of simply
picking up an object and placing it m
a new, speaBed location
Simple Assembly (SA), A removal and insertion task A simple insertion of a peg m a hole is

an example.
Normal Assembly (NA). Involves insertion and turning, for example.

Figure 9 9 shows the significance of the human interface in determining the overall task time and
the relative difficulty of the vanous task types, 'nme-c&cctiveness ratios vary by a factor of more
than 100 for the different types of interfaces As b always the case with companson of complete
systems, one cannot attribute with certamly all the effects to one charactenstic
McGovern* also considered the firae-effcctiveness ratio as a means for performance prediction
His results are in rough agreement with Rgure 9.9 He also breaks the time-effectiveness ratio into
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154 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Tolerance (mml

Fig. 9.11. Disengage unii task time versus tolerance Sample includes three manipulators (including
hand) and Iwo subjects (Source Hill*)

through 9 IS present the results for two subjects Although a small sample size was used, the results
present the designer with some concept of the range of values of unit-task time and how they vary
with the unit parameter Units not having a parameter appear m Table 9 3
An example of breaking a knob-turaing task into motion elements is given by Hill In the task
the operator touches a plate (signaling the start of the task), grasps the vertical handle of a rotary
switch, turns it 90* clockwise, then ISO® counterclockwise, and finally 90* clockwise, returning it to
vertical He releases the knob and touches the plate, signaling the end of the task Tlie motion elements
are as follows «ith unit parameten m parentheses

Fig. 9.12. Turn unit task time versus angle Sample includes three manipulators (including hand)
and two subjects (Sjurre Hill*)
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156 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig.9 14. Pre-position unit task time vcmis toteraoce. Sample includes three mampulators Oncluding
hand) and i«o subjects (Source HiU*)

To estimate the effect of manipulator charactenstks backlash, coulomb friction, and bandwidth
on the unit'task times the designer can draw from ibe results of ihi» and the previous section The
gross-motion time of the previous section corre^Mnds to the wove-uait tuae, and vanatioas with
manipulator characteristics should be similar Fine-iiioQon time variations should te similar to variations
m pre-position tune and roughly similar to the odter finat-poaitionifig and assembly-unit times.

9JS. SUMMARY
In this chapter the unique aspects of designing an arm for ose in a teleoperator have been addressed
The focus has been on the human and tus tot^ace to the manipulator control The unportani classes
of interfaces have been descnbed Three measures of Ideoperator performance have been presented
mfonnation-iranstaission rate, tunes relative to the ooeocombcred human, and unit-task times. Good
design decisions require a prediction of the performaace of the teleoperator in tenns of the alternatives
and the application The available results have bees surveyed and presented Much work remains
before a unified approach can be applied to teleopenuor design. Progress ts being made in that direction,
and the existing work presented gives a suitable frajnenord; for dsigs considerations.

Fig. 9,15. Move unit task time versus distance, Sain{^ includes three manipulators (including hand)
and two subjects (Source Hill ’)
 CHAPTER 10
PERFORMANCE TESTING
HANS J. WARNECKE
ROLF D. SCHRAFT
MARTIN C. WANNER
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing
Engineering and Automation
Stuttgart, West Germany

10.1. GENERAL
The purpose of measuring and testing the performance of industnal robots is the urgent need to
compare the charactenstics of dilfereRt robots according to a standardized test program It is usefiiJ
to make the following distinctions

1. Measunog for the Robot User. Only those charactenstics needed to solve the user's specific

problem are evaluated This procedure may be descnbed as task-onented performance testing

2. Measuring for the Robot Producer. This evaluation involves determination of weak points
in prototypes leading to structural and control redesign and expanding the range of application
for already existing robots
3. Measunog over a Long Operadoo Period. This gives a determination of the long-term behavior
of the components

Unfortunately, the sundardization of charactenstics and test methods for industnal robots is very
slow, largely because industnal robots are still in an early stage of development

lOJ. TEST STAND FOR INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

To fill gap for the German industry a lest stand and lest procedures were developed at the Fraunhofer
this
Production Automation (IPA)* with unified measunng programs Of paramount importance
Institute for
in the test-stand design is an accurate geomctncal coordination between robot and the measunng

devices—essential for measunng with the necessary accuracy in the entire workspace
Figure 10 1 shows the test stand at the IPA-Stutlgail including the platform and the three-dimen-
sional measunng machine with some pans of the signal flow for the processing of geomctncal, power,
and Ihemial values With such a test stand it is possible to get the required data in a reasonable
time, which is impossible without the aid of sophisticated test-data processing and software For shop-
floor measunngs tape recorders with several mput channels are useful if the software from the test
stand can be used afterwards

10.3. MEASURING SENSORS

For the determination of geometncal values a distmclion can be made between contacting and noncon-
tacting measunng heads Contacting methods like a louch-tngger probe and a three-dimensional
measur-
ing head with a sphere are used for static measurements and by the producers for adjusting component
dunng robot assembly Inductive, noncontacting measunng heads are in most cases supenor to such
resolution
devices as ultrasound, laser, and photogrammetry if we consider data processing, distance,
linearity, and pnce for the item
remembered
In selecting measunng systems, the repeatabili^ of modem industnal robots should be

158
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160 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. lOJ. Three-dimemional inductive measuring head »ith measunng cube and payload lued with
the robot

1. Measunng at the gnpper, «hich provides general mrormation about the elastic behavior of
the structure
2, Measunng at single axes

These methods are used for error compensations of the controller and to find potential weak points
refemng to the axes. Figure 104 shows a typical example of some lest results In this case the last
axisshows a nonlinear behavior and should be regarded as weak point of the design

Position Accuracy

Position accuracy is defined as the repeatable accuracy that can be achieved at nominal load and
normal operating temperature. In Europe we distinguish between the following

1. Repeatability deviation between the positions and onenlations reached at the end of several
of errors 3sy, see Figure 10 5)
similar cycles (three times standard deviation
several
2. Reversal error deviation between the positions and onentations reached at the ends of
Figure
different paths (numencal value plus or minus the standard deviation errors U, see
10 5)
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162 MEaiANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

Fig. 10.5, Me^unng the position accuracy of indusinal robots and test results

Repeatability and reversal error are measured for robots with PTP-controi or robots with CP*
control and PTP-tasks Both errors depend on the position m
the working space For the user it is
"
important to know both errors These errors also influence the task and procedure of the "teach-tn

Path Accuracy

The path accuracy of a path-controlled robot indicates at what level of accuracy programmed path
cunes can be followed at nominal load The following measuring methods are common

1. Photogrammetry The movement is documented by the use of two or more cameras Exact,
multi-purpose method, but evaluation of data is very complicated
2. External measuring by laser system * With this multipurpose system accuracy is still a problem
3. Scale in space, inductive measunng system ResirKted to straight-path movements

As the last procedureimponant (inexpensive, very accurate, easy evaluation, and most
is still

CP-lasks have straight-path movements), we describe it in more detail A steel scale is arranged tn
the workspace, (he starting and the end point of a straight line is programmed at a certain distance
between measunng head (at the robot) and the scale To determine path accuracy, the robot is run
in automatic mode between these two points In this way ii is possible to measure the position and

onentalion of the robot relative to the scale The measunng is repealed in dilTerent areas of the working
space as a function of workload and speed
Figure 10 6 shows the following typical errors m path accuracy for a robot

1. Path accuracy or mean paih-dispersion error descnbes the effect of random deviations from
the reference straight line (deviation = 0) The dispersion error is stated as the difference
between the largest and smallest deviation of the actual path and reference straight line

2. Trailing error or mean path deviation descnbes the effect of control circuit settings associated
with the dnves to the relevant axes of the robot on the actual path This distance is stated as
the difference between the mean actual path and the reference straight line

3. Overshoot dunng acceleration and deceleration of the robot

All errors are functions of the velocity, workload, and number of axes involved in the movement
related to different paths in the workspace

Oxtrshooi

Overshoot of robot structures occurs with violent changes in direction and mass and dunng acceleration
and deceleration It is measured by feeding a cube (at the rs^l) into a noncontact three-dimensional
measunng head (3-D machine) The data are memonxed. and the loganthmic decrement is computed
The measunng must be repeated at different points in the working space Generally the user is interested
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164 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

m 1 WM III
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a m s
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m
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i m
0 1 2 3 4 5
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fast movement slow movement

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Fig. 10.8. Stick-slip effect as function of the speed

10 9 shows the measunng procedure for this accuracy and (he test results Here the test cube is fixed
on a belt with a known sp^
The robot with » two- or three-dimensional measunng head is taught
same speed and path The distance Sa is measured
to follow the cube at the

Long-Term Behavior

The test of long-term behavior gives information on the time required to achieve thermal stability
(temperature-dependent deviations) This test ts very importrant for hydraulic units The measunng
cycle should last at least four hours with standard test cycles For companson the following parameters
must be equal movement sequence and range, load, speed, and measunng conditions Temperature
measunng at different points and the use of infrared cameras supports the search for thermal weak
points

10,4.2. Kinematic Values

The following data should be determined and measured

1 Attainable cycle times for a defined sequence in different areas of the working space In most
cases the roiMt supplier gives information about speed and acceleration of the axes For robots

I
tracking time |

Vg Bell speed

V|p • IR- speed

Light barrier signal Start signal

Sg ‘ distance
theor

Sjjct distance during the

automatical run* off

Fig. 10.9. Measunng conveyor tracking method and typical results

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166 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ROBOTS

with more than one rotatory axis the speed in F Z direction must be related to the area
m the worLspace
2. The path of velocity and maximum and average velocity measured by integration of the accelera-
tion. The path of acceleration gives an idea of how to improve the robot control The maximum
acceleration is used to determine the gnpping force, in many cases the tangential accelerations
can reach high values Measurement is by three-dimensional devices with inductive and piezore-
sistive accelerometers.

The kinematic values are closely linked to the dynamic values

10.4J. Power and Noise Values

Peak and mean values are determined m

continuous operation With pneumatic robots, for example,
the volumetnc flow is an important cost factor
The measunng of the sound pressure is performed at a l-m distance from the working space
The number of measunng points is equivalent to the difference between the maximum and minimum
sound pressure in decibels

10.4.4. Thermal Values of the Components and Media

Changes in temperature affect deviation of the structure, which is always important in the design of
hydraulic units

10.4.5. Dynamic Values

In addition to measunng at the gnpper it is important for the designer to know the dynamic behavior
of simple components and of the total structure Here cxpenmental modal analysis is a useful tool
for robot design With this method we suit with the unit forced-response data and extract the mode
of vibration without any assumptions about the mass and stiffness disinbution The result is a set of
modes including frequency, damping, mode shape, and residues An example of an assembly robot
measured according to this method at the IPA u shown in Figure 10 10
It 1$ possible to elicit response of the robot structure by the following excitation methods

1. Shaker (sinus, random)

2. Hammer (impact)
3. Snapback (impact)
4 Drives (sinus, random)

With these data it is possible to create a mathematical model for further design improvements Another
method involves the measunng of data from the paih-measunng systems and certain places on the
robot arm Both methods can also be used for tests over a long penod and as tools for preventive
maintenance^*

REFERENCES
1. Wamecke. H J and Schraft, R D . lodusirial Robots. IFS-Pubhcations Ltd . Bedford, 1982
2. Brodbeck, B and Schicte, G
Pmfstand fur /ndusirierofioter, Foischungsbencht
,
HA 80-032, Hu-
manisierung des Arbeifslebcns, Teit 8, Karlsruhe, 1980
3. Brodbeck, B and Schiele, G , Ergebnisse von Messungen von Indusirierobolern. Techntsche Rund-
schau, January 1980, pp 5-7
4 VDI 2861, Blatl I and 2, Bezeichnungen und Kenngro/Jen von Handhabungseinnehtungen, VDI-
Verlag
5. Robot Check, Three-Dimensional Noncontact Dynamic Robot Measunng. SelspineAB. 1983
6. SDRC/GENRAD, Modal-User Manual, March 1982
7. Dagalakis, N , Analysis of Robot Performance Operation, I3lh International Symposium on Indus-
trial Robots. Vol 1, 1983. pp 7 73-795
8. Wamecke, H J , Schraft, R. D and Wanner.
.
M C . Application of the Expcnmental Modal-
analysis m the Performance Testing Procedure oflndustnal Robots, Proceedings of Robotics Europe
Conference. 1984
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no ROBOT COVTROL

«s a cos P cos y — sin a stn y

n(0 = IS a cca ^ sm y + »n a cos y (112)
— cos a sin ^ J

sin a cos P cos y — cos a sin y 1

s(0 = sin a cos ^ sin y + cos a cos y I
(113)
sin a sin ^ J

sm/3cosy1
afO = (114)
[

Consequently the stale of the hand at time i in Cartesian coordinates with reference to the base
coordinatesmay also be represented by a six'dimensional vector [p{0' ^(O'l '"'here [6(f)') = (a y)
and ()' =
transpose of ()
The hand, however, is dnven by the actuators at the joints Intuitively, if all the joint displacements
arc known, the position and onentation of the hand arc determined Let n be the number of joints
For = 1,2,
1 n. let qi be the dtspbccinent of the ith joint with respect to its own reference
,

point Then, for any given robot with known geometrical dimensions, there is a relation

[p(f)'6(f)T=fk..4.. .9.1 (115)

where f(-) is a 6 X ] vector-valued function This relation is known, but almost always nonlinear,
which complicates the problem > Since, in reality. [p(r)* 6(r)'] in Cartesian coordinates is specified,
but the corresponding [qi. 4.] m joint coordinates is actually needed, one may command the
.

joint actuators to comply with the specilicaiion in Cartesian coordinates The solution requires the
inverse vector function f'K ) of n dimension This solution, if it can be found, may not be umque.
For the commercially available robots in operation, n is usually either 5 or 6 The geometneal configura-
tion of these robots with proper definitions and ranges of 9< enables one to obtain a unique solution
of equation (11 5)*
With the knowledge of the transformation between the position and onentation in Cartesian and
joint coordinates, it 1$ possible to control the hand, which travels along a desired Cartesian path, m

joint coordinates This implies the control at the joint level and corresponds to Case 2 in Figure
111 As an eitample, consider the Stanford manipulator.* ivhich has one pnsmatic and five revolute
joints as shown in Figure 113 A block diagram for a joint control of the Stanford manipulator,
which has a permanent magnet motor dnve. is shown in Figure 114 It has an optical enc^er for
positional feedback with a tachometer feedback for damping Thus an indusinal robot is a positioning
device in that each of its joints has a positional control system Now the qustion is how does one
control the joint to accomplish the goaF Before one amves at an answer, one must examine the
following possible specification Must the hand follow a specified path? If the answer is no, then one
has a simple pomMO-point positional control problem Otherwise, the controller must keep up with
path tracking These two problems are analyzed m the following sections

11.2. POSITIONAL CONTROL OF A SINGLE JOINT

If there are no path constraints, the controllers have only to make sure that the hand passes through
all the specified comer points of the path The input to the control system is the desired Cartesian

Cartesian Coordinates Joint Coordinates

Desired position Case I Teaching by doing

and onentation KNOWN
Case 2 r«[p(0.6(0I
Case 4 Approximate functions

Measured actual
displacement (Case 3 1(9,, . ^,))
and velocity KNOWN
Controller HANI3-LEVEL JOINT-LEVEL

Fig. Il.l. Knoirns and unknowns in different coordinates.

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JOJ posn SI oAJos iBuoijisod b ‘ooijoBjd uj -juiod oj juiod uiojj sojBuipjooo juiof ui joqoJ sqj siojjuoo
XiiBuopisod uaqi puB ‘(Z) ^^bo joj XishoSoibub jo ‘(j) osbo joj XnBjiSip ‘(Oi-J Jo suboui Xq sojBuipjooo
uBisajjBQ UI sjuiod joujoo poqioods oqi jo [“6 ‘ . '^b\ sojBuipjooo juiof Suipuodsojjoo oqj sojnduioo
• .

qoiqM ‘ooBid soqBj uoijbuuojsubjj sojBUipjooo oqj -joiBJodo ub Xq XuBnuBiu sjuiod osoqj qSnojqj
uoqx
poi joqoj oqj JO puBq oqj opqAV popjoooj ojb sjuiod joujoo ‘si jBqj ‘Swop t(q SmqDDaj p3||BO-os
SI

qSnojqj poqsiujnj (j) jo ‘uiojsXs oqj ojui p)Oj XnBouomnu (i) oq Xbiu qoiqAi ‘qjBd oqj jo sjuiod joujoo

•uoiJBjuouo JO soiSuB Jojnx (q) -puBq oqj jo sjojooa uoijbjuouo puB uoijisox (d) 'i'll

(9) (p)

(°))u 'Ox

UI siofloa iviaxsnaNi aoj smsxsas loaxNoa ao NOisaa

174 ROBOT CONTROL

oflenihs of mdlihmnes, it ts practically zero Then, by applying KirchhofT's voltage law to the armature
arcuil. one obtains a frequency domain rebtion

P(i)-/:*iO,(s> = (iJ + R)/{*)£R/(s) (11 12)

where s is the complex frequency in radians per second The DC motor is operated in its linear
range so that the generated torque is proportional to the armature current The relation m the frequency
domain is

r«(j)-/r,/(i) (11 13)

where Ki is the torque constant in ounce-tnches per ampere The motor shaft is mechanically connected
to an actuator-geardoad assembly, as indicated in Figure 1 1 6, with an effective inertia J,h and efecCive
damping coefficient S,tt at the actuator shaA The relations among the mechanical components ate
described by Eq (11 10), w'hich has a Laplace iransfonn equivalence

r„(r) = (y.„r*+F,ffr)0„{r) (11 14)

Eliminating rn(s) and /(s) among Eqs (II 12). (II 13), and (II 14) yields

^ (MIS)
F(r) + +/:,/:»))

which is the transfer function, or the feedforward gam, from the applied voltage to the DC motor
(mput), to the angular dispUcettieot of the coxitot shaft (output)
To construct a positional controUer for the angular displacement of the load shaft, it is necessary
to convert the displacement into electncal voltage to actuate the DC
motor For a feedback (or closed-
loop) controller the actuating signal is the error at time ( between (he desired and the actual displace-
ments

f(O = MO-0f{O 01 16)

By means ofa potentiometer or an optical encoder/counler assembly, the displacement error is convened
into voltage as

r(0 = K,e(t) (11 17)

which has a transformed equisalence

r(s)=Arf£(s) = A:«(04(i)-0.(j)l (o •*)

where is the conversion constant in volts per radian Combining all the physical apparatus together,

one may construct a block diagram as shown in Figure 11 7a The feedforward gain, or the open-
loop transfer function, is

0.(s) nK*K,
^
£(s> s(RJ^s + (RB,n+ £/£#)]
jspjo aqj ui SI
7 aouig 'XpAipadsBi ‘SuipuiM ajnjEUUE jojoui sqj jo smqo ui aouBjsisaj puE sauuaq
ui aouBpnpui sqj aq y puE 7 P7 -uEipEJ jad puooas-sjjOA ui juejsuoo juia qoEq aqj si ajaqAv

(irii)

/iq
pajuapjdaj aq ubo qoiqAv SuipuiAV ajnpuuB aqi ui sqoA ui jiua qoBq aqj si { j)ia ajnSq Sjqj uj -97
j
3jn 3 ij UI UAioqs si uibjSbip aipuiaqos Jiaqj puB paqoJiuoD ajnjBUUB aJB Xaqx 'SJOjom
3 Q puIbui
juauBuuad 3 uisn suiajsXs jEaupap aAEq sjo}B|ndiuBUi pjojuBjs aqj puB vwfld uoipuiiun aqi 3 [duiBxa ‘

UB sy "iBoujoap jo ‘oipuinaud ‘oqnBjpXq jaqqa 3 JB sjoqoj jBUjsnpui aqj ui pasn sjopnpB aqx
•jJBqs JOjEupB aqj jb juapqjaoa
3u!duiBp aApaaja aqj si ('ffjU + “ff) = u^g puB Bipsui aAipajja aqj si ('/jW + “/ + “/) = "Y ajaqAV

torn) + “ff) + + ”'/’+ Y) = “-i

sppiX (6-11) puB ‘(g'll) ‘(/.•II) ‘Sba 3uiu!qiuoo

(e'li) “‘g(‘"7 q- ”7) = '^Q'^g — l-LU — “‘z.

ppi/C oj JjBqs jojBujOB aqj jb ajdpuud auiBS aqj ,t|ddv

(S'll) 'g '7 = ^Qig - ’s

suiBjqo auo ‘aidpuud s,jjaquia[Y,Q Suisjq

(ni) “ " = ‘e
0

jBqj os ‘oijEj jBa 3 aqj si

(911) VI II II c

uaqj
‘ysqs pBO[ puB jjBqs jojBnpB aqj }b sjBa 3 aqj jo npBj qojid
X[ 3 Aipads 3 j = ‘j ‘“v
XpAipadsaj ‘ysqs pBOi puB jjEqs jojeupb aqj jb sJBa 3 aqj jo qjaaj jo jaquinu = ‘“y jaq

= *9
apis pBoj jB juauiaDBjdsip jB(n 3 uB
(suBjpBj) JjBqs jojBtijoB JB juauiaoBjdsip jEjnSuB=
anbjoj pBO] [Eiuajui = U
JjBqs jojBnjoB JB anbjoj pajBjaua 3 = “i.
anbjoj iBuoijBjtABj 3 = ®i.

(ui-zo) anbJOj uoijauj a 3 BjaAB = “y

apis pBoj JB juapgjaoo 3 uiduJBp = ig
(pBj/oas-ui-zo) apis jojbujdb jb juapiyaoo 3 uiduJBp = '^g
quij jojB|ndiuBUi aqj jo Bijjaui = '7
apis JOjBnjoB JB sajnjxy juiof aqj jo Bijjaui (joqoj) jojBindiuBui = “7
(pBJ/jOas-ui-zo) juiof auo jo Bijjaui jojBnjaE z= “7

•juiof auo joj i^jquiassB pBOj-jBaS-JOjBnjOB ub jo uoijBjuasajdaj aijBuiaqos 'S’ll

£Ll sxoaoH iviaisnoNi hoj sPvaiSAS aoaiNoa ao MOisaa

 poutione

a
of

diagnun

Block

11.7.

Fig.
 "Yy':y^:y»A z
(9rn)

pUB

("Yy)
(srii) o< = “CO
'Y»Y« ^
SUlBjqO 3UO
‘(t'Z'Il) PUE (EZ’Il) -sba UIOJJ Xouanbojj jBJnjBu pscJuiBpun aqj “co puB oijbj SuidiuBp aqj si
J 9J31{a\

(trii) 0 = Sp) + + jS
SB passsjdxs XiiEuopuaAuoo si qojijM

_ "Yy ("Yy)
(£Z‘n) ° ~ 'y9y“ ^
^s[(’y 'y + '’y)'y + "Yy]
SI J3i[Oj}uoo doo[-p3soia 3i}} joj uoijBnbs oijsusjoBjBqo sqj '(zZ'll) uiojg

ly pire fly jo uopBUiuijajaa -zTll

SUOISSnDSip SuiMOnOJ sqj UI XpjBJEdsS P3)B3JJ

SI uoijnqujuoo iBStytuuso sqj souajj ssqddB uopisodisdns jo sjdiDuud sqj ‘jBsuq si uisjsXs sqj jo
ppoiu [BoijEuisqjEui sqj souig ‘sjejSsiui uoijn|OAUOO sqj ssajoaui uuojsubjj soBjdET ssoqAi z[(;)'6] jo
uopouty B SI UU3J jBSiyujuso sqx 'XjsApoadssj ‘Y puB ‘"li jo ssjqBUBA psuuqjsuBij soEjdBT sqj
3JB (s)Y puB '(sy^x qoiqM ui J3 |[oj}uoo [Buopisod 3qj JO uiBjgBip qooiq pssiASJ sqj SA\oqs
34'Il 3JnSy -jojoui 3qi uiojj psiBJSusS si anbjoj sqj 3J3qA\ juiod sqj jb ‘qc'H 3Jn3y ‘JsqojjuoD
[Buoijisod 3qj JO uiBiSBip qoojq sqj ui psjjssui 3JB Xsqj XijBDijBuisqog -joqoj sqj oj uspjnq jBoisXqd
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jbuoijbjiabjS 'Jx snbjoj pBO[ jeujsjxs sqj ajBsusduioo osje jsnui jojoui sqj ‘ssjnoo jo "Jojoui sqj Xq
3UIOOJ9AO 3q jsnui XjquissSB jsjsuioqoEj - jojoui aqj jo "y snbjoj uoijouj sSbjsab ub ‘p3U0jju3Uj sy
•UOIJ03S SuiAvojioj sqj ui psssnosjp
‘joqoj 3qj JO oijbj SuiduiBp sqj pus Xousnbojj jubuossj [Bjnjoiujs sqj oj SuipuodssjjOD sjsjsuiBJBd
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aZ'll ^iqBX u* P3}si] SI jojBindiuBui (ijf) itiojBJoqEx
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qoB3 ui SJSIX3 jBqj “y snbjoj uoijouj sSbjsab sqj SAioqs I'U sjqBX ui suij jsb[ sqj oj puooss sqx
sTII 3I1EX UI P3JS[J 3JB Jiun J3J3UIOqOBJ-JOJOUI 3qj
joj bjbp oujsuiBJBd 3qx 'uoijBJOdjo^ sjmojioojoqd Xq SOl/OEO JsjsuioqoBj jejSsjui ub qjiAV jojoui
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, .
'y^yu + ^[('y Y + ''y)'y + "Yyj + ^^"Yy _ (y)"©
^CZU) (S)*©

, ^
^[('y'y + ''y)'y +"Yy] + i:S"Yy Wy
=5)%
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SuioBjdsj Xq Xjduiis psuiBjqo sq ubo suoijounj jqjsuBjj dooj-pssop puB doopusdo posiAOj sqj snqx

(or'ii) W/y = W“0 ^(’y'y + y) - (j)/1

SB psgipoui '
SI ( zi ii ) 'bg jmojio sqj jo uuojsubjj 308 [dEx
3 qj ‘ 3 U 0 IB ( j)‘“^fly JO PE3 JSUI (;)“‘^' y’y + ( O “ 0 ‘'y ‘''OU si jmojIO SjnjBUUB JOJOUI 3 qj JB oSbjjoa
qoBqp 33j 3 qj souig ‘jpA jsd sjjoA ui jsgqduiB jo uibS sqj si ly puB ‘uBipBj J 3 d spnooss-jpA ui jubjsuoo
J3j3uioqoBj sqj 'y qoiqAi ui q /,-| j sjnSig ui sb uMoqs si jsjiojjuoo SuiJinsaj sqj jo uiBjSBip qoo[q 3 qx
si

‘IBAJOjui 3 UIIJ psxg B 3 uunp JJBqs gqj jo sjusuisoBidsfp JBin 3uB ui 30 U 3 J 3j}ip gqj jo uoijBjnduioo 3 qj JO
J 3 j 3 uioqoEj B qSnojqj qoBq psj si XjioopA jjsqs jojoui sqj jo ibu 3 is 3 qj ‘suiij Suijjjss sqj sAOjduii ox
‘

•( s )"'
0 U = ( s)®0 UOIJBpj sqj pUB (sril )
puB "sbg Suiuiquioo Xq jo ‘d[;\\ sjnSig ‘uibj 3b|p qoojq gqj uiojj jsqjp psuiBjqo si qoiqM
( gril )

SLl sioaoa iviaisnoNi hoh swaisAS iohxmod ao Moisaa

 178 ROBOT CONTROL
TABLE lU. MEASURED FREQUENCY AND JOINT INERTIA OF STANFORD
MANIPULATOR
Joint Number / (Tcg-m*) AH2> ti> (—2}rJ) (rad/sec)

1 5 4 2S 1327
2 5 6 37 6991
3 7 20 12S 6636
4 01 IS 94 2477
5 01 IS 94 2477
6 004 20 125 6636

Relation (1 1 bound of Kt It remains to determine the bound on

32) establishes the upper For
practical reasons one avoids the underdamped positional controller for the robot Thus { > 1. and
from Eq (11 26) one obtains

RB.tt+K,iK,, + KtK.) S ls/nK»K,R77ti>(i (1133)

Again for conservative design, Ki at the nghi side of Eq (11 33) is replaced by its upper bound,
which IS given by Eq (11 32) Thus Eq (11 33) reduces to

Btn) Kt
(1134)
K,K. K,

Since J,tt vanes as the load changes, the lower bound on Ki changes accordingly If the load is
known ahead of time, can be precomputed to establish the lower bound On the other hand, if
one wishes to simplify the design of the controller by choosing a fixed amplifier gam, then the maximum
value of /,(f should be used in Eq (II 34) to avoid any possibility of resulting in an underdamping
system

11.2.3. Steady<State Error for Joint Controller

In the preceding section, the block diagram of the positional controller for an independent single
joint of a robot was presented in Figure 1 1 7c Because of an addition of the physical burden /m,
Tt, Tg, and Te to the motor, the closed-loop transfer function of the controller is not the same as
given by Eq (11 22), and it must be modified to include the additions From Figure II le, it is seen
that

(/.ns* + B,ns)©« - r«(s) - F,(s) - T,{z)

- nrt(x) (11 33)

In Eq (11 35) the centrifugal contnbution is not included, but will be treated separately Now

and

f(5) =/:,[©„(*) -0,(4] (1137)

Thus, after some algebraic manipulation,

0
nK,K,ea(s)~ nR[FmM+ r,(s) -i- nrt.(s))
(1138)
n(s)

where

n(s) = RJ,„S» + lRB^+K,(Kg + KiK,)]s + nKgfC, (I I 39)

Whenever F„{s), Tg(s). and rt(s) vanish, Eq (II 38) reduces to Eq (11 22) Since the position error
e(r) IS defined as

e(0 = ee ( 0-«.(0 (1140)

(ze'ii)
¥(=«/•)

0 } saonpaj qDiqA\

Z _ "’/» K
/V
(le'll) 0) >

suiBjqo 3U0 ‘(OE'II) pUB (sz'll) sbg jCq snqx '^ro

Xousnbsjj juBnosaj jBjnprujs aqj _jo j[Bq-3uo UBqj sjoui ou “ro Xouanbajj iBjnjBU paduiepun aqj sps suo
‘SI }Bq} ‘uSisap 3 aijbaj3SU03 b ui p3pn[Dui
3q pinoqs %QOZ JO JOJObj Xj3jbs e pqj ^UMoqs ussq sBq q
f’E'll u; Pojsq 3-iE JOjBindiuBui pjojuBig sqi JOJ / 3uipuods3JJOO sji puB m p3jnsB3iu sqx

(0£'ll)

‘(6Z'll) PUB (sz'ii) sbH /Cq ‘snqi

(er'ii) = (O

USql f E|}J3U!
3AIJ33JJ3 3q} 0}3uipuods3jjoo juiof 3U1BS 3qj JO itou3nb3jj JUBU0S3J [Bjnprujs p3jnSB3UI sqj 3q ro
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(8Zll) = ‘m

SI PU003S J3d SUBjpBJ Ul XDU3nb3JJ JUBU0S3J JEJIipnJJS 3q} JEqj OS

(irn) =
‘sjdiouud s.jJsquioiV.a ‘soHl sj sssujqjs oj
3np 3nbj0} 3 uuo}S3j 3qx joqoj sqj jo juiof 3q} jo (pBj/ui-zo ui) ss3Uj}i)S 3AIJ03JJ3 sqj sq iJ’ry jsq

OtO'O owo owo 9

StZ'O t'iro firo £
tCZ'O crro 8010
iSO'6 LSVL LSVL C
OOfOI 0569 065'Z Z
OZ.S'6 9119 Lir\ 1

(jUi-3q) Gui-3q) (sUJ-3q) jsquin^j juiof

pBOX linj/snjByY uinuiixBjq peoq uinuiixBj/^ pBoq 0|sL/9n|By\ uinuimip^

aoxvanaiNVPM aaf-aaoaNvxs ao vixaaNi aaiioaaaa 'vn axavi

100 TOO u
09 09 (ui-zo)

Z90£0’0 61^1 00 (pBj/oss-sqoA) >)f

160 £Z0I (suiqo) y

0001 0 001 (Ht') 7
£zioro L6ZfOO (pBJ/OSS-SqOA) ‘>)i
9moo (pBJ/OSS-UI-ZO) '"ff

££00 8000 (pBJ/j03S-Ul-Z0) “/

V9 (duiB/ui-zo) l')J

xm^in x^bn ppow

iiMn HaiawoHDvi-HOiopv
Hoa vxva aiaxajMVHva iii aaavx
LLl sxoaoa aviaxsnaNi aoa swaxsAS iohxmod ao Noisaa
 Fig. 11.8. Controller with ancici{>ated burden and feedforward compensation

to reduce the error, where f,. and H

arc the estimates of r,. fm, and tj., respectively For
given task, the value tl, which includes the complunt torque, is usually known Thus can.bn
estimated directly The measured value of fm through experimentation is ordinanly used for /«
The value of f, is normally computed,
' — .~,ii»,

WTiat is the contribution to the posi

Since r({f) = where Z> is a
 «v'y
(et'-ii)

pUB

(srii)

J3SXbui 3U0 ‘aoqoBjd uj -ojaz sq

PinoM JOJJ3 ams-XpBajs aqj usqj ‘(»y'y)/[(s)7iM + (y)“y]y = {s)px puB («y'y)/(s-)«j}f = (j)->2 jj

(iru) _ aSSg
0^
1
[(^)'’j: + - KO'lz" + mn
sauioosq avou jojjs uoijisod sjBjs-XpBajs sqj V®0 = {s)x = W®©
juaiuaoBidsip jubjsuoo b jo jndu; ub joj [buSis jndui psziiBjouaS b juasojdoj oj (s)pq sooBidaj (s)x sjaqM

(£)U
(9 ril) = {s)3
(s)“^)}ji/ + (j)A'ls[('y'y + «y)'y + "’ffy] +
3iuoD3q OJ psyipoul si (if II) -tq u3ai 3
J0JJ3 oqj ‘juaniaSuBjjB siqj qjJAV 'XiaAijoadsoj ‘p± puB “x jo suuojsubjj ooBjdBq ojb (y)^^ pu® (y)°^
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('y®y) dssg
(St-'Il)
(PJU + + ^3)3
JOJja uoijisod sjps-XpBajs b suiBjqo suo (£f n) ’*’3

s
= {s)x
O=
(W''n) {s)P@

uaqj ‘Oj juauiooBidsip jubjsuoo b si jndui sqj jj

uoijesu 3 duio 3 puB Jojag uopisoj ajBjg-XpBajg 'VZ'll

JSIX3 sjiuiq aqj papiAOjd

(erii) (y)gr ujq = (j)a uJii = "a

}Bqj

S3JBJS qoiqAi ‘loajoaqj oiqBA pug sqj jo asn aqj Xq pauiuuajsp oq Xbui “a jojxa ajps-XpBajs aqi
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(5m
(zrii) = (^)3
v[73« + + <y] }{« + (^)xr|s[(’:y 'y + ‘’;y)'y + "’ffy] + sS'"Y}/)
saiuoaaq (if ll)
•bg Xpuanbasuog 's/^j = (s)^x P“b 's/Jj = (s)'“g Vt) = (s’)'(Z ‘jubjsuoo osp ojb = ®x
puB Jj = P‘/ oouis = ‘pBO[
'^-i' jupsuoo B jog (;)a jo uuojsubjj ooBjdBg oqj si (y)g ajoqAv

(it'-n)
Wu = (^)3
[(s)'(z;w + (s')'!z + + i! '"Vy)
5

SB U3JJUA\ oq UBO (oi7'n) bg ‘(8£‘ll) bH -^9

6 Ll sioaoa TviaisnaNi aoj spvaiSAS loaiNO© ao NOisaa

182 ROBOT CONTROL
But Q/i* = Xis) represents the ramp input signal Hence

"= (dx/di)\RB^ + K,{K^ + KiK,)]

SSSin
which can he obtained directly from the input terminal of the controller'* as indicated m Figure
11 8c Since x(0 is a ramp input Q,i, or X(s) = Cg/s\ then dx/dt is the constant slope Cv. or
sX(s) = Of course one may obtain dx/dt by computing the quotient [A:(t.) — x{t,-i)\/{ti —
GA
where Jc(r.) and are values of two consecutive input signals These arrangements will
automatically take care of the steady-state error in the onginal positional-control mode When the
controller leaves the conveyor-following mode and enters the positional-control mode, x(f) is a step
input C», or Jr(s) = 0ii(s) = Ct/x Then dx/dt =Ce8(t), or sX{s) = C# (an impulse that is absorbed
by the energy-stonng elements of the system), so that the compensation for the velocity error vanishes

11.3.2. Compensation for the Centrifugal Term

The centrifugal contribution rr(t) can be computed from where i) is a proportional constant
and IS the velocity of the robot link The value of the velocity can be measured at the output
shaA by means of a tachometer The value of parameter £> depends on the geomctncal configuration
of the robot and is discussed in detail in the section on the multiple-joint controller Once U is determined
TcO) can be obtained at the output terminal The resulting value is then used for compensation To
feed forward this compensating term to the system at the same point that Tg and Ta enter, as indicated
in Figure 11 8e, a gam factor of Jl/(XiXit) must be included to cancel the existing gams in the
path Figure 1 1 8d shows the schematic arrangement of the feedforward compensation for the centrifugal
coninbulion

11.4. CONTROLLER FOR ROBOT WITH MULTIPLE JOINTS

Intuitively, the motion of each joint of a robot is not ind^ndent of other joints There are force
and moment interactions among themoving joints that cause inadequacy m the use of the preceding
positional controller for each joint Thus an additional compensation is needed to overcome the interac-
tion To determine the compensation for interaction it is necessary to analyze the dynamic behavior

of the robot

11.4.1. Lagrangiaa Formulation of Dynamic Equation

A discussion of the Lagrangian equation can be found in most of physics textbooks It represents the
dynamic behavior of a system of rigid bodies, and it has the form

— — .ft (1157)
dt \ 3?! / 3qi

where q, = generalized coordinates

L=H.qi, . 9i, , 7,)=° Lagrangian
Tj = generalized forcing function

The generalized coordinate q, represents the displacement 0, of joint t The Lagrangian is also defined

L — (kinetic energy of the system) — (potential energy of the system)

•*
By applying the Lagrangian equation to a with n joints (or n links), one obtains*

’’1=2 + •f<n9( + 2 2 2 Dtjkqiqk +A (11

j=i j=i

where

I3v= Tr[U„Jp(Up,)'] (1159)

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186
ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 11.11, Rotation of coordinates »ith reference to base coordinates

The reason for the addition of (he fourth row and fourth column in the matnx of Eq (II 68) will be
clear when the translation of the position is introduced In the meantime the matnx in Eq (U 68) is
the homogeneous transformation that rotates the vector or point P. and hence the coordinates (s',
y', z'), y radians about z axis For convenience, the matnx is denoted by R(z, y) so that Eq (1 1 68)
may be wntten as

(i“’>
j^‘j

Likewise,

0 Q 0-1 cos/J smi3 “1

r> p
0 cos a —sin a 0 0
’
0 sin a cos a 0 0 cos 0
Lo 0 ij L 0 0 0 ij

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axis
the location of point P m (x', y', z') does not change but in (x, y, z) changes from (Oi. hi, ci) to
(a?, bi, C2) as
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 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 11 12, Rotation and translation of coordinates with reference to base coordinates

yp
0 0
aim

Now if Tf IS perturbed by a smati translation and rotation with respect to the base coordinates,
then It «— So* »ii
•“ S»y, i, *— SoZ. a S*a. fi •— S,/J. y —
SoY But cos (Soc) “ I, sm (8»a) »
SgO, , 6oO$o/3 0, ,
and so on Hence by ^ (11 73)

r«u Rii Rt» (rT r 1 -S,y Sg/3 S»x*l

Ru R» 'v L 1 -8»a
(1179)
Rit Ru h S»a 1 Spz
Lo 0 1 iJ L 0 0 0 1 J
On the other hand, one may express

[4 rt 4 lf].T;+6.Tf (11 80)

Combining Eqs (11 78), (11 79), and (II 80) yields the perturbation

0 -S*y Se0 SoJt-i

S,y 0 -Soa S„y
(1181)
-S.0 S.a 0 S»r
[ 0 0 0 0 J

The matnx in Eq (11 81) is the variational operator with respect to the base coordinates If the
vanation is referred to />th joint’s own coordinates, then it must be premultiplied by a 4 X 4 transforma-
tion matnx

T; = (T;) ' (1182)

which transforms any vectors or coordinate frames with reference to base coordinates (xa. y.,. *>) to
the pth joint coordinates (xp, yp, Zp) Thus the perturbation on the pth joint coordinate frame with
leference to its own coordinates is

0 -^•yp &pPp S»xp

0 —6# Op ^oyp 1183 )
(
-SoPp S,ap 0 Soyp
0 0 0 0
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0 0
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Ely

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0 1 0
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m
1 0 0 0
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r oi r r
(Pill)
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+
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9 “a Ity 59 Cq
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£/ soa p soa =
X » soa + X soa » uis =
uis £/ uis
X » soa — X uis » uis
soa j/ uis
£/ soa p UIS— =

(erii) X UIS gl UIS p UIS — X soa p soa = V

X soa gl UIS p UIS + X UIS p soa = uijj

£/U!S=
X UIS £/ soa— = y
X soa j/ soa = 'i
jj ^

ajaqM

'
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5a
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(3^‘ll)
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'l' r
53
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X8I sioaoa aviaxsnaNi aoa spvaisAs aoaxMOD ao Noisaa

190 ROBOT CONTROL

By some algebraic manipulation, Reference 10 also shows that

A=r' 2 (1192)
P~i

where f is a vector descnbmg the center of mass of link p with respect to (i — l)th coordinates,
and

/{-g'y. I g'xi-i 0 0] if joint p IS revolute

riiQii'
*
1[0 0 0 — g'ai-i] if joint p IS pnsmatic '

Since the term contains a second partial denvative 3TS/(34,3?k), it is not able to simplify
Eq (11 60) for computation Conventionally, one often ignores the centnfugal and Conolis terms
The justification is that these two terms are velocily depcod«it When the robot starts to move from
location and approaches its goal location, the velocities are usually low, and hence the contribu-
Its initial

tions from these two terms are insignificant Once it picks up the velocity, the robot is traveling in
the space, and normally the traveled path is not of importance Should the path be important, such

as in avoiding collision with obstacles, then these two lerms may not be ignored They must be computed
cither by Eq (11 60) or by using the Newton-Euler formulation approach,'* which is a computational
scheme This scheme has been proven to be computationally efficient ’*'** Also, Bejczy* “ used the
geometnc/numenc approach to show that for the last four joints of the Stanford-JPL manipulator,
which has six joints (n = 6), the following lerms are identically zero

Ais Diu i>s» Du 4 Dui Dut As.

Dm Dm Dm Dm A.. Dm Dm
Am Aj» Ass -Dss. Dsss Dss. Dm
Dm Dm Dm Dm Dm Dm
Thus It is possible to reduce the computational task if the geometncal configuration of the robot is

known and if an analysis is earned out

As mentioned befbre, the Newton-Euler formulation yields a computationally efficient scheme
Further shortening of computing time is possible by means of parallel compulations using a computer
with multiple central-processing units (CPU) A variable branch-and-bound method, which determines
an optimum ordered schedule for each of the CPUs, was developed by Luh and Lin When the
computational task is reduced and the compuutional lime is shortened, it is then feasible to have a
real-time controller for the robot

11.5. PATH TRACKING BY ROBOT WITH MULTIPLE JOINTS

If the robot is required to travel along a prescribed paih. the conlrolltt must keep up with path
tracking There are two alternatives to achieve the control of the desired path along which the hand
of the robot travels control at the hand level or at the joint level In either case the transformation
between the Cartesian and joint coordinates is required With positional controllers the path tracking
can be accomplished by dividing the Cartesian path into a number of segments Each end point of
the segments is transformed into joint coordinates, and then the positional control is applied from
point to point m
joint coordinates This approach corresponds to Case 2 in Figure 11 1. which was
bnefly mentioned previously in Section 1 1 3 on conveyor following A number of facts related to this
approach should be mentioned By transforming all the end points of segments of the Cartesian path,
one essentially constructs n corresponding trajectones in joint coordinates, one for each of the n
joints If these segments, [dp(t)’ d0(/)'J, arc very short, the increments of joint displacement dq,
between adjacent points are very small so that sin dq, =• dq, and cos dq, — 1 Thus the transformation
f( ) defined by Eq (11 5) becomes a differential Iransformation, which is usually linear This transforma-

tion IS the Jacobian matnx of the displacement, which contains tngonometnc functions of the joint
displacement with respect to the joint coordinates before the differential increment takes place '* Analyti-
cally, the solution dq, in terms of dp and d$ can be obtained simply by inverting the Jacobian matrix
Although It IS sometimes possible, it is usually difficult since the Jacobian is quite complicated Numencal
solution IS also possible but usually requires long computing time Moreover, the Jacobian matnx
becomes singular when the robot reaches a degenerate position at which the solution dq, is not unique
(i e more than one value of dq, yields a same dp and d& An alternative method proven to work
, )
successfully is to differentiate the solution of Eq (II 5) directly" so that matnx inversion is
avoided

This IS possible since for a given robot with fixed dimensions the transformation f is known Using
this approach, one must set dq, to zero if it is physically impossible due to constraints, or if
it is

undetermined so that the solution is forced to be unique It usually results in a simpler expression
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 192 ROBOT CONTROL

fenninal time i = is In addition, joint displacements at f = r* for 1: = 3, 4, .

— 2 are
also speofied for the joint trajectory to pass through However, qz and qs-i are not fixed, which are
the two extra knots required to give enough freedom for solving the problem under the constraints.
Cct @(f) be a cubic polynomial function defined on the time interval [f,, f,*i] The problem of trajectory
interpolation is to spline Q,(t). for i = 1.2, . W
— together such that the required displacement,
velocity, and acceleration are satisfied and the displacement, velocity, and acceleration are continuous
on the entire time interval (ti, 1 %]
Because Q.(i) is cubic, the second lime derivative ^*(0 must be a linear function of t Hence,
Q!0) can be expressed as

1 = 1.2, ,iv-i (1191)

where h, = ii.i — f. Integrating Q7(l) twice and imposing the conditions QtO,) = and Q,{ttn)
= leads to the following interpolating functions

oftj th,
(1193)

, N-\

The continuity condition for velocities gives

Ci«.) = a:-i(t.) 1 = 2. 3. . N-l (1196)

which leads to the following equations

h,-t 2(fi. +A.-,)’

+
2r.i(f. 1) -'
\ e;(/.) + cr(f,^i)
(1197)
^6 gin-q.
[ ’ 1 =2 . 3, .
N-l
A L . h. A.., J

The unspecified joint displacements of the two extra knots can be expressed in terms of boundary
values at the beginning and end knots together with QHh), CS-jffiv-i) Consequently,

g -t} V +^0 +^G’(0 (1198)

q h f Q- ^ ) (1199)

Substituting Eqs (1 1 98) and (1 1 99) into Eq (I I 97) yields a system of (.N — 2) linear equations
with (N — 2) unknowns Q’(tO for i = 2, 3, , /V — 1

A (TV — 2)—dimensional constant

(11 100)
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194 ROBOT CONTROL

I = destred q. kj * constants i

Fig. II 13. Block diagram of a joint-level controller

high speed is, however, not verified Koivo and Guo^ applied Bonson's self-tuning regulator” to the
robot control using a model of linear difference equation with white Gaussian noise A
similar approach
using a pole placement regulator has been investigated by Leininger and Wang.” and Walters and
Bayoumi The parameters were iteratively obtained from the minimum variance estimator The control
vanable (input torque) was then computed for the minimum average deviation of the joint trajectones
from the nominal trajectones Although the computation of either Lagrangian or Newton-Euler equa-
tions IS completely avoided, (he iterative computing time is still too long for an on-line operation,
even based on a two-stage observation Also, the use of the linear model ignores the nonlinear charactens-
tics of the robot with coupling among us joints and thus introduces undesirable errors Lee and Chung”

adopt a similar idea of parameter estimation, and perturb the motion of the manipulator in the vicinity
of Its desired path The requirement of computing (he manipulator dynamics still using Newton-Euler
equations does not eliminate the computation bottleneck
In this section, quadratic terms are added m
(he difference equation to include centrifugal force
terms as an aDpToyeraeni on the jmodeJ The ihscrele-uae system provides a juturaJ formulation for
processing iterative estimations and computations on a digital computer All the parameters are estimated
from the Iterative minimum variance estimator” To speed up the computation and to ensure the
convergence of the iteration, the stochastic approximation formulation proposed by Astrom and
EykhofP* IS adopted The input torques arc then computed for the minimum average deviation of
the trajectory traveled

11.6.1. Discrete-Time Model of Manipulator

Refer to Eq (II S8). (he Lagrangian formubtion of robot dynamics Let 9>(A:) and qimW be the
actual displacement of joint «. / I, 2, = , n. and its model, respectively, at lime k. At that
time, qi(k - a) for a =
1. 2, , iV arc assumed known through measurement
while the joint
torques Ti(k — a — have been detennined The main purpose is to determine Ti(k —
1) 1) To
include the nonlinear effect caused by the ceninfugal lorque/force, the model is chosen to be

^,„(I:) = a«-f 2 -a)+ t>;T,(* -a)]+ 22 ffr ?((* -/))?,(*- 7) (H

a=i a'«r=«

where cj, af, bf, and efr =

cj* arc parameters yet to be determined In Eq (II 58), parameters
they are
Dt, D,j, and D^,|, vary as the robot moves It is assumed that they vary slowly so that
and
practically constant on every time interval {fc. A: -I- IJ For this reason, the paramelen oiS, b,s,
still docs not
C|S are assumed constant Although the model given in Eq (11 103) is nonlinear, it
between joints Even so, the estimation of the parameters is quite involved
include the interactions
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 196 ROBOT CONTROL

ftilh I = identity matru. and initial conditions

£Ip(0)l = WO) = E[p] (11 115)

£[1P{0) - P(0)l|p(0) - p(0)n = P(0) (11 116)

An alternative representation of the noiseless system equation for the parameters and its linear
measurement equation is as follows Let

p'(/£'l) = n9(*-i) q(k-fOTik-l) rik-N)] (11117)

be a (2n + 1) dimensional vector, and

2 2 2

c>« 0 - 0

c«« 0 0
(II 118)

0 0 0 0
2

0 0 0 0

be a (2/1 + I) by (2/i + 1) constant parameter matrix Combining Eqs (11 103), (11 104), (11 117),
and (11 118) yields

qlk) = p-(* - !)?(* - I) + <{*) (11 1 19)

This IS a scalar equation Let p*(k — 1) = “ l)|Kfc

~ ~ 1) be the Moore^Penrose
pseudo inverse** of p(A - 1) Multiply ^ (II 119) by p*(fc — 1) to yield

q(k)p*(k - 1) = p-(* - l)4ip(fc - l)p*(Jt - 1) + «(L)p*(k - 1) (11 120)

Nowp*p=![p'p]'‘p'p= 1 and pp‘ = [p'pl''pp'^/ Sinccforanarbitrary vector c, one has ||pp*c||S||c|j,

then the solution to

q(.k)p*(.k - 1)= p'(* - !) + «(A)p*(fc - 1) (11 121)

IS a minimum norm solution** to Eq (11 120) To solve the ongtnal problem, use Eq (11 121), which
IS a linear measurement equation m
parameter mains 4>. The noiseless system equation for the parameter

4>(*) = «KA-l) = 4> (11122)

Equations (M 121) and (II 122) represent the same system described by Eqs (11 103) and (11 109).
and the resulting Kalman filters are equivaJeni

Least-Squares Estimation

It has been shown (Reference 34, equations

p 149) that, by an algd>raic manipulation, the recuisivc
of the least-squares estimate can be obtained directly from the Kalman filter as

p(t) = p(k -1) + r{k - iy[q(k}-Q (k - im - \)]

(11 123)
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198 ROBOT CONTROL

11.6.4. Desired Joint Trajectory

In realily, the desired path traveled by the hand or end effector of the manipulator is specified m
Cartesian coordinates Intuitively one may delennine the equivalent joint displacement 9,^(1:) by means
of inverse Jacobian transformation Whenever the sampling frequency is changed, the point of 9( between
the time instants k and k + 1 may To store the
be obtained by interpolation values of q,4(k) for
all A: in a computer requires a large memory This problem can be avoided by pretransforming the
three-dimensional Cartesian path into n -dimensional joint trajectories m
terms of spline-function approx-
imations The discussion on this subject was presented previously in Section 115 1
The block diagram for the overall process is shoxvn as in Figure 11 14 It shows the information
flow for one joint during one sampling period It is seen that both the estimation of model parameters
and the computation of the control must be done on-line and completed dunng one sampling period
The speeds of estimation and computation arc crucial since they determine the upper bound of the
sampling frequency, the higher the frequency, the more accuracy the process will have
In the preceding sections, estimations by means of Kalman filter, least-squares estimate and stochastic
approximation have been presented Among them there is a trade-off between speed and accuracy
The method of stochastic approximation is preferable since it requires the least amount of computing
time and its iterations always converge But the resulting estimate has the largest vanance The model
of the mechanical manipulator includes a quadratic term r^resenting the centnfugal forces Its purpose
is to reduce the modeling error at the expense of more computation Because of the trade-off, designers

must use personal judgment on their assigned tasks and then decide which alternative should be
used

11.7 CONTROLLER WITH TORQUE/FORCE FEEDBACK

It has been recognized that
in the design of teleoperators (i e , remote manipulators) for speed, accuracy,
dexterity, and load capacity, force-reflecting capability must be included m
the control system ” An
illustrativeexample involves fitting a part together with another part in assembly As the tolerances
of the mating parts become tight, it is impractical to require the manipulator and tU controller to
furnish such high-positional accuracy Alternatively, the controller must combine the positional control
and the force control in compliance with the positional constraint imposed by the task geometry
Ooertz and Bevilacqua** in 1952 suggested a design of a force-reflecting positional controller for a
teleoperator It required a position sensor and a torque sensor on the input shaft as well as on the
output shaft The resulting double-loop control system yielded a comphcaied stability problem

Fig. 11,14. Overall process for joint i during ipling period

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200 ROBOT CO>rrROL

tions, Ihe discrete-timesystem may be used to model the robot, wid then the parameters of the robot
system are estimated by minimum vanance estunator or stochastic approximation Again (here is a
trade-off between the accuracy of the control and the computing time
For the assignment of product assembly, task interactions are the mam functions Indusina] robots

REFERENCES
1. Luh, J Y S , An Anatomy of Industrial Robots and Their Controls, IEEE Transactions on
Automatic Control, Vol 28, No 2, February 1983, pp 133-153
2. Roberts, G
Homogeneous Mainx Representation and Manipulation of N-Dimenstonal Con-
L ,

structs, Lincoln Laboratory Document, No MS 1045, M!T, 1965

3. Paul, R- P , Shimano, B and Mayer, O E , Kinematic Control Equations for Simple Manipulators,
,

IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Vol 11, No 6, June 1981, pp 449-455
4. Scheinman, V D
Design of a Computer Controlled Manipulator,
, A I Memo 92, Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University. June 1969

5. Luh, J Y S ,
Fisher, W D , and Paul, RPC, Joint Torque Control by a Direct Feedback
for Industrial Robots, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol 28, No 2, February 1983,
pp 153-161
6. Bejczy, A K
Robot Arm Dynamics and Control. Technical
,
Memorandum 33-669, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, February 1974
7. Book, W
J , Maaza-Neto, 0 . and Whitney, E . Feedback Control of Two Beam, Tuto Joint D
Systems with Distnbuted Rexibiiity, ASME Transactions, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measure-
ment and Control, Vol 97, No 4, December 1975, pp 424-431
8. Asada, H T and Takcyama I , Control of a Dtrect-Dn*e Arm. Report CMU'Rl'TR-824, Robot
Institute, Camegte-Mellon University. March 9. 1982
9. Asada, H and Youcef-Toumi, K ,
Analysis and Design of Semi-direct-dnve Robot Anus, Proc
1983 American Control Conference, Vol 2. /une 22-24, 1983, San Francisco, pp 757-764
10. Paul, R. P Robot Manipulators Mathematics. Programming and
,
Control, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1981
11. Bejczy, A K and Paul, R P. Simplified Robot Arm Dynamics for Control, Proceedings of
20tk IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. December 16-18, 1981, San Diego, California,

pp 261-262
12. Luh. J Y S and Lin, C
Automatic Generation of Dynamic Equations for Mechanical Manipu-
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lators, Proceedings of Joint Automatic Control Conference. June 17-19, 1981. CharfoftesvilJe. Vir-
ginia, pp TA-2D
13. Luh, J Y Walker,
S , , and Paul. R. P M W
C , On-line Computational Scheme for Mechanical
Manipulators, ASME Transactions. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control, Vol
102, No June 1980, pp 69-76
2,

14. Hollerbach, J M
A Recursive Lagrangian Formulation of Manipulator Dynamics and a Coopera-
,

tive Study of Dynamics Formulation Complexity, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cyber-
neties, Vol JO. No 11, November J9S0.
pp 730-736
15. Silver, W M , On Ihe Equivalence of Lagrangian and Newton-Euler Dynamics for Manipulators,
I. No 2. Summer 1982,
International Journal of Robotics Research. Vol pp 60-70
16. Turney, J L, Mudge, T N and Lee, CSC, Connection betiveen Formulations of Robot Arm
Dynamics with Applications to Simulation and Control, Report RSD-TR-4-82, Robot System Divi-
sion, University of Michigan, November 1981
17. Luh, J Y S and Lin, C S , Scheduling of Parallel Compulation for a Computer-Controlled
Mechanical Manipulator, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernettex Vol 12, No 2,
Marcb/Apnl 1982. pp 214-234
18. Paul, R P ,
Shimano, B and Mayer,
, G E , Differential Kinematic Control Equations for Simple
Manipulators, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics Vol 11, No 6, June 1981.
pp 456-460
19. Whitney, D E , Resolved Motion Rale Control of Manipulators and Human Prostheses. IEEE
Transactions on Man-Machine Systems, Vol 10. No 2. June 1969, pp 47-53

20 Paul, R., Manipulator Cartesian Path ControL IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernet-
ics. Vol 9, No 11, November 1979, pp 702-711
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202 ROBOT CONTROL

47. Whitney, D E Force Feedback Control of Manipulator Fine Motions, ASME Transactions.
.

Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control. Vol 99, No 2, June 1977, pp 91-97
48. Craig, J J and Raibert, M H A
Systematic Method of Hybnd Positton/Force Control of a
,

Manipulator, Proceedings 3rd International Computer Software and Applications Conference, Chi-
cago, November 6-8, 1979, pp 446-451
49 Raiben, M
H and Craig, J J Hybnd Posilion/Force Control of Manipulators, ASME Transac-
,

tions Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Vol 103, No 2, June 1981, pp
126-133
50. Salisbury, J K
Active Stiffness Control of a Manipulator in Cartesian Coordinates, Proceedings
,

19th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. Vol 1, December 10-12, 1980, Albuquerque,
New Mexico, pp 95-100
51. Mason, M T ,
Compliance and Force Control for Computer Controlled Manipulators, IEEE
Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol 11, No 6, June 1981, MIT, Apnl 1979,
pp 418-432
52 Wu, C H and Paul, R P , Manipulator Compliance Based on Joint Torque Control, Proceedings
I9th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. Vol I, December 10-12, 1980, Albuquerque,
New Mexico, pp 88-94

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON CONTROL IMPLEMENTATION

Cnstafulli, D M
Loh, H H and Murphy. J F , The Evolution of a New Industnal Robot Controller
, ,

from User Specifications to Commercial Product, SME Paper No MR76-607, 1976

Folin, J , Leary, R
and Plonsky, B Implementation of a Smart Minicomputer Based Robotic
, ,
control
system, Proceedings of the Robot 8 Conference, Detroit, Michigan, June 1984

Gtrod, G F , Utilization of Microprocessors in Robot Automation Systems, Proceedings Robot VI,

March 1982, pp 56S-S89

Detroit, Michigan,

Hohn, R R Robot Control Systems and Applications, International Automatic Control

, Conference,
Denver, Colorado, June 1979, pp 75(J-753
Keren, Y and Ulsoy, O , Control of DC Servo-Motor Driven Robots, Proceedings Robot VI. Detroit,
Michigan, March 1982, pp 590-602
Kreinin, G V, Pneumatic Dnves for Industnal Robots, Machines and Tooling, Vol 49, No 7, 1978.

pp 31-35
Lundsirom, G , Industnal Robots and Fluid Control Systems. /ndusmo/J?o6or, Vot l,No 6, December
1974, pp 264-270
Martin, Mand Menche, H , Electronic Control and Electncal Servomechanism for Industnal Robots,
Proceedings 4th I S I R , Tokyo, Japan, November 1974, pp 339-347
Resnick, B J , Robot Interface Switch Closure and Beyond. Proceedings Robot II, November 1978
Skidmore, M P Computer Techniques Used
, in Industnal Robots. Industrial Robot, Vol 6, No 4,

December pp 183-187 1979,

Snyder. W
E and Mian, M
Microcomputer Control of Manipulators, Proceedings 9th
, ISIR. Wash-
ington. D C March 1979. pp 423-435 .
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 20* ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 12.1, Schematic diagram of a manufactunng system

The controlJer of modem NC systems includes a dedicated mini- or microcomputer which performs
the functions of data processing and control These systems are referred to as computerized numerical
control (CNC) systems and mclude hardware similar to that of robot systems Robot systems, however,
are more complicated than machine tool CNC systems for reasons discussed later

12.2. NUMBER OF AXES AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Machine tools require the control of the position of the cutting edge of the tool in space In principle,
the control of three axes is adequate Robots require the control of both the position of the tool
center point and the onentation of the tool, which is achieved by controlling six axes of motion (or
degrees of freedom)
The (TCP) is a pome that lies along the last wnst axis at a user>specified distance
tool center point
from the wnst can be, for example, the edge of a welding gun or the center of a gnpped object
It
The TCP m
robotics the same role that the cutting edge plays in machining
plays
To emphasixe the important role of onenution in robotics, let us assume that both the top and
the bottom sides of the beam m Figure 12 3 are to be welded Since the beam is narrow, the required
positions, in terms of the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the TCP. are almost identical in both cases
Nevertheless, to weld the bottom side, the arm must reach the beam in a completely different onentation
than required to weld the top side Note that thu drastically changes the position of each joint of
the manipulator
—
There are robot systems that use more than six axes as well as CNC machines which use more
than three axes of motion A typical example is the addition of a rotary table to a three-axis milhng
machine On the other hand, many robot systems use less than six axes, and there are CNC machines
with only two axes of motion For turning pans on a lathe, for example, only two numencally controlled
axes are required The reason is that the part is symmetncaJ Similarly, since a welding gun is a
symmetneal tool about one axis, many arc-welding applications require only a five-axis robot
manipulator *

12J.1. Coordinate System

The mam three axes of motion in machine tools are referred to as the X. Y, and Z axes For example,
in a vertical drilling machine,a -I- AT command moves the work table from left to nght, a +1' command
moves Itfrom front to back, and a -fZ command moves the dnll toward the top away from the
workpiece In NC and CNC machine tools the X, Y. and Z axes are always assigned in order to
create a nght-hand Cartesian coordinate system
In robotics, several coordinate systems are in use the world coordinate system (WCS), the tool
coordinate system (TCS), the joint coordinate system (ICS), and m intelligent robots also the sensor
coordinate system (SCS)
The WCS IS a Cartesian coordinate system with the ongin at the manipulator base The X and Y
axes are horizontal, and the Z axis is perpendicular to b(Mh and Y. The WCS is similar to the
X
coordinate system used in CNC machine tools, although in non-Cartesian robots the definition of the
X and Y directions is not natural as with machine tools
The TCS IS a coordmate system assigned to the end effector, or tool The TCS is very useful in
manual teaching of robots When using the TCS, the teaching is done from the tool’s viewpoint,
namely, as if the operator were “nding” on the tool and driving it All displacement and rotation
commands refer to the current position of the tool and the direction toward which it is poinimg,
thus they are the most understandable by the operator
The term JCS refers to the set of all joint position values, and m
non-Cartesian robots it is actually
not a coordinate system Coordinates arc stored m
JCS in most point-lo-point robots Finally, the
SCS IS a coordinate system assigned to a sensor mounted above the working space of the robot, and
IS sometimes used with intelhgent robots To conclude, all these four coordinate systems are
used in
robotics, whereas only the Cartesian coordinate ^tem is used in CNC machine tools
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206 ROBOT CONTROL

nx SYSTEM STRUCTURE
As «as shovri) in Figure 12 1, both CNC
machines and robot systems include a mechanical device
controlled by a computenzed which is fed by a task program (m robotics) or part program
controller,
(in CNC) of the tool
that dictates the path or trajectory
Both CNC and robot systems can be divided into point-to-point (FTP) and continuous-path or
contounng systems *** A typical PTP system is encountered in a spot-welding robot or in a CNC
dnlling machine In a spoi-welding operation the robot moves until the point to be welded is exactly
between the two electrodes of the welding gun. and then the weld is applied The robot then moves
to a new point, and another spot weld is performed This process is repealed until all the required
points on the part are welded The welding gun is then brought to the starting point, and the system
IS ready for the next part
In more general terms, the descnpcion of the PTP operation is the following The robot or the
machine tool moves to a numerically defined posttion, and then the motion » stopped The tool perfonns
the required task with the robot or the machine stationary Upon completion of (he task, the robot
or the machine tool moves to the next point and the cycle is repeated
In a PTP system, the path and (he veloaiy, while traveling from one point to the next, are without
any significance Therefore, a basic PTP system would require only position counters for controlling
the final position of the robot tool to bnng it to the target point The coordinate values for each
desired position are loaded into (he counters with a resolution that depends on the system's basic
resolution unit (6RU) Dunng the motion of (he arm the encoder at each joint transmits pulses that
represent the position of the joint Each axis of motion is equipped with a counter to which the
corresponding encoder pulses are transmitted At the beginning of a motion from a point, each axial
counter is loaded by the corresponding required axial mcrnnental distance to the next point in DRUs
During the motion of the arm, the contents of each counter are gradually decremented by the pulses
arriving from the corresponding encoder When all counters are at zero the robot is in its new desired
position
In continuous-path robots and CNC machine tools the tool performs the task while the axes of
motion are moving, as, for example, in an arc-welding n^t or a milling machine. The task of the
robot m arc welding is to guide the welding gun along the preprogrammed path In continuous-path
systems all axes of motion may move simultaneously, each at a different velocity These velocities,
however, are coordinated under computer conirol to trace the required path, or trajectory
In a continuous-path operation, the position of the machine or the robot tool at the end of each
segment, together with the ratio of axes velocities, determines the generated trajectory (e g the weld
,

path in arc welding), and at the same time (he resultant velocity also affects the quality of the work
For example, variations in the velocity of the welding gun m arc welding result in a nonumform
weld scam thickness (i e , an unnecessary metat buildup or even holes)
A block diagram of a continuous-path robot system is shown m Figure 12 4 The coordinates of
the end points in the task program are stored in the WCS Based on these points, the robot computer
performs trajectory planning and transforms the calculated coordinates to six desired joint position
values (ic. to JCS) The desired posicion is sent every T, seconds (typically T# = 30 ms) to (be
control loops In robotics, the loop controller usually contains a dedicated microprocessor,
whereas

in most CNCs the control loopsareclosed through the computer itself Each loop controls a
correspond-

ing drive unit which actuates one axis of motion of the manipulator
Fig.

12.2.

CNC

machine

tool

system.

(Courtesy

of

Kearney

and

Trecker.)
 )

ROBOT CONTROL

(12 3) provide the basis of linear interpolator algonthms for

machine tools Circular interpolator algo-
* ’
nthttis arc more complicated and can be found in the literature
The interpolators applied in CNC
machine tool systems can be used m
Cartesian coordinate robots
in which the touting axes of the wnst mtctsect at one point, as, for example, the commercial m
robot shown in In these cases the CNC-iype interpolator determines the trajectory of
Figure 12 5
the wnst intersection point, and generates velocity commands according to Eqs (12 1) through (12 3)
for the three Canestan axes of the arm Another algonthm is applied to determine the desired onenution
of (he wnst *
However, most robot sjstems, unlike roachmc tools, include rotary axes, and therefore the determina-
tion of the trajectory between end points is much more complex In cocitinuous-paih robots that
include rotary axes, the interpolation process is divided into two stages trajectory planning and coordi-
nate transformation (see Figure 12 4)
The first stage consists of breaking the path between the end points into small sections
down
along the same straight line as shown Figure 12 6 This stage is denoted as trajectory planning Subse-
quently the motion from the beginning to the end of each small section » obtained by solving the
inverse kinematic problem, or. in other words, tTansformuig the points' Cartesian coordinates to cone-
spondmg joint commands For the trajectory in Figure 12 6 the robot computer sends commands to
each joint at points 1, 2, 3, and 4, and the manipulator moves successively from point to point The
path between successive points is not predicted and is usually not an exact straight line By contrast,
in NC and CNC machine tool systems linear interpolators always produce straight lines, and the
’ * ’
path error does not exceed the resolution unit of ihc system
The deviations from a straight line iti robot systems depend also on the moving speed of the
manipulator The spacing of interpolated points between the end points is based on equal time intervals
A typical time interval can be on the order of 25 msec If the arm moves at 10 mm/sec, then the
distance between successive points is 025 mm (001 in ). but if the required speed is 100 mm/sec,

Fig- 12.5. Cartesian coordinate robot (Courtesy of GCA

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210 ROBOT CONTROL

Fie. 12.8. Control loop utilizing current amplifier

An important advantage of the torque control approach is that we can maintain a desired torque
or force "niis is useful in some roboiKs apphcalions, such »
screwing or assembly of mating parts
Another advantage is that when the robot arm encounters resistance (e g . the gnpper touches a rigid
obstacle) it maintains a constant torque and does not try to draw additional power from the electncal
source.
The approach u to control the velocity of the robot arm by manipulation of the DC
alternative
motor a voltage amplifier in the motor's drive unit A similar approach is also usually
voltage, utilizing
crapIo)ed in CNC machine tools and in hydraulically dnven robots The main advantage of this
approach tn robotics is that vanations m
the momenl of inertia affect only the time constant of the
response but do not result in any disastrous consequences and do not affect the time required to
reach the target position The arm always approaches the target smoothly with a very low speed
The problem with this approach is that (he torque is not controlled, and the motor will draw from
the voltage amplifier whatever current is required to overcome the disturbance torque In robotics
this can lead to burning of the amplifier's fuse when the robot arm encounters a ngid obstacle Another
disadvantage is that this system is not suitable for certain assembly tasks, such as press fitting aivd
screwing, which require a constant torque or force
The selected control approach to a robot arm should be dependent on the application and the
environment in which the robot arm operates When the arm is free to move along some coordinate
(e g spray painting robots), the specification of velocity is appropriate When the robot's end effector
,

might be in contact with another object m

such a way as to prevent motion along a coordinate, the
specification of torque is appropnate. Note that either velocity or torque may be specified, but not
both

12.6. PROGRAMMING
NC and CNC machine toots use off.hne programming methods, which can be either manual or computer
assisted, such as programming with the aid of the APT language Dunng ofTdtne programming the
machine remains in operation while a new part program is being written Typically, when a part
program is ready it is stored on a punched upe (recent systems use floppy disks) The punched tape
u taken to the machine shop and loaded onto the tape reader of the NC or CNC machine tool, and
the part is subsequently produced
By contrast, with most robot systems She robot itself is used for the programming stage At least
three programming methods are used tn robotics manual teaching. lead>through teaching, and using
a tasL-programming language*
Manual teaching is most frequently used w
point-to-point robotic systems With this method a
control bat (called (he leach pendant) is used by an operator dunng the programming or leaching
stage The operator moves each axis of the robot manually, until the combination of all azial positions
yields the desired position of the robot The operator then stores the coordinates of this position mlo
the computer memory This process is repeat^ for each required position until the task program is
completed

Fig. 12.9. Control loop utilizing voltage amplifier

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212 ROBOT CONTROL
Constramst Punched tape

Fig. 12.10. Adaptive control system of a CNC lathe

the lower level there are position control loops of the individual joints, each includes a position feedback
device such as an encoder In many robots a velociiy control loop (with a tachometer as the velocity-
measuring device) is contained at the low-control level as well
The higher level in the hierarchy contains a sensor that is able to sense the robot environment,
Its associated interface, and the Al algonihm The loop is closed through the interpolator algorithm,
which responds to the original task program instructions, with corrections obtained from the AI algo-
rithm

Fig. 12.11. Block diagram of an intelligent robot

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 CHAPTER 13
SENSORS FOR INTELLIGENT
ROBOTS
AVINASH C. KAK
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

JAMES S. ALBUS
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, DC

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Most industnal robots today have little or no sensory capability Feedback is limited to information
about joint positions, combined ^ith a few interlock and iimini signals These robots can function
only in environments where the objects to be manipulated are precisely located in the proper position
for the robot to grasp For many industrial applications, this level of performance has been adequate
Until recently most robot applications consisted of taking pans out of die-casting and injeclion>molding
machines In this task the pans produced are always m esaclly the same position in the mold so
that the robot needs no sensory capability to find the part or compensate for misalignments Another
pnncipjl application has been the spot welding of automobile bodies Her^ the car bodies are positioned
and clamps so that each body is always exactly in the same place as the one before Thus the robot
needs no sensory capability to find where to place the welds Even in those cases where a robot
places welds on a moving car body, an optical encoder is attached to the conveyor line to tell the
robot how fast the car body is moving Also, an optical sensor indicates when each car moves into
Che work area so that the robot can begin its programmed routine The robot’s computer then transforms
the coordinate system of the program to follow the conveyor line
Sensory capabilities arc necessary for a robot to function with intelligence, by which is meant the
ability to interact with a flexible environiocnl Such intelligent, for example, permits adaptive motion
control mwhich sensory information is used to modify the commands to a programmable manipulator
In this handbook the major sensor types are discussed to two chapters m Chapter 14, Vision Systems,
Agin* discusses the sensors and algonthms used for robot vision today in industry for parts inspection
In Chapter 16, Depth Perception for Robots, Kak discusses various sensors, such as stereo vision,
structured light, lasers, and ultrasound, that can be used for range mapping of scenes
The aim of this chapter is to present an overview and to discuss, sometimes briefly, those areas
of robot sensors that are not covered in the more specialized treatments elsewhere in the handbook
In this and the other chapters only those sensors arc included that are necessary for a robot to monitor
Its immediate, proximal, and distal environments Sensors required by a robot to monitor its own
infernal state have not been treated in this chapter, usually these are the same as those required for
general automation, and have been reviewed m many other publications <*'***
Unfortunately, robot intelligence requires a good deal more than simple acquisition of sensory
data In addition to sensors, what is needed is the ability to organize the sensory data
into task-

specific models or components Model representation is a more challenging problem than the design
of devices and systems for sensory input With the rapid progress that has recently been made
in a
limitation
types of sensors, the achievable level of robot intelligence seems constrained pnmanly by this
on the processing of sensory information

214
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216 ROBOT CONTROL

that a small amount of vibration or jiggling, together with properly designed tapers and bevels, can
accommodate for slight misalignments and prevent jamming when two pieces with close tolerances
are assembled.
Assembly of closc-fittmg parts may also be accomplished without any sensory feedback by using
a unique device called the Remote Center Cornpliance (RCC) • As is illustrated later, by projecting
the center of compliance into the part that, for example, is undergoing insertion into a hole, this
device provides the necessary “give" to prevent jamming, galling, and the like The center of compliance
IS the point through which forces act on an object while it is being manipulated for assembly It is

also the point at which lateral and rotational compliances are decoupled Assembly forces are minimized
when this center is located near the point where pans come in initial contact dunng assembly
The m>‘stery of the RCC device is perhaps best explained with the help of the following illustrations,
which arc based on those found in the product hieraiure from Lord Industnal Products, a manufacturer
of such devices. First consider the unaided insenion of a sha/l into a mating hole as shown in Figure
13 2a The arrow A is the initial direction of the force applied to the shaft If there is a lateral error
in aligning exactly the axis of the shaft with the axis of the hole, there will come into play a honzontal
force on the leading end of the shaB as it makes contact with the chamfer (Figure 13 2h) More
likely than not the end result would be a jam as shown in Figure 13 2c. and any further application
of the force would only exacerbate the situation The pnncipal source of difhculiy is that the shaft is
being pushed into the hole
In contrast, an RCC device causes the shaft to be pulled into the hole Again consider the case
when the axes of the shaA and the hole are not exactly lined up As shown in Figure 13 3a when
the leading end of the shaft now held by an RCC
device make contact with the chamfer, the resulting
honzontal force causes the shaft to translate laterally, permuting easy insertion (Figure 13 3b) A
simibr result is obtained when and the hole are not parallel to each other as
(he axes of (he shaft
shown in Figure 1.3 4a
Positioning itself laterally by the mechanism drsenbed previously, the shaft
will enter the Again because of the give m the RCC. the resulting moments will rotate the
hole
shaft about the compliant center and ease further insertion (Figure 13 46)
Before concluding this introduction, we would like to draw the attention of the reader to earlier
survejs of sensors for robots s *‘ ** **

13J. VISION
In Chapter 14. Vision Sjsiems, Agin presents many algorithms for robot vision Here we add a few
introductory comments and (hen discuss the relative merits of static overhead camera^type vision
sj-stems versus the e)e^•ln-ha^td type.

(a) |b) (r)

Fig. 13J. Insertion of a shaft into a mating hole ts depicted here A slight lateral error in aligning
the two components results in forces and moments that jam the shaft after only a partial insertion
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218 ROBOT CONTROL

(s) (b)

Fig. 13.4. In the case shown here the axes of the shaft and the hole are not parallel Again the give
in the RCC facilitates insertion

identify a workpiece, and determine its onentalion, when the workpiece is presented to the vision
system in one of its stable positions These algonlhcns can also perform qualitative and semi*quantitsCive
visual inspection by using simple features like the area and the penmeter of a binary silhouette of
the workpiece and of any holes in that silhouette
Most current vision systems use a static overhead camera placed above the robot working area,
which possesses the advantage that white the vision dau are being acquired and processed, the robot
can attend to some other part of the industrial process Its disadvantage, however, ts that the vision
system becomes ineffective if the robot arm is blocking the workpiece, as might happen during the
attempted retneval of a part It has been shown by Loughlin^ that if a camera is mounted on the
robot gnpper (the result being called a eye-in>hand system), in addition to eliminating the blmd>spot<
caused problems, it is also possible to employ much lower-resolution imagery without sacnUcing accuracy
in the calculation of either the location or the onenution of the object
Generally, algonthms for object recognition require higher-resolution imagery than those for the
calculation of object location and onenution However, more than 70% of vision applications m
automated manufactunng do not require objects to be recognized, since they come presorted down
the line In most such applications determining accurately the onenlation and location of an object
within the cycle time of a robot is imporUnl
Loughhn” has shown that owing to parallax errors (an example of which is shown m Figure
13 S) that are associated with the static overhead lyjies. an cye-in-hand vision system can better compute
the location and orientation of an object In Figure 13 S the parallax error causes an erroneous computa-
tion of the center of area when the object is ofl<enlcr in the field of view of the camera Such errors
arc nonexistent for eye-in-hand systems, since each object is examined from a position directly above
The effective image resolution at close range obtained with the cye-in-hand vision can be comparable
to the static case Also, because of the small matnx size of the image, the computing times can be
much shorter For a 32 X 32 pixel resolution eye-in-hand vision, the image frame acquisition time
was 20 msec, and since the processing time on such a small matnx can be kept below 8 msec, the
total adds up to less than 28 msec, which is the cycle lime of a PUMA robot Owing to their lower
resolution, the eye-m-hand cameras possess an additronal advantage of longer depth of fields, which
often eliminates the need for automatic focusing, conlnbuting to a reduced cost, size, and weight of
the camera

13.3, DEPTH PERCEPTION FOR ROBOTS

In Chapter 16, “Depth Perception for Robots.” the pnnciples of operation and algonthms applied m
elegant
the major sensory types used for (his purpose are discuss^ Here we illustrate a simple yet
light
device developed at the National Bureau of Standards, based on the principles of structured
discussed in Chapter 16 This system can also be used to determine the onentation of the parts
on a
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320 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 13,7. A cabbration chart for the vision system shown in Figure 13.6 The pixel row and column
of any illuminated pioint in the television image can be immediately convened to x, y position in a
coordinate system delined in the robot fingertips The x axis passes through the two fingertips, and
the y axis points in the same direction as the fingers. The plane of the projected light is coincident
with the (x, y) plane so that the z coordinate on every illuminated point is zero (Albus*)

robot hand to reach out and grasp an object In this manner the robot can operate on a random pile
of blocks and cylinders and sort them into a regular array It can also measure the shape of a casting,
find the edge of a window frame, detect the crack between a pair of bncks, or measure the angle
between two pieces of steel This is the most basic type of sensory information required to perform
tasks in the factory and on the construction site Further details on this device can be found in Refer*
ence 2

13.4. TACTILE SENSORS

Tactile sensing in thehuman hand enables the detection of touch, force, pattern, slip, and movement
(After force on the skin exceeds the proportional limit of tactile sensing, stretch sensors in the tendons
and muscles of rhe hand, wnsr, and the arm detect the larger forces and transmit signals to the
brain) Recent research has focused on the development of tactile sensors for robots with similar
skinlike properties
As mentioned in the introduction, the roles of vision and tactile sensing are often complementary
to each other With vision sensing, which often spans a wide field of view, a robot can identify workpieces
and locate their position, whereas tactile sensing can be used for determining the local shape, onentation,
and resistance to gnppmg pressure once the workpiece is grasped With taction the mechanical hand
of the future should be able to work with soft, delicate, or limp goods
Harmon” has conducted a highly informative survey of researchers and manufacturers m robotics
to determine the present and future tactile-sensing requirements and potentials Of the many applications
that Harmon has listed for tactile sensing are mcluded arc-wclding tracking, bm-picking, onenting
parts, adaptive grasping, batch assembly, detection of jamming (for example, screw cross-threading),
fittingof close tolerance parts (down to 0 0005 in tolerances), electronic-component insertion, handling
of delicate parts such as light bulbs and soft materials, the ability to test parts for freedom and mtegnty.
tools
As Hannon has pointed out, machines that could automatically grasp and sensibly use small
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sensory elements The sensor may consist of two sheets of wires running perpendicular to each ether
separated by a thin elastic medium The intersection points of the wires form the individual sensory
elements for pressure measurement

Fig. 13.9. A mechanical drawing of the sensor PCI is a pnnted circuit board etched into fine parallel
correspond to the conducting wires of the lower sheet m Figure 13 8 The ACS rubber
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pnnted circuit board PC2 (llillis'*)
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Pig. 13.11. A possible explanation Tor why the electncal resistance of the ACS decreases with increased
applied pressure (Hillis'*)

Fig. 13.12. A image is formed by scanning the array, which is accomplished by applying a
tactile
voltage to one at a time and measuring the current flowing m each row For example, if the
column
contact A is emerge when dunng the scan a voltage is applied to column 2 and
closed, that fact will
a current is measured when row 2 is grounded A potential problem with this method is the introduction
of “phantom” tactile images caused by the crosspoint problem

224
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226 ROBOT CONTROL
above The resistivity is measured by sending a current between a pair of electrodes within the
test
cell, the electrodes being in elcctncal contact with the plastic A
comparison of the voltage drop
across the electrodes and an estemally supplied reference voltage yields a signal proportional to the
applied force. The electrodes within a cell may be patterned as shown in Figure 13 15 That figure
measurement of resistivity of the overlying plastic
also illustrates the
A
schematic of the computing structure for processing the transduced pressure signals is shown
in Figure 13 16 In addition to the electrodes for incasunng the local pressure, each cell contains a
processor capable of performing local compulations and communicating with its immediate neighbors,
such communications are required for computing convolutions of the tactile image The communications
between the cells are also used for shifting the processed tactile data from one cell to another until it
reaches the penphery of the array The data arc then serialized for transmission to the host computer
A block diagram of the digital processor in each cell is shown in Figure 13 17 The voltage
obtained by passing a lest current through the overlying plastic is compared to the reference V„,,
and the result given a l>bit representadon (The pressure at each point may be obtained with more
than 1 bit of precision by applying different values of f'nr and computing the results for each bit
ts made available to a 1-bit latch for storage
thus obtained ) This 1-bit representation of the pressure
through a muItiplcTer (MUX) (The bits It and /* detefmine which of the four inputs to the MUX
will be latched) Note that as soon as any of the inputs to the MUX are latched, it is also made
available to the cell's neighbors to the south and the east It is through this communication that it is
possible to compute convolutions of the type

C(m. n)=i:* (13 1)

where p(m. n) represents the transduced pressure values, and h{i. j) the unit sample response of the
convolution Since the pressure data p(m. n) are binary, the muliiplicattons in the foregoing expression
can be implemented as conditional additions In Figure 13 17 ihe coefficients of convolution, which
are also binary, are represented by bit /« supplied from the instruction register For example, assume
that A(0. 0) IS 1 The first step m implementing Ihe convolution would be to send /« = 1 to all cells
over the global communication line (assuming that the measured data have already been latched)
This, with a proper selection for the bit /«. would cause Ihe latched measured data to be transferred
into the accumulator (after passing through the adder, which at this time has nothing to add)

Di^ul
pr^ure
data

Fig. 13.1S. The electrodes within a cell may be patterned as shown here Also illustrated is the

measurement of resistivity of the overlying plastic

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228 ROBOT CONTROL
Ai this stage, the latched measured data have moved into the accumulator, and also have been
made available to the south and east neighbors No«, by sending a global instruction with proper
values for bits /i and It, this information can be latched into, let us say, the east neighbor By the
same token, the cell under question wilt grab (latch) the information from its west neighbor Now
let /i(0. 1) is also 1 By again setting the /«th bit in the next global instruction to 1,
us assume that
this newly latched information wiU be made available to the adder, where it will be summed with
the previously stored information in the accumulator A
repeated application of this procedure would
carry out the convolution in Eq (13 1)
Raibert and Tanner*^ have fabncated and tested a 6 X 3 sensing array and proposed a defect-
tolerant approach to designing larger arrays The larger the area of active silicon, the greater the
nsk of fabncating defective circuitry For example, for a 23 X 25 sensor, assuming a cell size of 1 X
I mm, the active silicon area would be around 2 5 X 25 cm. which is entirely too large compared

to conventional mtegrated circuits. A large array can be made defect tolerant by incorporating redun-
dancy In the approach suggested by Raibeii and Tanner this is accomplished by duplicating the
computing element within each cell and by providing a selector mechanism for choosing between
them when one fails.

13.5. FORCE AND TORQUE SENSORS

The and torques encountered by a robot arm during assembly can be measured directly by
forces
using a wTist force sensor, which basically consists of a structure with some compliant sections and
transducers that measure the deflections of the compliant sections The most common transducer
used “ —> *

on **

3-in .
.

end of each beam transmits a bending torque that increases the strain at the other end where it is
measured by two foil strain gages A potentiometer circuit connected to the two strain gages produces

Fig. 13.18. A strain-gage wnsi force sensor built at SR! It is built from a milled 3-m -diameter
aluminum tube having eight narrow elastic beams with no hysteresis The neck at one end of each
beam transmits a bending torque, which increases the strain at the other end where it is measured
by two foil strain gages. A potentiometer circuit connected to the two strain gages produces an output
that u proportional to the force component normal to the strain-gage plates (Rosen and Nitzan“)
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230 ROBOT CO>frROL

13. Hannon, L. D, Automated tactile sensing, Intemalional Journal of Robotics, Vol 1. No 2,

1982, pp 3-32
14 Hams. C M and Crede, C E.. Shock and Vibration Handbook, McGratv-HiU, New York.
1961
15. Hill, J W and Sword. A J . Mampulalion based on sensor-directed control An integrated end
effector and touch sensing sjstem. Proceedings of 17th Annual Human Factor Society Convention,
Washington. DC , October 1973
16. Hiilis, W D A lugh-resoluaon imaging touch sensor.
.
International Journal of Robotics Research,
Vol 1, No 2, 1982, pp 33-44
17. Inoue, H . Computer controlled bilateral manipulator. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Mechani-
cal Engineering, Vol 14, pp 199-207, 1971
18. Larcombe, M
H E., Carbon fibre tactile sensors. Proceedings of 1st Intemalional Conference
on Robot Vision and Sensory Controls, 1981, pp 273-276
19. Ijon. R S, Instrumentation in Scientific Research, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959
20 Loughlin,C E>e-m-hand robot vision scores over fixed camera. Sensor Review, Vol 3, No 1.
,

1983, pp 23-26
21. Nitzan, D Assessment of robotic sensors. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Robot
,

Vision and Sensory Controls, 1981, pp l-ll

22. Norton. H N ,
Handbook of Transducers for Electronic Measuring Systems, Prentice-Hall. New
Jersey. 1969

23. Paul, R. and Shimano, B

Compliance and control, in Brady
,
M et at , Eds , Robot Motion,
MIT Press, Cambndge, Massachusetts, 1982. pp 405-417
24. Raibcrt. M H and Taimer, J £., Design and Implementation of a VLSI Tactile Sensmg Computer,
International Journal of Robotics Research. Vol I, No 3, 1982, pp 3-18

25. Rosen, C A and Nitzan, D . Use of sensors

in programmable automation. Computer, December
1977, pp 12-23
26. Rosen. C A , Machine vision and robotics fndustnal requirements, in Dodd, C G and Rossol,
L ,
Eds Computer Vision and Sensor-Based Robots, Plenum Press, New York, 1979
.

27. Z and Clot, J Integrated behavior of amficial skin, IEEE Transactions in Biomedical
Stojiljkovic, ,

Engineering Vol 24. 1979. pp 396-399

28. Takeda. S , Study of anihcial uctile sensors for shape recognition algonthm for tactile data
input, Proceedinp of 4ih International Symposium on Industrial Robots, 1974, pp 199-208
29. Wang, S S W
and Will, P M, Sensors for computer controlled mechanical assembly. The
Industrial Robot, Vol 5, No t. March 1978, pp 9-18

30 Watson, P C and Drake, S H Pedestal and wnst , force sensors for automatic assembly. Proceed-
ings of 5th International Symponum on Industrial Robots. 1975, pp 501-511
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232 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. W.l. A binary vision system programmable with a light pen (Photograph courtesy of Machine
Intelligence Corporation

4. What IS the processing speed’ How does the speed depend on the complexity of the image’
5. How much control is readily available over the processing algonthms. parameters, and options?

Is there a high-level language available in »hich to write application programs? Are the lower-
level processing routines modifiable by the user?
6 What are the operator controls’ Once a system has been set up and tuned by a factory engineer,
how much knowledge is needed by the production personnel who use the equipment on a
daily basis’
7. What Lind of technical support services are available? Is there a clearly written manual that
explains the pnnciples of operation as well as the steps needed to set up the system? Are
engineers accessible to answer technical questions? How is held maintenance?

Even the best computer vision systems suffer severe limitations on the domains of application
and the kinds of vuual processing they will do They lend to treat images in a two-dimensional fashion—
in general (hey cannot deal with three-dimensional objects viewed from an arbitrary perspective Most
of them require special lighting arrangements Objects must be presented individually (Some systems
can handle multiple objects, but these may not overlap in the image) They do not deal well with
situations not expressly' provided for
Researchu under way in a large number of academic and industrial institutions to overcome
these limitations This includes researchon the nature of visual processes in humans and animals, as
well as on image-processing methods, computer graphics, man-machine communications, pattern recog-
nition. computer architectures, and sensor design Progress will come from better understanding of
the methods available and from the development of speaal-purpose Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
architectures to do visual processing rapidly

14.1.2. Definitions

An image is an array

(jVr. y^l. -• . //.x = l.

Each element called a puce! or picture ceil The parameter p corresponds to rows of the image,
and X corresponds to columns x and y form an invCTted, left-handed coordinate system with its
axis
origin near the upper left comer of the image, with the x axis increasing to the right and the y
the
increasing downward // is the image height or the number of rows in the image, and IF is
width or the number of columns Spciial resolution refers to the image dimensions expressed m a

form such as 512X 512

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SWaiSAS NOISIA
236 ROBOT CONTROL
the beam always perpendicular to the material surface Such laser scanners are widely used m the
manufacture of synthetic textiles
The output of a linear array or laser scanner u a lime-varying analog waveform A significant
amount of processing can be done using analog hardware A partial list of useful functions includes

1. Low-pass filtenng to smooth noise

2. High-pass filtenng to remove slow vanations due to nonuniform lighting, and so on
3. Diflerentiation to emphasize discontinuities m the signal
4 Integration to obtain an average bnghtness level

5. Logical masking to ignore signals outside the region of interest

The final step in a chain of such processing will usually be thresholding Any signal over the threshold

presumably corresponds to a defect For simple applications it may be sufficient to couple the threshold
circuit output directly to an alarm signal, but most practical systems will analyze the signal further
to determine the type or cause of (he blemish, to maintain counts of defects, or to perform further
checks
Sometimes a one-dimensional scan can be used for a kind of mask matching * A scan across a
known object at a known location can be expected to show certain regions of dark and light Some
simple processing can detect these features Inspection can be based on the presence of all such expected
features Classification or measurement can be based on the width or spacing of these features

14.4. DIRECT MATCHING

Direct matching is a class of techniques that match images or portions of images directly with each

other Usually one image ts a model or template, and the other image is an unknown m which an
example of the model is sought There are two types of situation in which a direct match can be
useful in an industnal situation It can be used for inspection purposes to venfy that the entire image
(or a major portion of it) corresponds to what is expected Or it can be us^ to detect and locate
instances of a particular small feature These feature indications and their locations should be analyzed
at a higher level of control See Section 14 9 2
Direct matching makes use of some measure of difference between two images Given two images
\p^\ and [q^j, the difference is d^t ~
~ The individual pixel differences can be combined in
a number of ways to yield an overall measure for the image

The count of pixel differences that exceed a threshold T

^^
- 2 “ 9w) where |
1 0 otherwise

The sum of the ^wolute values of the pixel diffwcnces

The sum of the squares of the pixel differences

Asingle numerical measure of the pixel similarity of images may be useful in a situation where
pieces are fixtured so that there areno positional uncertainties Such can be the case when inspecting
the output of a (usually) highly repeatable process such as printing, punching, labeling, or stamping
If the difference between a pari image and a previously trained prototype exceeds a threshold, then
the part should probably be rejected
When images are binary, a small amount of positional uncertainty can be tolerated with the use
of "don't-care regions " Although this could take many forms, the most straightforward implementation
is as a separate array of bits to indicate whether or not individual pixel differences are to be
calculated

and summed for the corresponding pixels Sometimes special knowledge of the inspection situation
can be used to specify these don't-care regions Growing and shnnking operations on the prototype
image (see Section 14 7) can be used to create a narrow dont-care region that includes the boundaQ-
However, in most situations the precise image location is not predictable to within the order of a
with
single pixel Then the use of direct matching must make use of a variable shift of one image
difference
respect to the other and a search procedure to discover the value of shift that minimizes the
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238 ROBOT CONTROL
The R, will always have an even number of elements The number of elements tn the set will
set

be twice the number of consecutive runs of I’s A line consisting of all O's will be represented as the
empty set ( A Ime consisting of all I's will be represented as the two-member set |1 R' -h l|
I

Note that there is no explicit assumption made here as to whether 1 represents black and 0 white
or vice versa- The choice depends on the relative colors of object and background The convention
we observe here is that 0 represents the color of the background
Whether or not run-length coding will result in a net compression of image data depends on the
image For purposes of illustration, assume an image 256 X 256 pixels square for which a column
number can be packed into a single byte Assume that one additional byte per row will be needed
either to serve as an end-of-row indicator or to count the number of transitions on that row The
image of a circle with a diameter of 128 pixels will require only 512 bytes to represent in run-length
representation, whereas the bit map would require 8192 bytes On the other hand, the run-length
code could require as much as 65,792 bytes if the wotst-case pattern of alternating 1 and 0 were
presented
The mam reason we are interested in data compression has little to do with the amount of storage
required A compression will pay bigger dividends in processing time— for the less data there are,
the less time will be needed to digest them The of the connectivity and feature-extraction
efficiency
algorithms to be described depend to a great extent on the fact that only the transitions are significant,
and only the transitions need to be processed

14.5^. CoDnectivity in General

The purpose of connectivity analysis is to separate multiple injects in a scene from each other and
from areas of the picture that represent noise or extraneous things The connected components are
called blobL Blobs may represent contiguous areas of I’s or of O's. they may represent objects, holes
in objects, or the background Figure 14 i illustrates the intuitive concepts There are a total of five
black and four white blobs m
the picture, plus the background Each blob except the background is
totally surrounded by another blob of contrasting color Tw'O large black blobs represent a connectmg
rod and a hex nut Three medium-size white blobs represent holes m thee figures The remaining
four small blobs are noise pixels, presumably due to dirt or reflections One of these noise blobs is a
hole in the connecting rod, another one ts a black inclusion inside a white hole

background
Fig. 14J. Concepts of connection Therearefiveblackblobsandfour white blobs, plus the
Each blob is totally surrounded by another of contrasting color
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Lit SXVaiSAS MOISIA

240 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig 14.4. Pixel neighborhoods pixels that are Fig. 14.5. Pixel neighborhoods pixels that are
adjacent horizontally and vertically arc 4 con- adjacent honzontally, vertically, and diagonally
nected neighbors arc 8-connected neighbors

3 contain livo boundary descnptors The first boundary descnptor

Initialize the active line to
should have a column number smaller than zero and a blob identifier pointing to the background
The column number ofthe second deacnplorshould be a large positive number Its blob identifier
IS immatenal
4. Perform additional iniualisatton processing, as needed
5. Process each row of the image, in lop-to-boitom order, as described later

6 Finish by processing an extra row consisting of all zeros

To Process a Row

1. Initialize the current boundary pointer to point to the first boundary descnptor in the active
line

2. Obtain the run-length representation of the row. as described in Section 14 5 1 Prefix this
list with a negative number and add a large positive number to the end of the list

3. For every pair of adjacent numbers in the run-length data, in left-to-nght order, perform the
segment-processing operation, as defined in the next section [For example, if the run-length
data consists of the list (-1 12 3 4 99), then the segment processor will be called five times
with the arguments (-1 I), (1 2), (2 3). (3 4), and (4 99)]
4. If the current boundary pointer does not point to the last boundary in the active line, perform
the deletion operation, as defined later, repeatedly until it does

Fig 14.6, Pixel neighborhoods pixels that are adjacent

honzontally, vertically, and along one diagonal are 6 con-
nected neighbors
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6£t SJMaiSAS NOISIA

242 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 14.8. Overlaps for connectivity The new segment lies to the left of the old one, so it must
onginate a blob

2. Perform additional merge processing as needed

3, Search the entire active line to change all instances of the younger blob identifier to the older
blob identifier
4 Since the younger blob is no longer pointed to by any part of the data structure, it may now
be deleted, relumed to free storage, or otherwise disposed of

14.5.4. A Simpler Conoectliity Method

A of the foregoing can be used to label the pixels of an array with blob numbers ’
simplified version
The only data structure required
is an array to hold the blob numbers Any subsequent feature extraction

must operate by rescanning thu array

Rather than give a complete description of the simpler algorithm, the reader is referred to the

Fig. 14.9. Overlaps for connectivity The new segment lies to the nght of the old one The blob
represented by the old segment must be terminated The two contrasting blobs on either side of the

old segment must be merged

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IK SWaXSAS MOISIA
2U ROBOT CONTROL

2 >' = >’ 2 1 =>("- m)

V«' 2n* + 3n* + « 2m* + 3m*+m

5
S
= ^[2(n - mKn + m - I)* + (« - «)» - (n - pi)]
2 ^y = y’^ x-y{n-mXm + H-i)

2 j''
= >* 2 * = J'H" - "*)

To compuie first and second moments, set aJl six accumulations to zero during origination processing
Dunng continuation processing, increment themocneni accumulations according to the preceding formu-
bs.Dunng merge processing, add together the moment accumulations of the older blob and the
)ounger blob and store them in the older blob
Wlien fixed-point integer anthmeiic is used for moment accumulations, there must be suflicienl
precision in the arithmetic and data storage to accommodate the large sums generated For an image
of dimensions n x «, maximum value of
the is n*. the maximum £x or is Jn*. the maximum
ix’ or 1$ Jii‘. and the maximum Sxy is Jb*

14.6,3. Using Moments of Area: Centroid, and Approximating Ellipse

Assume the existence of scaling parameters St and 5^ that give the pixel horizontal and vertical
pixel spacing These may be given in millimeters, inches, or other convenient units and represent the
distance a point «>outd have to move m
the scene so that it moves one pixel in the image. Using
these parameters, the area A and the centroid (C^. C^) are given by

A^StS^H

An ideal ellipse may be specilled by five parameters. For our purposes, it is most useful to specify
t»o parameters of size and shape (major axis length and minor axis length), two parameters of position
(centroid in x and y), and one parameter of orientation (rotation) It is convenient to add a sixth
parameter, a density Given a blob wiith its six mnenents of atea. we may salve tot the parameten of
the ideal ellipse that has the identical moments This is called recovering the approximating ethpie
The centroid formulas given still apply, and the following formulas give the other parameters

F=
Ia +b+i
Major axis =
V 2F

Minor axis =
2F
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in SJVaxSAS NOISIA
246 ROBOT CONTROL

Fjg. t4.11 Penmeter of a square The same square will have an apparent penmeter of 54 pixels
when It IS onented diagonally

9 2% too high An ideal circle may be expected to have a measured penmeter that is too high by a
factor of (8/w) (v'2 • -
1). or 5 48%
Taking all of the factors mentioned into account (the cutting of comers, the expected 5 48% error,
and diSTcrent honzontal and vertical scaling parameters) yields the following formula

P - 0 948059 - + 5^ - VS} +
J(5x SJ )Ac)

14 6.5. Perimeter Lists

—
Sometimes il is useful to have lists of penmeter points the x- and ^’•coordinates of points on the
penmeter of a blob—in the order they are encountered as the penmeter is followed around the blob
Many features for shape descnption can be denvcd using such a list Or it can be used for display
purposes, to encircle a blob of interest on a display screen The list is extracted dunng connectivity

7
7- /

Fig. 14.12. Cutting comers on a penmeter The diagonal penmeter segments are a better approximation
to the penmeter of the actual figure than are the stnctly honzontal and vertical segments
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24S ROBOT CONTROL
When straight lines are represented by the familur equation y = Mx + B lines that are vertical,
or nearly so, are poorly represented, and the distance from any point to that line is hard to compute
A better representation is the equation Ax + By + C — 0, with the constraint that + B^ = \

The distance.from any point (x j>) to the line is then Ax + By + C

The equation of a straight line may easily be calculated from the coordinates of any two points,
usually the end points A more robust procedure is to use a least-squares fit based on an eigenvalue
solution,® as contained in the following formulas To fit a sequence of points x,. y„ calculate

\ = i(r+ I-
_ -s
f if r > f

It — X otherwise

^_ir-X if r>t
1 -s otherwise

The mean-square error of the fit is X/N

14.7. GROWING, SHRINKING, AND SKELETONIZING
Growing, shrinking, and skeletonizing represent a class of operations that transform binary images
an input image may be transformed by one or more such operations into an output image Some
further analysis of the output image will be still necessary to extract meaningful information from
the data Growing and shnnkmg are well suited to implementation m fast hardware They are best
described using arrays of binary pixels, but they can easily be adapted to run-length representation
for a modest gain m speed
Growing and shrinking cause expansion or contraction of the blobs in an image They are reciprocal
operations m the sense that growing the I’s in an image is entirely equivalent to shnnkmg the 0‘s
However, growing followed by shnnkmg will not recover the onginal image Instead, repeated growing
and shnnkmg by equal small amounts are useful for smoothing, noise elimination, and detecting blobs
based on approximate size Small irreguianlies m the image data can be eliminated by this technique
Smoothing can be used to locate irregulanties by companng the smoothed image to the ongmal one
Such techniques can be very useful for inspecting pnnted-circuit boards and microelectronic
components ® Growing and shnnkmg are also useful for creating '‘don’t care regions” for direct image-
to-image compansons
Growing the Ts m an image is entirely equivalent to shnnkmg the O’s Suppose we wish to grow
the I’s m an input image p^j. resulting in an output image will be 1 if either pyj is 1 or
any neighbor of pyj is 1, and 0 otherwise (To shnnk the I’s. q^r should be 0 if either pyj is 0 or
any neighbor of /Vx is 0, and I otherwise) This operation may be repeated an arbitrary number of
times to grow or shnnk by arbitrary amounts If each pixel is considered to have four neighbors (as
m Figure 14 4), growing and shnnkmg will proceed more slowly than if they have eight neighbors
(Figure 14 5) Small regions tend to grow in diamond shapes using four neighbors, and in squares
using eight neighbors
Skeleionaaiion is similar to shnnkmg except that guarantees are made that blobs will never shnnk
residue
so far that they entirely disappear When blobs that are long and thin are skeletonized, the
represents a medial axis, which can be used to characlenze the onginal blob After each
shnnkmg
step, if pyj IS 1 and qyi is 0 and all the neighbors of arc also 0, then change qy, from 0 bac
to 1 ,

The following two-pass algonthm^ is faster than repeated shnnkmg, it requires an array in w c
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250 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 14.15. Neighborhoods for distance calculation

Neighborhoods to be used for the backward pass of the
skeletonizing algorithm

14.8. OPERATIONS ON GRAY-SCALE IMAGES

The use of gray-scale information m picture processing for robotic applications gives the potential
for greater generalityand flexibility than is possible with binary images The scenes to be viewed can
be less constrained, the need to control lighting is reduced (but not by any means eliminated'), and
overlapping parts can be less of a problem However, this is purchased by requinng more of the
picture processing The gross amount of data is larger, and it must be subjected to more sophisticated
and more time-consuming operations The various processing techniques tend to produce results that
are ambiguous, and this imposes a requirement for line-luning decision thresholds as a function of
the application Fundamental research into the nature of human and computer vision has produced
many interesting demonstrations of apparent visual sophistication in the past several years, but most
of these techniques today lack either the robustness or the computational efficiency for direct adaptation
in a manufaclunni environment

Fig. 14.16. Skeletonizing an image Results of backward pass

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252 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 14 18. A bimodal hislogram Die number of pixeU n ai each gray level is plotted as a function
of the gray value / De plot is called bimodal because it has two major peaks

can be used to adjust the threshold by repeated reanalysis of the image with different thresholds
until the size of the known object comes out correct
When a threshold is improperly adjusted the resulting binary image becomes cluttered and ragged
Thus the total number of blobs found by connectivity or the total penmeter of all blobs in the scene
can be used as a fairly sensitive indicator of the appropnateness of a threshold Repeated processing
of the same image with different thresholds can be used to lind the best threshold
Spatially varying thresholds can be used. as. for insunce, when the illumination field is known to
be nonuniform A spatially vanable threshold can be computed as some algebraic function of x and
y, or It can be stored in a separate image buffer and subtracted from the “live” image In either
case, the spatially varying component may be combined with the kind of settable threshold just described

14.8J. Edge Finding

De purpose of edge finding is to locate the boundanes between regions of an image If we assume
that images consist of regions of nearly umfonn intensity, we can define an edge as the boundary
between such regions Most actual images have a more complicated structure than that, but the edges
found based on this pnnciple will still be useful
Edge finding consists of two stej« locating pixels in the image that are likely to be on an edge,
and linking candidate edge points together into a coherent edge De first step is straightforward, the
second can be tncky
Candidate edge points are those where a discontinuity in bnghtness occun Dey are generally
identified by estimating the image gradient, or spatial derivative, in two dimensions De gradient
can be charactenzed by an x-component and a j'^component, or by a magnitude and direction Generally,
It IS fruitful to estimate the denvatives directly in two orthogonal directions and to convert them

into magnitude and direction For many reasons the spatial denvatives are usually computed over
some window of several points De greater the window size, the less the sensitivity to pixel noise
and digitization error But a larger window requires more computation and data buSenng and lends
to spread out the effects of a sharply definededge over several pixels
Within a 2 X2 window, the most commonly used gradient estimate is Roberts' cross"^ the fwo
orthogonal denvative estimates are the diagonals of the window as shown in Figure 14 19
~
Pvj*i) and (Aftijn —puj) De gradient magnitude ts the square root of the sum of their squares
but It IS computationally easier to simply add their absolute values De gradient direction may be
crudely quantized into four directions according to the signs and relative magnitudes of the two direc-
tional denvatives
A3X3 window can be expected to give better results. Although other configurations are possible,
the weights most commonly used to estimate the directional denvatives are as shown in Figure 14 20
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 )

254 ROBOT CONTROL

A considerable advantage can be obtained something is known a pnon about the nature of the
if

edges being sought In particular, if the edges are known to be straight lines, several different techniques

apply
_ _ ,

line
edg
transformed coordinate system perpendicular to the gradient direction, as shown in Figure 1421
The peaks of a histogram of the x-values of the projected points will give the location of the edges
A somewhat more sensitive technique that docs not depend on an accurate estimate of the gradient
direction is based on the Hough transform.^ ("Hough” rhymes with "rough”) If a straight line i$
represented by an equation of the form

jt sin 6 + y cos 0 — p =0

then of the lines that pass through the point xu y, are represented by the set of values of 9 and p
all

that satisfy the equation

p — X, sin © + y, cos 9
These two equations represent the transformation of a point in x — y space into a curve in 6 — p
space Two different points will transform to two and the intersection of these curves
different curves,
represents the straight line that passes through the two points If n points lie on a straight line m
X ~y space, then all n curves will intersect at the point in 6 — p space corresponding to the straight
line
Given a number of thresholded gradient points in which we want to find straight lines, allocate a
two-dimensional array where one dimension represents equal increments of p from zero to the maximum
radius of the image, and the other dimension represents equal increments of B from 0 to 2rr All
elements of this array should initially be zero For each gradient point, calculate p as a function of 9
for each discrete 6-value, and add I to the corresponding array element (If the gradient direction is
known, then only values of 6 within some error tolerance ofthe gradient direction need be incremented
An array element that ends up with a high count represents a group of collinear points
The number of array elements needs to be only large enough that multiple lines tn the same
image will generate separate peaks m the array Once colhnear points have bwn tdeatiSed by this
technique, the equations at the end of Section 14 6 can be used to reline the estimate of the line
parameters
The Hough transform technique can be generalized to locale any curve that may be charactenzed
by two parameters (In theory, more than two parameters can be accommodated by use of a higher-
dimensional array, but in practice they are unwieldy) For example, circles of radius R and center
(X(, are represented by the equation

identify lines parallel

Fig. 14.21. Projecting candidate edge points Peaks in the projected histogram
to the y direction
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256 ROBOT CONTROL

but we prefer the formula

2
which uses a prior estimate of the 'tarianct Vop The form of Eq (14 3) avoids a division by zero
when the number of samples is one Additionally, it helps to alleviate the problem when the number
of samples is small of greatly underestimated vanances given by form (14 2) giving undue weight to
their respective features and causing an abnormally high reject rate In the absence of any better
information, a reasonable pnor estimate of the variance is the square of \% of a ‘‘typical’’ feature
value
The normalizing factors N, of Eq (14 1) should be the weighted averages of the measured vanances

Afo
N, = •'*

Sa
If It may
be expected that different prototypes will exhibit different vanances, then we can go one
step further and use the individual vanances themselves as a separate normalizing factor for each
prototype and feature
If our vision system is presented with an object that is not part of the training set. then its normalized
feature distance from all of the prototypes may be expected to be rather high We should be able to
tell that the part does not belong by examining the minimum feature distance Pi What is a reasonable

threshold to use for a rejection entenon'^

With any system based on a decision threshold, there are two kinds of error we can make a
false negative occurs if we mistakenly reject an object that was genuine, and a false positive is when
we mistakenly accept a bogus object If we place a high value on the threshold Pi, we are not likely
to get many false negatives, but we may allow some false positives Alternatively, if we tighten up
the entenon to keep out spunous pans, we may end up rejecting some good matenal
Statistical theory tells us that, under certain idealized assumptions, the distribution of values obtained
by calculating P, for many samples same prototype
of the will follow the ehi~squared disinbutm
** 'This
(XO mathematical function depends on the value of n, the number of features used to calculate
D, A table of relevant values of (chi-squared divided by n) is given in Table 14 1 The table
gives the value of a threshold below which P,/n will fall either 95 or 99% of the time For example,
if four features are being used, then 95% of the lime that we measure prototype i. A/4 will fall
below 2 37 (i e A
will be 9 48 or less),
, and 99% of the lime A/4 will fall below 3 32 (A will be
below 13 28)
Table 14 1 can be used to choose a threshold rejection value that will correspond to an approximate
rate of false negatives (This rate is only approximate because several of the idealizing assumptions
necessary to calculate X* do not hold ) The rate of false positives is not as easy to quantify, it depends
on how similar the extraneous objects are to objects in the training set, and on how frequently they
occur In practice the best strategy is to choose an appropriate threshold for D,/n and to see how it
performs Errors cither way can be used to fine-tune the threshold for best performance
The choice of a feature set to use for recognition is something of an art There are hundreds of
potentially useful measures that can be made of a blob or an image We would like to find a small

TABLE 14,1. VALUES OF x*/n

95% 99%
n Confidence Confidence

1 384 664
2 300 461
3 2 61 3 87
4 2 37 3 32
5 2 21 3 02
10 1 83 2 32
15 167 204
20 1 57 1 88
30 1 46 I 70
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258 robot control

F^b. Method of mawmal cliques A prototype nght tnan*

gte Three edges and three angles are stored

our system is capable of using straight-edge segments and comers as local features The tnangle’s
prototype then consists of the three edges, 2, 4, and 6, together with their lengths and onenUtions,
and three comers, 1, 3, and S, together s^ith their angles and sizes Additionally, we store relationship
information the adjacencies of comers to edges (1 is adjacent to 2 and 6, 6 is adjacent to 1 and 5,
etc)
Now suppose the camera sees a new image from which local features arc extracted as in Figure
14 23 Thisis the same nght mangle, rotated so that its hypotenuse is honzontal Poor viewing conditions
have obliterated a comer and part of an edge A relational match will identify the parts of the unknown
to corresponding parts of the prototype
An osrignmenr is a tentative match between a feature in the unknown and a feature in the prototype
In our czampic, we can make the assignment c-4, because edge e in the unknown and edge 4 in the
prototype have similar lengths We also make the assignment c-2, but not 6-ft because edge c in the
unknown and edge 6 in the prototype are of different lengths Figure 14 24 shows all the assignments
for the edges and comers of the unknown of Figure 14 23 to those of the prototype of Figure 14 22
Some additional assignments such as and d-5 have been added on the basis of a liberal error
tolerance and noisy data
Next we must assess the compatibiliiy of the assignments Two assignments are incompatible if
any of the following apply

1, A contradiction is implied Assignments b-l and b-3 are incompatible because they assign
the same comer m the unknown to different comers in the prototype
2. Adjacency relationships are incorrect Comer 5 and edge 2 are not adjacent in the prototype,
while comer b and edge c are adjacent in the unknown, therefore assignments 6-5 and c*2
are incompatible

3 Distances between features are incorrectThe distance between comers 1 and 5 in the prototype
u much greater than ihedisrancebe(weencon)ers2>and din ihe unknown, therefore assignments
h-5 and d-l arc incompatible

The compatibility among all assignments is shown symbolically as a graph structure in Figure 14 25
Each node (circle) represents one assignment We draw an arc (a line) between two nodes if the two
assignments are compatible The lack of an arc between two nodes indicates that the two assignments
are incompatible

*-1 c-2 d-5

fr-3 c=4 e-6
t>-5 d-1

Fig, 14 24. Method of maximal cliques Tenta-

tive assignments showing possible matches be-
twcCT elements of the unknown and the prototype
error
Fig. 14.23. Method of maximal cliques An un- Match IS based only on size, but a liberal
known figure containing three edges and two cor- tolerance causes some additional matches to be

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LSZ SIVaiSAS NOISIA

 .

260 ROBOT CONTROL

\bl c2|
1*5 c4\
|b3 c2 </l «6|
\bi c4 d5 e6\

Fig. 14.26. Method of mammal Maximal cliques of compatible assignments Of the two larger
cliques

maximal cliques, one is the expected mapping and the other is a mirror image

or compatibilities, for example, the relative onenlalions of edges The angular difference beti^een edge
6 and edge 2 of the prototype is +135* or -45®, whereas the angular difference between edges e
and c in the unknown is +45“ or —135“ Thus assignments e-6 and c-2 become incompatible when
angular oncntations are considered
The foregoing illustrates a fundamental principle when using relational matching techniques— that
the stronger the constraints that can be applied, the easier the matching technique and the more
reliable the result The time required to find all maximal cliques m a graph grows rapidly with the
increase in thenumber of nodes and arcs in the graphs, therefore a small gam in limiting the possible
interconnections can give a large improvement in run-limc efficiency Naturally, the kinds of constraints
that can be applied are very much a function of the particular local features being used It is up to
the designer of a relational-matching system to exploit these constraints as much as possible for the
best results

REFERENCES
1. Rosen, C ,
et al ,
Exploratory Research in Advanced Automation, Stanford Research Institute,
First Report, December 1973. Second Report, August 1974, Third Report, December 1974, Fourth
Report, June 1975, Fifth Report, January 1976, Machine Intelligence Research Applied to Indus-
Inal Automation, Sixth Repon, November 1976, Seventh Report. August 1977, Eighth Report,
August 1978
2. Nitzan, D et al Machine Intelligence Research Applied to Industnal Automation, SRI Interna-
, ,

tional. Ninth Report. August 1979, Tenth Report, November 1980, Eleventh Report, January
1982, Twelfth Report. January 1983
3. Gleason, C
J and Agin, G
J , A Modular Vision System for Sensor-Controlled Manipulation
and Inspection, Ninth InKrnationaf Symposium on Industrial Robots. Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, Washington, D C March 1979, pp 57-70 .

4. Jarvts, J F Automatic ,
Visual Inspection of Glass-Metal Seals, Fourth International Joint Confer-
enee on Pattern Recognition, IEEE Computer Society, Kyoto, Japan, November 1978, pp 961-
965
5. Duda, R 0 and Hart, P E ,
Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis Wiley-Interscience, New
Fork, ms
6. CasasenC, D , Ed ,
Optical Data Processing Spnnger-Verlag, 1978
7. Rosenfeld, A Sequential Operations in Digital Picture Processing, Journal of the ACM. Vol
,

13, No 4, October 1966, pp 471-494

8. Ballard. D H and Drown, C M
Computer Vision. Prenlice-Hatl, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
,

1982
9. Uno. T Mese,
, . and Ejin, M M
Defect Detection in Complicated Patterns, Electrical Engineering
,

in Japan. Vol 95, No 2, March-Apr 1973, pp 90-97

10. Roberts, L G , Machine Perception of Three-Dimensional Solids, in Tippett. J T et al Eds ,

Optical and Electro-Optical Information Processing. MIT Press, Cambndge, Massachusetts, 1965,

pp 159-197
11. Sobel. I , Camera Models and Machine Perception. Technical Report AIM-121, Stanford Artificial

Intelligence Project, May 1970

12. Martelli, A, Edge Detection Using Heuristic Search Methods, Computer Graphics and Image
Processing. Vol 1, No August 1972, pp 169-182
2,

13. Brownlee, K A ,
Siaiisiica! Theory and Methodology m Science and Engineering. Wiley, New
York. 1965
Intemotlonal
14. Moravec, H , Towards Automatic Visual Obstacle Avoidance, Proceedings of the Fifth
Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cambndge, Massachusetts. August 1977.
Histograms.
15. Birk, J , et al Image Feature Extraction using Diameter-Limited Gradient Direction
,
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 CHAPTER 15
INTERFACING A VISION
SYSTEM WITH A ROBOT
ULRICH REMBOLD
CHRISTIAN BLUME
University of Karlsruhe
Karlsruhe, West Germany

1,

15.1. INTRODUCTION
It maybe necessary for matenat handling and assembly work to use a vision system The system
must locate the part, identify it, direct the gnpper to a suitable grasping position, pick up the part,
and bring it to the work area Frequently this work must be done on a moving conveyor Both the
camera and the robot have unique coordinate systems The camera ideniifies the object with reference
to Its own coordinate system However, the rc^t, for grasping, must know where the object lies tn
reference to its own coordinate system This requires the transfer of information about the object’s
location from the coordinate system of the camera to that of the robot The following two options
can be used for coordinates transformation

With the use of a highdevel programming language for the robot and/or for the vision system

2 Without the use of a robot>programmmg language

15.2. ROBOT CALIBRATION WITH THE USE OF A HIGH-LEVEL

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Most vision systems have the three following properties that facilitate the integration with a robot
programming system

1, Parts to be recognized are desenbed

by user-defined symbolic names which are represented
by ASCII (Amencan Standard Code for Information Interchange) stnngs
2, The position and onentalion of the workpiece arc determined relative to a Cartesian coordinate
system
3, Parts to be recognized are taught to the system by “showing " In addition, the symbolic name
IS entered

Identification of parts is done with the aid of a feature vector including area, number of holes,
minimum and maximum diameter, penmeter, and so on Normally, the user need not enter these
parameters The system automatically generates the feature vector for a part during teach-in When
the program is executed, the system compares the stored feature vector with that produced from the
actual image
The VAL (programming language for Untmation's it^ts) extension, VAL-IIV, includes several
commands for a service program that calibrates the camera, teams the identity of the part, and stores
the feature vector under a symbolic object identifier Hie user program addresses the vision system
with the two additional VAL instructions. VPICTURE and VLOCATE The result of VPICTURE
IS that of taking the picture and stonng of its pixels in the image buffer VLOCATE results first in a
search for a given object m the image buffer If the search is unsuccessful, the program flow branch^es
to a special label, or the program execution stops and an error message is pnnted In case of a successfu
same
search, the vision system stores the position and onenlation under a frame identifier that is the
as the name of the object

262
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19Z SPVaiSAS NOISIA

264 ROBOT CONTROL
Figure 15 2 shows the geometnc representation of the relative frames necessary for the calculation
For simplification only the position vectors are shown A
similar calculation is done for the orientation
of the frame
The HERE instruction defines the center of the disk as the frame calib-robot with respect to the
robot coordinate system VLOCATE defines the center of the disk as the frame calib-camera with
respect to the camera coordinate system, which means that the two vectors point at the same point
in space The frame calib_camera is inverted fhe result is the position vector inv_£alib_camera which
now points from the center of the disk to the origin of the
camera coordinate system The relative
frame cahb.j’obot inv_calib-camera indicates the position and onentation of the camera coordinate
system with respect to that of the robot The vector of the frame points from the ongm of the robot
coordinate system to that of the camera To simplify the notation, the result is assigned to the frame
camera system After these calculations have been performed, all following object frames that are
determined by VLOCATE are referenced by the MOVE
statements relative to the frame camera-
system This example emphasizes the necessity of the frame concept and of geometneal operations
for vision system applications

15.3. INTERFACING A VISION SYStEM WITH A ROBOT WITHOUT THE USE

OF A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
To explain the transposition of the workpiece parameters
from the coordinate system of the camera
to that of the robot we and 15 4
use Figures 15 3
A typical vision shown in Figure 15 3 To simplify, a photodiode matrix consisting of
system is

64 X 64 pixel units was selected The length of one pixel is denoted by one FIX Present cameras
have a resolution of 256 X 256 pixels or more Generally the vision system has its own computer
which determines from the two-dimensional image of the workpiece its identity, its location, and onenta-

Flg. 1S.2. The geometneal representation of the relative frames for the transformation of the camera
coordinates into robot coordinates
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266 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. IS 4. Mechanical components of the robot

with the program number of the action program assigned to the workpiece in the teach-m phase
The action program, modified by the new coordinate axis, can then be processed by the robot control
The geometric setup of the robot-vision system is shown in Figure 15 5

15.4, COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION FOR THE TEACH-IN PHASE

The teach-in phase of the coupled sensor system uses the following procedure

1. Teach the workpiece to the sensor system

2. Determine the grasp position with the help of the robot
3 Plan an action program for handling of the workpiece

In the following paragraphs only Che calculation of a grasp position is dcscnbed The values that
phase arc marked with the subsenpt L. To do this, we start with the setting of
relate to the learning
the robot-vision system shown in Figure 15 5 The location of the corresponding Cartesian sensor
sensor
coordinate system with regard to the robot coordinate system is shown in Figure 15 6 The
coordinates are desenbed by and Y. and the robot coordinates by T and S In the robot
X
position of t e
the grasp position G is desenbed by the position of the transfer axis Tc and the
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S9Z xoaoa v hum waiSAS noisia v oNiDvaaaiNi

 ROBOT CONTROL
The constant value To descnbes the distance between the gnpper and the center of rotation of
the swivel axis when the axes are at the reference point It is measured in the number of increment
units of the transfer axis The constant value Ft represents the ratio of the transfer increment units
divided by the length of one pixel (/r/PlX)
The constant value Sq descnbes the position of the swivel axis when it is parallel to the sensor*
^-axis The constant value Fs shows the number of increments of the swivel axis per degree of angle
(/s/deg) The coordinates of the point G in the sensor-coordinate system can be calculated from

ti.X = Hs co$(a)
A y = /^ sin(a)

15,5. COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION DURING THE OPERATING PHASE

Dunng the operating phase the following tasks are canned out

1. Calculation of the center of area Fa {Xr, IV)

2. Identification of the workpiece

3. Calculation of the rotational position of the workpiece

4. Calculation of the grasp position with regard to the sensor and Ga{Xg. To)
5. Transformation of the coordinates of (he grasp position to the coordinates of the robot system

Thevalues obtained dunng the operating phase are marked by the subsenpt A Figure IS 7 shows
and the important system parameters dunng the operating
the interrelation of the different coordinates
phase After identification of the workpiece, and after calculation of its rotational angle with regard
to the reference position, the grasp position of the workpiece must be calculated with regard to the
sensor position
For the workpiece onentation yA one obtains

yx = yt + 5
in which yi. is the workpiece onentation and $, the rotational angle of the workpiece, both m regard
to the reference position
The grasp position Ga(Xg. Yg) is then calculated from

AX = D cosiyA)
AT^D smfy,.)
Xg = X,+ &X
Tc* y^ + Ar

Fig. 1S.7. Coordinate Iransformation dunng the work phase

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270 ROBOT CONTROL

MEASURING THE ROBOT POSITION IN REGARD TO THE COORDINATE

15.6.
SYSTEM OF THE SENSOR
In the t*o preceding sections constant values (which must be measured or calculated beforehand)
are used for the calculation and transformation of the grasp position. These constant values can be
defined as robot constant values and constant valuesof the interfaced sensor-robot system

To the distance between the center of the gnpper in the reference position of the robot
and the center of the swivel axis To ts measured in increments of the transfer axis

Fs the number of swivel axis increment units per degree of angle (/s/deg)
Fr the number of rotational increment units of the gnpper per degree of angle (/n/deg)
Ft the number of honaontai transfer axis increment units per pixel units (/r/PIX)
So the angular offset of the swivel axis when located parallel to the sensor X-axis.
it ts

Xch Yo the coordinates of the center of rotation of the swivel axis m

reference to the sensor
system

The constant values mentioned in group t are measured directly at the robot To obtain To. all axes
must be moved to the reference point Thereafter the distance between the center of the gnpper and
the center of rotation of the swivel axis is measured and multiplied by the number of increments of
measurement units
The constants Fs and Fr are obtained as follows The robot is brought to a reference position
At this position the value of the controlled vanable of the swivel control loop is determin^ Then
the arm is rotated 180°, and the new controlled vanable ts read Thereafter the diff^erencc is taken
between these two values and divided by 180 The same procedure is used to determine Fr for the
rotational axis
The second group consunl values are obtained from the sensor-robot system
For this purpose
both the sensor and the robot are brought to a fixed position With the help of the robot, a disk
representing an object u moved between the three points Fi. Pi, and Ps. all of which are in the
field of view of (he camera, Figure IS 8 A
disk is chosen because it has the following entena

1. The possibility occumng when calculating

of an error the centroid is small
2. There are no geometnc changes when rotated
3. The grasp position can easily be defined as the centroid of the disk

The coordinate values (5i. Fi). (5j. Tt). and (S*. T») are determined for each point prerequisite A
for this calibration procedure is that the position of the robot between Pi and Pt can only be altered
by moving the transfer axis In addition, between the points Pf and P) the robot u only allowed to
move about us swivel axis Because both the centroid and the grasp position are identical with the

Fig- 15.8. Geometnc setup of the robot-vision system

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 CHAPTER 16
DEPTH PERCEPTION FOR ROBOTS
AVINASH C. KAK
Purdue Umversjty
West Lafayette. Indiana

16.1. INTRODUCTION
A lad. of adequate sensory feedback remains a major limitation of programmable manipulaton for
computerized manufacturing Of the four categones of sensors, touch, uctile. proximity, and vision,
the latter t«o are needed not only for automated inspection and recognition of parts and their orientation,
but also for controlling a moving manipulator from an initial high speed to a slow approach just
before contact, vshen touch and/or Uctile sensors can take over
Depth information is important for both vision and proximity sensing Although, for obvious reasons.
It IS cnlical for the speed control of a manipulator approaching a workpiece, it can also be useful for

the analysts and recognition of a three-dimensional scene around the manipulator It can serve as an
additional and important feature for scene segmenUtion After all, the surface of an object can be
almost totally charactenzed by the relative depths of (he points on the surface from the viewing
system Depth information may also be used to build three-dimensional moments for shape analysis
and for determining object onentation
Depth information may be extracted by a number of competing technologies The most fascinating
of these, and also the one that until recently has suffered the most from program complexity and
high computational cost, uses a pair of cameras for stereo perception The computational cost of the
traditional stereo algorithms is caused by the many correlations required to solve the correspondence
problem, which consists of first selecting “candidate pixels*' m
one image and then locating their
corresponding partners in the other The more recent approaches suggested for stereo can be implemented
much more efficiently because the candidate pixels are located by using fast Fourier transform (FFT)
algonihms. which with array processing hardware can be implemented rapidly, and the correspondence
problem is solved by companng the locations of zero-crossings in the filtered stereo images Such
compansons of the locations of zero-crossings can again be earned out rapidly by using specially
designed parallel hardware
Other approaches to depth perception use lasers, ultrasound, infrared, and coded apertures One
advantage shared by most of these techniques is (hat (hey do not suffer from the occlusion-caused
problems inherent to stereo, by occlusion we mean that near a range discontinuity some parts of a
scene might be invisible to one of the two cameras But then they have their own limitations For
example, when lasers are used at power levels safe for humans to be around, it can take a long lime
to build up a full-range map for a scene spanning a visual angle of around 45“ With ultrasound, if
used in the conventional pi se-echo mode, (he lateral resolution is poor For simple objects, the lateral
resolution can be considerably improved(by a factor approaching diffraction limits) by coherent detection
and back -propagation Ultrasound does possess (he virtue (hat it can be used even in the hostile environ-
ment usually associated with a manufactunng operation With direct tnangulation using infrared (al-
though tnangulation also suffers from occlusion-caused pnAlems) one usually obtains one range point
at a time; the total time to build up a full-range map can be considerable However, infrared tnangulation
IS a rugged and inexpensive approach to depth extraction

The accuracy of a depth perception technique must be consistent with the task at hand and wim
specified
the other sensory capabilities of the robot For example, if the task is to grasp and remove a
for
part from a tray of mixed and overlapping objects whose dimensions arc on the order of inches,
an
most applications the depth measurement accuracy would have to be no better than a quarter o
inch In this case, the depth information would be used for initially homing in toward the
obj«l,
appears that, or
and the final contact would be made with precision using force or touch sensing It
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274 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. IS.l. (a) If a camera ts equipped with a lens of a fixed focal length (i e , the camera does not
possess zooming capability), the process of image formation can be modeled by an equivalent pmhole
system shown here (6) For a given size of the image frame {represented by A here), the view angle
4> IS a function of (he focal length

be generated by high power flashes) it is possible to use very small apertures, approaching pinholes
In some applications the resulting increased depth of field renders focusing unnecessary
To explain the notion of depth of field, note that in Figure 16 3 there is only one point on the
optic axis that ts brought into focus on the image pbne, the object point at P » brought into focus
at P" The distance u to this point is given by

« ' /
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axis will be brought into focus at a point other than the image plane In Rgure 164, the object
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 light smirrH
friMn P

Fig. 16.2. For most imaging situations, eveiy point on an object will scatter the incident illumination
oser a «ide angle In this figure, the tens of the camera will capture the reflected light that is uithm
an angle a

Xpert ure

Fig 16J If «e confine our attention to object points that tie on the optic axis, then stnctly speaking
there is only one point (at P) that is brought into focus in the image plane (at P')

(bl

Rg. 16 4 Only one object point the optic axis is brought into correct focus on the image
P on
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blurry images

276
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278 ROBOT CONTROL

the analog coordinates u and v, we show the FeUtioiiships for their digitized versions I and J The
two versions are tied by

a=(/ — /o)Ah and p = (/ — /o)Av (16 5)

This relationship is where we have shown /# and /o to represent the

also illustrated in Figure 16 7,
indexes for the center of the image frame The honzontal index I and the vertical index J are measured
from the lower left-hand comer of the image frame Note that we have assumed that the pixel with
indexes h. /o coincides with the center of the (ir ») coordinate plane If results with subpixel accuracy
are desired, and if this assumption is not satisfied, the relationship between the analog and the digital
coordinates must be suitably modified by the addition of offsets on the nght-hand side
Substituting Eq (16 5) m (16 4), we get

(16 6)

(16 7)
AvD
These equations are more conveniently expressed as

D H
(16 8)
D a

where

H-'£« + W (169)

and

(16 10)

The important thing to note here is that H and V are neither unit vectors, nor are they perpendicular
to the aiming vector i.
For camera systems used in practice, the sampling intervals Au and Av may not be equal, although
when they are equal many patcem-macching processes are simplified With unequal sampling intervals,
for example, some geometrical properties of an object silhouette might change as the object is rotated
to a dtfi'erent orientation For vidicon cameras, the scanning charactenstics can be altered to make
Au and Av the same However, the same cannot be said of the solid-state cameras, since for these
devices the sampling intervals are fixed permanently by the geometrical layout of the Iight-integratmg
cells

Image plane

Fig 16.7. For sampled imagery, the position of an image point is represented by indices I and J
measured from the lower left-hand comer, Au and Af are the sampling intervals
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LLZ sioaoH aod NOixdaDaaa Hiaaa

280 ROBOT CONTROL

(D„ a) = 0 form = J.2. ,N (1613)

or equivalently as

P„ H-C H-/„P„ i + /„C a =0 (16 14)

where we have used Eq (16 II) Note (hat these N

equations are nonlinear as a function of the
unknowns since we have products of the unknowns appearing on the left-hand side The following
“tnck” linearizes these equations we declare two more unknowns Ch and Ci as follows

Ch=C H and C, =C a (16 15)

We may now express the nonlinear Eqs (16 14) in the following linear form

+ y„Hy + - I„z„a, - C„ + I„Q, =0 (16 16)

for m = 1, 2, , N
of equations constitutes
This set S
linear equations for the eight unknowns
Hr. Hy, Hr. Or. Oy Or, Ch. and Ca Because the nght-hand sides are all zero, these form a homogeneous
set of equations To generate a solution out of these equations, we make a harmless assumption that
one of the unknown a, is equal to I Clearly, this violates the requirement that a be a unit vector
However, we can requirement by first computing Oy and Ot. and all the other unknowns
satisfy this
All the unknowns be linearly dependent on a. Therefore if we then alter the value of Oz such
will
that |a| IS we can also appropnalely scale the unknowns By setting a, equal to 1, the
equal to unity,
linear equations given can be recast into the following form

XmHr + y„Hy + ZmH, - ImymOy ~ - Ch + ImC, = ImX^ (16 17)

for m = 1, 2i , H
For better visualization, we now express these equations in vector-matnx
form by defining a vector U of unknowns as follows

U (1618)

and then if we use W

to denote the mainx of coefficients in Eq (16 17), those equations may be
expressed in the following vector-matnx form

(»P]U =B (16 19)

where the vector B denotes the nght-hand side in Eq (16 17)

To protect ourselves against the numcncal problems introduced by round-off and digitization errors
and the inconsistencies among the equalimis caused by camera nonhneanties, and so on, we insist on
redundancy by making N
greater than the number of unknowns We will set arbitranly equal to N
10 When N
is greater than 7, stnctly speaking, there is no solution to the set of equations because

of perturbations in P„’s caused by measurement erron Consequently instead of finding an exact

solution to the system of equations, the problem becomes one o( finding a “best possible solution
Such a solution to Eq (16 19) is taken to mean a set of values for the unknown parameters which
minimize the expression

(1621)
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6LZ sioaoH aod NOiida3aad HXdaa

282 ROBOT CONTROL

procedure that employs the perspective transform for essentially the same thing, but without any
explicit calculation of the intersection of direction vectors
We assume that the calibration vectors Ct, Ht, Vt, and sl are for the left camera of a stereo
pair, the corresponding vectors for the nght camera being represented by Cb, V«, and a^ Let
the left-image and nght-image coordinates of an object point located at P= (x. y. z) be denoted by
(/i. Jl) and (Ik /«)• respectively (Figure !69) From Eq (16 8)

Pi. V> Ht
(16 28)
Di. St Pi »L

where Di is the vector from the focal center of the left camera to the object point at P; it is related
to Ci by

Di=P-Ct (16 29)

From these equations for the exmrdinales of the image image we compute only
pixel in the left
the direction of Di. Since at this time we are not interested in the magnitude of Di, we can safely
assume

Di a=l (16 30)

As a consequence, the expressions for h. and Ji take the form

Di Vi = /i and Di Hl=Jl (16 31)

Equations (16 30) and (16 31) can be wntten in the following form for the three components of Di
denoted by Du. Du
t^td Dl ,

DuOlj + Dt^Ou + DutOui — 1

DuVu, + + DutVi.. = h
DtaHu + DuHtp + DtjHu, =Jl (16 32)

These three equations can be solved for the three unknown components of Df But note that because
of the assumption represented by Eq (16 30), the computed Dt at this point only represents the
direction information Although not equal to unity, its magnitude contains no useful information
We might therefore say that the true vector from the focal center of the left camera to the object
point u rDi, where r is an unknown scalar constant
We use the information in the nght image to determine r For this purpose we again invoke the
perspective transform for the pixel coordinates Ik and Jk

D» V. Dk H,
Ik and (16 33)
Vk 6k

From Figure 16 9, the vector D* may be expressed as

D, = P - C,
= rDi+Ct-C, (16 34)

By substituting Eq (16 34) m the two equations in Eq (16 33), we get the following two possibilities
for computing r

Ik& a, -A-V b (16 35)

Di V, - IkDl

or

JbA a, -a Hb (16 36)

Di H* — /«Di
• ' a*

where A represents

4l = Ca-Ci (16 37)

The new vector A, called the baseline vector, tells us how the cameras separated in space regarding
the direction and the distance
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X8t sioaoa aod NOiida3aad HXdaa

^84 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig- 16 10 For stereo range mapping the task of selecting candidate points in one image, and finding
their matches in the ocher, is made easier if v^e project a pattern of light dots or bars on the object
Three possible patterns are shown («j) A single light dot scans the object (6) A vertical bar scans
the object, the candidate points for stereo matching are the inierseciions of the light bar and the
horizontal scan lines (e) A rectangular gnd is projected on the object

method When the illuminaiion dot is produced by a well collimated beam, it is possible to do away
with some of the stereo calcolations discussed m the preceding section We showed in the previous
section that with a single camera we can determine ihe direction of a point in the object space,
although not its distance By using only one camera and finding ihe direction of the illuminated
spot, and then finding the intersection of this direction with the direction of the collimated beam,
one can determine the three-dimensional location of the illuminated point
Concerning the use of a single illumination dot. we must mention another simple prtxredurc that
also uses only one camera and with minimal computing yields ihe range value In this procedure,
first put forward by Sweeney and Hudelson," the camera is used in conjunction with a Fresnel lens

as shown in Figure 16 11 By recording the data with a vidicon or a solid-state camera, and doing a
simple analjsis of the data for the spatial dependence of frequencies along two perpendicular axes in
the image plane, one can obtain all the coordinates of the illuminaiion dot
Faster range maps ma) be obtained by using a bar of light to illuminate the scene as shown in
Hgure T6 106 The candidate points for stereo matching are now defined by the intersections of the
scan lines and the illuminated line on the object Matching is again trivial because on each scan line
we have only one illuminated point The pxel coordinates of the corresponding points can be fed
into the computing procedure described in the preceding section to determine the range map along
object
Ihe illuminated stnp on the object A complete range map may be obtained by scanning the
with the illuminated stnp Again, if one uses a well-collimated bar for this purpose and knows a
pnon the direction of the illumination, one can obtain the range map with a single camera (the reasons
being the same as for the cose of a single lUummaiion dot)
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288 ROBOT CONTROL

3. Before this operation, the image is smoothed by convolution with a Gaussian function of the
form

= (16 43)

4. The operations in steps 2 and 3 can be combined as a single convolution of the image with
the following function

j>)s
*'*~^^
esp(-(rV2q-»)) (16 44)

r*=x» + y* (1645)

In Figure 16 14a we have shown a three-dimensional plot of this operator, and in Figure
16 146 there is a = 0 Following Gnmson,” the width
section of this function in the plane x
of this function is represented by the distance between the first zeros on either side of the
origin This width, denoted by w»d. is related to <r by

wto = 2>/5<r (16 46)

V’G t$ called the primal sketch operator can refer to theWe result obtained by applying
the pnmal sketch operator to an image as the convolved sketch

Attributes of Candidate Points

Each candidate point is charactenzed by both the sign change that is represented by the uro-crossing
and also by the onentation of the local zero<rossing contour A positive-io-negative sign change in
the convolved sketch implies a low-to-htgh transition in the gray levels m the onginal image, and
vice versa To illustrate, in Figure 16 IS we have shown hypothetical gray levels in the vicinity of a
pixel A If we apply the pnmal sketch operator to these gray levels, the output will contain positive
values on the high side of A\Ai and negative values on the other, implying the presence of zero-
crossings between the two (For subpixel accuracy work, the locations of zero-crossings can be estimated
by interpolation between the positive and ihe negative values on each row of the pnmal sketch ) For
our discussion here, as each row is scanned leB to nghl, we associate a zero-crossing with a pixel-
provided in the convolved result the next value is of the opposite sign If the next value is zero m
the convolved sketch, then the value after that should be of opposite sign Therefore, in the row
marked R in Figure 16 IS, we will associate a zero-crossing with the pixel at i4. which makes A one
of our candidate points The zero-crossing at this candidate point ts charactenzed by a high-to-low
transition in image gray levels, the direction of AtAt is the onentation of the local 2ero<rossmg
contour
An elementary way to estimate the onentation of the local zero-crossing contour
is to examine

the locations of zero-crossings in one or two

above and below the candidate point in question
lines
Gnmson, although not explaining precisely how he computes
the direction of the local zero-crossing
contour, uses six quantization levels to represent them (Figure 16 16o) In our implementation, we
have combined the sign change and the onentation into a single representation by quantizing the
local gradient over 360®, as shown in Figure 16 166 For this purpose we first compute the digital
gradient map for all image points by using the Sobel operator • This is done by first computing at
each pixel the following two as estimates of the x- and y-components of the local gray-level gradient

xir = (,4, -f- 2A, + Ai) - (y4, + 2/4, -b /4,)

and

Y-{Ai + 2Az +A,} - </4t + 2At + A{)

*
Since the gradient always points in Ihe direction of maximum change, its direction is always perpendicu-
lar to the onentation of the local zero-crossmg contour For example, m
Figure 16 15, Ihe direction
of Ihe gradient is from Si to Sj A
vanely of operators are available for computing the gradient of
or the
images We have used the Sobel operator** It is equivalent to use either the local gradient
local zero-crossing onentation as a measure of the direction of the local edge
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290 ROBOT CONTROL
quantizatioii

Pig. 16,16. (a)Theonentation of the local zcrixrossing contour is quaniized into six angular intervals
as shown here (6) To automatically account Torthepolanty ofthe zero-crossing as well, the onentation
of the local zero-crossing contour (or, equivalently, the direction of the local gradient) is quantized
into 12 angular intervals

where <1 b's are the neighbors, numbered as indicated in Figure 16 17, of the pixel The direction $
of the gradient is then determined from the following relationship

5
At the location of a vcnfied zero-crossing we compute the onentation by local averaging of the gradient
map over 3X3 neighborhoods This orientation is then classified into the 12 angular intervals, that
IS, 30^ intervals shown in Figure 16 16

Choice of Wid (The critical concept)

How one should go about choosing a value for the widlh of the pnmal sketch operator could perhaps
be called a cntical concept of the Marr-Poggio paradigm, because it is through this concept that one
can explain most easily the need for multichannel implementation In a multichannel implementation,
the candidate points are first found by using a large w^o Matching these candidate points in the left
and the nght images yields a coaraely sampled range map of the scene This information controls
the matching of candidate points from finer channels (i e , channels characterized by smaller values
of Wzd) This idea is explained m
greater detail later, using cartoon images We first examine the
output of a stereo matcher when given the candidate points produced by a large wzo

A, A,

Aj r{m,D) I A4

A? A* Aj

Fig. 16.17. Pixel numbenng scheme for the Sobel operator

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292 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig 16.19. A cartoon scene of two trees separated in depth explains some aspects of the algonihm

the Laplacian yields the result in Figure 16 20c. where we have shown the zero-crossing contours
By convolving the mage of width Wjp, we have ensured that most lero-
w«/i a primal sketch operator
crossing contours will be at least wjo apart from one another We new concentrate our attention on
To find the match for
the zero-crossings that are labeled in Figure 16 20c we transfenls coordinates
to the nght image and construct a search neighborhood around this location Since this search m
neighborhood only Bi will be found (idealizing, of course), that is unambiguously the match for Ai
Similarly, for At we will find a match at Bt. and so on Because of our assumption that the diameter
of each tree is much smaller chan the distance between them, the following will hold

At- Bi’^Ai- Bi^Ai- B,

« disparity that corresponds to the depth ofTree 1 from the fixation point (16 47)

and

5i ~ T, - 5, - r, - Sj ~ r,
disparity that corresponds to the depth ofTree 2 from the fixation point (16 48}

where *- the dispanly obtained by matching and so on That is, the disparity
Bi is At with Bi.
at A,, Ai, and At is approximately the same, and it corresponds to the depth ofTree 1 from the
hxation point And that the dispanty at S,, Sj, and 5* is also approximately the same, and it corresponds
to the depth of Tree 2 from the fixation point
So by setting Wjo equal to dmu, we eliminated the false target problem, and we are now able to
determine the depth between the trees However, our range map is coarse since we only have a half-
dozen points on each tree We do not have enough points to determine the shape of each tree And
also, At, At. Aa. and so on, may not correspond to any specific points on the trees because they
represent points at which the gray level changes in a highly dcfocused image

Vergence and the Concept of Multichannel Stereo

To increase the number of range points on Tree 1, we do the following

1. We use the calculated average dispanty for Tiw I to bnng it into vergence This means that
in the computer we change the fixation point from its ongtnal site to somewhere near Tree 1
In software this may be accomplished by simply adding an offset to the honzontal coordinates
of the nght image, the offset being equal (o the average of the dtspanties at At. Ai, and Aa
2. We now convolve both the left and the nght images with a new pnmal sketch operator, the
width wjo of which roughly corresponds to the largest expected diameter of the trees This
new Wao IS much smaller than that used before Therefore we should now have a much denser
set of candidate points in each image This is illustrated in Figure 16 20d
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 )

294 ROBOT CONTROL

3. To eltminate the false target problem, the size of the search window is limited to the new
H>2D.

4. As a result we get a dense set of range values on Tree 1 We should not be able to make any
matches in the area of Tree 2

To increase the points on Tree 2, we can adopt an identical procedure and bnng
number of range
Tree 2 into vergence
The foregoing procedure constitutes a Iwo^hannel stereo for range-mapping the scene of Figure
16 19 The first channel helps us separate Tree 1 from Tree 2, and the second channel gives us additional
range values on each tree and therefore defines them better If we wanted, we could add a third
channel, with an even smaJler wj* and separately bnng into vergence specific parts of each tree for
an even supenor definition
The human visual system is known to possess five diflerent channels for dispanty calculation
The values of wjo for these channels are approximately 63, 35. 17, 9, and 4 pixels By a pixel here
15 meant the size of a foveal receptor, one such receptor corresponds roughly to an angular interval

of 0 4 minutes of the arc Therefore if we digitize a visual angle of 4* on the side into a 650 X 650
matrix, we will match the sampling capability of the fovea of the human eye The filter sizes given
apply to these sampling rates (For a robot vision system, a more practical visual angle will be 45®
For such a wide angle if is not possible to sample the images at rates used by the human eye Using
images perceived by the humans as a comparison, the images perceived by a robot will always be
undersampled Such undersampling leads to aliasing artifacts m
the representation of edges This can
lead to distortion in edge-based stereo algonihms, of which the current algonthm is an example

Vergence /or Complex Scenes

The procedure just described would be impicmcntable if the scene consists of a few- nonoverlapping
(in range) objects For more complex scenes, the procedure must be somewhat modified In his computer
implementations for simulating human stereopsis, Onmson uses the from the coarse channels
disparities
to bnng image regions wuhin the range of fusion of the finer channels However, this is not done on
an object-to-object basis as discussed before, but on a region-by-region basis In Gnmson’s implementa-
tion, suppose we are matching the zero-crossings of the wn, =
9 channel, each 25 X 25 region of
the image is analyzed, and if less than 70% of the zero-crossings in a given region are matched, that
region is considered to be out of range of fusion for the channel In that event no dispanties for that
region as calculated by the wjo = 9 channel arc accepted Disponiy values from the coarser channels
are now used for vergence control to bring this region wttktn the range of the finer channel As before,
vergence m
the computer program consists of adding an offset to the coordinates of the pixels of the
region, the offset being equal to disparity as determined by the coarse channels
In our implementation where, for robot vision, images are deliberately undersampled (128 X 128
or 256 X 256 representations for a visual angle of 45*), for a two<hannel stereo implementation for
a depth of field of 3
total m
(10 ft), we have obtained best results with 10 X 10 windows for vergence
control And although the probabilistic considerations dictate a 70% threshold for accepting a region
to be within the fusion range of a channel, we have obtained supenor results with a 50% threshold
Note that the concept of vergence is similar to when humans examine a scene without focusing
at any particular region, get a rough idea of the relative locations of the major objects in the scene,
and then fixate on each object of interest In the computer, vergence consists merely of shifting one
image with respect to another

Resolution of Ambiguous Matches

In the cartoon illustration just presented, we idealized by assuming that if in the nght image we
limited the search neighborhood to an interval of W20 on either side of the coordinates of the left-
image candidate point, we would
eliminate the false target problem For real images, using Rice’s
formulation*^ for the probability disCnbulion of separation between zero-crossings, and talcing into
account the onentation of zero-crossing conloun used in the matching process, it may be shown”
that when the search neighborhood is limited to a distance of wjo on cither side of in Figure X
16 18, we have a 20% chance of encountenng two potential matches, that is, two zcro<rossings of
roughly the same onentation
If there is more than one potential match, the following procedure is used for disambiguating
between them All the potential matches within the search neighborhood are divided into three pools
(1) the divergent dispanty pool, which consists of all the potential matches that are to the left of
X
in Figure 16 18 by more than 1 pixel, (2) the convergent dispanty pool, which consists of all the
potential matches to the nght of X
by more than I pixel m
the same figure, and (3) the zcro-dispanty
pool, which consists of all the potential matches that are within a pixel of X.
If there is only one potential match in all three pools, then that match is accepted and the
dispanty
than
associated with this match computed and assigned to the candidate jwint in question If more
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296 ROBOT CONTROL

Fg. t6J2. The range map obtained from the stereo images of Figure 16 21 The computed range
values for some of the points are shown m the figure The lighter a piael, the closer il is to the
camera baseline

the choices available corresponds to the dominant type within the neighborhood, the candidate point
15 left unmatched The pulling effect rule reflects the property that, for the most part, dispanty can
only vary smoothly ft changes abruptly only at range discontinuities

Results Obtained with a Two-Channel 5/fr«> Algorithm

We first show the w«h a single<hannel implementation of the foregoing algorithm

results obtained
Shown in is a stereo pair of images (128 X 128) ofa pipe vise
Figure 16 21o at a distance of approrimately
J 8 m (6from the camera baseline When these images are convolved with the pnmal sketch
/I)
operator with wto — 8 pisets, we get ihe convolved sitctches of Figure 16 216 In Figure 16 2Ic we
have shown the zerocrossings obtained from the convolved sheiches The zero<rossings are gray-
scale encoded according to the onentation of the local zero-crossmg contours The matching part of
ihe algorithm yields the range map shown in Figure 16 22
We now illustrate the algonthm with a two-«hannel implementation for a 45® visual angle and a
depth range of approximately 3 m (10 ft) In Figure l6 23o. we have shown a stereo pair of images,
which consists of 128 x 128 matnccs The camera fixation was midway between the two stools, and
Che furthest stool was approximately 2 ni (7 ft) from the cameras The maximum depth translated
into a maximum dispanty of 12 pixels To extract the zcro-crossings, the images were convolved
with the pnmal sketch operator of Eq (|6 44) with w*i> equal to 12 pixels The resulting images are
shown m
Figure 16 23d Figure (6 Z3c iHustrates the zero-crossmgs obtained from Figure 16 236
Again, the local onentation of the zero-crossing ctmiour has been encoded into the gray-scale depiction
of Ihe zero-crossings Figure 16 24o shows the dispanty map obtained from the coarse<hannel zero-
crossings of Figure 16 23c. The gray levels in this map arc proportional to the range estimated by
the coarse channel, the darker the pixeL the greater its distance from the camera baseline Figure
16 246 shows the histogram of the coarse-channel dispantics shown in Figure 16 24a. One might
associate objects at different depths with different lobes of the histogram The histogram in Figure
16 246 may therefore be interpreted as indicating Ihe presence of two objects, one with disparities
around 2 and 3, and the other with disparities around —4 and —3 Postlive dispanties correspond to
object points behind the fixation point, and vice versa These coarse dispanties are used for vergence
ne^ed to match the outputs of the finer pnmal sketch operator
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298 ROBOT CONTROL

map purpose of automalic scene interpretation would, of course, depend on

for Ihe how narrowly we
constrict the totality of scenes to be understood by the computer

16,3.3. Barnard-Thompson Algorithm

The MPG (Marr-Poggio-Gnmson) algonihms presented m the preceding section can be charactemed
by Ihe following three features

1. Discreteness: The candidate points selected for matching are distinctive in the sense that
they represent locations of transitions in the image gray levels at a scale determined by the
width of the pnmal sketch operator
2 Similarity.' This is a measure of how similar the candidate points are In the MPG aJgonthm,
the similarity within a search neighborhood is measured by comparing Ihe onentation of Ihe
local zero-crossing contour
3. Consistency: This is a measure of the continuity of the computed disparities Since disparities
can only be discontinuous at edges that cause occlusions in one camera, this property can be
used to suppress those matches that go against the local evidence In the MPG algonthm,
consistency was used for resolving between multiple potential matches for a candidate point
(disambiguation)

The Damard-Thompson algonthm,’ although neatly fitting into the discreteness-simiIanty<on$istency

framework, uses different entena for each of these properties Only those candidate points are selected
that represent a high gray-level vanance in all directions Selection is made by first surrounding each
pixel by a5 X 5 neighborhood, computing the gray-level vanances in the neighborhood in four directions
(honzonlal, vertical, and two diagonal), and retaining only the minimum of these vanances The retained
value of the vanance is called the iniriaf interest talue of the pixel m
question Clearly a high initial
interest value implies that the pixel has a large vanance in all four directions The final interest values
are obtained by setting to zero the initial values of all but (he local maxima In this manner only
those pixels are assigned interest values that are not only the centers of locally large gray-level vanalms,
but also represent larger vanacions than any of their neighbonng points In Figure 1629 we have
shown the initial interest values assigned to Ihe pixels of (he images in Figure 1 6 23ii For Ihe assignment
of the final interest values, we have zeroed out all but the maximas Of all the candidate points thus
obtained in all the rows, only those with final interest values above a predetermined threshold are

Fig. 16.24. (fl) Dispanty map obtained fromlhecoarse-channel zero-crossings shown mFigure 16 23c
The darker a pixel, the greater its range from (he camera baseline (6) Histogram of the coarse-cftannel
disparities shown m (a)
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12 genmipd b\
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randidale points

Total Dispaf»tj = Q>arae channel disparity +

I me channel disparity

Fig. 16 26. The procedure used for implementtng vergctice

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302 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 16 28. A gray-level depiction of the computed depth map. the darker a pixel, the greatest its

distance from the camera baseline

at all For example, left-image candidate points that he in regions that are occluded to the right
camera will not have any matches
The following procedure used for constructing the
is initial probabilities for the dispanties We
first determine how similar the candidate point {Xm. ym) to each of the possible matches within
the window in Figure 16 3 Similanty is tested by summing the squares of Ihe differences between a
1

S X S window around the (tn vm) point in the left image, and a similar window around the potential
match in Ihe nght image Let Smfd) be this measure for the dispaniy d. Note that the smaller the
5^ (dll the more similar the potential match is to the candidate point Therefore the smaller the 6^(6),
the larger should be the associated probability Fa(d) To construct the probability function, we first
generate Ihe following set of weights at each (xm. ym)

lK„<d) = I
(16 49)
l +C &,(d)

for some positive constant C

(Barnard and Thompson used a value of 10) The advantage of these
weights IS that regardless of the choice of C they always lie in the interval [0, 1], and a large weight
means a more similar potential match These weights cannot be used directly as probabilities because,

stereo
Fig. 16.29. Gray-scale depiction of the initial interest values assigned to the pixels of the
imaging of Figure 16 23a
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304 ROnOT CONTROL

where Ihc conditional probabiluy of the dispanty at point (*„. y^) being equal to d given
is

that this candidate point ismatchable, and (I —

/*ft(d*)lKlhc probability that lhis(x*. ;>„)isfnatchable
The conditional probability is estimated from

/>„(d;m) = (1652)
2 »»'-(d)

An important consequence of this definition is lhal if we plug this estimate for the conditional densities
in Eq (16 51). we can easily show that the sum of the probabilities for all dispaniics at (x..
(includmglhenultdispanty) IS equal to unity In Tigure 16 ila ue have displayed the initial probabilities
for the candidate points shown in Figure 16 30 The thicLncss of each line is proportional to the
probability of the corresponding match The darkness of each point is proportional to the probability
of the candidate point being maichable
The probabilities are updated by using the consistency property The initial probabilities presented
depend on only the local neighborhoods around the pixels being paired together We now increase
the probabilities of those dispanties that occur oOen in a region, and decrease the probabilities of
those that do not To account forsampling cfTcsis. we must first define what we mean by the dispanties
being similar Two disparities, d and d , will be considered to be similar provided

max ^|d, - d,| . Id, - d,|^ S 1 (16 53)

which says that if either the x- or the y-componenti of the two dispanties differ by no more than
one pixel, then they are essentially the same To compute the ne* probabilities for the dispanties at

Fi’g. 16.32. (a) Initial probabilities assigned to possible dispanties at the candidate points m the kfi
image of Figure 16 306 The darkness of each point is proportional to the probability of the candidate's
being matchable The thickness of each linecmanaiingfrom abnght dot is proportional to the probability
of the corresponding dispanty (6) Probabilities updated by using the consistency measure after two
Iterations (c) Probabilities after five iterations (d) Final dispanties are shown supenmposed on the
left image of the stereo pair
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306 ROBOT CONTROL

are Ihen assigned to the central pixels of the leR-image windows (Instead of cross-correlation, it is
computationally less demanding to measure similanty from the sum of the squares of the differences,
however, the penalty paid is the sensitivity to contrast differences between the left and the right images)
Area-based stereos are based on the premise that the corresponding areas in the left and the nght
images exhibit similar gray-level variations, a property known as photometric invariance This assumption
is reasonably justified in photogrammetry where, for the most part, images consist of smoothly varying

terrains However, in the vicinity of sharp range discontinuities, which occur often in robot vision,
photometnc invanance does not hold, since in the vicinity of such discontinuities some areas of the
left image are occluded in the nght image, and vice versa On the other hand, edge-based stereo is

based on the premise that stereo images arc geotnetncally invariant, which can be explained by saying
that along any given scan direction the edges appear in the same order in the left and the nght
images (although owing to occlusion, some edges that appear in the left image may not appiear in
the nght image, and vice versa) Because of the different underlying premises, edge-based stereo is
strong where area correlation is weak, and conversely
Although an edge-based stereo is incapable of generating a range map for all points in a scene,
Its advantage is that an edge can be located with subpixel accuracy A change in image intensity at

the site of an edge corresponds to a zero-crossing in ihe Laplacian of the image A zero-crossing
implies a sign change from one pixel to Ihe next, interpolation between two such adjacent pixels in
the Laplacian of the image leads to subpixel accuracy location of an edge (This is also the reason
for the hyperacuity of the human visual system, which refers to our ability to compute the position
of a feature m an image to about S seconds of arc. whereas the resolution of a fovea! receptor is
approximately 0 4 minutes of arc Marr, Poggio, and Hildreth*^ argue that to account for such hyperacu-
liy, one must postulate an interpolation process to isolate the zero-crossings to an accuracy liner

than that of the receptor spacing ) Subpixel accuracy is not possible with area-based stereo algorithms
The precision with which the disparity can be calculated here is much poorer and is inversely proportional
to the size of (he windows used for matching However, area-based methods do yield depth information
at a denser set of points than the edge-based methods
Baker-Bmford algonthm’ combines the notions of edge-based and area-based techniques to yield
dispanty values practically everywhere The first part of (he algonihm establishes correspondences
between the edges m the two images The edge descnptions basically highlight the structure of the
scene, providing rather sparse dispanty measures The second part of (he algonthm then provides
fuller stereo detail by correlating image intensities, using for local vergence the information supplied
by edge-based correlations To ease the problem of matching intensity patterns, the unpaired ^ges
are matched on a segment-by-segment basis, each segment of the scan line lying between the edges
already paired by the edge-based pan of the algorithm These pamngs serve to fill in the gaps of the
pnmary edge-ba^ correlation
In the interest of robustness and efficiency, the edge-based part of the algonthm analyses the images
at two m
different levels of detail This coane-to-fine analysts approach, similar spint to the multichannel
feature of the MPO algonthm, consists low-pa» filtenng of the images, matching the edges
of. first,
m the reduced resolution versions thus obtained, and then using the local dispanties thus calculated
to bnng finer edge detail into rough correspondence For matching, edge points on «ch line of the
reduced resolution images are charactenzed by Ihe gray levels on two sides of the edge, the contrast
sign, and the slope of the edge segment In the matching procedure, which is based on the Viterbi
algorithm, these atinbules are combined wilh linear weighting For full-resolution edge detail, although
the same procedure is used for matching, the edge points are further charactenzed by the local edge
angle and, of course, the local dispanty as calculated from the reduced resolution images
The algonthm clearly possesses the discreteness and similanty properties mentioned in the preceding
section The reader might now wonder how ihe consistency is brought into play Note that the correla-
tions for the edges are done separately for each line m the images In other words, only the information
contained on one image line from the left image and the corresponding line from the nght image is
used to correlate the edge points contained on those lines (When the camera baseline is parallel to
the honzontal, these image lines arc the honzontal scan lines In general, the lines in the two images
of a stereo pair that contain the corresponding points, fall on the epipolar line, which is a projection
of the camera baseline on a joint image plane containing both the left and the nght images ) The
information on the adjacent lines is used to establish edge connectivity constraint for weeding out the
edge correspondences that violate object surface continuity The edge connectivity constraint says
that a connected sequence of edges m one image should be seen as a connected sequence in the other
and that the underlying object surface may be inferred to be a contmuous surface detail or a continuous
surface contour

16.4. LASER SENSORS

As Figure 16 33fl shows, a laser sensor illuminates the object with a collimated beam, and the backscat-
tered light, approximately coaxial with the transmitted beam, is picked up by the receiver The
range

IS estimated from the time it takes the light to travel from the sensor to the object and
back A
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308 ROBOT CONTROL

A detailed diagram of the system used by Nitzan el al is shown in Figure 16 336 The plane-polanzed
output of a 15-mW HeNe laser (of wavelength 632 8 nm) is amplitude modulated at a frequency of
9 MHz by passing it through an ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP) crystal, the modulation is
effected by rotating the plane of polanzaiion The light l^m is then split into two parts by passing
It through an analyzer The off-asis part is used as a phase reference and for providing automatic
gain control The on-axis part, which now cames a titnc-avcragc power of about 6 mW, is deflected
by the scanning mirror and illuminates the object The light reflected from the object passes through
a 632 8-nm interference filler with a 2-nm passband to minimize the effect of ambient light The
output of the interference filter goes to a photomultiplier lube, whose output signal passes through a
9-MHz filter The output of the filter is used for both the amplitude and phase measurements
An often-cued difficulty with laser depth perception is the length of time it lakes to build up a
range map A pnmary source of this difficulty is the small amount of light that is returned by the
object One could reduce this time by using a higher-pOwer laser, however, that might compromise
the safety issue To explain the considerations that dictate long measurement times, we present some
introductory comments about the reflection of light from mirrorlike and mattelike surfaces We then
present the expressions derived by Nitzan el al “ for the expected standard deviation in a range measure-
ment and show dependence on the available signal-to-noise ratio
its
As Figure 34a shows, consider a collimal^ beam of laser light that is incident on a surface
16
and that is subtending an angle of £>, with the oonnal Some of this light will be absorbed by the
object, while the rest is reflected Two different components obeying different laws of physics can be
identified in the reflected light One is a mirrorlike specular component obeying the familiar law that

6r, the angle of reflection, is equal tod,, the angle of incidence The second mechanism, more important
for robot vision applications, is called the diffuse reflection the ratio of the power transported by the
specular and the diffuse components is determined by the roughness of the object surface (at a scale
determined by the wavelength of illumination used, which for the case of HeNe lasers is around 0 6
microns) As Figure 16 33« shows, for range-mapping applications the returned light miercepfcd by
the sensor is nearly coaxial with the tlluminaiing beam Therefore, unless the object surface is perpendicu-
lar to the laser beam, the received light by the sensor will be totally a diffuse reflection, as opposed
to being a specular return How does the diffuse reflection depend on the onentation of the surface
with respect to the illumination beam^ This question is answered by Lambert's cosine law, which we
state afler a few definitions
The intensity of a continuous light beam can be expressed as a function of the time-averaged
power per unit area (m watts per square centimeter), a unit area being perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the beam The strength of a well<ollimaled beam can also be expressed by the
total time-averaged power transported by the beam through any of its cross sections The
(in watts)
by definition noncollimated, is best expressed as a time-averaged
intensity of the diffuse reflection,
power radiated outward per Figure 16 346 illustrates a solid
unit solid angle in different directions
angle dO in a direction $ from the normal If the total radiant flux measured as time-averaged power
flowing outward through this solid angle is dPa. then the time-averaged radiant intensity (in watts
per steradian) at the point marked X \%

/d (16 58)
dn
Lambert’s cosine law states the following for the angular dependence of diffuse reflection

la=-FfPaCOse (1659)

where pd is called the diffuse reflectance of the surface equal to the ratio of the total power
and is

transported by the mechanism of diffuse reflection over all solid angles to Ft, the total power in th®
incident illumination The value of pd vanes between 0 for ideally black surface and 1 for an ideally
white surface, also it is dependent on the wavelength of light used
Note that although by Lambert’s law the diffuse reflection is independent of the angle of the
illumination, for the situation depicted m
Figure 16 33a we are only interested in the diffuse backscatter.
that IS, the return nearly coaxial with the illumination ’Therefore if B, is the angle between the illumina-

tion and the surface normal, the backscatter willexhibil the cos dependence on the surface onentation
In addition to its dependence on the nature of the surface finish and the onentation of the surface,
the amount of reflected light picked up by the sensor also depends on how far away the surface is
Let Ar be the effective area of the sensor for captunng the backscattered light, and let r be the
range of the backscattenng site The solid angle subtended by this capture area at the object point m
question is Ar/c^ The total returned light picked Up by the sensor is then given by

- a>4aFrp<iCOSg,
(16 60)
” nr*
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310 ROBOT CONTROL

The factor a accounts for the phenomenon that to reduce as much as possible the contributions
made by the ambient light, the received backscatter from the object must be filtered through a narrow,
band interference filter To a certain extent this filter will also attenuate the desired signal
Since the illuminatingbeam is modulated for the measurement, the time-average power m the
transmitted beam can be wntten as

/Y(t) = fr(l + "»cos«iiiO (16 61)

in the presence of modulation the expression for the returned light takes the form

Fp(») = Fp{\ + »»i cos - <J>)] (16 62)

where the time-average radiant flux Fp is given by Eq (16 60), and the phase shift <() is

<^=^(2r + r,) (16 63)

where the distance corresponds to the phase shift introduced by paths internal to the sensor The
fo
extra phase shift is introduced by the light beam traveling a distance r to the object and back Therefore
a measurement of the phase yields directly a value for the depth r
The accuracy of depth measurement depends on how precisely (he phase can be measured
That leads to the question What is the smallest phase change that the sensor should be able to
measure** From the foregoing formula, a i-cm change in depth corresponds to a phase change of
0 2° Although ItIS possible to measure phase changes that are as small as 0 1°,** the dynamic range

of the received signal makes that difficult Note that the received signal is a function of cos 6/r'‘
If we assume a vanaiion of 0 2-1 for pat, 1-5 m
for range, and (>-87° for the angle of incidence, we
come up with a vanation of 25,000-1 (or 88 dB) in pa cos O/r* When the received signal is at the
bottom end of this dynamic range, and therefore b^mes comparable to or buned in noise, it ts
difficult to measure phase with precision A
few commtais foitow about the sources of noise and (he
available signal-to-noise ratios
When a dark distant object viewed obliquely, pd cos 0,/f^ lakes a small value, and therefore
is

the returned power also small At such power levels, quantum noise associated with the emission
is

of electrons in the photomultiplier dominates The resulting signal-io-noise ratios can be estimated as
follows The electrons in the photomultiplier are emitted by absorption of the incoming light photons
If we use T sec to denote the observation interval, the time-average received power given by Eq
(16 60) translates into an average number of photons denoted by li, where

The quantity hc/\is a unit of energy m

one photon, where h is the Planck’s constant, e the speed
of sbe ws.'rttengtb of the qnwMwri Seventy W
denoted by tj, thenumber of emitted electrons is

a,=itn (16 65)

Since the emission of electrons is a Poisson process, the standard deviation <r, of the number of
emitted electrons is simply Therefore the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the output of the photomul-
tiplier IS

SNR = -^=V^ (16 66)

= r arjX/f„Frrpd cose. 1<'»

(16 67)
t irke r* J

which was obtained by using Eq (16 60) For weak signals, the phase must be measured m the presence
of quantum noise It has been shown’® that the noise-induced phase error translates into a range
error m the following form

C 1
(16 68)
V^mw«SNR~2-x/5irmSNR

where <Tr is the standard deviation of the error in range measurement, and where Xm is given by
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Fi^re 16J5. (o) The pulse-echo technique for measunng

range with ultrasound (b) The directivity
pattern of the Polaroid ultrasonic range sensor
at 50 kHz

312
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314 ROBOT CONTROL

Because of the high accuracy with which the amval times can be measured, the range to an object
point can be estimated with relatively high preasion However, in the lateral direction the resolution
IS poor, here we have a 75-mm (3-in > wide image for a 6 4-mm (0 25-in ) diameter object

Lateral Resolution Improiement by Coherent Detection and Back-Propagation

Lateral resolution can be considerably improved (it can even approach diffraction limits for simple
objects) by using a two-transducer scheme depicted m
Figure 16 37 One transducer used as a transmitter
illuminates the object with sound, and the other transducer used as a receiver measures the amplitude
and the phase of the object-dispened sound on a scanning plane This recorded data constitutes a
wavefront of the field as scattered by the object and measured on the scanning plane
This resolution-improvement technique is based on the concept of back-propagating the measured
wavefront back towarf the object To explain the concept of back-propagation, consider a single-
point object shown in Figure 16 38. which k illommated by a plane wave The scattered field from
the object is a sphencal wave If we measured this scattered field in different planes, both the real
and the imaginary parts would exhibit oscillatory patterns as depicted in the figure Figure 16 38
depicts forward propagation outward from the point object The idea in hack-propagation is to start
with the field pattern in, say, the plane marked X and then to retrace the field backward toward the
point object And if that could be done, the point object would be reconstructed and would be at
the location of the maximum in the back-propagaied field pattern At least theoretically, a more complex
object can be considered as a superposition of point objects, and since back-propagation is a linear
process, reconstruction should be equally achievable In practice, it is not possible to reconstruct the
entire three-dimensional structure of an reject (assuming that the illuminating sound penetrates into

Objeet

Figure 16.37. Lateral resolution can be considerably improved by using a two-transducer scheme
shown here One transducer illuminates the object with sound, and the other coherently measures
the amplitude and the phase of the sound scattered by the object
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316 ROBOT CONTROL

depths in the Mcmity of the expected range values The shape of the object surface is obtained by
thresholding these fields
The 0 25-in used before for pulse-echo expentnents was also imaged with a one-dimensional
steel ball
version of the back-propagation approach presented here The data were collected on a scan line, as
opposed to a plane A
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G(u'l^jglx.z)e-’^’"dx (1675)

yields the equivalent of a plane-wave decomposition, which is then multiplied by the transfer function
for back propagation

^
exp ^j2ir ~ (1676)

The inverse transform of the product gives the back-propagated field The image obtained shown
is

m Figure 16 39, which showsa ncar-pcrfccl rcconstniction The back -propagated fields were thresholded
at the half-peak power level for this reconstruction
In general, the quality of reconstruction by this method depends on the size of the scan area for
data collection This can best be explained by going back to the example of a point object The fidelity
with which the point object is reconstructed depends on the number of cycles of oscillations incorporated

in the measurement plane (The nng pattern shown in Figure 16 38 to represent oscillations is called
the Fresnel pattern in optics ) Ideally one should have about 40 nngs in the Fresnel pattern to obtain

good "focusing” by back-propagation In practice, acceptable results can be obtained even when this
condition is not satisfied Since the scan line was only 25 cm (10 m ) long, the measured data for the
image in Figure 16 39 were equivalent toonly about 10 nngs in the Fresnel pattern Since the wavelength
at SO kHz IS about 6 4 mm (0 25 in >, the reconstruction in Figure 16 39 has the best resolution that
can be obtained at this frequency

16.6. BIBLIOGEUPHICAL NOTES

The focus of this chapter has been on range-data acquisition We have not discussed an associated
important topic, which is the automatic interpretation of range data By automatic interpretation we
mean a robot looking at a multicomponent scene, using range (and photomeinc) information to recognize
each component individually, and then determining the positional relationships between them Although
space limitation was a pnmary factor for this deletion, another consideration that influenced our decision
was the infancy of this subject The reader is referred to References 11, 27, 31, and 39 for a representative
set of discussions of this subject

Fig. 16.39. Image by back-propagation of the same 023Hn steel ball that was used in Figure 16 36
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318 ROBOT CONTROL

stimubting discussions They are responsible for supplying me with some of the other results shown
m this chapter
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LU SIOHOH HOd NOIldaDHad Hidao

 CHAPTER 17
CONTROL OF REMOTE
MANIPULATORS
ANTAL K. BEJCZY
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California

17.1. REMOTE APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS

The term remote applications of robots refers to leleopcration, which, in turn, means the use of robotic
devices having mobility, manipulativeand some sensing capabilities, and remotely controlled by a
human operator The remote control can be manual or automatic, ora combination of both Histoncally,
robot arms and hands are the most important teleoperator devices
Industnal robots typically replace workers performing well-structured, repetitive, and often tedious
manual work Remotely applied robots or leleoperalors, on the other hand, augment the human manual,
sensing, and perceptive/cognitive capabilities and extend them to remote, difficult, and dangerous
places undesirable or inaccessible by humans Teleoperators typically perform singular, nonrepetitive
and semi-structured work Industrial robots are essentially machine systems Teleoperators are essentially
man-machine systems
Remotely applied robots or teleoperators are widely used m the nuclear industry to handle radioactive
matenals New technological endeavors in space, deep sea, mining, and the like, will also involve an
estensive use of teleoperators The latest newcomer to the field of teleoperator systems is the 16-m
(50-ft) robot arm attached to the Space Shuttle and remotely operated by an astronaut from the
Shuttle cockpit The bibliography at the end of this chapter contains a selected list of references on a
variety of recent work related to the control of remote manipulators
Remote applications of robots raise several issues The issues can be subdivided into two major
groups (1) the development of proper robot manipulator or locomotion machines capable of coping
with the particular environmental and task constraints under which the robot machines will operate,
(2) the development of control, information, and man-machine interface devices and techniques required
for an efficient and safe operation of robots at remote places The first group of issues is covered m
Chapter 9, ‘"Teleoperator Arm Design "
In this chapter we consider the second group of issues control, information, and man-machine
interface focused at remote application of lobol manipulators Within the frame of this chapter, we
consider pnmanly the devices and techniques which (1) enhance or supplement the visual information
for remote robot arm control, (2) facilitate the operator's on-line interaction with computer control
of remote robot arms, and (3) promote the use of data-dnven automation for remote robot arm control
Genera] considerations, including human factors, are presented in Section 17 2 Sensors are treated
in Section 173 Section 17 4 is devoted to the control problem, including a few man-machine interface

examples The information display problem is discuss^ m

Section 17 5

17.2. GENERAL CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS

Control of robot manipulators is very demanding in any control mode It requires the coordinated
control of several (typically six) manipulator joints while observing a multitude of kinematic, dynamic,
and environmental constraints Then, to follow the speafics of a given task, different sensor signals
must be interpreted in real time Furthermore, manipulation tasks can often be performed in different
ways Consequently robot arm control implies a multilevel decision and monitonng process at boih
the information feedback and control input channels of the controller

320
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322 ROBOT CONTROL

£X£CUTtON

Fig. 17 2. Mulcilsvel manipulator control/information flow paths

this second level, control and information variables are handled by a finite number of computer algo-
nthms, and messages are transmitted to the lower and higher levels of a finite number of nme instants
Transformation of the operator's task description both to actuator reference commands and to control
contest of exteroceptive sensor data are generated by computer algorithms at this second control
/rtief The thted sttd htfhisc ccateal level— represented by block A of Fts 17 2 —
ts the buman<fperator

In the context of Fig 17 2, themam funclionorthehumanopcrator is task description and “supervisofy”

monitonng of task execution The operator selects, quantilies, or modifies the algonthms for the lower
control levels Of course, this highest control level is based on the human attnbufes of thinking,
learning, judging, and setting "godls” for a machine with known characteristics
Advanced automation for robot control is data dnven It is inherently flexible since it is programma-
ble It contrasts the mechanically fixtured ngid automation The data sources for data-dnven automation
can be subdivided into two mjjor groups models and sensors Data denved from models typically
provide a pnon information about robot machines and tasks Data denved from sensors typically
provide on-line information about task performance of robots Broad utilization of both data sources
for robot arm control typically requires digital computers
Remote applications of robots require flexibility in control and in information management to
cope with varying and unpredictable task conditions The use of data-dnven automation in teleoperafion
offers significant new possibilities to enhance overall task performance by providing efficient means
for task-related controls and displays

17.3. SENSORS
The acquisition and use of both visual and nonvisual sensor information m remote robot arm control
is of cntical importance Visual information is obtained directly or through stereo or mono television,

and can be supplemented with information from ranging devices Visual information for robot arm
control is of geometnc nature It relates to the gross transfer motion of the mechanical arm
m the
object
environment and to the position/oncntation of the mechanical hand relative to environmental or
coordinates
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 3M ROBOT CONTROL

JSC FOUR-CLAW END EFFECTOR SQUARE MATRIX

GRAPPLING ENVELOPE CONFIGURATION OF
PROXIMITY SENSORS ON
FOUR-CLAW END EFFECTOR

OVERALL PROXIMITY
SENSOR SYSTEM FOUR-SENSOR OPERATION
CONCEPT FOR SIMULTANEOUS
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH,
PITCH AND YAW ERRORS

ADVANCED CONCEPT FOR GRAPHICS DISPLAY

OF FOUR-SENSOR SYSTEM INFORMATION

force-torquc sensor information during the terminal phase of berthing v.hen the pajload guide pms
were inside the V-shaped guides of the latch assembly More on the expenments can be found in
Reference 6

17.3 Touch and Slip Sensing

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hand
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326 ROBOT CONTROL

Fig. 17.5. Six-dimcnsional force-lorqoc sensor (a) Mechanical frame (6) Reference axes

hand controller " The hand controller is a 6

a general-purpose force-reflecting DF control input device
that can be backdnven by and torques sensed at the base of the end effector of a remote robot
forces
arm This hand controller general purpose in the sense that it does not have any geometnc and
is

dynamic similanly to the slave arm tt controls, it is nor a replica of any slave arm, but it can be
coupled to and used for the control of any remote slave arm
The positional control relation between the general-purpose hand controller and a remote robot
arm is established through mathematical transformation of joint variables measured at both the hand
controller and robot arm Likewise, the forces and torques sensed at the base of the remote robot
hand are resolved into appropnate hand-controller motor-dnve commands through mathematical trans-
**
formations to give to the operator’s hand the same "feeling” that is “felt" by the remote robot hand
The complex bilateral mathematical transformations are performed by a dedicated minicomputer in
real time These transformations also affect motion synchronization between hand controller and slave
am, referenced to she slave band, by backdisving Uw band controller. Overall system implementation
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328 ROBOT CONTROL

IS shou-n m preliminary control sjsiem analysis and synthesis of this system can be
Figure 17 8 A
found in Reference 13 Some espenmental results are presented in Reference 14
The new form of bilateral manual control of remote robot arms desenbed here generalizes the
bilateral, force-reflecting manipulator control technique The mam objective is to overcome the Iimita-
lions and inconveniences inherent to the existing master arms as control input and force feedback
devices

17.4.2. Interactive Manual-Automatic Control Using Sensors

In this modeof control, data from sensors integrated with the remote robot are used to adapt the
real-time control actions to changes or variances in task conditions automatically through computer-
control algonthms The function algonthms can be selected by the operator from a preprogrammed
menu
A pilot computer-control system has been developed al JPL for a 6 DF robot arm equipped wiib
proiimity and force-torque sensors This development is aimed to study and evaluate the hardware
and software performance implications ofman-computer interactive control in teleoperation Interactive
control signilies here a hybnd control capability which allows that some motions of the remote robot
in the workspace coordinates are under manual control whereas the remaining motions m the same
workspace reference coordinates are under automatic computer control referenced to proximity and
force-torque sensor data A preprogrammed control menu is available to the operator who decides
on-lme when and which automatic control funciion should be activated or deactivated Each automatic
control function selection can be accomplished by turning a simple on-off switch addressed directly
to the control computer Some parameters of the automatic control menu can be changed on line
Note that, in this hybrid control system, the operator has a dual (analog/contmuous and digital/
discrete) communication with the control computer Note also that, in extreme cases, all control can
be either fully manual control or fully automatic control referenced to sensors
The structure of (he interactive control system software is built on a design concept which stales
(hat particular manipulator tasks can be considered as arrangements of interconnected actions which
are enforced directly by the operator's continuous manual inputs or by automatic computer control
algorithms In order to synthesize the automatic control of mierconnecied complex actions, three
action categories —
primitive, composite, and complex actions —
have been introduced Primitive actions
include elementary motions, (e g one-step shifts of (he mechanical hand) in a given task frame Compos
,

lie actions are composed of several primitive actions which are executed sequentially or in parallel

(e g .follow a moving object) Execution of a complex action is determined by precedence rules that
define the order of execution of the corresponding composite actions These rules also specify the

Fig. 17.8. Overall system implcmcntalion for generalized bilateral manual control
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• ’ ^
Shuttle television . . < .
'
‘ '
Some Shuttle rot- •
‘ ' '
(eleMSion camerc '
,

. .
to the operator .
, ,

recognition accui . '

...
application concept is realistic and acceptable, (2) the use of voice command indeed contnbutes to a
better man-machine interface integration. (3) individual human acoustic charactenstics and traming
base a major impact on system performance

17,5. INFORMATION DISPLAYS

The stream of data generated by sensors on a “smart hand" (prosimity, touch, and force-torque sensors)
provides multidimensional information and requires quick (sometimes split-second) control response
In general, the control decision required to respond to (he data is also multidimensional This represents
a demanding task and heavy workload for the human operator It is also recognized that the use of
information from sensors on a "smart band" often requires coordination with visual information (see
Fig 17 10)

17.5.1. Event-DriTen Displays

By dehnition, event-dnven d]spla)s map a control goal or a set of subgoals into a multidimensional
data space based on the fact that control goats or subgoals always can be expressed as a fixed combination
of multidimensional sensory data Event-dnven displays can be implemented by real-time computer
algonthms which (1) coordinate and evaluate the sensory data m
terms of predefined events and (2)
dm e the graphics display Flexible display dnve algonthms require an open set of task-onented parame-
by the operator to match the specific needs of a given control task
ters specifiable
Seseral esent-dnven graphics displays of proximity, touch-slip, and force-torque sensor data have
been developed at JPL “ Some displays are in black and white utilizing blinkers for event indications,
and some are m color utvliiing changes in the color to indicate an event
Event-dnven displays can considerably sharpen the information content of mulhdimensional sensor
data and thereby aid the operator's perceptive task

INTEGRATED OPERATOR CONTROL

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 332 ROBOT CONTROL

Reflecting Hand Controller. Proceedings ofike 17th Annual Conference on Manual Control. UCLA,
Los Angeles, California, June 15-18, 1981
15. Bejczy, A K and Vuskovic. M , An Inlcractivc Manipulator Control System. Proceedings of
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16. Bejczy, A K Dotson. R S . and Maihur, F P . Man-Machine Speech Interaction

,
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J L Voice Control of the Space Shuttle ,

Video System, Proceedings of the l?ih Annual Conference on Manual Control. UCLA, Los Angeles,
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,

the 14th Annual Conference on Manual Cowrro4 University of Southern California. Los Angeles,
California, April 25-27, 1978

19. Paine,G and Bejczy, A K Extended Event-Dnven Displays for Manipulator Control, Proceed-
,

ingsof the 15th Annual Conference on Manual Control Wnght State University, Dayton, Ohio,
March 20-22, 1979

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338 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

ease with which the system is taught or programmed The application engineer must be given access
to all basic system components in a simpl^ straightforward manner For robot-programming language
systems it is also necessary to provide data structures, computational power, and appropriate sensor
interfaces Powerful debugging are essential to the task-generation process Finally, the system
facilities
software usually includes provisions for displaying, listing, and stonng the application task externally
The production and application aspects trf induslnal robot software are quite visible They are
important to the robot manufacturer because they must be done well if the product is to be successful

same manufactunng, training, documentation, and support functions serve many customers Table
18 1 shows the variety of products sharing a common software base for selected manufacturers
Microprocessors (and therefore software) are commonly used by robot manufacturers to reduce
manufactunng cost A
good example of this technique is the display screen found m
modem controls
Operator interaction that formerly used expensive push buttons and panel lights is conducted through
a single mechanism Many functions of the typical interpolation and servo components are also imple-
mented with microprocessors, thereby eliminating the cost of expensive electronic hardware
Finally, the manufactunng process itself can be made more efficient by incorporating software
that assists by automating diagnosis dunng run-off and by providing tools for adjustments made pnor
to customer shipment

18.3. CONTEMPORARY ROBOT SOFTWARE SYSTEMS

Robot software systems are frequently classified according to the manner m which the user programs
them Bonner and Shin^ have published a comparative study of robot languages that defines five classes
of robot software and surveys 14 systems Tomas Lozano-Perez” provides an extensive review of
requirements for and developments in robot programming systems of three types guiding, robot level,
and task level
This chapter presents robot software in classes corresponding to the first two of Lozano-Perez
The shop floor guiding machines include those sold by ASEA, Cincinnati Milacron, Cybotech, General
Electnc, Prab, and Unimation They are represented in this chapter by the Cincinnati Milacron T3
family * The Automatix RAIL system' and the IBM AML
approach'* are used to charactenze robot
programming language systems Some other products in this class are the Unimation robots with
VAL, the General Electnc machines based on the HELP language, and the International Machine
Intelligence arms, which use BASIC

18,3.1. Shop Floor Machines

The shop floor machines are the mosi frequently used robots Their hallmark is simplicity and ease
of application They are programmed with an interactive guiding process, sometimes called teocA by
showing The user interface is designed to be natural and fnendly to trained shop floor personnel
Teaching and operation are both performed with simple operator interaction Usually a menu-
dnven scheme is supplied along with dedicated push buttons and panel lights All shop floor systems

include a hand-held control that the user carries as he moves around the work area while teaching
The robot task descnption consists of one or more segments which each represent a path through
space These segments can be grouped together (usually by concatenation) to form a cycle The cycle
IS the top-level logic m
the task The individual steps that compnse a segment are cdled points. A
point consists of geometric information about the location and onentalion of the tool attached to the

TABLE 18.1. INDUSTRIAL ROBOT SOFTWARE

Manufacturer Software Products Application

Automatix AI32/RAIL Autovision Inspection

Robovision Arc welding
Cybcrvision Assembly
Cincinnati Milacron Acramalic V4 T3.726 General, Iight-duty
T3-746/756 Process
T3-566/586 General, heavy-duty
Cybotech RC.6 VIS General, light-duty
P-15 Painting
V80. 080, H80 General, heavy-duty
IBM RS/l/AML I«/l Assembly
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340 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

sp)eeds increase and memory prices drop, many manufacturers of industrial control equipment can be
expected to adopt this approach

18 4. COMMON ROBOT SOFTWARE ELEMENTS

To descnbe the functions that robot software typically provides, they are grouped into six common
elements as shown in Figure 18 1 Each element is explained in this section with examples taken
from contemporary robot systems

18.4.1. Supervisory Control

The supervisory control element of industrial robot software is responsible for the overall control
and coordination of the robot system These studies usually include both the internal sections of the
system and synchronization with the external environment including the operator, associated manufac-
tunng and possibly a higher-level control computer
devices,
control clement contains a command interpreter that receives and is responsible
The supervisory
of directions from the operator or central control computer Operator communications
for the execution
are conducted through a combination of push buttons and panel lights and possibly a display or
through a ke>baard/display screen In addition, all robot systems provide a hand-held device with
buttons/lights that can be earned about the work area Any of the commands directed to the task
generation and management section or to the task interpreter are handled through the supervisory
control element Likewise, error reponing and resolution is handled here
In addition, there are usually a number of auxiliary operations supplied at this level One of these
IS (he system generation procedure which configures the manufacturer's genenc software to the user's

specific configuration (seeFigure 18 2) Another is found m

the diagnostic tests executed to detect
hardware or other system failures The compilation and reporting of robot performance or maintenance
data represents a third example of an auxiliary supervisory control function
Supervisory control functions are found in the shop floor machines to handle operator interaction
in production, dunng leaching, and when defining system parameters at installation time These machines
t>pically have simple operator-control panels, and interaction is menu onented
Cincinnati Milacron robots operate m
one of three modes manual, leach, or auto Auto mode ts
for production, teach is for teaching, and manual is for direct, axis-by-axis control of arm motion
from the pendant The control panel, shown in Figure 18 3, is used to start or stop the robot, to
switch between operating modes, to reset errors, and so on Teaching and status interrogation are
done with a portable CRT terminal whose keyboard is shown m
Figure 18 4 These operations can
also be performed with the hand-held teach pendant (Figure 18 5), which controls axis motion and
task execution in addition

Fig. 18.1. Common robot software elements

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as they develop Just as process planning techniques are used to help generate machine tool pan
programs, it is reasonable to assume that the necessary robot task description could also be generated
automatically In fact, the U S Air Force ICAM project (see Section 18 5> has already taken steps
in this direction
Debugging tools, hovvever, are scitl an essential part of the task generation and management element,

they are certain to remain as tong as humans wnte robot task programs (or programs that generate

robot tasks') and until the manufacturing environment becomes completely manageable Debugging
tools serve three major purposes They permit the user to control and track the execution of the
task The constituent program and data can be displayed and modified And finally, the robot and
associated equipment can be manually operated to prepare the work cell for execution of the specific

segment of the task being debugged

Task management tools also include functions for listing and saving the task program and data
Olf-Iine storage on magnetic tape or disk is the most common choice for saving tasks As communication
networks and central computer control achieve wider use. remote task storage will also be provided
There is usually a means for printing hard-copy listings of the robot task, too
Tasks are created in the shop floor machines by moving the arm through each path segment,
entenng control functions and other parameters along the way Additional information is entered at
the console. The Cincinnati Milacron teach station or pendant, for example, can be used to examine
the task or to examine/change internal vanables and tables of parameters
Pendant-directed arm motion is done in either an axis-by-axis fashion or m
coordinated movement
Movement can typically be in joint or world (rectangular) coordinates Cylindncal and tool-onented
motion IS oBen provided as well
Tasks are altered by moving the arm and entenng commands to insert, modify, or delete points
Changes can also be made from the operator's console without physically moving the arm
Debugging is accomplished by selective execution of indiviual steps m
the task Shop floor
systems

let the operator go through the task one step at a time in either the forward of reverse direction

Tasks can be displayed at the console or listed on a hard-copy device Off-line storage is provided
on magnetic tape cassettes in most cases, although bubble memory is available m some systems
Tasks are created m a robot-programming language system by first entenng program statements
with a text editor, then using the pendant as required to define the location of points After the
initial definition of the software modules m
a task, debugging is done by running the task on t e
statements
robot, one step at a lime if necessary, while using the CRTAeyboard todisplayand/or modify
can
or vanables Since these systems are interpretive, iteration in the program development cjcle
occur quickly and efficiently Completed tasks are stored on tape cassette, diskette, or disk
delete a Ime are
The text editors are basic, linc-onented tools Operations such as pnnt, insert, or
standard In addition, there are commands for searching the text for a particular word or
w ic
and replacing it with a new one The IBM editing facility features editing system subroutines,
can be used to construct programs (hat edit other programs automatically
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344 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

18.43. The Task Interpreter

The task interpreter controls the step-by-step execution of the robot task It is responsible for fetching,
analyzing, and initiating each step that is performed The most visible effect of this process is the
motion of the arm The task interpreter must also monitor real-time events and use that information
to direct task execution Communication uiih the operator and collection of production statistics are
also performed
Most robot systems use an interpreter rather than compiling the task descnption The interpretive
approach for shop floor machines follows quite naturally from the need to represent, then retneve
and repeat actions performed by the operator An interpretive approach has many advantages to the
robot supplier It facilitates the creation ofa simple, safe user interface that contains items and operations
that are natural to robotics Task-debugging tools can be interactive and give the developer greater
control over when and how much of the task is executed In addition, task representations are compact
and are less sensitive to changes in the underlying system hardware The task interpreters for shop
floor robots control the system in production and while replaying various segments of the program
dunng the teaching process
The interpretation process is closely tied to the geometry of the task, that is, the interpreter causes
the arm to move along the path from one point to the next There is essentially no distinction made
between a step and a move to the next point A dectsion-making, communication, or other control
function can be performed at each point, if necessary In some cases the system is flexible in allowing
the control action to “anticipate” arrival of the tool at the programmed point A positive or negative
anticipation time specifics that the action be performed before or after the point is reached
The path in space can be defined to be in fixed, absolute locations, or in locations rebtive to a
vanable startmg position The path can also be expressed with respect to a moving reference frame
for tracking an object traveling along a conveyor
To increase flexibility, shop floor task interpreters can recognize more than one place along the
path to begin motion Hie Cybotech RC-6.’ for example, uses a designated looping point to separate
a segment into an approach path, which is followed once (the first time), and a worbng path, which
can be repeated many times Cincinnati Milacron segments can include index points that subdivide
them into several, shorter paths
Decision-making capabilities provided by these interpreters are simple, yet sufficient for traditional
robot applications These are usually tests on digital process signals and internal binary flags The
Cincinnati Milacron T3 family has been extended to include integer variables Pnmibve arithmetic
expressions and relational operators are supplied for counting and decision making (see Figure 18 6)
Interrupts, system errors, and other asynchronous events can be handled to a limited degree How-
ever, the shop machines do not have the sophisticated moniionng and event-handling capability
floor
of the IBM AML language discussed in Chapter 21
The heart of a robot programming language system is lu interpreter While the shop floor machines
tend to distinguish between teaching commands and task execution, the robot programming language
systems are homogeneous Commands are executed immediately as received, and there is no inherent
distinction between teaching and day-to-day production operation Furthermore, sequences of commands
can come from the operator keyboard, a local duk or tape cassette, or a remote computer
Automatix and IBM differ in their approach to providing a robot-programming environment Auto-
mata defined a simple set of functions for robot assembly, seam welding, and computer vision The
selected functions were then implemented as a language much like the popular Pascal The result is
a simple, yet powerful tool for controlLng automation equipment Figure 18 7 shows an example RAIL
program segment
The IBM approach, on the other hand, is to provide the base AML
language and a large collection
of general-purpose system subroutines. There are five classes

1 Control and error handling

2. Motion
3. Sensor and process monitoring
4. Calculation
5. Data processing

Specific robot operationsand data structures are then built by combining these subroulmes with user-
defined AML programs See Figure 18 8
The between the two programming approaches is indicated by the following example
difference
Suppose the arm is to move quickly to the vicinity of the workpiece before moving to its exact location
more slowly The RAIL language APPROACH command performs this move with one statement, a
an
predefined operation of the interpreter The AML implementation requires that the user wnte
AML subroutine that first computes a location and lorf onentation for the approach, then issues
a
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 ) )

W ROBOT INTEUIGENCE

A RAIL Program
OITPIT POHT CL WP 3
I\PIT PORT P\RT_READ^ -I

FI NOTION ^E^M
OLOIUL rCVTlRt sE\Ml
BLGIN

^E.^M !'« :i funriion in nhich (he robot Helds

. a seam that is defined relaiive to a Rvture

REPEAT
M0\T: ''LEW HOME
W AIT I NTIL P\RT_RE\DA == ON
CLAMP = ON
APPROACH 50FROM HXTIRE SEAMl
W ELD FINTl RF <:LAMI WITH sPEEDSCIIED[’].
WLLDSCHEDp)
DEPARTS)
CLAMP = OFF
I NTIL CACLE>TOP == ON

Rg. 18.7. An example RAIL program (Courtesy, Aulomattx

MOVE command The RAIL command is simple to use, whereas the AML subroutine offers flexibility

in specifying exactlyhow the workpiece is approached

with aggregaiet

18.4.4. Arm Motion Control

The arm motion element is the real-time control software that moves the arm as dictated by the task
interpreter The most common form of arm motion is expressed in terms of position, that is, moving
from one point in space to another There are several methods for controlling motion between pomu
The simplest form is poini-to-point where all axes are moved independently to the next location A
second method, commonly used by spray-painiing robots, is called continuous path control Continuous
path control software records a stream of closely spaced sets of joint angles dunng teaching and

An AML Program
GOALS STATIC
MOAT-IT Sinn.
« >.< >. •>,- Aggregate of
— Afovr arm lo de'ired goal
10 goals

G NEW O — A\ contain goal number

ill

(ODE NEW O, — Wilt contain eompietion code

DI'^PL ENTER GOAL
( MItER Prompt M
C, = CNTSN RE-AD ( O STRING( 5 ) ) ).
( .

— Read ihe siring jasl entered and concert

— It lo numeric, this is the goal number
CODE = DOIT C 1 ). - Call DOIT lo move the arm acrording
— to the goal number; get completion rode
II CODE NE O
THEN RETIRN( M'MBFR MUST BE BETW EEEN land 10 )

- If DOIT delected an error.

— quit »ilh a menage
END:

Fig. 18 8. An example AML program (Courtesy, IBM

comparison.

(Courtesy,

Cincinnati

Milacron.)
348 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

a hand-held teaching pendant, and a hard-copy pnnter Each robot also has a small number of push
buttons and indicators on an operator control panel

tion software must provide a means for the task interpreter and other software elements to set/clear
signals or to read their current stale One other function of the communication software is to monitor
for interrupts or other asynchronous events that can be initiated externally Some other equipment
for which communication software is needed includes mass storage devices for saving programs or
production data, sensors, and other conlroUere, for example, welding and vision
As the level of integration in factory automation incrcaMS, robot communication with supervisory
computers will become a necessity Thomas'* lists 12 features necessary for hierarchical computer
control of robots These features, shown in Figure 18 10, charactenze needs for communication software,
but they also imply changes to most other software elements in the modem robot Fussell® describes
functional specifications for a robot controller designed to be one component in a manufactunng cell
The communication capabilities of the Cincinnati Milacron T3 are typical of shop floor robots
These machines have an operator control panel, a display screeo/keyboard, a teaching pendant, and
a taagnetic tape cassette (sec Figures 18 i-l8 S) A simple panel consisting of 12 push buttons and a
keyswiich provides basic control functions The main operator interface device is a 24-line by 80-
character CRT with full alphanumenc keyboard Since Cincinnati Milacron puts full teaching capabiLty
at the pendant, this device has 42 keys and a 12-character alphanumenc display The tape cassette
stores user-defined robot tasks as welt as the system software The digital process signal subsystem
supports input and output to contacts available in groups of eight inputs and eight outputs
Some shop floor systems support robot-to-supenosofy-compuier communications Full use of this
basic communication ability has not been spread through the entire software package, however
Like the shop floor machines, the robot-programming language systems have communications soft-
ware for access to operator interface devices, digital process I/O, and related peripheral equipment
However, there is more flexibility in the area of penpheraJ communication
The Automata AI32 controller recognizes six devices the CRTAeyboard, the teach pendant,
each of the two tape dnves, a general-purpose RS-232C serial port, and a modem port Communication
can be directed to any of these devices In addition, nonoal system I/O can be reassigned from the
CRTAejboard to another device by using the ATTACH command This technique can be used to
drive the AI32 from a remote terminal connected to ihe modem port or to download programs from
a supervisory computer
AML programs can communicate with the CRTAeyboard display station, Ihe pnnter, a factory
communications line, and either the diskette or a fixed disk All such I/O is file onented with fixed-
size records of user-defined length There are read, wnte, and pnnt operations (pnnt converts the
data to character format) Communication is directed to one device or another through the use of a
channel designator

18.4.6. Error Reporting and Diagnostics

Good error reportingand diagnostic capabilities are a nonobnous, but essential, element m
any robot
software system These features serve four functions Diagnostic and set-up software assists dunng
the manufacture and installation of the robot Self-diagnosis is usually performed when electrical power
IS applied to the control Its purpose is to ensure lhat Ihe system is ready to operate and, if not, to

High speed, at least 9600 baud

Standard protocol
Secunty checking
Immediate message initiation

Host up/down loading

Remote task modification dunng operation
Remote cycle control
Remote variable and I/O modification
Status reporting
Position reporting
Error notification to host
Error response by host

Fig. 18.10. Robot communication features (Courtesy, Cincinnati Milacron)

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350 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
Central computer
facility (IBM 3033)

Fig. 18 II. MCL system structure (Courtesy. U S Air Force)

central computer facility has a large mainframe computer which executes the MCL compiler and
contains CAD, vision, and manufacturing dau bases An MCL
program is created by compiling source
statements and interactively generating geometric descriptions The result of this process is an APT
“CLDATA" file which contains a full descnplion of the task to be performed by the manufactunng
cell
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and controls, work stations that perform related manufactunng operations
control preprocesses data for,
Preprocessing consists of consistency and resource validation checks followed by conversion of the
task descnption to a set of workstation mterpreiabU insiruetions. For production, the center control
transmits these instructions to individual workstation controls and monitors their operation

Fig. 18.12. MCL organization (Courtesy, US Air Force

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 CHAPTER 19
ROBOT TEACHING
MICHAEL P. DEISENROTH
Michigan Technological University
Houghton, Michigan

19.1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF TEACH PROGRAMMING

The industnal robot of today is basically an automated mechanism designed to move parts or tools
through some desired sequence of motions or operations As the robot proceeds from one cycle of a
work task to the next, the sequence of robot operations may vary to allow the robot to perform
other tasks based on changes in external conditions Additionally, the same type of robot, or even
the same robot, may be required to perfonn a completely different set of motions or operations if the
work cell is revised or the desired tasks changed The robot control program must be able to accommodate
a vanety of application tasks, and it must also be flexible within a given task to permit a dynamic
sequence of operations The flexibility of the robot is then, to seme extent, govemrf by the types of
motions and operations that can be programmed into the control unit and the ease with which that
program can be entered and/or modifled
Teach programming is a means of entering a desired control program into the robot controller
In teach programming the robot is manually led through a desired sequence of motions by an operator
who IS observing the robot and robot motions as well as other equipment within the work cell The
teach process involves the teaching, editing, and replay of the desir^ path The movement information,
as well as other necessary data, is recorded by the robot controller as the robot is guided through
the desired path during the teach process At specific points in the motion path the operator may
also position or sequence related equipment within the work envelope of the robot Program editing
may be used to add supplemental data to (he motion control program for automatic operation of the
robot or the associated production equipment Additionally, teach-program editing provides a means
of correcting or modifying an existing control program to change an incorrect point or to compensate
for a change in the task to be performed Dunng the teach process the operator may desire to replay
vanous segments of the program for visual venficalion of the motion or operations Teach replay
features may include both forward and backward relay, single-step operations, and operator-selectable
replay motion speeds
The approach taken m teach programming is somewhat dependent on the control algorithm used
to move the robot through a desired path Therefore we review three basic algonthms before returning
to (he main topic of this section
Robots with pomi-to-point control move from one position to the next with no consideration of
the path taken by the manipulator Generally, each axis runs at its maximum or limited rate until it
reaches the desir^ position Although all axes will begin motion simultaneously, they will not necessanly
complete their movements together Figure 19 lo illustrates the trajectory taken by a robot moving
with point-to-point motion Coniinuous path control mvolvcs the replay of closely spaced points t!wt
were recorded as the robot was guided along a desired path The position of each axis was recorded
by the control unit on a constant-time basis by scanning axes encoders dunng the robot motion
The replay algonthm attempts to duplicate that motion Figure 19 ]b illustrates a continuous
path motion Controlled path motion involves the coordinated control of all joint motion to achieve
a desired path between two programmed points In this method of control, each axis moves smoothly
and proportionally lo provide a predictable, controlled path motion In Figure 19 Ic the path oft
e

end effector can be seen to follow a straight line between the two points of the program
desir
In teach programming there are two basic approaches taken to guiding the robot through a
path

352
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354 ROBOT IP^LLIGENCE

Although teach programming has been a basic form of on-line programming for a number of
years, it is still receiving a great deal of atienljon from the robot vendors It is the most widely used

method of programming industrial robots today and will continue to play an important role in robot
programming for many years to come The increased sophistication being added to the taught program
capabilities has created a low<ost, effective means of generating a robot program

19 TEACH-PENDANT PROGRAMMING
As discussed earlier, teach-pendant programming involves the use of a portable, hand-held programming
unit to direct the robot to desired points within the work envelope This is best illustrated by the
example shown in Figure 19 2 In this example a robot is required to pick up incoming parts from
the conveyor on the left, place them into the machining center, and then carry them to the finished
parts conveyor on the right Twin gnppers on the end of the arm allow unloading of a finished pan
followed immediately by loading of a new part, thus reducing wasted motion and overall cycle time
The robot is interfaced to the machining center and to both part conveyors
An opicrator will lead the robot, step by step, through one cycle of the operation and record each
move in the robot controller Additionally, functional data and motion parameters will be entered as
the points are programmed The teach pendant is used to position the robot, whereas the controller
key^ard may be required for specific data entry The operator must insure that all interface connections
have been made before beginning the leach process Once the setup is completed the programming
process can begin as follows

19.2.1. Teaching Point Coordinates

1. Move the robot arm until the left gnpper is just above the part at the end of the input
conveyor, and open the left gnpper
2. Align the gnpper axes with the pan to be picked up
3 Store this program by pressing the record or program button on the teach pendant
4, Lower the arm until the left gnpper i$ centered on the part to be grasped
5 Store this point
6. Close the left gnpper so that the part can be lifted

7. Store this point

8. Raise the arm so that the part is clear of the conveyor and at a desired level to rotate toward
the machining center

9. Store this point

ROBOTIC ARM
Fig 19.2. Teach-pendant progranuumg example of a robotic work cell
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356 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

It IS used to direct robot motion and to cause points to be stored The teach pendant given in Figure

19 3 has axes buttons (for a six-axis robot) on the face of the lower half of the unit The left six
buttons control robot positioning, and the nght six buttons control tool onentation Each robot axis
- j ---• . > .i
has two buttons
the axis the other direction
The ASEA SII Robot
design The unit employs a joystick with a control, two iLeypads for function and data entry, and a
display for operator messages The joystick can be programmed by keypad entnes, to control robot
positioning or tool orientation Moving the joystick to the right causes the robot to move m that
direction, moving it forward extends the robot Raising and lowering of the arm is controlled by the
knob at the top of the joystick Certain keys on the keypad have fixed meaning, olhen have meanings
defined by the operating system software The operations controlled by these soft keys are display^
to the operator in the display screen immediately above the keys This menu-dnven prompting of
the operator facilitates rapid learning of the system and eliminates costly errors An example of this
operation would be to consider the subfunclions available when the program position POS key is

Emergency Pendant
stop enabled

o o
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Bickwanl Forward Function

o o

Q T2
Defete Program

o o
’O Toots button
o^-
'

Position Orientation

•O O" •-0 O" - Move yaw lefl/nght

c
o o
c
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-c “O o
o > Move pitch up/down

Move elbow out/in —

o o
OUT IN cow
o o cw
_ Move roll cloekwtse/
” counterclockwise

^— > To control unit

Fig, I9J. (fl) Robot hand-held teach pendant for manual programming (A) Control diagram
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358 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Fig. 19 4, ASEA SII Robot Controller with joystick and soft function keys

in a vertical plane A fourth programming positioning motion that is extremely useful is a wrisc-
onented rectangular coordinate system Here the robot positioning motion is taken in a Cartesian
coordinate system that u aligned with the wnst onenution
Positioning of the TCP during programming does not aRect tool onentaiion Pitch, roll, and yaw
rotations are normally controlled by a separate set of axis buttons or by redefining the function of
the joystick When positioning the TCP by one of the coordinate motions described earlier, the TCP
IS translated through space When the orientation of the TCP is changed, the TCP remains fixed,
and the robot actuates the motion of the axes to rotate around the specified point The path taken
under program control in the automatic mode ts independent of the path taken while teaching, since
only end-point data are stored
Axis-by-axis positioning is acceptable when the end-point data are all that is desirable If the applica-
tion requires precise path irajectones. both dunng programming and replay, coordinated joint motion
IS highly desirable to maximize operator productivity This added complexity in the control of the
robot dunng programming requires that the TCP positional data be stored and that the control algonthm
be of the continuous path type

19.2.5. Teach versus Replay Motion

The relationship between teach path motion control and the real-time replay motion control algonihms
is not always fully understood A robot can be programmed with a joint coordinated motion scheme
and replayed in a point-io-point mode This may be done to minimize the demands placed on the
axis servo systems, or to r^ucc computational burden in the control unit Robots programmed by
axis-by-axis motion may be replayed point-to-point. or by controlled path motion, depending on the
results desired Many robots are limited to poinl-to-pomt path motion or a course-controlled path
are
motion Robots that offer sophisticated path control dunng programming normally have, and
points
often limited to, controlled path motion with straight-line motion between the programmed
after
Only recently have sophisticated control units begun to offer the point-to-point replay motion
leaching a joint coordinated motion

19.2.6. Teaching Interface Signals

Few, any, indusinal robots perform production operations that require no interconnection
if
to
surrounding equipment in the example presented in Figure 19 2, the robot must be interface
inoica e
both conveyors and the machining center Input signals are required from the feed conveyor to
machine is one
that a part is ready for pickup, and from the machining center to indicate that the
and a finished part is ready for pickup It is also desirable to arrange some sort of sensor to insure
 {psnuliuoo) -C'ei ‘31

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360 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

B) INTtVRLlPT te*NCH STBU:1UI>E

*) PeOGPlM GBiNCH STPUCTUSC

Fig. 19 S. Program branch jnd mterrupi structures permit deviation from the mainline program

each point in the path sequence is olfset or translated relative to the current robot position
initiated,
and/or the wnst onentation Offset branch programming is pnmanly associated with robot control
systems that utilize TCP coordinates as stored data Offset branches are used when a specific sequence
of motions is repeated at a number of points in a path program An esample of offset programming
would be the insertion of screws or fasteners during an assembly operation

19J.8. Teaching Interrupt Service Routines

Whereas program branches are initiated at ihe prepre^rammed points in the program path, interrupt
service routines can be activated by an external input signal anywhere in the cycle Interrupt signals
are constantly monitored by the robot controller When an mlemipl occurs, the robot immediately
abandons the current operation and begins Ihe iniemipt routine Interrupt service routines can be
subdivided into relative and absolute routines as indicated in Figure 19 5b A relative interrupt service
routine is like an offset branch m that ihe sequence of points associated with the routine are considered
to be relative lo the point at which the interrupt occurred A specific use of this type of routine is
found m spot-welding applications When the robot controller senses that the weld tips have welded
themselves to the workpiece, the inlemjpt service roofine causes a senes of twisting motions to be
executed to free the spot-weld gun tips Absolute interrupt service routines contain path point descnpiions
that are fixed in space with respect to Ihe robot If an absolute mtemipl service routine is requested,
the robot withdraws from the current operation and begins to follow the path dictated by the routine
If the robot is required to perform a senes of operations associated with a specific machine when a
malfunction is detected, the service routine would be an absolute interrupt

19.3. ADVANCED TEACH-PENDANT PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

A number of special features or options in teach-pendant programming have been created that increase
features
the case of programming or add flexibibty and versatility to a path program Some of these
are present^ m the following sections to illustrate the extent to which teach-pendant programming
has developed over the years
Branch and interrupt structures have been called subroutines by a number of robot manufacturers
and could have been presented as such in the preceding section They somewhat lack all
normally associated with high-level language subprograms but do serve a similar purpose One
r

subprogram
manufacturer has recently announced a programming feature that allows subroutines, or
t en
blocks, to be stored on a floppy disk m
the form of a common library These subroutines are
available for future use when the same or similar sequence of motions is desired As control p
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362 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

with a supervisory system or some more complex sensor systems employing vision, force, or tactile

transducers
control feature has recently been used in two widely diversified applications First,
The supervisory
the branch modification scheme has been mainly responsible for the application success of vision systems
used for part location tasks with respect to taught robots A
dummy branch is created to accommodate
part pickup, and then the branch is transmitted to the vision control system This system establishes
the robot path that must be taken to pick the part up and revises the point data in the dummy path
The branch is then down loaded, and the robot proceeds according to the new data Seam tracking
for arc-welding operations has been another application area forbranch modification A vision system
is used to locate the seam to be welded Positional data and weld parameters
or laser-scanning device
can then be down loaded into the control unit to execute the desired weld

19.3.3. Teaching and Line Tracking

A number of robots provide a tracking option that represents another form of motion adaptation
Many manufactunng operations are earned out on continuously moving production lines Line tracking
involves the ability of the robot to work in conjunction with such lines There are two basic ways to
accomplish line tracking with a teach-pendani robot Movmg-base line tracking requires that the robot
be mounted on some form of transport system that will cause the robot to move parallel to the production
line Robot traverse speed is synchronized to the line speed while the robot performs the desired
motion Stationary-base line tracking combines ihe sophistication of the control unit with sensor data
to modify dynamically the robot motion commands to permit work to be performed on Ihe moving
line by a stationary robot
Both moving-base line tracking and stationary-base line tracking permit the user to program the
robot in a stationary position The leach pendant is used lo position the robot at desired points which
are programmed in the normal manner Dunng automatic replay a synchronization signal insures
that the stationary-base line-tracking robot origin is m the same position relative to the moving line
dunng program replay Since the points are programmed while the two objects are in the same relative
position, the path will be performed as desired The stationary-base Ime-tracking system utilizes a
position sensory device that sends signals to Ihe control unit indicating the position of the part relative
to a fixed ongin at all times This signal is then used to produce a shift m
the zero position value of
the taught points Since the joint axis motions must be calculated dynamically during replay anyway,
for robots that store TCP, the tracking feature only slightly complicates the computational task
Movmg-base line-tracking robots are easily programmed but require expensive installation of the
transport system and may between adjacent stations Stationary-base Ime-traeking
create interference
robots, however, present some
interesting programming problems First, the robot may be able to
work on and back of the work as it flows through the work envelope The fact
the front, middle,
that the work does move relative to the robot extends the possible working surfaces The operator
must concern himself with the work window from both time and space viewpoints Although the
robot may have expanded the possible working surfaces, each surface is available only during a fraction
of the overall design cycle time Work lo be performed on the front of the part must be performed
first, while that work surface is accessible

19.3.4. Abort and Utility Branches

Finally, the operator must consider abort and utility branches Abort branches represent pretaughi
safe paths by which the robot can exit a work area if the taught points are no longer feasible Utility
branches are similar to the interrupl service routines discussed before, however, they must be performed
as Ihe tool is in motion

19.3.5. Teaching Arc Welding Functions

A number of programming features are available that adapt general-purpose industrial robots to the
task of arc welding The repeatability, lift capacity, and speed of these robots, coupled with proper
weld parameters, can produce welds that are consistent and of high quality There are added program-
ming features that are required, however, to insure the ease of programming the robot
A weld schedule function allows the operator to enter the wire feed, speed, and the arc voltage
into a table called the “weld schedule ” As the operator teaches a given weld path, an index to this
schedule is attached to program points to set the desired process parameten When the path « repeated
in the automatic replay mode, the robot control unit will assess these functional values and output
analog control setpoints to the weld controller Since the weld parameters are part of the stored path
program, weld quality is reproducible from part to part
A standard velocity function is important to the welding task Various weld segments can be
programmed at different velocities lo produce different weld depths If the operator desires to change
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364 robot intelligence

19.4.2. Software for Lead»Through Programming

Lead-through teach-programming software systems incorporate basic program-editing features Often

the program is sufficiently short that the entire program can be deleted and a new program recorded
Alternately, the desired path sequence can be broken down into a number of path segments, and
each segment can be taught separately The segments can then be merged into the desired sequence,
and the path program is then created Since the robot controller maintains each segment as a separate
entity, the user can delete an undcsired segment and reprogram the proper path The new segment
can then be merged into the path program for the desir^ result If the program has been created in
the continuous path mode, a program segment is the smallest path unit that can be deleted or replaced
Robot vendors use a number of different schemes in recording the joint-position data assoaated
with lead-through programming The simplest and most direct scheme is to digitize the data at some
present rate and record the value as obtained The robot controller will then attempt to dnve the
robot through these points dunng replay Asecond scheme involves digitizing the joint-position data
at some multiple of the desired data recording rale The digitized values can then be mathematically
smoothed by a moving-average technique to obtain (he desired positional data for recording This
technique can be helpful in removing random fluciuations in the programmed path caused by operator
actions One robot vendor mathematically determines a path that approximates the data gathered
and then redistnbutes points along the mathematical function to insure a more uniform velocity Irrespec-
tive of the scheme chosen for slonng joint-position data, velocity control is normally limited to some
fractional multiple of the programmed speed The replay velocity of each program segment can be
edited to fine-tune the program However, the replay motion will contain the acceleration and decelera-
tion patterns exhibited by the programmer

19.4.3. Lead-Through Robot Examples

An example of a typical lead-through robot is the Craco OM5000 robot The basic application of
this unit (s in conventional or electrostatic finishing operations The robot control system incorporates
both point-to-point and continuous path programming modes A standard control unit can save up
to 28 min of continuous path points that can be segmented for each program editing Program storage
options include floppy disc, solid state, or bubble memory The removable programming handle (see
Figure 19 7) has switches for signalling the start and stop of path storage, paint-spray flow or color
changes, or triggering of external functions A remote pendant is available for entenng functional
data values and program editing Programs can be created on one OMSOOO robot and then transferred
to another unit, allowing a single unit to act as (be master programming system if desired
The robotic paint-spraying booth system marketed by CMF Robotics is an example of a complex

Fig. 19.7. The lead-through teach handle is attached directly to the robot tooling
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e9e ONiHovax loaoa

 CHAPTER 20
OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING
OF ROBOTS
y. F. YONG
J. A. CLEAVE
J. L. GREEN
M. C. BONNEY
University of Nottingham
University Park, United Kingdom

20.L INTRODUCTION
20.1.1. What Is Off-Line Programming?

Present teach methods of industrial robots have proved to be satisfactory where the
programming
proportion of teaching time to production time is small, and also when the complexity of the application
IS not too demanding They involve either driving a robot to required positions with a teach pendant

or physically positioning the robot, usually by means of a teach arm Teach methods as such necessitate
the use of the actual robot for programming
Off-line programming may be considered as ihe process by which robot programs are developed,
partially or completely, without requinng the use of the robot itself This includes generating point
coordinate data, function data, and cycle logic Developments in robot technology, both hardware
and software, are making off-line programming techniques more feasible These developments include
greater sophistication in robot controllers, improved positional accuracy, and the adoption of sensor
rechnoJogy There is currently considerable research activtty in off-line programming methods, and it

IS expected that these techniques will be employed m

manufactunng industnes within a few years

20.1.2. Why Should Off-Line Programming Be Used?

Programming a robot by teaching can be timenronsoming^he lime taken quite often rises disproportion-
ately with increasing complexity of Ihe task As the robot remains out of production, teach programming
can substantially reduce the utility of the robot, sometimes to the extent that the economic viability
of Its introduction is questioned
Many mass production processes, for example, spot welding m
early robot applications involved
automobile where the reprogramming lime required was either absent or minimal However,
lines,

of small and medium batch production, where the

for robot applications to be feasible in Ihe field
programming times can be substantial, an ofF-line programming system is essential The increasing
complexity of robot applications, particularly with regard to assembly work, makes the advantages
associated with off-line programming even more attractive These may be summanzed as follows

next task is being

1. Reduction of robot downtime The robot can still be in production while its

programmed This enables the flexibihly of the rt^t to be utilized more effectively

2. Removal of programmer from potentially hazardous environments As more of the program

development is done away from the robot this reduces the time dunng which the programmer
IS at nsk from aberrant robot behavior

off-line system can be used to program a vanety

of
3. Single programming system The
care
without the need to know the tdiosyncracies of each robot controller These are taken

366
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S9e oNiHOvai loaoa

368 ROBOT INTELUGENCE
Programming at object, and particularly objective, levels requires the incorporation of programming
constructs to cater to sensor inputs This is necessary to generate cycle logic For example, the “IF,
THEN, ELSE” construct could be employed in the following manner

IF (SENSOR = value) THEN action 1

EL^E action 2

Most present-day systems, on-hne and off-hne, provide manipulator-level control Language systems
currently under development are aiming toward the object level of programming, with objective level
being a future goal

20.3. GEP>rt:RAL REQUIREMENTS FOR AN OFF-LINE SYSTEM

programming provides an essential link for CAD/CAM Success in its development
In essence, off-line
would result in a more widespread use of multiaxis robots and also accelerate the implementation of
flexible manufactunng systems (FMS) in industry
As indicated in the preceding section, off-line programming can be affected at different levels of
control Different systems employ different approaches to the programming method A more detailed
discussion of these systems is given in Section 20 S

Despite their differences, they contain certain common features essential for off-hne programming
This following list gives the requirements that have been identified to be important for a successful

off-line programming system

1. Knowledge of the process or task to be programmed

2. Three-dimensional world model, that is, data on the geometnc descriptions of components
and their relationships within the workplace
3. Knowledge of robot geometry, kinematics (including joint constraints and velocity profiles),
and dynamics
4. A computer-based system or method for programming the robots utilizing data from (1), (2),

and (3) Such a system could be graphically or textualiy based

5. Venfications of programs produced by 4 For example, checking for robot joint constraint
violations and collision detection within the workplace.

6. Appropnate interfacing (o allow communication of control data from the off-line system to
vanous robot controllers The choice of a robot with a suitable controller (i e one that ,
is

able to accept data generated off-line) will facilitate interfacing

7. Effective man/machine interface Implicit in off-line programming is the removal of the program-
mer from the robot To allow the effective transfer of his skills to a computer-based off-line

system, it is crucial that a user-fnendly programming interface is incorporated

20.4, PROBLEMS IN OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING

20.4.1. OTerriew

THEORETICAL ROBOT REAL

MODEL PROGRAM WORLD
Off-hne programming requires the existence of a theoretical model of the robot and its environment,
the objective is to use this model to simulate the way in which the robot would behave in real life
Using the model, programs can be constructed that, after suitable interfacing, are used to drive the
robot
The implementation of off-line programming encounters problems m
three major areas First, there
arc difficulties in developing a generalized programming system that is independent of both robots
and robot applications Second, to reduce incompatibihly between robots and programming systems,
standards ne^ to be defined for interfaces account for errors and
Third, off-line programs must
of
inaccuracies that exist in the real world The following sections provide a more detailed discussion
these problem areas

20.4.2. Problems in Alodeling and Programming

areas the
The modeling and programming system for off-hne work can be categonzed into three
geometnc modeler, the programming system, and the programming method Each has its own inherent
feature
difficulties, but the major problems ansc when attempts are made to generalize functional
Although generalization (to cater to different types of robots and applications) is necessary to
ma e
the system more effective, it is also important to ensure that corresponding increase in comp exity

do not inhibit the functional use of the system

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370 robot intelligence
1. Programming System. The adoption of a standard system for off-line programming would
considerably reduce interfacing efforts There are presently two main working parties investigating

the implications and requirements of this approach One is a European tripartite effort with members
coming from the United Kingdom, France, and West Germany, and the other is based on a set of
Japanese proposals working within the CAM-I framework It is encouraging to note that an initial
report* from the European group indicates close agreement on ideas
2. Control System. A standardized robot control system would have similar beneficial effects
to standardizing the programming system Commercial and practical consideraiions make this approach
an unlikely occurrence
3. Program Format. The definition of a standard format for robot program descnptions would
also reduce interfacing problems Such a format would, of necessity, be independent of the programming
systems and controllers The adoption of CLDATA* in numerical control (NC) gives a useful precedent
for this approach Programming systems could incorporate software to generate the standard format
from their internal data Postprocessors would then convert from the standard format to controller-
specific formats IRDATA,’ based on NC CLDATA. is the most advanced development to date
This proposed standard has the advantage of being based on existing NC terminology, which is familiar
to manufactunng engineers However, the many differences that exist between machine tools and robots
make the expansion of CLDATA a formidable task Nevertheless, it is quite likely that standardization
in this area will be the first to occur

20.4.4. Real-World Errors and Inaccuracies

Owing to implicit differences between an idealized theoretical model and the inherent vanabihties of
the real world, simulated sequences generally cannot achieve the objective of driving the robot without
errors In practice, the robot does not go to the place predicted by the model, or the workpiece is
not precisely at the location as defined in the model These discrepancies can be attnbuted to the
following components

J The Robot
(a) Insufficiently tight tolerances used in the manufacture of robot linkages, giving nse to
vanations in joint offsets Small errors m the structure can compound to produce quite
large errors at the tool
(b) Lack of ngidity of the robot structure This can cause senous errors under heavy loading
conditions
(c) Incompatibility between robots No two robots of identical make and model will perfbnn
the same program without small deviations This is caused by a combination of
offdine
control system calibration and the tolerancmg problems outlined

2. The Robot Controller

(a) of the controller The resolution specifies the smallest increment
Insufficient resolution
of motion achievable by the controller
(b) Numcncal accuracy of the controller This is affected by both the word length of the
microprocessor (a larger word length results in greater accuracy) and the efficiency of
the algonthms used for control puiposes
3. The Workplace
(a) The difficulty m
determining precise locations of objects (robots, machines, workpiece)
with reference to a datum wiihm the workpbee
(b) Environmental effects, such as tempierature, can adversely affect the performance of the
robot
4. The Modeling and Programming System
(a) Numerical accuracy of the programming system computer—effects such as outlined under
2b
(b) The quality of the real-world model data This determines the final accuracy of the off-
line program

The compounding effects of these errors across the whole off-line programming system can lead
to discrepancies of a significant magnitude For off-line programming to become a practical tool tf^
magnitude must be reduced to a level whereby final positioning adjustments can be accomplished
automatically
of the
To achieve this a combination of efforts will be requir^l First, the positional accuracy*
airo,
robot must be improved Positional accuracy is affected by factors such as the accuracy of the
reha e
the resolution of the controller, and the numeric accuracy of the microprocessor Second, more

is distinct
• Positional accuracy of the robot is its ability to achievea commanefed world position This
from repeatability, which relates to the vanation in position when it repeats a taught move
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374 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

For this example, a robot responds to a signal from a machine tool (P2), moves to it, grips the
machined part, stores it on a pallet according to a predefined position, proceeds to a conveyor belt
(PI), grips another raw part, returns to the machine tool, loads it, and returns to a safe position
(SAFP)
Some textual systems incorporate a graphics simulator This is normally used to venfy the textual
programs in terms of reach constraints and coHisiors between objects The programs can then be
modified to eliminate such problems Verified programs ate converted to a suitable intermediate format
This IS then postprocessed for particular robot controllers
The graphical approach involves the use of interactive CAD
techniques to specify the robot task
The robot and the world model are displayed on a graphics screen An example of such a display
from the GRASP system is seen in Figure 20 I Programming is done interactively by menu commands,
utilizing light pens, tablets, or keyboards One big advantage with graphics is that it provides immediate
visual feedback Typically, a task program would consist of a
tertes of pictures as shown Figure m
20 2a tod These represent the steps A
complete task program would also include textual
move
commands to represent robot functions such as weld, grip, and release The system stores the program
descnption in a nontextual internal formal This information can be postprocessed as for textual systems
Table 20 1 is a summary of the general features available within a selection of current systems
This IS provided as a guide to the systems’ approaches and capabilities and is by no means definitive
Information included is based on published data where available, with systems being given the benefit
of the doubt where any exists For more detailed descnptions of the capabilities of the individual
systems reference should be made to the papers cited previously
The features listed in the table are subdivided into four mam sections the geomeinc modeler,
robot modeler, programming system, and "other features ” These have been selected for companson
as they have been identified to be important features for successful off-line systems (see Section 20 3)

2Q.5.1. Geometric Modeler

All of the systems incorporate some form of geometnc modeler This is used to generate a world
model of the installation, so that objects may be referenced during programming Solid-body modeling
IS required for a complete three-dimensional descnption of objects, in turn, necessary for collision
checking and avoidance In graphic simulation, hidden line removal can only be performed with solid
models

20.5.2. Robot Modeler

A robot modeler enables a robot to be defined and controlled by the system The joint structure,
constraints, and velocity data are entered into (he system to give a kinematic representation of the
robot Control is effected by specifying the position and onentation of the robot tool and then determining

mathematically (he individual joint values needed lo achieve this

AL, ALTTOPASS, and RAPT define (he positions a manipulator must achieve but have no robot
modelers Thus they provide no indication of a robot’s ability lo perform the task The systems that
include robot modelers have them subetassified into Amemotic. path conrrol, and generalized Kinematic
indicates a modeler that provides point-to-point positioning control Palft control indicates the ability
to control the robot movement at alt points along a particular trajectory Generalized implies that
the system is designed to model a range of robots

20.5.3. Programming System

This section indicates the programming level of the system as discussed in Section 20 2 The tendency
toward a textual or graphical approach is also shown, together with the ability to incorporate sensors
and hence cycle logic

20.5.4. Other Features

This provides a list of important features that are not highlighted in the other sections
last division

Reach testing indicates that joint constraints are incorporated within the robot modeler and are
checked for any violations dunng robot movement Control output means that the system is capable
of generating robot control data This may be low-level, robot-specific data, standard robot independent
data, or in a higher form such as a VAL program
Dynamic collision indicates that the system is capable of detecting any collisions, not only at pro-
grammed points but also dunng movement between points
ta en
Cycle times require the incorporation of joint velocities within the robot modeler The time
for robot moves can be calculated from these, provided that path control is implemented
ro
Multirobot means that the system is capable of programming and controlling more than one
simultaneously That is, it is able to cc^ with parallel processes
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376 ROBOT irmXLIGENCE

20.6. A GRAPHICAL OFF-LINE SYSTEM

20.6.1. Introduction

An important aspect of off-line prognmmiog is the need not only to produce a program m some
form for a robot, but also to venfy off-hne that the robot will be able to execute the program As far
as possible, problems of reach, accessibility, collision, timing, and so on, should be eliminated in the
planning stage Graphical computer-body modeling packages extended to simulate robot behavior have
great potential in this area, and several such systems are under development at vanous centers In
this way, the generation of one or more robot programs can be combined with their off-line verification.
and It IS possible to produce » visual presentalion of the robot performing its task We describe one
such system, known as GRASP (graphical robot applications simulation package) This is a generalized
system, under development at Nottingham University. England, aimed al dealing with a wide vanety
of robots working in many different situations

20.6.2. Solid-Body Modeling

The basis of GRASP is a simple body-modeling package A representation of any object is constructed
using as building blocks a set of simple shapes known as pnmitives. A
pnmitive may be a cuboid, a
regular n-$ided pnsm, an irregular pnsm, or any general, closed solid Ail solids are represented
using planar faces, but cylinders and solids of revolution may be approximated using the basic pnmitives
(see Figure 20 3)
The pnmitives are grouped together into a hierarchical tree structure, so that several of them
arranged in appropriate positions may be manipulated as a single entity Each entity has associated
with It a local Cartesian coordinate axis system The location and onentation of an entity at any
level in a model tree may be modified under user control by reference to its local axis system, or to
that of another entity
The model is displayed on a vector refresh or storage lube graphics terminal in wire frame mode
The line of sight and scale may be adjusted so that the model may be viewed from any aspect It is
possible to "loom in" on particular areas of interest Hidden line pictures may also be produced, so
(hat edges that would be obscured by (rue solids are not displayed

20.6.3. Robot Modeling

Since GRASP is a robot-modeling system, it is necessary to be able to model the particular properties
of robots m some detail The English-like language used to define basic body models also incorporates

Fig. 20.3. Some geometnc pnmitives used in iheGRASP modeller cuboid, solid of revolution, cylinder,
polypnsm, general module
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378 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

20.6.7. Tims’Based Motion

Finally, the robot behavior is determined as a function of lime This stage of the program creation is
earned out automatically using the information saved in the track and the velocity data stored with
the robot The result is called a process. In this way estimates of cycle limes are produced, and a
check is made that the defined motion does not require any joint to exceed its maximum velocity
Up to this point, although a particular model may contain several robot models, only one robot
at a time has been allowed to move However, if these robots are required to work simultaneously,
processes generated for each robot may be merged and mn together Other objects, such as conveyor
belts, may also be caused to perform timed motion In this manner an entire population system may
be simulated, allowing an assessment to be made of the interaction between several moving robots
and objects It is also possible at this stage to produce a good-quality film depicting the operation

20.6.8. Collision Detection

At present the bestmethod of detecting potential problems of collision and access to work areas is
by use of the viewing facilities available in GRASP Potential problem areas may be viewed in close-
up from any angle If the model is halted at a suspect position, an automatic check may also be
earned out to determine whether two objects are interfenng with each other This can be useful
since the interpretation of wire frame drawings may be difficult It is projected that fully automatic
collision checking will be incorporated into GRASP

Fig. 20.4. Schematic diagram of options for off-line programming using GRASP.
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380 ROBOT intelligence

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382
ROBOT INTELLIG

Human intelligence level

Level 5 Task-orienttd level AUTOPASS, LAMA

[ ]

,„1 .. ^ AL. AML. HELP, RAIL, RAPT,

AML/E, ANORAD, EMILY

Level,,
,

3
„
Pnmmve motion level,
j jpRBE. RCL, RPL.SIGLA.VAL

Level 2 1 Point to point levH FUNKY, T3

j

Level 1
Microcomputer level
j j

Fig. 2f.l. Classification of robot language

For the user, level 5 is the ideal level, it viituatty eUmmates concern for the det&ilv ^
However, because level 5 is not available, commercial users must use a leveI-4, or below, lar
AML, a levet-4 language, is a good example of a fulVbodied, structured programminf languagi

21.2, FUNCTIONS PROVIDED BY A STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING KOI

LANGUAGE
This section describes some functions that arc useful at the structured programming isvel, I

The majority are provided by AML Examples and concepts are given to support the fact that
IS truly a structured-programming robotlanguage
Figure 21 2 shows some of the functions used to program a robot at the sfructured-prograi
level These include basic functions of a general-purpose computer language (such as data proc
program development, and debugging), along with an extension for functions needed for robot <
^such as motion, sensing, communication, and vision) The 7565 AML
provides all the (uticlions
in the figure except vision A
research version of AML
provides vision functions

Communications

Storage management
^ ^ Program development

Fig. 21.2. Functions of a stnictured-programming rcbolic language

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 384 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

IS a call to a uscr-wntlen subroutine The identical syntax reduces the entry knowledge required to
program m AML, since useful subroutines can be wnttcn by one user and passed along to another
user as if they were system subroutines

Nested and recursive subroutines are supported 1^ AML

The following example solves the Towers
of Hanoi puzzle, where a stack ofdifferent-diametcr disks must be transferred from one post to another
{using an intermediate post) without once plaang a larger-diameter disk on top of a smaller-diameter
disk

- PURPOSE SOLVES THE TOWERS OF HANOI PUZZLE

- PARAMETERS
N, INTEGER. NUMBER OF DISKS TO MOVE
Q, INTEGER. POST NUMBER TO MOVE FROM
R, INTEGER. POST NUMBER TO MOVE TO
S, INTEGER. POST NUMBER OF AVAILABLE POST
AT. INTEGER. CURRENT DISK NUMBER

- RETURNS <>

TOWER SUBR( N. O. R. S. AT ).
IF N EO 1 THEN RETURN( MOVElT(AT.Q.R) ).

TOWER( N-1. Q. S. R. N-1 ).

MOVEIT( N. Q. R ).
TOWER( N-l, S. R. Q. N-1 ).

END.

In this example, assume that MOVEtT is a user-wntten subroutine that performs the physical transfer

of a disk
Parameters can be passed m AML either by value or by reference For example, referencing the
following subroutine

S SUBR(<A.8).

A=2.
B=3.
END.

the call

would change the value of X but not Y (An exclamation mark preceding a formal parameter declares
that the parameter is to be passed by reference ) Parameters are weakly typed, that is, there is no

data type checking when a program is entered into the system, data types are resolved at run time
This allows subroutines to be written that do different things depending on the input data types, for
example,

S SUBR(P).
IF 7p EQ 1 THEN
ELSE IF 'fp EQ 2 THEN
The ? operator returns the data type of the variable that follows it Parameters are optional if a
default IS specified for them For example, in the following subroutine

S SUBR{J.G DEFAULT QGOALfJ)),

the second parameter, not explicitly specified in

if a call to S. defaults to the result of the
QGOAL
system subroutme applied to the first parameter
AML RETURN system called to return a
All subroutines return a value
value from a subroutine call Even if
The
a subroutme does not
subroutme can be
call RETURN, the value O (a nu
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386 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Parallel Control

Parallel control allows the sequential execution of independent programs For example, multitasking
operates under parallel control In a multitasking programming language, the programmer specifies a
number of program segments, called tasks that execute independently of each other When the tasks
must synchronize execution, special flags called semaphores allow them to wait for each other The
semaphores also provide exclusive access to syst«n resources Data can be shared or special messages
can be sent to pass information between tasks AML
does not provide parallel control

Asynchronous Control

Asynchronous control allows the execution of event-driven steps of a program Events can be hardware
errors, program function key interrupts, device intemipts, or sensors exceeding specified ranges (tnp-
‘ .... .. .
Pinj
ever
• I •• s
whe .

types of sensor monitors can be specified in a call to MONITOR tnppmg within an absolute range,
tnpping outside an absolute range, and tripping outside a range specified relative to the current reading
of a sensor
AML supplies a system subroutine that can be called to specify a handler for unexpected hardware
errors and also a system subroutine that can be called Jo specify a handler for program function
keys

21,2.2. Motion

There are several ways that motion can be specified in a structured programming language These
ways are summarized in the following section As noted, all but one way are supported by AML

Position Teaching

The simplest way to program a robot is to teach a sequence of goal positions and then play them
back Typically, a teach session involves the following

1. Physically guiding the robot through a path, as is done for a painting or welding robot

2. Using a teaching device such as a joystick or push-button box to define the robot goals

It ISnecessary at the structured-programming language level to store the results of a position-teaching

session as a program segment In this way. the program and position data can be integrated into the
restof the program and then modified in subsequent program refinements if required
Position teaching m AML
is accomplished by pressing push buttons on a hand-held pendant,

producing jomt-level motion in the positive and negative directions of each joint axis Program control
of the pendant is provided by the GUIDE system subroutine, allowing one position 10 be defined
with each call GUIDE returns a joint-level position value Complete paths can be taught by simply
writing a subroutine that loops, calling GUIDE, and storing the returned positions
An AML
subroutine can be used for teaching m a loo! frame of reference This allows motion to

be taught along the tool frame coordinate axes

Joint-Level Motion

It IS relatively easy to program a Cartesian-joint robot (such as the IBM RS-1 or 7565, see Figure
21 3) at the X-, Y-, and Z-jomt level A set of joint goal positions are specified as a program step,
and then the joints are coordinated so they all reach their goal positions at the same time This
coordination allows the Cartesian joints to move in a straight line between goal positions The X-,
F-, and Z-axes of the IBM 7565 arc Cartesian axes and are often programmed at the joint level
Thefollowing examples of calls to the MOVE system subroutine move the specified joints to the
indicated absolute positions in a coordinated motionFhe absolute positions of joints are defined such
that 0 IS exactly in the center of physical travel

MOVE(J2.3 0).
MOVE(<JR JP,JW>,-<-45 0.0 0,0 0>),
MOVE(<JX JY>.<5 0,8 5>).
MOVE{JG.3 0),
MOVE(JZ.*i 5).
MOVE(JG,1.5),
M0VE(ARM,0 0),
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388 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

JX, JY, and JZ are the names of the X. Y, and Z

joints, respectively, JR. JP, and JW are the

names of the roll, pitch, and yaw joints, respectively. JO is the name of the gnpper joint, and ARM
refers to all joints that are configured on the manipulator
The programmer has control over the acceleration, top speed, deceleration, and settle charactenstics
of a motion For example, in the following call

MOVE(ARM.P, .<05.1 0,1 0.0>).

the arm is moved by the vanable P, with the top speed set to half of full
to a position specified
and deceleration set to full acceleration and deceleration, and no settle checking
speed, the acceleration
(the system does not wait for the arm to come to a stop before proceeding with the next motion)
The AMOVE system subroutine provides motion in par^Iel with program execution In the following
example

AMOVE(ARM.P).

• (parallel calculations)

WAITMOVE.

calculations are performed in parallel with the move The two parallel actions are then synchronize]
by the WAITMOVE call

Cartesian Motion

In a non-Cartesian robot, programming joint-level motion is very difficult However, with these robots,
users are more concerned with the location of the manipulator tool tip than with the location of the
individual joints This is where Cartesian motion becomes essentia)

Cartesian motion control allows a programmer to specify the location of the manipulator tool tip
as a position and onentation in space, independent of the positions of the individual joints A Cartesian
position, or frame, can refer to the location and onentation of ihe tool tip In AML, frames are
represented as transformations from the center of the box frame Three representations for transforma-
tions are supported as follows

1. Rotatton-Matnx Transformations A roiation-matnx transformation consists of a three-vector

of real numbers representing the offset from the center of another frame and a 3 X 3 rotation
matnx representing the orientation
2. Euler-Angle Transformations. An Euler-angle transformation consists of a three-vector of
real numbers representing the offset from the center of another frame and a three-vector of
Euler angles representing the onentation
3. Joint-Angle Transformations. A
joint-angle transformation consists of a vector of joint posi-
tions, along with a three-vector of real numbers representing the offset of the tool tip from
the base of the wnst assembly

System subroutines are provided that convert between the three frame representations, user subrou-
tinescan be written in addition to these system subroutines to provide basic Cartesian motion For
example, (he following subroutine

FMOVE SUBRCrRANS,COORD DEFAULT <0 .0 .0>,

TTOFFSET DEFAULT <0 .0 .0 >.CTLSET),

GOALSET NEW TRANSBOX(TRANS.ARM.CIGOAL(ARM),TTOFFSET.COORD).

MOVE(ARM.GOALSET, .CTLSET).
END.

moves CCKIRD. in a specified frame, TRANS The third parameter in the

the tool tip to an offset,
subroutine is the offset of the tool tip from the wnst, and the fourth parameter is the set of
motion

parameters (speed, acceleration, deceleralion. and settle)

Continuous-Path Motion

ofl«
a robot must perform a set of coordinated motions in sequence, the resulting motion
is
When
correct
jerky because the robot tnes to stop after each goal position This undesirable jerkiness can be
last poin
by continuous-path motion control, causing the motion to stop only upon reaching the
Intermediate points are passed through as accurately and rapidly as possible
 390 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
In AML, the pinch, side, and tip strain gages on each gnpper finger provide force-sensitive feedbacL
The LED detector between the gnpper fingers provides rudimentary vision m the form of object
detection
User sensors can be defined using the DEFIO system subroutine User sensors may be accessed
as either digital inputs or outputs Sensors can be used adaptively dunng a motion that a motion m
can be specified to terminate if a sensor trips This concept is generally referred to as a guarded
move. In the example

M = MONITOR(LED.3,0.0).
MOVE(ARM.P.M).

the LED monitored so that an object between the gnpper fingers tnps the sensor The arm
sensor is

IS moved until either the goal position P ts reached or the monitor tnps M
The MONITOR system subroutine can also be called to specify a subroutine that is to be called
asynchronously if a sensor tnps In the example

FDRMON = MONrrOfl(EMPTY.1 .0.0,1 0. ' FILLFEEDER ' ),

subroutine FILLFEEDER is called if the user-defined sensor EMPTY

tnps Synchronous use of a
sensor is provided by the SENSIO system subroutine, which performs digital input or output to a
sensor

21J.4. Vision

Vision provides a more extensive means of sensing the workspace than standard tactile sensing or
instrumenution We summarize some applications that use industnaJ machine vision systems The
7565 version of AML does not support vision, although a research version does See Reference 10
for more information

Presence Sensing

Presence sensing determines whether an object is at a given point This is accomplished m many
cases by simple LED sensing

Counting

Counting involves the determination of separate objects mi a given view

Inspection and Measurement

Inspection and measurement applications measure objects in view for adherence to tolerance specifica-
tions

Position and Orientation Finding

Objects arc located so that they can be grasped by the manipulator or mated with other parts Position
and orientation finding is currently one of the most important applications of industnal vision Without
vision, special feeders are required to present parts to the manipulator

Recognition

Recognition allows distinguishable objects to be recognized so that different actions can be taken for
different objects An example of this is keybutlon recognition If the manipulator is programmed to
pick up keys marked with the letter R, jt detects an error if a key with the letter S is presented m a
feeder track. Another example is the sorting of a stream of vanous parts into specified bins

21,2.5. Communications

Because of its versatility and intelligence, a robot should not be treated as a stand-alone machine It
must interact with operators and other devices if it is to be integrated into a manufactunng floor
AML supports communication with an operator, another and another computer These functions
are described in the following sections

Communication with an Operator

A typical industry descnption of a machine operator ts someone with a high school education
be
little, if any, knowledge of computer programming Therefore, in many cases, an operator must
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 392 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

transmissioa subroutine that wntes and reads files to and from any host system that supports Remote
Job Entry (RJE) 3780 workstation protocol For example, in the following call

TP3780( CTLFILE ’
.
’
DATFLE ' . . .0).

a control file CTLFILE and a data file DATFLE ate sent to a host computer The control file acts
as routing information for the data file

21,2.6. Data Processing

The previous sections describe the need for robot languages to address the functions of motion, sensing,
vision,and communications Logic, in the form of program control, is needed to control the flow of
information to and from these functional areas The fallowing sections discuss in more detail what
forms of information are processed

Data Types

A robot language must provide the types of data needed for robot applications

Real numbers for individual joint goal positions

Arrays for grouping data to store a complete goat position for coordinated moves
Character stnngs to identify system resources, such as files

Integers to identify other system resources, such as joints

Data in AML are stored as vanables Variables can be either static, dynamic, or global Static vanabics
are allocated the first time the containing subroutine is called, and they always retain their most

recent value Dynamic vanables are reinitialized each time the containing subroutine is called Global
vanables are vanables that are declared outside of a subroutine
Here are two examples of vanable declarations

I STATIC INT,
P NEW QQOAUARM).
The initial is given by an arbitrary expression following the keyword STATIC or
value of a vanable
NEW (NEW indicates a dynamic declaration ) The first example declares an integer initialized to 0,
and (he second example declares a vector representing the current position of the arm
Name binding in AML is dynamic This means (hat (he most recent declaration of a name in
execution is used rather than the lexical nesting rules used by most programming languages The
data types supported include

Ssseger
Real
Sinng
Pointer
Aggregate

Aggregate data are data of vanous types (possibly aggregate) logically grouped together Aggregate
can be nonhomogeneous (of mixed types) Aggregates are used m AML
to represent arrays, vectors,
robot goal positions, and rotation matnces, among other things An aggregate with nothing m il
(O) is called a null aggregate The following ate examples of aggregate values

<1.‘HELLO'.46 7>
«1 ,2.3>.<4,5.6»

Operations

be
Standard anihmelic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) must
become
performed on the given data types to compute joint-level goal positions Other operations
apparent when beginning to program a robot system tngonometnc functions are needed to conve
between joint-level goal positions and Cartesian goal positions, relational operations are necessa^
ifo
make decisions from sensory feedback, lopcal, bit-level operations are needed to process input
digital user sensors
Data operations provided by AML include the following
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394 ROBOT lOTELLIGENCE

time performance To prevent this, a robot language may provide user-specified storage management
functions, some of which are descnbed in the ne*l sections

Storage Compression

AML provides a system subroutine that causes program storage to be compressed This operation
minimizes fragmentation and creates more ccmtiguous storage for allocations

Overlays

Overlays are user routines that are called and reside m

storage only when they are needed The storage
used by such routines becomes available when the routine is completed does overlays AML
Dynamic Storage Allocation and Deallocation

Data storage used by a program can be allocated and deallocated on demand, eliminating maximum
requirements and waste caused by static allocation of data areas AML
provides a system subroutine
to allocate storage dynamically for a value, and a system subroutine to free the storage used by a
stored value

21.2.8. Program Development

In some programming languages, program development facilities are provided by an external system
such as a supporting operating system or an attached computer This is especially true in compiled
languages If a supporting system is not provided, such as m a closed robot system, the robot language
Itselfmust provide program development aids
Text editing is the development and modification of program text on a file The file is loaded into
storage for execution when editing ts complete As needed, the programmer makes calls to the editor
to refine the program and then reloads it into storage after each refinement
In some systems a program is developed in storage Once the program ts satisfactory, it is saved
in a file and subsequently loaded back into storage each time the system is powered on This method
of program development allows a greater degree of interaction between the programmer and the running
program In-storage or "hoc" editing is further discussed in the next section
Both text editing and storage editing are provided by AML
and have the same interface A screen
editor ts provided for entry of editing commands in a simple. non-AML syntax This interface is not
specifically tailored for editing AML
programs and provides many standard functions In addition,
editing commands can be called from programs,AML m AML
syntax In this way (1) programming
function keys can be coded to perform editing functions. (2) subroutines that perform complex editing
functions can be coded, (3) the programmer can code a unique editor interface statements canAML
be entered while editing, allowing real-time expenmentaiion and point definition while ceding a robot
program Hot editing is provided with certain resinctions, and returning to any point in the active

program is allowed

21.2.9. Debugging

Debugging a robot program ts a complex task II is not unusual for the debugging stage of a robotic
application to takemore than twice as long as the development stage Therefore it is cntically important
for a roboticsystem to provide powerful debugging aids If these aids are not provided by a supporting
operating system function, the programmer is usually unable to debug the program in the symbolic
representation in which he typed it, a machine or assembler-language version of the program must
be used This is why many robot-programming languages supply debugging functions as part of the
language Examples of debugging functions are the following

program-
Singlestep. Stopping at regular inlervals dunng the execution of the program allows the
mer to examine each step
Trace. Tracing the execution of a program causes statements to be pnnted as they are executed
Stop A specified stop in a program causes an interrupt to occur at that point in the execution
by
Hot Editing. When a program is inlerniptcdby one of the preceding debugging functions or
enter
a system-detected error, program execution is suspended, and a debugging environment is
em,
In this environment, the programmer can attempt to determine the cause of the interrupt or pro
if one exists Hot editing is the function that allows the examination of current values
of vana o
and the changing of them if desired Insertions, deletions, or modifications to statements m
suspended program can be made to refine the program logic If such changes were
restarted
text version of the program on a file, the program would have to be reloaded and
.

parts wou
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396 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Pallet for boots

Fixture

End caps Spnngs Bolts Cups

Fig. 21.5 Layout of work area for shock assembly example

part, there is more freedom in approaching and withdrawing the part The points for the shock assembly
are as follows

Postl (the cahbratioii post used as the base poml>

Safept
Overbolt
Ovcrhole
Overboot (an array)
Overcup
Overspr
Overcap

Figure 21 7 shows the actual location planned for these points The base point, Postl, is a calibration
point from which the other points are stored as offsets Periodically during the execution of the application
program, this post is recalibrated by calling ibe AML
subroutine FINDPOST Since all other points
in the application arc stored as offsets from the calibration post, they never have to be recalibrated

21.3.3. Write the Program

The next step mdesigning the application $ to wnte an AML

program to perform the assembly,
using the chosen point names The AML
editor can be used to prepare this program This task
is

made easier by the fact that many utility subroutines have already been wntten, allowing a higher
level of specification than provided m
the base level of AML
An example of this is an IBM program
product called Program Robot by Example (PRBE), which supplies a number of high-level subroutines
that combine sensing and motion
The actual values of the points are not required at this point The points can be assigned “dummy
locations for now (such as 0 0) The following is a listing of the program

AMLSHOCK SUBRfCALIBflATE DEFAULT TRUE.TOPSEED.ITERATIONS).

- FROM PROGRAM AMLSHOCK VOLUME RCP002
- PARAMETERS

TOPSPEED NEWIP7TOPSEED THEN IF ’TOPSPE6D GT 2 THEN .2

ELSE IF TOPSPEED GT 1 THEN .2
ELSEIFTOPSPEED LEO THEN 2
ELSE TOPSPEED ELSE 2.
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 , . . . .

398 ROBOT INTEUIGENCE

rTERATlONS NEW IF ’ITERATIONS THEN IF ’ITERATIONS GT 2 THEN 1

ELSE IF ITERATIONS GT 99 THEN 1
ELSE IF ITERATIONS LE 0 THEN 1
ELSE 1. EI^E ITERATIONS
TRFPOST
TRFPOST SUBR{PN). -- POSTNAME RETURNS POINT-VALUE
PNT NEW7OF0 0. -- RETURN POSITION
SP NEWSPEED(2). -- SET & SAVE SPEED
CLEANUPtSUND)
UNO SUBR,
SPEED{SP)
END.
DISPLAY(EOL.STRlNG{32).'***FINDPOST***'.EOL.STRlNG{9),
'USE THE PENDANT TO POSITION THE ARM OVER THE POST '.PN,'
EOUSTRING(12).
THE FINGERS SHOULD BE OPEN AND HANG STRAIGHT DOWN SUCH'.EOL.
STRING(12).'THAT THE “LED" BEAM IS BLOCKED BY THE POST
EOL.EOUSTRING(9).' PRESS THE "END" BUTTON WHEN READY
EOL),
RTY
PRINT(2.<'ENABLED’.E0L>).
PNT(<JX.JY.J2>)=GUIDE{ARM)(<JXJY.JZ>).
PR1NT(2.<-'.E0L».
IF ’JG EO 0 THEN RETURN(PNT).-- NO GRIPPER, NO FINDPOST
.. GUIDE WILL HAVE TO SUFFICE

IF ?JR THEN •• IF JR AND JG THEN ALL ROTARIES

M0VE(<JR.JP.JW,JG>.<45.0.90.2 5>) •• ALIGN GRIPPER TO Y

ELSE M0VE(<JW.JQ>,<135.2 5>). •• ELSE JW DOES JQ ALIGNMENT
IF SENSIO{LED,0) EQ 0 THEN •• IFLED IS ON. (CTR ON POST)
CTRMOVE(JX) .
.. FIND & MOVE TO X-CENTER

SEARCH(J2.2) .
•• SEARCH FOR TOP EDGE OF POST
DMOVE(JZ.- 5) .
.. DOWN OVER POST
0M0VE(JX.1) .
..MOVE TO +X-S1DE
CTRMOVEgX) .
- FIND & MOVE TO X-CENTER
DMOVE(JW.-90) .
- ALIGN WITH X-AXIS

OMOVB(JY,1 ) ,
- MOVE TO -FY-SIDE
CTRMOVE(JY) .
- FIND & MOVE TO Y-CENTER
PNT(JZ) = SEARCH(JZ,2) ,
- SEARCH FOR TOP EDGE OF POST
RETURN{PNT). - REPORT RESULTS
ERR
DISPLAY(EOL.STRING(20).' POST NOT FOUND AS EXPECTED.
EOUSTRINGO).
'
USE THE PENDANT TO POSITION THE ARM OVER THE POST ’

PN.' ’.EOL).
8RANCH(RTY);

CTRMOVE SUBR{J);
PNTU) = SEARCH(J.-2) .
- FIND -l-EDGE OF POST
DMOVE(J.-I) . - MOVE TO -SIDE
- FIND -EDGE OF POST,
- “AVERAGE. SAVE RESULT.
- “AND MOVE TO CENTER
MOVE(J. PNT(J)*(PNT(J)-l-SEARCH{J,2))/2).
END.

SEARCH SUBRg.D)
MID NEW MONrrOR(LED.3.0.0) - MONITOR .
ID.
CLEANUP(SUND)
UND SUBR,
400 ROBOT INTELUGENCE

pRirfr(2.<' ’.EOL>).
SPEED(TOPSPEED).
WHSLE OTERAUONS = ITERATIONS - 1) GE 0 DO BEGIN
REPEAT BEGIN -^TART OF OUTER LOOP
REPEAT BEGIN -START OF INNER LOOP
REACH(SAFEPT_),
REACH(OVERBOLT_),
APPROACH(3 00000),
GflASP(1500 00),
WITHDRAWO 00000).
POSITION(OVERHOLE_),
APPROACH(3 00000),
SETGRIPPER(1 50000),
WITHDRAW(3 00000),
REACH{OVERBOOT_).
APPROACHES 00000),
GRASP(1500 00).
WITHDRAW(3 00000),
POSITION(OVERHOLE_).
APPROACH(3 00000),
SETGRIPPER{1 50000),
W)THDRAW(3 00000),
REACH(OVERCUP_),
APPROACHO 00000),
GRASP(1500 00),
WITHDRAWO 00000),
POSmON{OVERHOLE_).
APPROACHO 00000),
SETGRIPPER(^ 50000),
WITHDRAWO 00000),
REACH(OVERSPR_),
APPROACHO 00000).
GflASP(1500 00),
WITHDRAWO 00000),
R6ACH(OVERHOLE_),
APPROACHO 00000).
SETGRIPPER(1 50000),
WITHDRAWO 00000).
ReACH(OVERCAP_).
APPROACHO 00000).
GflASP(1500 00),
WITHDRAWO 00000),
REACH(OVERHOLE_),
APPROACHO 00000).
SETGRIPPER(1 50000),
APPROACH^ 500000),
GRASP(1500 00).
WITHDRAWO 00000).
TRANSPORT(OVERBOOT_).
APPROACHO-00000).
SETGRIPPER{1 50000).
WITHDRAWO 00000).
OVERBOOT=OVERBOOT_ARHAY(1)+I*OVERBOOT_ARRAYO)
+ J»OVERBOOT_ARRAY(5)
END -END OF INNER LOOP
UNTIL (J=J+1) EQ 0VER800T_ARRAY(4).
J=0
END -END OF OUTER LOOP
UNTIL (1=1+1) EQ OVERBOOT_ARRAY(2).
end, -END OF ITERATIONS LOOP
RETURN. -RETURN TO CALLER
TROPS
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 .

402 ROBOT INTELUGENCE

1. Call lh« GUIDE

subroutine from the terminal to activate the pendant and use the pendant
to position the manipulator oser the calibration point

2. Call the FINDPOST subroultne to locate the top of the post and record the position

3. For each of the other points, call the GUIDE system subroutine and position the manipulator
to the appropnate location GUIDE returns the joint location for each point Subtract the
location of the calibration post from each point location and record this

4. Replace the “dummy" point definitions in the program with the recorded values

This IS not an automatic v>ay to define application points Recording of point locations on the
part of the programmer can be a tedioustask In practice, programmers tend to wnte special subroutines
that call theGUIDE system subroutine and automatically insert the point location into their program
Software tools of this nature can save an enormous amount of time m
point definition and refinement
In fact, the PRBE AML
program allows points to be named and defined from a menu-dnven screen
interface in combination with the pendant PRBE also allows simple AML
programs to be genented
automatically by choosing appropnate options in the menus

21.3.5. Test the Program

As mentioned in Section 21 2 9 on debugging, testing the program is usually the most iime<onsuming
step There are several reasons for this

Timing. Justification for robots is largely based onhow fast they can accomplish a task Therefore
programmers often spend much of their time working on the speed of the program
Point Accuracy. In the course of debugging a rc^t program, a senes of problems may arise

with the accuracy of the point locations ^me

are solved by adjusting the point locations Some
can be solved by slowing down the manipulator Still others may require changes in the algonihm
to make more use of compliance or sensory feedback

Error ffandling It is difficult for a programmer to anticipate all of the errors that can occur in

a complex hardware situation such as a robotic assembly Adding code to handle unanticipated
errors and vanability m parts during a debugging session is common

The application presented in this section was simple enough that these areas did not present senous
problems In more complicated applications, the functions provided by AML
for debugging are heavily
used
When a problem anses during testing that interrupts an application, a breakpoint occurs An error
messageis displayed on the screen, and a command prompt is issued To debug the program, the
programmer can examine the contents of key variables, query system status, or examine the program
logic by calling (he editor If the cause of the problem is determined immediately, it can often be
repaired with a change in the program The AMLsubroutine editor allows a suspended program to
be edited in main storage Then the programmer can issue a return to the program to continue the
application If the cause of the problem cannot be determined immediately, traces and breakpoints
can be set at appropnate places in (he program, and a return to the program can be issued

21.4. CONCLUSIONS
AML in different forms has been m use since 1978 A variety of robotic applications have been imple-
mented with AML provides a high-function, structured-programming environment for the develop-
It

ment of robotic applications with interfaces that are consistent and easy to understand Most of the
structured-programming robotic language functions are provided by AML
The programming develop-
ment and debugging functions of AML
create a high degree of interaction between the
robotic

programmer and the application Until lask-onented languages are commercially available, a general-
purpose computer language with robotic extensions is the best tool available for the implementation
of complex robotic applications AML is a good example of this type of language

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AML was conceived as a research probjcci at IBM Research in Yorklown Heights by Dave Grossman.
Jeanine Meyer, Phil Summers, and Russell Taylor The prcxluct level of was developed by the
AML
IBM Indusinal Automation group in Boca Raton. Florida At the nsk of overlooking someone. **
would like to acknowledge some of the key individuals m Ihis group first. Mike Condon. Neil Mil
el

'
and Paul VanDyke, for their expertise in the management of quality software development.
a P ’

Russell Taylor for all the help that he provided while we were making hw invention into ^5
Dare ' ^ ^
last, Yair Gabneli for his excellent help with Ihe language interpreter, and Glenn Faurot,
dal# procesving.
nen, Steve Hutchinson, Dave Lasdon, and Jack Sisk for developing Ihe real-time,
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 CHAPTER 22
TASK-LEVEL MANIPULATOR
PROGRAMMING
TOMAS LOZANO-PEREZ
Mx^uchu^etts InMilule of Technolog>
Cambridge. Ma^uehuseits

RODNEY A. DROOKS
Stanford Uni\ersil>
Stanford. California

22.1. INTRODUCTION
Robots are useful in industrial applications pnmanly because they can be applied to a large variety

of taslkS The robot's versatility derives from the generality of its physical structure and sensory capabili
ties However, this generality can be exploited only if the robot's controller can be exsily. and hence

cost-efTcclively. programmed
Three metheids of robot programming can be identified, the following list reflects their order cf
development

1. Prugramming by guiding
2. iVugramming m an explicit robotdevel computer language
3 Programming by specifying a task-level sequence of stales or operations

22.1.1. I’rognimmlnK by Guidinc

The earliest and most widespread method of programming robots involves manually moving the robot
to each desired position and recwding the inlemal joint coordinates corresponding to that position

In addition, operations such as closing the gnpper or activating a welding gun are specified at some
of these positions The resulling program is a sequence of vectors of joint coordinates plus aetivsinvi
signals for external equipment Such a program is executed by moving the robot through the specified
sequence of joint coordinates and issuing the indicated signals This method of robot programmmi
"
IS known as imching by ihooing or guiding and is explained in Chapter 19. “Robot Teaching

Robot guiding is a programming mctlwd that is simple to use and to implement Ilecause guiding
can be implemented without a general-purpose computer, it was in widespread use for many years
before it was cost-e(Tecli>e to incorporate computers into industrial robots I’rogfamming by guiJmi
has some important limitations, howcscr. particularly regarding the use of sensors During guiJmi
c
the programmer specifies a single execution sequence for the robot, there are no loops, eonditioni
or computations This is adequate for some applications such as spot welding, painting, and siwre
one
materials handling In other applications, howcscr, such as mechanical assembly and inspestion.
needs to specify the desired action of the robot in response to sensory input, data retrieval, or romputa
profraw
lion In these cases robot programming requires the capabilities ofa general-purpose computer
ming language

22.U. Robol-Letcl Computer I^an^agcs

Some robot systems provide computer programming languages with commands to access
rpW ew
to specify robot motions (see Chapters 20. 21) TTic key advantage of these expliai or

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406 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Gross-Motion Planning

The program is the object being manipulated However, to move it

center of focus in a task-level
from one place another the whole multthnked robot manipulator must move Thus it is necessary
to
to plan the global motion of the robot and the object to ensure that no collisions wiU occur with
objects in the workspace, whose shape and position ate known from the world model

Grasping Planning

Grasping is a key operation in manipulator programs since it affects all subsequent motions The

grasp planner must choose where to grasp objects so that no collisions will result when grasping or
moving them In addition, the grasp planner must choose grasp configurations so that the grasped
objects are stable in the gnpper

Fine-Motion Planning

The presence of uncertainty in the world model affects the kind of motions that a robot may safely
execute In particular, positioning motions are not sufficient for all tasks, guarded motions are required
when approaching a surface, and compliant motions arc required when in contact with a surface A
task planner must therefore be able to synthesize specifications for these motions on the basis of task
descriptions
The preceding three types of planning produce many interactions Constraints forced by one aspect
of the plan must be propagated throughout the plan Many of these constraints are related to uncertain-
ties, both initial uncertainties in the world model and the uncertainties propagated by actions of the

robot Recent work has suggested that interactions of the planners and propagation of constraints
can be handled by constraint planners relying on symbolic algebraic computations to propagate uncer-
tainties both forward and backward through modeled actions

22.1.5. Toward FuUy Automated Robot Prograraraiag

In the near future people will wnte

task-level programs, sequences of relatively simple high-level instruc-
tions describing what needs
be done to carry out an assembly task
to
In the longer term this task can also be automated A
system called an assembly planner will be
given an even higher-level command concerning production requirements It will examine the CAD
data base and produce a task-level program The task planner described wiU then produce a robot-
level program as before
Automatic planning has long been a domain of interest in artificial intelligence Typically, the
domain has been simplified worlds consisting of blocks to be rearranged Examples are the HACKER
program,** which generalized task sequences when it found bugs in them, and NOAH,** which generated
partially ordered plans for tasks The techniques of these types of programs are more generally applicable
in domains with ncher geometry The only notable, and mdeed impressive, planner that has been
applied to a realistic domain is the BUILD program '* It loo used the blocks world, but it had geometric
models of blocks and considered the effects of gravity and fnctional forces between blocks It did not
consider the magnitudes or effects of uncertainties, however In the language of this chapter it was a
hybrid assembly-planner and task-planner

22.2. MODELS
The role of models m the synthesis of robot programs is discussed m
the remainder of this chapter
First, however, we explore the nature of each of the models needed for a task and how they may be
obtained

22.2.1. The World Model

The geometric descnption of objectsis the pnnapal component of the world model The major sources

of geometric models are computer-aided design (CAD) systems, although computer vision may eventu-
ally become a major source of models •* There arc three major types of commercial CAD systems,
differing on their representations of solid (Ejects as follows

1. Line objects are represented as lines, and curves are needed to draw them
2. Surface objects are represented as a set of surfaces
3. Solid objects are represented as combinations of primitive solids

for
Line systems and some surface systems do not represent all the geometnc information needed
o
task planning A
list of edge descnptions (known as a wire frame), for example, is
not suffici^t

describe a unique polyhedron *® We assume instead that a system based on solid modeling is u
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 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

have been developed

1. Use a CAD system to position models of the objects at the desired configurations
2. Use the robot itself to specify robot configurations and to locate features of the objects “
3 Use symbolic spatial relationships among object features to constrain the configurations of
objects, for example, Face, AGAINST Facet "

The most common method of positioning object models m CAD

systems is by indicating with a
lightpen the motion they should undergo With this method, it is difficult to position an object in
an arbitranly onented comer, since this requires speci^ng motions parallel to the comer planes, not
the global axes Pointing with the robot is much easier since the physical constraints of objects can
be used to guide the motion A
drawbacL of using the robot is Us limited accuracy Both methods
also produce numencal configurations, which are difficult to interpret and modify In the third method,
a configuration is descnbed by a set of symbolic spatial relationships that are required to hold between
objects in that configuration For example, m Figure 22 2 the position of block 1 relative to block 2

IS by the relations /j AGAINST f, and /, AGAINST ft

specified
Several methods for obtaining configuration constraints from symbolic spatial relationships have
been descnbed • The basic procedure for all these methods is to first define a coordinate system
on objects and object features, then define equations on erfsject configuration parameters for each of
the spatial relationships among features, combine the equations for each object, and finally solve the
equations for the configuration parameters of each object Recent work** suggests that inequalities
should also be handled and that the solution methods should be able to handle underconstramed
situations, producing symbolic constraints
One advantage of using symbolic spatial relationships is ihat the configurations they denote are
not limited to the accuracy of a light pen or of a manipulator Another advantage of this method is
that families of configurations such as those on a surface or along an edge can be expressed The
relationships, furthermore, are easy to interpret by a human and therefore easy to specify and modify
The principal disadvantage of using symbolic spatial relationships is that they do not specify configura-
tions directly, they must be converted into numbers or equations before they can be used
Model states are simply sets of configurations If task specifications were simply sequences of models,
then, given a method such as symbolic spatial relationships for specifying configurations, we should
be able to specify tasks This approach has several important limitations, however One is that a set
of configurations may overspecify a state A classic example** of ihis difficulty anses with symmetne
objects, for example, a round peg in a round hole The specific oneniation of the peg around its axis
given in a model is irrelevant to the task This problem can be solved by treating the symbolic spatial
relationships themselves as specifying the state, since these relationships can express families of configura-
tions A
more fundamental limitation is that geometric and kinematic models of an operation's final
slate are not always a complete specification of the desired operation One example of this is the
need to specify how hard to lighten a bolt dunng an assembly In general, a complete description of
a task may need to include parameters of the operations used to reach one task state from another
The alternative to task specification by a sequence of model states is specification by a sequence
of operations, or more abstractly, transformations on model states Thus, instead of building a model

azoinsif\
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410 ROBOT INTELUGENCE

finding a path, within these subsets, that connects the initial and final configurations The proposals
differ pnmanly on the basis of the particular subsets of free space that they represent and in the
representation of these subsets
Widdoes, m an unpublished paper,*^ describes a frce-spacc method for the Stanford Arm ** In
this method, free space is approximated by grids of regions m the configuration space for the first
two joints Each gnd region stores a (possibly null) range of legal values for the third joint The
baste computation used to denve the legal values is to obtain the ranges of the first three joints {ike
boom) that avoid a collision with a point on an obstacle surface The contents of each of the regions
that intersect the range of the first twro joint angles are replaced by the intersection of its contents

with the new range of the ihird-joint angle This computation is earned out on a gnd of points
covenng the surface of all the obstacles The resulting regions represent an approximation to the free
space for the boom
The foregoing descnption ignores the last three joints of the manipulator, (the forearm or wruj)
Widdoes' method treats the forearm as a solid attached to the boom, the free space is computed for
the modified boom Changes to the onentaiion of the forearm are accommodated by computing the
free space for three booms, each with a different model for the forearm one with the forearm joints
in their initial configuration, one with the forearm joints in their final configuration, and one approximat-
ing the volume swept out by the forearm between the initial and final configurations The free-space
regions resulting from each of these computations are linked into a graph where nodes are regions
and where links connect adjacent gnd regions whose legal ranges intersect Links also may be placed
between regions obtained from the initial configuration of the forearm to the matching region obtained
from the swept volume of the forearm and from there to the matching region obtained from the
final configuration of the forearm The link will be placed only when the range of angles for each
region intersect Alt paths through this graph represent collision-free paths for the manipulator Travers-
ing links within a gnd involves changing the first three joint angles, traversing links across grids
involves changing the last three joint angles
Udupa” ** new way of computing the free space for the Stanford Arm, approximated
introduced a
by two cylinders, one for the boom and one for the forearm The next step is to compute a representation
of the free space for the boom cylinder, ignonng the forearm cylinder liie basic representation consists
of rectangular regions in (he configuration space of the boom (formed by the first three joint angles)
This representation is similar to Widdoes*. Udupa’s representation, however, does not assume a fixed

gnd size Instead. Udupa allows the representation of any region to be refined by subdividing it, m a
way analogous to the Wamock hidden-line algonthm ** The legal range of the third-joint parameter
(boom extension) within a region (range of (he first (wo-joint parameters) is computed from the single-
line model of the boom and the enlarged obstacles, this is a significant improvement over Widdoes'
use of a gnd of points on object surfaces Udupa then locates a safe path for the boom by recunively
modifying the straight-line path between the initial and final configurations until it lies completely
within the free space This path is then heunsiically modified to allow thefoream to change onentation
The two methods discussed differ pnmanly in theif approach to computing the free space for the
mampubtor The methods were designed for the Stanford Arm, and both exploit some of its special

charactenstics the forearm very small compared to (he boom, the links are well approximated by
is

cylinders, and all the joints are rotary except for the third, which is pnsmatic.
Lozano-Perez’® desenbes an algonthm for computing (he free space for a Cartesian manipulator
It IS based on computing the free configurations for (he manipulator Figure 22 3 illustrates the method

m two dimensions for finding collision-free paths for a polygon without rotation The moving object
and the fixed obstacles arc decomposed into unions of convex polygons A reference point is chosen
on the moving object {V^ in the figure) Then each obstacle is grown to compensate precisely for
shnnkmg the moving polygons to the point K, In the new configuration space a collision-free path
for a point corresponds (o a collision-free path for the onginal object in the original space When
rotation is allowed, a third dimension roust be added to the configuration space for two-dimensional
space
problems Three-dimensional problems with rotation result m
a six-dimensional configuration
Lozano-Perez*®*' desenbes a method for computing the exact configuration space obstacles for a
at
Cartesian manipulator under translation The free space is represented as a tree of polyhedral cells
varying resolutions The rotational motion of the manipulator is handled by defining several fr«-
e
space representations, each using a mampubtor model that represents the volume swept out by
t

grids)
rotational links over some range of joint angles (a generalization of Widdoes’ use of three
representation
Path searching is done by searching a graph whose nodes are cells in the free-space
related method is desenbrf m
Lozano- erez
and whose links denote overlap between the cells A
and Wesley ” .

Brooks” introduced a free-spacemethod based on high-level descnptions (based on *"*^'*^

u
generalized cones"**) of the empty comdors between obstacles These descnptions can then
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412 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
In this section, target object refers to the <*ject to be grasped The surfaces on the robot used
for grasping, such as the inside of the fingers, arc gripping surfaces The manipulator configuration
that grasps the target object at that object's mUial configuration is the initial grasp con^gurotioit.
The manipulator configuration that places the target object at its destination is the ^na/ grasp configura-
tion
There are three pnncipal considerations in choosing a grasp configuration for objects whose configu-
ration IS known

1. Safety, The robot must be safe at the initial and final grasp configurations

2. Reachability. The robot must be able to reach the initial grasp configuration and, with the
object in the hand, to find a colhsion-free path to the final grasp configuration

3. Stability. The grasp should be stable in the presence of forces exerted on the grasped object
during transfer motions and parts-matmg operations

If the initial configuration of ihe target object is subject to substantial uncertainty, an additional
consideration in grasping ts certainty the grasp motion should reduce the uncertainty in the target
object’s configuration
Choosing grasp configurations that are safe and reachable is related to obstacle avoidance, there
are significant differences, however First, the goal of grasp planning is to identify a single configuration,
not a path Second, grasp planning must consider the detailed interaction of the manipulator’s shape
and that of the target object Note that candidate grasp configurations are those having the gripping
surfaces in contact with the target object while avoiding collisions between the manipulator and other
objects Third, grasp planning must deal with the interaction of the choice of grasp configuration
and the constraints imposed by subsequent operations involving the grasped object Because of these
differences, most existing proposals for grasp planning treat it independently of obstacle avoidance
Most approaches to choosing safe grasps consist of three steps choose a set of candidate grasp
configurations, prune those that are not reachable by the robot or that lead to collisions, then choose
the optimal, in some sense, grasp among those that remain
The initial choice of candidate grasp configurations can be based on considerations of object geome*
** **
try,* •* ** stability,^* or uncertainty reduction ** For parallel-jaw gnppers, a common choice is
grasp configurations that place the gnppers in contact with a pair of parallel surfaces of the target
object An additional consideration in choosing the surfaces ts to minimize the torques about the
axis between the gnppers
Paul** and Taylor'* consider pruning grasps that are not reachable Other approaches prune grasps
that lead to geometnc constraint violations The collision-avoidance constraints considered have included
the following

1. Potential collisions of gnpper and neighboring objects at initial grasp configuration**®***’

2. P-convexity (indicates that all the matter near a geometnc entity lies to one side of a specified
‘*
plane)
3 Existence of collision-free path to miiial grasp configuration * *® '*

4. Potential collisions of any part of the manipulator and neighbonng objects at inilial-grasp
configuration, potential collisions of gnpper and neighbonng objects at final-grasp configuration,
potential collisions of any part of the manipulator and neighbonng objects at final-grasp configu-
ration, and existence of collision-free path from initial- to final-grasp configuration**®

A choice of optimal grasp must be made One possibility is choosing the configuration that
final
leads to the most stable grasp,** ** another is choosing the one least likely to cause a collision in the
presence of position error or uncertainty
Current proposals for grasp planning typically focus on only one aspect of the problem, most
focus on finding safe grasp configurations Even within the aspect of safety, most proposed methods
consider only a subset of the constraints needed to guarantee a safe and reachable grasp configuration
In particular, most methods consider only Ihe constraints on gnpper configuration in the initial configura-
tion of the target object None of the methods adequately handles the constraints on grasping imposed
by planned motions while grasping the target (Aject In addition, all of the proposed methods assume
a limited class of object models, usually combinations of polyhedra and cylinders, and also a simple
type of gnpper, usually parallel-jaw gnppers Often, the methods arc not readily generalizable to

ven less attention

. hat the center of
mass of the minimizes
on or near the axis between the gnpper jaws This condition
target object is
grasping
the torques on the gnp surfaces Hanafusa and Asada** desenbe an elegant analysis of stable
o
in the absence of fnction, but this analysis ignores safety and reachability Also, the generalization
this method to include faction has not been earned out
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414 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
case (see Figure 22 4) illustrates why this is so The uncertainty region now only contacts one of two
surfaces, but, more important, by pressing down hard enough we can overcome the fnctionaj forces
exerted by the surfaces and guarantee that the peg will slide to the intersection point of the two
surfaces From this point the insertion can proceed as in the case of no uncertainty by maintaining
contact with the sides of the hole, that is, a compliant motion on a known C-surface

Chamfers

Adding chamfers to the hole has the same effect, with respect to approach conditions, as tilting ihe
peg (see Figure 22 4) The chamfers avoid the need to straighten out the p>eg in the hole, a time-
consuming operation

Search

By moving along the positive or negative x direction after first contact, we can disambiguate which
of the C'Surfaces the peg is on The search must be planned as a compliant motion to search for the
edge of the hole If no edge is found after a maximum distance, then the motion is reversed The
maximum length of the motion should be the maximum »ze of the intersection of each C-surface
with the uncertainty region (see Figure 22 4)

Biased Search

The search strategy may

require a ‘"wasted” motion to identify which model C-surface corresponds
to the actual C-surface found during approach Inouc^* suggested that, by introducing a deliberate
bias in the initial x we can reduce the search to, at most, one motion The
position of the peg.
initial bias needed to guarantee this strategy is Ihe size of the maximum motion for the search (see
Figure 22 4)
If faced with a task such as the insertion just described. Ihe task planner must first choose a
and then select the pazacneters for the motions in the strategy In this case, the choice of
strategy,
strategy dependson physical characteristics of the (ask, such as on the presence of chamfers, on the
magnitude of the uncertainty region, and on estimates of the time required to execute the strategy
Time estimates can be either worst case, based on maximum motions, or weighted by probability of
motions The last requires estimating Ihe probability distnbuiion for configurations within the uncertainty
region and a method for projecting (his disinbulion on Osurfaces Note that some of the strategies
have a limit on the size of the uncenainty for which they are valid In particular, the first two are
valid only when the uncertainly region falls within (he slanted C-surface (see Figure 22 4) If the

uncertainly is greater, then one of the search strategies must be used

When the actual state of the world differs from the planner’s model in an unexpected way, execution

Fig. 22.4. In the presence of uncertainly m the relative position of the peg and Ihe hole,
several

geometric conditions may result from an insectum motion

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416 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

robot manipulator task When many pans arc assembled into a whole, the individual small vanations
can combine and become large

Uncertainty of Initial Position and Orientation

Often the most significant source of uncertainty is the position and ortenlation of a workpiece when
It IS first introduced into the task Mechanical feeders sometimes deliver parts with large uncertainties

m position and orientation, sometimes on the order of 50% of the size of the part Conveyor belts
deliver parts with even larger uncertainties A task planner often includes actions in the plan that
are aimed at significantly reducing these initial uncertainties —
for instance, the grasp strategies and
guarded moves described previously
Besides physical uncertainty, there will always be uncertainty the runtime system’s knowledge m
of the state of the world, as all sensors are inaccurate Usually the maximum inaccuracy can be
charactenzed as a function of sensor reading
The effects of actions on uncertainties can be modeled in the world model, and so the task planner
can propagate uncertainties throughout the sequence of tasks There have been two approaches to
error propagation

22.6.2. Error Propagation

Numeric Error Propagation^^

Numeric bounds are estimated for initial errors, the propagation functions are Imeanzed, and linear
programming techniques are used to estimate the resultant errors If the errors are loo large for the
next task to handle, then deliberate error reduction strategies are introduced, such as sensing or one
of the C-surface methods descnbed before

Symbolic Error Propagation^

Unforced decisions, such as workplace location, tool parameters, and compliant motion travel, are
represented as symbolic variables Uncenainties are functions of ihese vanables Errors are propagated
symbolically, and the resultant uncertainties are also symbolic expressions Constraints on uncertainties
necessary for the success of subsequent tasks provide symbolic constraints on the as yet unforced
decisions If the constraints are loo severe, sensors must be introduced lo the task plan They too are
analyzed symbolically, and constraints on sensor choice are generated Relaxation methods over the
task sequence are applied to satisfying the constraints The result is that the requirements of task
late in the sequence can generate preparatory actions early in the sequence

22.7, CONCLUSION
Task-level
7. programming offers the potential of significant productivity gams for robot programming
Successful implementation of task>ievel systems has raised a number of important theoretical and
practical issues that are receiving increased attentionAlthough no complete task-fevef programming
systems have been implemented, a great deal of progress has been made on the basic problems such
as collision-free path planning, automatic grasping, sensory planning, and fine-motion planning The
prospects for practical task-level planning systems are currently quite good

REFERENCES
1. Shimano, B , et al ,
VAL a robot programming and control system, Unimation. Danbury, Connecti-
cut, 1977
2. Franklin, J W
and Vanderbrug, G
J , Programming Vision and Robotics Systems with RAIL,
SME Robots VI. March 1982, 392-406
3. Taylor, R H , and Meyer, J M , AML A Manufactunng Language,
Summers, P D ,
International

Journal of Robotics Research. Vol 1, No 3, 1982, pp 19-41

4. Paul, R P ,
WAVE A model-based bnguagc for manipulator control, Industrial Robot. March
1977
5. Goldman, R and Mujtaba, M S AL , User’s Alanual. Artificial Intelligence Laboratory,
Stanford

University, AIM 344, December 1981

6. Gruver.W A,Soroka,B l,Craig,J J.andTumer.T L Evaluation of Commercially Avail^l^ ,

n
Robot Programming Languages, I3lh International Symposium on Industrial Robots and Ro
Chicago, Apnl 1983, 12-58-12-68
7. Lozano-Perez, T ,
Robot Programming, Proceedings of the IEEE. July 1983
computer
8. Lieberman, L I and Wesley, M A, AUTOPASS an automatic programming system for
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Sit ONitMiwaooad aoivanaiNviM laAai-asvi

418 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

37. Widdoes, C A ,
heunstic collision avoider for the Stanford robot arm (unpublished), Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University. 1974
38. Boyse, J W ,
Interference detection among solids and surfaces, Communications of the ACM,
Vol 22, No 1, 1979, pp 3-9
39. Pieper.D L.TheKinematicsofManipulatorsunderComputerControl, Ph D Thesis, Department
of Computer Science, Stanford University. 1968
40 Khatib, O Commande dynamiquedans I'espace opcraiionnel des robots manipulateurs en presence
,

d’obstacles, Docteur Ingenieur Thesis, L'Ecole Nationale Supeneure de I’Aeronautique et de

1‘Espacc, Toulouse, France, 1980

41. Symon, K R, Mechanics, Addison Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1971

42. Scheinman, V C , Design of a Computer Controlled Manipulator, Stanford Artificial Intelligence

Laboratory, AIM 92,June 1969

43. Wamock, J E , A
Hidden-Surface Algorithm for Computer Generated Halftone Pictures, Com-
puter Science Department, University of Utah, 1969, TR4— 15
44. Laugier, C , Proceedings of the Jllh Inlernalional Symposium on Industrial Robots, Tokyo, Japan,
October 1981
45. Wingham, M ,
Planning how to grasp objects in a cluttered environment, M Ph Thesis, Edinburgh,
1977
46. Paul, R P Modelling, trajectory calculation, and servoing of a computer controlled arm, Stanford
,

University, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, AIM 177, November 1972

47. Brou, P , Implementation of High-Level Commands for Robots. MS Thesis. Department of

Electrical Engmeenng and Computer Science. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambndge,
December 1980
48 Mason, MT , Manipulator Grasping and Pushing Operations, Technical Report, Artificial Intelli-
gence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambndge. 1982
49. Hanafusa, H and Asada, H
Stable prehension of objects by the robot hand with elastic (ingen,
,

Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Tokyo, October 1977, pp
361-368
50. Mason, M T, Compliance and force control for computer controlled manipulators, lEEETransac-
lionson Systems. Man, and Cybernetics. SMC-II, No 6, 1981, pp 418-432
51. Inoue, H Force feedback m precise assembly tasks. Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachu-
,

setts Institute of Technology, AIM-308. Cambndge. August 1974

52. Lewis, R A Autonomous , manipulation on a robot summary of manipulator software functions,

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, TM 33-679, March 1974
53. Myers, J K and Agin, O A
Supervisory Collision-Avoidance System for Robot
J ,
Controllers,
m Robotics Research and Advanced Applications, ASME, 1982
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420 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
10 deliver, namely, interactive advice in convetsabon »nh
a client, but on the unexpected by-product,
the finished knowledge base itself Expert system languages can be used for the following

To get knowledge into the machine

To test It
To fill gaps
To extend it
To modify it

Finally, the knowledge can be put back into the human world in unrecognaably improved shape
This observation was first made in the following manner
Ivan Bratko, a Yugoslav computer scientist and chess master, during a visit to Edinburgh, chose
for study an elementary piece of chess knowledge, namely, how to mate with king and rook against

Using one of the Edinburgh advice languages, Bratko was able to complete the programming in
two weeks Subse<)uently he proved, both exhaustively by computation and also by symbolic proof,
that the program was complete and correct He then translated the program rules back into English
This produced six rules only they were complete and correct, unlike grandmaster codifications, which
turn out to contain errors m those cases tested by exhaustive computation^ * and moreover to consist
mainly of gaps
The improvement m the knowledge representation when back-translated from an advice program
was unexpected However, when the possibility was drawn the attention of workers mother laborato-
ries, they confirmed that they loo were able to see indications of ihe same phenomenon For example,

MYCIN, developed m Feigenbaum’s laboratory, was the first expert system of the modem type*
Although Its knowledge is not broad enough to make the program of significant utility to clinicians,
the system is heavily used by medical students, who find the knowledge base more complete and
easier to follow than a textbiMk Notes follow on some other cases where back-translation from an
advice program has produced an improved text for the human learner

23J.1. Internal Medicine

The internal medicine project is a collaboration between Dr Jack Myers, the equivalent ofa grandmaster
in internal medicine, and a computer scientist, Harry Pople * The aim is to codify Myers' clinical
knowledge in the form of an expert system Clinicians are already using pruitouts of parts of the
knowledge base as reference material

23.2J. Organic Chemical Synthesis

Jfiorganic chemical SjTilhests si ihc Vanvrstty of Cshfymta, ocgsnK chemists use ihe
base from Wipkc's program, SECS ^ In the domains covered by the program, they regard it as supenor
to conventional sources
More sinking cases occur where the system has inbuiU learning capabilities When using these
programs, the expert conveys his concepts to the system by means of examples and not through
directprogramming The following two examples come into this category

23,2,3. Soybean Pathology

Until recently, the best classification of soybean diseases was that by the plant pathologist. Dr Jacobsen,

who collaborated m
a study directed by R S Michalski in the University of Illinois* MichalsVis
program, AQII, is capable of generalmng over examples thus, in this case the machine was part
author of the resulting classificatory system, which gave 99% correct allocation of diseased plants as
to
against approximately 83% for the old Jacobsen system With great difficulty, using the machine
test, recycle, and debug his theory, Jacobsen refined his own system so that it achieved a 93% success
rate Unable to improve it further, he then decided to accept the machine-generated taxonomy

23J.4. Mass Spectroscopy

of lh<
This IS the domain of the DENDRAL project at Stanford The inductive learning module
$pect«
program, Meta-DENDRAL, produced rules (previously laebng) for the interpretation of mass
form
of the family of organic chemicals known as the mono- and polykeioandrostanes These rules
*
the basis of a paper subsequently published in the chemical literature
ica
The question anses does a different program have to be wntten for each of these app
i
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ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Fig 23.1. Stanford Research Institute's expenmental robot (SHAKEY)

push
were those involving plan formatron An instniclion such as “Go to Room B, find a box,
it

computation
until It touches a wall, come back to here” can be converted into effective action only by
de ne
reference to a world model in which are stored the logical and topographic constraints that
the task environment and its causal laws The forms of representation chosen by the SRI group
those of first-order logic, in which a state of the world was modeled by a hst of clauses of the
om
a
“AT (ROBOT, A), PUSHABLE (BOXl)” and so forth Planning was done by heunstic search o\
foregoing
problem graph in which the nodes of the graph correspond with logical descriptions of the
name
kind and the arcs correspond with actions, such as PUSH, GO, and HALT With each action
*
was stored an add and delete lal detailing the logic clauses to be added to and deleted from
given ac
current descnption to construct a new world descnptton from Inal application of the
associated with GO (X, Y) would be a list prescnbing deletion of the clause AT
.
Thus
ac lo
and addition of the clause AT (ROBOT, Y) Tests for preconditions were also associated with
to compute the effect of PUSH (X, Y) prior lest on PUSHABLE (X) is indicated
and can
The importance of the SHAKEY demonstrations for today’s tasks remains evergreen,
summed up

1. The use of the predicate logic formalism pointed the way for the subsequent
ang
the logic programming movement, of which the first fruit has been the programming
PROLOG
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424 ROBOT INTELUGENCE

It ISof interest that in the early 1970s andSHAKEY FREDDY

were demonstrating levels of
behavior that in the 1980s no laboratory in the world can begin to match, although the technological
need to do so becomes increasingly pressing The basis for this state of affairs can be found in the
story of the goose that laid the golden eggs The reader will recall that the farmer and his wife m
their impatience killed the magic goose in hopes of finding a boundless store of nches So in 1973
the relevant funding agencies of Bntain and Amenca, impatient with the exploratory motivation of
the AI work, in effect issued wnts to these eapcnmenlal robot projects “Technologize or die'” The
SHAKEY and FREDDY projects died Decmca!, control, and production engineers associated with
them technologized The AI scientists largely turned their attention to other domains of problem
solving for the study of these same issues of representation, knowledge, planning, and learning

23.4.3. Subsequent Actirity

Hence, since 1973, little specifically AI work has been conducted in the robotics area, though there
has been much work on “supporting technologies “ Consequently the histoncal background is concerned
mainly with activities of a very few individuals during this intervening penod The AI approach to
robotics had been brought to first base in the early 1970s at SRI, MIT, Stanford University, and
Edinburgh, as we have seen My Edinburgh laboratory subsequently concentrated on the study of
parallel array-processing architectures for image analysis and the use of inductive learning algonthms
for machine acquisition of recognition rules More recently a number of experimental excursions have
been made into the use of manipulators integrated with simple vision for an extension of the inductive
learning theme into scene manipulation, as desenbed m
the next paragraph
For image analysis, we have investigated the cellular logic CLIP machine (see References 12-22)
Results of this work show speedups of at least three ordere of magnitude More recently,
in vision
preliminary experiments have indicated a family of robot tasks that are essentially doable but that at
the same lime challenge a full range of knowledge-processing techniques We call tasks of this kind
scene manipulation. Early human expenence of such tasks occurs in the nursery with cut-out shapes
representing objects able to be arranged and rearranged on a viewing surface to represent scenes An
example from later life is setting the table An industrial counterpart would be the packing by robot
of objects into (rays Such a robot must be insiruciible, including by examples, so as to recognize
constituent objects visually —
and to interpret the scene compounded from them in the first place into
"acceptable” and “unacceptable" categories, and secondarily into belter and worse among the acceptable
packings Following interpretation, specific relations responsible for any unacceptability must be identi-
fied, and remedial action planned and executed by use of the manipulator This last is like the diagnosis-

and-therapy tasks for which expert systems have been used in vanous domains
For factual instruction of the robot, clean-cut and machine-efficient formalisms exist within the
general logic programming framework first developed at Edinburgh by Robert Kowalski ” For practical
demonstration of cost-effective hand-eye systems good PROLOG implementations have been achieved
on micros including the IBM PC by Clark and McCabe** at Imperial College, London Adequate
facilities for numerical work are also available in state-of-the-art PROLOG systems The author’s

own group has demonstrated the feasibility of inductively generating robot control programs using
PASCAL-coded elaborations of Qumfan’s IDJ program ** When PROLOG is chosen as Ihe output
language of the induction system, both deductive and inductive facilities can be provided m a single
package In Section 23 8 an example is also given of the application of rule induction to shape recognition

23.5. HUMAN-ROBOT AND ROBOT-ROBOT COMMUNICATION

A new theme is coming into view, namely, the problem of mulfimiot planning, communication, and
control We attach much importance to the solution of the AI and software design problems of coopera-
tive task-execution among shop-floor robotic devices, not least because the first industrial nation success-
fully to enter this new area will for a while enjoy a cntical competitive edge In the spint of
human
window considerations,** ** the successful approach will model human cognition to a certain degree,
so that the robot-human as well as the rolxjt-robot link can be maintained To give concreten^ to
level
this point, first we discuss speech and visual I/O, which impact on this problem at the surface
We then outline one possible approach to ihc planning problem based on a class of software facilities
known as object-oriented languages.
Work at Edinburgh has shown that single-command speech input to a robot, as an optional bypass
of ihe standard key-pad programming of movements, almost doubles the speed at which new •'^J*|**^^*
ts
can be taught The main reason appears to be that the key-pad operator must continually look
at Ihe key pad when keying the command, then at the robot to observe the effects of executio^l
^
watch Ihe ro t a
back to the key pad, and so on Using a microphone instead, he/she is free to
Ihe time.
It IS not generally appreciated that m
the coming era of multirobot coordinated
input will need to be combined with speech output, and that interrobal communication may
be
^^^^8

to do
confined to message passing by this tvuman-xnterceplable channel The rationale has
connecting m
avoidance of the cost and inconvenience of building hardware-software interfaces for
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426 ROBOT irOELLIGENCE

flow of control Instead of procedures we have actors or objects with behaviors specified m terms of
possible input messages received A
behavior includes the emission of new messages addressed to
other objects We exemplify with the following outline sketch of robot plan-formation conceived m
terms of the objecl-onented language ROSS
Consider a hypothesize-and-lest paradigm according to which each proposed act is fint tested m
a simulated world to observe its effects, consequences, and feasibilities This paradigm is m a way
very similar to human planning In many situations humans tend first to perform a mental simulation
of a postulated act before actually performing it Problem solving in the past followed two mam
routes

1. That of the Graph Traverser best-next graph search ”

**
2. That of the STRIPS-typc theorem proving

Both routes are fundamental to our present problem-solving techniques They, however, offer low
human comprehensibility and little cognitive significance In many areas, problem solving is more
performed using distnbuted processing hardware** One such area is in robotics, where
effectively
multimanipulator cooperation forms the trend in present researches The following scenano was evolved
in collaboration with Mr Andrew Chun at Illinois University
We approach problem solving using a hypothesize-and-test paradigm m a distributed environment,
which consists of multimanipulaton cooperating in the task of simple assembly using polyhedral objects
Assembly consists of complex tasks which will also include the ability to produce structures similar
*®
to those handled by BUILD
The given task is first presented to a scheduler (sec Figure 23 3) that hypothesizes a collection of
basic acts to be performed This collection is then distnbuted to manipulators in a contract negotiation
manner *‘ Once the task is received by a manipulator, the manipulator processor will propose certam
actions These actions are then communicated in a conversation-like style to the world model These
actions are simulated in this model toobservetheeflect.consequence, and feasibility Necessary modifica-
tion u then made by the manipulator Each appropnale action will then be broadcast to all other
manipulators This type of planning and control structure is much more comprehensible to the human
user than the graph search of Graph Traverser programs or the logical theorem-proving of STRIPS
In many ways this seems analogous to human plan generation
The world model consists of a collection of knowledge sources (actors), each of which sustains
knowledge of one particular object Knowledge includes static or dynamic knowledge in either datum
or procedural form Constraints or preconditions can be considered as built-in behaviors of these
objects, thus freeing the manipulator processors from constraint considerations This world model
can be classified as what Doran has tenned a “perceptual cause and effect model ”**

23.6.1. Advantages

First, the system will be able to explore problems that may occur in a parallel system, such as deadlocks
The proposed system will also be flexible and modubr, since an addition of a manipulator or object
to the robot world simply a matter of adding a new knowledge source or actor
is
Owing to the conversaCion-like control scheme, human comprehensibility is high The importance
of human comprehensibility has been stressed Acceptance and utilization of any complex decision
system depends heavily on the ability of the human user lo understand how the system result came
about
At present the world model is centralued to form a simulator However, distnbution of ihe woild
model into individual manipulators is not difficult Each manipulator would need only partial knowledge
of the world model at any one time to perfomi a certain task This leads to the consideration of
routing sensory data only to processors that would be likely to use them Additional knowledge can
be obtained by sending a message to the central world model ** Isolation of control and domain knowl-
edge IS also achieved m this system, allowing for domain independence, thus enabling the system to
be applied to differenl domains by chanpng the world model

23.6.2. Language
**
The system, being distnbuted, is most suitably wntten in an object-onented language such as ROSS

All processing m ROSS done in terms of message passing** among a collection of odors or objects.
is

It IS useful for modeling and understanding dynamic real-world systems whose complexity makes
more analytical tools inappropnate

23.6.3. Possible Scenario

stag*
Figure 23 4 depicts a possible scenano according to the following order for the planning
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428
ROBOT INTELUGENCE

Fig 23.3. A general structure for a hypothesizc-and-tcst procedure m a distnbuted environment

software base exist suitable for the teaching function as contrasted with the use of large expensive
robots on the shop floor Furtherntore, even industrial training requires putting its mam emphasis
not on the techniques of the first generation, which still dominate practice, but rather on those of
the second and third generations that will be making iheir appearance m the factories dunng the
trainee's post-apprentice life
The remedies already lie at hand, even for the seemingly ambitious task of putting together an
effective tutonal work station at which the trainee can be assisted to become proficient in expert
systems programming in the hand-eye domain The following facility would be feasible at a cost per
station in the region of SIO.OOOA local area network of IBM PC micros or equivalent is envisaged
Every component capability listed has, to the author's knowledge, already been checked out m one
or another student environment

23.7,1, Intelligent Tutorial Work Station for Robotics

A number of new software and techniques which have been individually validated m academic
aids
research laboratones require integration into an inexpensive and versatile programmer’s workbench
for robotics software Such a facility in its final form would permit the following inodes

1. Factual instruction of the robot m the objects, relations, and logic of its situation

2. Availability of procedurally coded shortcuts within the logic system (for example, deduction
of movement plans may need to cal) shortesl-path or other numencal optimization routines)
3. Autonomous deduction of rule-structured plans for attaining user-defined goab and subgoals
History trace and diagnostics for display and editing of machine-generated plans
4. Computer-induction facilities to allow the user to teach the system new plans by examples
and counterexamples of relevant silualion-aclion linkages
5. A heunstic model of plan debugging Such expert systems cannot be built without a domain
specialist as source of know-how First step the students must turn themselves into domain
specialists through intensive use of prototype systems 1-4 listed above
6. Generalize the foregoing to the coordinated multirobot case

Initial state

Fig. 23.4. A possible scenano for object-onented robot planning

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430 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE
function decision dtype,
begin
case weather of
blustery decision = dontuse,
dry decisim = dontuse,
wet' case indoors of
no decision = use,
yes decision — dontuse,
end,
end,
end,

In human terms the concept enables its possessor to recognize “at a glance" whether circumstances
areconduave to using his umbrella Hie corresponding program is, in this case, a conditional expression
in the PASCAL programming language An induclivc learning algonthm such as ACLS takes as its
input specimen sets of circumstances paired with iheir known class membership and produces as
output a hypothesized classification rule, in this case in the form of a PASCAL conditional expression
ACLS thus denves a classification rule that for purposes of display is cast in the form of a decision
tree,branching according to the values of the attributes In the preceding example the attributes are
"weather” and “indoors " The respiective sets of values are “wet, dry, blustery" and “yes, no ” The
set of attnbutes is chosen by an expert to be representative of the data being classified ACLS can
output the rule either as a decision tree or as a PASCAL program

23.8.2. Example of Elementary Plan Generation

Consider first the very simple example given earlier We are frying to decide whether or not to use
an umbrella We shall go ^yond the two aimbutcs (“weather" and "indoors”) used previously and
judge four factors to be probably relevant to making the decision These attnbutes are the weather
(which can have one of three values, wet, dry or blustery) and whether we are indoors, soaked, or in
the car (each of which is either yes or no)
This specification is given m
an attribute file The general form of this file need not concern us at
the moment The atinbuce file used for the particular example is as follows

weather logical wet dry blustery

inside logical yes no
soaked logical yes no
near logical yes no
2
use dontuse

The numeral 4 warns the system to expect 4 attnbutes, and similarly the numeral 2 specifia the
number of classes We have now desenb^ the problem to ACLS and are in a position to give U
some examples Four such examples follow The formal is that used by ACLS when it displays its
current set of examples note that ACLS only looks at the first seven characters of a stnng, so that

the user’s “blustety” appears as ’Tjlusfer

"

no weather inside soaked incar class

primary examples
1 dry yes no no dontuse
2 wet no no on use
3 bluster no no yes dontuse
4 wet yes no no dontuse

The of these examples says that if the weather is dry and we are inside and neither soaked
first

nor in the car, then do not use the umbrella The other examples can be read in a similar way
ACLS can then be asked to induce a rule from these examples The resulting rule follows

weather
bluster dontuse
dry dontuse
wet indoors
no use
yes dontuse
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432 ROBOT INTELUCl^CT
comb«inin| Ihnri for difficult cascv ACLS-bascd routines proved uniformlj fistcr it run time So one
pc*vvible hlca tv for the s)-vtetn to he trained on both, but only to invoke run-time evidence from
the
feaiure-vpice clivvifier iv a “second opinion*' in those cases where conditions of difficult) are drtreled
b> the s>-vtem

23.9. INTERCO.MMUNICATION OF LEARNED CTRATEGIES

This demonstration involved generating a plan to solve a simple problem under conditions that oblignJ
the learning robot to communicate commands to an avsistani robot Refer to Figure 23 S fiv the
following Four small blocks, inilully stored in any order in in area accessible to the small robot,
must be assembled, m the correct order, by the Urge robot A beam must be placed across the i»o
towers so constructed to form an arch The blocks have been arbitrarily labeled A, B. C, and D
The order in which they are to be finally assembled is C on A. D on D, and both A and B on the
“ground" in the construction area of the large robot The storage area for the small roNjt has four
fised locations, bbeled EQ. El. TEMP, and TRANS EO and El are the locations where the bkxls
arc initially stacked, no more than two high TRANS is the transfer location from which the Urge
robot picks blocks to be incorporated into the arch TEMP is a temporary location used when the
required block is inaccessible, by virtue of being under another The beam is stored m a kxation
accessible to the Urge robot, bbeled STORAGE4 The construction area locations, shown tn Figure
23 6. are as follows

CX) for blosk A

Cl for block B
C2 for block C
C3 for block D
C4 for the beam

Hg. 23J. Robot Uyout

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let SDiioBoa QNV sjvaxsAS laadxa

 434 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

23.9.4. Worked Example

This illustrjtes how ACLS can be taught to build an arch from a random initial configuration of

blocks

(1) AON BON CON DON CLASS

C El EO B ATOARCH
(2) AON BON (DON DON CLASS
ARCH El EO B CTOA
(3) AON BON CON DON CLASS
ARCH El A B DTOTEMP
(4) AON BON CON DON CLASS
ARCH El A TEMP BTOARCH
(5) AON BON CON DON CLASS
ARCH ARCH A TEMP DTOB
(6) AON BON CON DON CLASS
ARCH ARCH A B STOP

In AUTO
mode, a rule induced from these examples is successively applied until the CLASS
value IS STOP, whereupon control is returned to ihe user
It was possible in this way to use an inductive learning program. ACLS, to generate single-move

plans for assembling small numbers of components Communication between two computers, using
humanly understandable synthesized speech, was feasible User intervention by spoken commands was
implemented also An improved implementation of the learning component has recently been descnbed
by Dechter and Michie
Clearly, the style of coordinating computer-controlled devices illustrated by the previously descnbed
expenment need not be restncted to the interaction of a robot wiih another robot It might be desired,
for example, to interface a parts-Ioadmg robot to a numencally controlled machine tool Beyond that,
there is a problem of interfacing between one computer with its I/O devices and another, quite generally
The human-factors benefits m terms of Ihe user-transparency of interprocess transactions, and the
ability to simplify the interfacing problem almost out of existence, are bound to speak eloquently to
technical managers in the world of mdustnal and military automation, and beyond

23.10. THE NEXT STAGE

is prompted by the example of other branches of computer-based complex
Extrapolation to the future
monilonng and regulation of nuclear power stations, automation
control engineering, for instance, the
of air trafficand the computer-controlled networks used by the military for distant early
control,
warning of nuclear strike The lessons of history m these man-machine systems have recently been
reviewed by Kopec and Michie Using this analysis as a guide to the immediate future of factory
robotics, one may predict the following steps

1 Straight-hne development of current hardware and software trends, with accompanying escala-
tion of the complexity and user opacity of robotic systems
2. A mounting senes of increasingly disturbing and costly mishaps, foul-ups, and crashes, analogous
to the collapse of production in the Hoogovens steel sinp-rolling mill reviewed by Kopec and Michie
The collapse was the direct consequence of replacement of an obsolescent by an “improved” automation
system “Improvement” was m
the sense of classical software engineenng As knowledge engineering,
like all factory-installed systems of today, il would have failed to qualify
3. Eventual awareness that some doors cannot be opened with a battenng ram It may be
to know the appropnate “Open Sesame " There may then follow a backing off for reflection and
replanning at the level of fundamental design
in the
4. The nse of the user-fnendly robot, owing its top-level control to software cast neither
mold of Ihe classical compact algonthm (loo “deep” to sustain explanatory dialogue) nor in that o
the classical data base {loo "shallow”), but in the expert-systems rule-structured mold

The evidence and arguments relating the issue of man-machine cognitive compatibility to the
review
of the nght software structures for machine-executable descnptions and strategies have been
recently

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Pao Y-H Eds , Machine Intelligence 10, Horwood. Chichester, and Halsted Press.
.

1982, pp 325-337
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438 ROBOT INTEUICENCE

PR0GRA*-/1ING LANGUAGE NuraER OTHER AW1 SENSORS VISION

LA'JGUAGE OF ARMS configurations

Funky Point to Touch

Point Prq-
GRAmiNG

T3 Assembly 1 LIMIT
switches

Anorad NC-pROGRAM 1

EfllNLY Assembly 2 X Touch

PROXIMITY

RCL Fortran 1

RPL Fortran 1 Touch Location

VISION Orientation

SICLA Assembly 1 - X force

Torque

VAL Assembly 1 VISION

AL Algol 2 X force Recognition

Torque

HELP Pascal 1 - H X

IAaPLE PL/l 1 X Force

PROXIMITY

MCL APT 1 X Touch Modelling

VISION Recognition

PAL Transfor- 1 X
mations
Autopass PL/l 1 X Sensors Recognition
Modelling

Fig 24.1. Capabilities of di^erent languages

to e
Figure 24 3 shows desired constructs of programming languages for robots ' In addition I

constructs of conventional languages, there should be several new ones specific to robots, for
esamp ^
desen
instructions describing vector, frame, rotation, and translation It also should be possible to
of seven
to the robot an effector trajectory and how to handle the synchronization of the work
”
arms The robot must be able to operate the effector and the work tools under program
“
addition, there must be language constructs available that can describe sensor signals to
robot IS capable of reacting . .

a stan
The many languages currently available suggest that the output of the compiler will be in
sys em
intermediate code. Figure 24 4 The robot manufacturer in turn will by out the control
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440 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

High - progromming
language

Intermediate
language
IRCMTA

Robot control

Fig. 24.4. The use of an intermediate language

suc/i a manner (hat the m(cfface of (he cxMitroIIer wiH accept (he intermediate code Thus ic would
be possible to use for difTerenc robots differeni languages via a standardized interface
In addition to the language, there (nust be a powerful programming system available consisting
of several software packages and of a low-cost program-development computer Figure 24 S shows a
comprehensive programming system for assembly robots The user describes to the robot the object
and the workplace with the help of an applicaiion-onented language This information is processed
by a geometry processor and entered into a world model
In a like manner the movement of the robot is functionally described by implicit instructions,
and a syntactical analysis is performed This program is combined with information from the world
model The result is sent to the AL compiler by way of a generating model It is also possible to
interactively cominunicate with (he AL compiler (o enter or edit instructions The output of the AL

Progromming system Physicol world

Robot geometry
Physicol boundary
0DJec^ end
Geometry FufKtion specific Vision
workploce -
processor V informotion system
description

Function
SyntoctiCQl
i

World
^

— Sensor data

P
specific
instructions analysis model processing
1 ^ 1

PfogrommeJ Generating AL-

AL-Compiler
dialog module i
[ j
Interpreter
^
Progr

Simutotion
program

Fig. 24.5. An advanced prc^ramming system based on AL

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442 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

compiler in form of interpretative code is loaded down to the control computer of the robot Sensor
signals from the robot can be brought back to the sensor data-processing module In case an object
or a workpiece has changed its positron, this module will send instructions to the world model to
update It The same information tsneeded by the AL interpreter to correct the movements of the
effector An available simulation program allows the programmer to display graphically the work
environment of the robot and to check its movement and detect possible collision
The graphical emulation system is part of the programming system or of the real-time controller
(sec Figure 24 6) In the early stage of robot design and its kinematic attnbutes (joint, links, end-
effectors), the assembly cell as well as its envirimment can be defined on a graphic display Trajectory
planning (interpolation in Cartesian coordinates) and the corresponding coordinate transformation
can be tested and optimized By adding a program for the simulation of the robot’s dynamics, the
response of the axis motor drives and their control can be traced to evaluate the dynamics of the
robot For debugging of assembly programs, the simulated robot is interfaced to the programming
system that defines multiple moving tasks With off-lme program test facilities, workpieces and robot
components can be emulated without the nsk of collision When it is certain that all assembly sequences
can be executed without conflict, the program can be transferred to the robot-control computer which
executes the program in real time and moves the mechanical manipulator Venfication of the assembly
can be performed in this stage
The simulation of the manipulator equipment (e g a two-arm mobile
, robot) allows software develop-
ment without the availability of hardware An additional aid for high-level software-planning tools is
the graphical simulation of the assembly process
A typical graphical simulation system would be implemented on a medium-sized control computer
It interfaces with a graphic display, a vector generator, and a picture refresh memory With it a

disembodied geometne model of the manipulator and its environment consisting of generalized bodies
can be generated The joints of the manipulator arc moved under program control along the specified
trajectory A
central projection can be done with a three-dimensional geometne model to generate a
two-dimensional perspective picture Different projections of the model can be displayed on the graphic
terminal The system input is either AL code* for debugging of assembly programs or a modified
software task for expenmental research A teach-in facility to move the model on-line m Cartesian,
robot, and by a joystick and a switch is provided Most of the trajectory control
tool coordinates
tasks of the emulation system are implemented on the r^Kontrol computer They run under the
direction of a real-time multitask system The structure of the robot emulation system, the moving
tasks, and the interfaces are shown in Figure 24 7
The development system consists of three basic parts

The robot-modeling part

The robot's world-modeling part

The part to generate motion data

Further features check for collision and to detect hidden lines The interactive robot-modeling system
allows the generation of a disembodied geometne robot model, including its end effector A list of
generalized bodies is used to aid modeling The second modeling system is used to desenbe the robot’s
world, including all objects to be handled The geometnc-modeling programs generate both a data
base of object data and frames that define the positron and onentation of each geometne part and
the motion axis for each robot link The motion data, applied as operator to the list of frames, is
generated by the trajectory planning tasks Two interfaces can be used for the specification of the
robot workpiece interaction and the desired robot motion A direct access to the trajectory planning
tasks IS possible for expenmental studies The second interface for debugging of assembly programs
has as input AL code* The motion tasks generate motion data for the selected manipulator configuration
and the objects to be moved Motion errors are indicated by an external module which checks collision
The computing mode is either debug or on-line The three-dimensional data are displayed on a graphic
display system capable of displaying different three-dimensional views (top, front, side) using viewpoint
transformation Zooming and hidden-line removal operations are possible

24 EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR ROBOTS

An
of a
is an intelligent computer program that performs decision functions similar
expert system
human expert (see Chapter 23, "Expert Systems and Robotics’’) Its baste contents are know ge
to 0
^
and production rules that can be used m industrial settings to solve difficult problems Figure
shows a simplified block diagram of an expert system f
The knowledge base must be capable of acquiring and processing knowledge "af the nght
It also must be able to explain reasoning and justify conclusions Typical applications
of expert $y^ c
m the field of robotics are planning and control of ^sembly, as well as processing and recovery
assembly errors
 Fig.

24.6.

Schematic

structure

of

the

assembly

robot

system.
444 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

for electnc power generators, is one of the first advanced robot-equipped cells to use a hitiited expert

s>stem* It will be able to adjust the production automatically to different blade batches and Kill
require no human assistance, either for the operation or for the setup A rule-based language will
facilitate programming of the cell Two vision-guided robots and several numeneaJly controlled machine
tools to produce turbine blades are the principal equipment of the manufactunng cell (Figure 24 9)
The cell will operate m the following manner Workers deliver pallets of billets to a part identification
station It determines visually the location of ihe billets on the pallets A robot then picks up the
billets from the pallets and loads them into (he rotary hearth furnace for heating The same robot
transfers the hot billets from the furnace to the swagging machine for shaping The second robot
removes the finished preforms and transfers them to a cropper for removing of excess matenal and
for impnnting of an identification number The robot then delivers the preforms to the optical gaging
station Finally, the robot drops the preforms into a basket for transfer to the presses
This concept of a manufactunng cell is the first key to a master plan to transform the turbine
component plant into a factory of the future It will be manned by robots and managed by computers
The use of robots allows the cell to handle billets of various sizes under computer control The vision
system does away with Ihe need to use special-purpose fixtures The rotary f^umace accepts billets of
vanous sizes
The complexity of an expert system for a robot has two reasons * First, there is the complexity
of details when the computer drives a robotic cell the computer is an abstract machine, and the

Fig. 24.9 Westinghouse's robotic cell

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446 ROBOT nSTELUGENCE

Different control levels

The control hierarchy of the robot is distributed among microprocessors

Distnbuted system operation
Modular symmetnc hardware configuration
Multiple bus system
Expandability with no need for hard- or software reconfiguration
Special-purpose modules {sensor I/O. anihmciic, FFT. interpolators)

Parallel tasl. decomposition for pfoblcm-oncnied programs

Handling of a world model in global memory

24.5.1. General Stnicture of the Robot Real-Time Control System

The general structure of the robot control system ts shown in Figure 24 7 The system is subdivided
into the following components

The mechanical manipulator (kinematic chain)

The axis control sjstem
The end effector control

The penpheral control

The sensor system
The central robot control

The programming system

24JJ. .%fKhanical Structure of Industrial Robots

The mechanical system consists of a kinematic chain with prismatic and rotary joints Six joints are
required to position the effector (end effector) at any point within the workspace and to allow it 10
assume any arbitrary orientation To obtain a high positional accuracy of the effector (positioning
repeatability less than 1 mm), each joint must be operated wuh a high bit resolution
In the case of path control, the joints must follow defined irajectones without delay Most of the
present general-purpose robots have their joint motions under servo control If high-speed operatic
with high path accuracy is desired, the servo control must be extended Advanced systems have resolved
acceleration control with nonlinear decoupling >*

24.5.3. Aiis Control System

tnusl
Most of the modem general-purpose robots have path control The end effector of the robot
guidance
follow a defined trajectory The trajectory is planned by the central robot controller under
of sensor information in real time The following parameters will affect the control strategy

Gravity force.
Centrifugal force
Conolis force
Fnetton
Reaction forces

“
Numerous control algonthms hav e been developed to solve these control problems ” Their
design o
tation IS cumbersome because of the high number of anthmetic operations. For the
algonthms, therefore, it is necessary to reduce the number of additions and multiplica^ns _

joinl-spaw (robots coordinates) The join

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 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Depending on the assembly operation, speaal end-effector control modules are m use Their general
structure ts shown in Figure 24 1 1 The control tasks are decomposed by the program interpreter

24.5.5. Sensor System and Processing of its Data

The sensor environment of the assembly robot is classified as follows

1. Internal sensor
(a) Joint position
(b) Velocity
(c) Acceleration
(d) Force wnst sensor
(e) Gnppcr force

2. External sensors
(a) Approximation sensor
(b) Touch sensor
(c) Geometric sensor (two-, three-dimensional)
(d) Vision system
(e) Safety sensor
(0 Special-purpose sensor

Internal sensors are part of a closed axis control loop and must sample data with high speed (hoc
sensors) External sensors work at tower speed and process data to update the robot model The
sensor system consists of the data-acquisiiion and the data-processmg systems The daCa-ac(]uisition
system samples the process data and generates pattern The daia-processing system tdentihes the pattern
and generates frames for the dynamic world processor

24.5.6. Central Robot Controller

The central robot controller ts usually independent of the robot configuration and performs the following
operations

Interpretation of the program in real lime

Multitask scheduling
Task decomposition
Trajectory planning under sensor influence
Coordinate iransformadon
Effector control

Control of peripherals
Sensor control and data processing

Controller function includes the distribution of tasks and pnmitives to the multiprocessor environment
with producer and consumer relations The processors are of different types, as, for example, the
following

Anthmetic (floating point)

Anthmetic (fixed point)

Sensor
Logical
I/O

communication functional
Intertask is performed between Ihe individual processors The most important
tasks are discussed next

24.5.7. Trajectory Planner

sensor
Trajectory planning is the functional task that determines the motion of the manipulator under
motions
control The parameters of the trajectory are defined by the user program The following
must be generated with the help of Ihe basic frame equations

From point to point

On straight lines
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450 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Fig. 24 13. An interpolated robot trajectory with equidistant sample data intervals (A = 10 msec)

24,5.8. Coordinate Transformation

For each of the robot, the time history of the joint angles must be calculated (transformation
joint
of world into robot coordinates) to move eflectors along the calculated Cartesian trajectones The
reverse operation is performed simultaneously to know where the robot is actually located in Cartesian
coordinates (see Figure 24 14)
For sensor-controlled operations the following dynamic world data are used for trajectory calculation
(see Figure 24 15)

Position and onentation of the workpiece

Distances
Diameters
Geometry of the workpiece
The path of the workpiece (position, velocity)
Contours

Position, r god Oncntofion a*

of the Effector

system
Fig 24.14. Structure of the cooidmate transformation data flow of the robot
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452 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

24.5.10. Modular Structure of the Robot CoRtroUer

The outlined functional tasks are performed by a hierarchy of control levels *• From higher control
levels data are distributed to the lower'Ievel pnmittves Beginning from the lowest level the hierarchy
IS defined as fbllows (see Figure 24 16)

Servo Control Level and Effector Control {Level /)

At this level the drive signals for the actuators are generated to move the joints Dedicated control
algonthms control the individual links This control level consists of pnmitives and is highly robot
dependent The input signals are joint trajectones m
joint coordinates

Coordinate Transformation Level {Level 2)

The transformation of performed at this

a Cartesian trajectory info robot-specific joint coordinates is

level This trajectory depends on the hardware configuration of the robot

Trajectory Interpolation Level {Level 3)

At this level the frame equations of the robot are calculated to generate a continuous trajectory
m
world coordinates The inputs at this control level arc parameters (c g , trajectory points, speed) that
interpolation
define the conditions that the trajectorymust fulfill Depending on the application different
level. «
routines (quadratic, cubic, circular, polynomials, special functions) can be applied At this
•

entire kinematics of the robot are calculated in Cartesun frame coordinates

Trajectory Control Level {Level 4)

The central controller is an interpreter that performs task scheduling and task decompositira
time processing, synchronization, and multitasking is controlled at this level References to
®
model, to the dynamic world processor, to a program library with special software tasks
^ tas
modules), and to the trajectory control level are made Also, scheduling and dispatching o
the multiprocessor environment are controlled at this level

24.5.11. Requirements for the Computer Architecture

folio i
The development and implementation of the robot-control system is performed under the
conditions
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SSt> aoNiaomaji>ai loaoa ni Hainaivoa am, ao aioa am

458 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

Here a, b. c. d are con«ani parameters, and r descnbes a a)nstant fnction This equation is coatroUed
by a control algonthm implemented on a imcrocomputer

Touch Sensor

A piezo crystal working as microphone is used to sense touching of an object by the fingers and to
detect possible sliding of the object after grasping The crystals are isolated by a rubber substrate to
filter out noise from the robot’s environment and its own motor The sensor generates suitable signals
for many different materials and objects of different size The sensor aids positioning the gnpper
centric to an object Sliding of the object as well as a possible collision with another object can be
detected
Quantitative measurements of the touch vector (location of touch), the contaa area, and the slide
vector make necessary the use of several piezo crystals arranged in an array Other useful materials
for distributed touch sensing (artificial skin) arc not considered here because of their high hysteresis
and nonlineanlies

Ultrasonic Senior

The vertical approach of an object can be controlled with the help of an ultrasonic sensor This
device works as a transmitter and a receiver It initiates a measurement by transmitting multiple

pulse trains at ultrasonic frequencies

Objects having different reflection characteristics can be delected A fast counter can be used to
measure the lime interval between (he emitting and rcc^ving ol a signal The interval, in turn, is
used to calculate the object's distance A good sensor has a resolution of 1 mm
Its minimum range
depends on its design This limitation is due to the long transmitting time for a pulse tram and the
lime interval needed for switching the sensor from transmitting mode to receiving mode By using
two transducers (single transmitter, single receiver) and only one object-specific pulse-tram frequency,
the resolution and the minimucn distance can be optimized The angle of the ultrasonic column is
confined by a foam rubber cone (< 1 5^) Thus scanning of surfaces (eg, for batch operation) is
possible

Recognition of Objects between Fingers

To recognize an object between the fingers, two infrared transmitters that generate modulated signals
can be used, each of which has two receivers (see Figure 24 22) When a light beam is interrupCed,
an object is located between the fingers When both receivers of a transmitter are sensing the reflected
light signals, the two surfaces of an object (only objects with clear reflection characteristics) are located
parallel to the Anger surfaces [f only one receiver gets a signal, the angle can be determined about
which the gnpper must be rotated to be parallel with the object's surface The closer the object ts to
the surface of the finger the higher is the sensiiiviiy of the receiver In case the object is very close,

no signaldetected, this means that the sensor can also be used as nontaclile proximity sensor The
is

and the approach distance can be modified by changing the geometry of the sensor and
sensitivity

the angle of the transmitted light beam By using more than two receivers in connection with one
transmitter better quantitative data are obtained The receivers ate independent of the intensity of
the reflected signal

Control of the Gripper System

The task to control the gnpper system and its sensor environment can be decomposed by the AL
interpreter which operates on the central robot controller Thereby control pnmitives are activated
on a lower operational level on a microprocessor
The control primitives are stored in PROMS (see Table 24 1) After bootstrapping the task routines
the microprocessors are m
a polling state watting for input or output data If a grasping operation is

to be performed, the control primitives will be activated Viewed from the central robot controller,
the penpheral processors are working as I/O modules They require no additional communication
which
software The processors arc very small (minimal configuration) and contain a local monitor
allows program modification by the user by a lennmal interface
ow
The sensor environment of the presented gnpper system consists of simple basic sensors that a
wnst ai s
the gnpper to approach an object and to detect it brtween the fingers "nie force-sensing
For special applications and m
particu a
the manipulation of workpieces (c g , assembly sequences)

for quantitative measurements, several tactile and optical sensors may have to be used
They s ou
entica r«
be arranged in an arrays pattern (artificial skin) By using the penpheral processors, no
time delay problems will nse .

the hierarchies c .f-j

The desenbed modular gnpper and sensor system can be integrated into
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 1

460 ROBOT INTEUIGENCE

TABLE 24.1. A LIST OF PRIMITIVES FOR SENSOR-GRIPPER CONTROL

Pnimtives Function

PCS Activates position and velocity control algorithne

FORCE Activates Force control al^orlthme

VEL Transfer of paraneters to velocity control

SENS ON 1 Activates nicrophone and infrared diodes

SENS ON 1 Activates force sensing wrist

SENS ON 111 Activates ultrasonic sensor

SENS OUT 1 interrupts microphone and infrared diodes

SENS OUT 11 interrupts force sensing wrist

SENS OUT m interrupts ultrasonic sensor

FORCEPOS Activates SENSON I and POS

STOP Stops finger in shortest time

INF I Transfers the gripper's state from the sensor data

table to the robot controller

INF 11 Transfers the fore«»torgge vector to the robot

control 1«r

INF in Transfers data from ultrasonic sensor to the

robot controller

POSJU Adjusts position sensor

FORCEJU Adjusts force sensor

HRisrju Adjusts force sensing wrist

maximum (FWHM) of the liming spectrum they can discriminate To date, it is possible to obtain
with a TAC a timing resolution of about 10 pscc Figure 24 23 indicates a block diagram of a time-
of-Iight laser scanner
A laser diode (e.g , pulse laser diode, 50 mW) shines light on an object The laser diode pulser is
used to generate the starting signal A time-pick-olT element produces a logic pulse that is to a great
extent independent of the shape and amplilude vanations of the input pulse The output signal of
this tngger initiates the TAC The reflected beam impinges on a silicon surface barrier detector (SBD)
that emits time jitters as they exist in conventional photomultiplier tubes The output signal of ih^
intensifies and
detector is preamplified and divided into two signals A fast filter amplifier further
forms the shape of the “intensity” signal This new shape (flat rooO ‘s more suited for an analog-
digital conversion (8 bits) than the onginat shape form (peak)
The “distance” signal is discnmmated (constant-fraction discnminator) and delayed, which defines
the time signal to stop the TAC The output of the TAC is precisely (time resolution £ 10
to
correlated to the time interval, defined by the start and stop signal The TAC output is converted
a digital value (12 bits)
The most difficult problem with this kind of laser scanner is the highly experimental
refiec
range of about 10®-1 The timing resolution is very sensitive to the intensity (energy) of the
beam The more energy is deposited in the reflected beam the better is the resolution j
in nuclear expenments the dynamic range is lirniled to about 100-1 This means that the mam ui i
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462 ROBOT INTELLIGENCE

p') only two of the four deflection angles are needed (e g , ^ and S) This distance A can be calculated
as follows

d
h =
ctn S + x/ft
The distance resolution

S) = fcfx + Xmim. S + SbIii) — ^t(x, S)]

can therefore be defined by a linear approximation as

Here, Xnus gives the minimal detectable x distance in the image plane; and £inin defines the minimal
horizontal deflection angle that can be measured The resolution is optimal when the distance is small
h*. the baseline is long d, S is equal to 90® (normal to object surface), and when Xbii» and Sam are
as small as possible
To cite the results of an expenment, it can be stated that such a system renders a very good
resolution of 0 2S mm m
The lime for the distance evaluation for every pixel can
at a distance of I
be decreased to about 0 S jisec (e g CCD-linear array, hardware multiplication)
,

OBen this type of laser scanner is connected with the stnictured-Iight approach (e g , line projection,
gnd projection) However, this approach operates with parts that are presented and preonented This
renders a unique assignment between every projected object point and the corresponding image point
Thus the distance can be calculated If there ts no such unique assignment, this approach can only
be used to classify different object classes In this case absolute distance measuremenu are not possible

REFERENCES
1. Bonner, S and Kang, G A . Comparative Study of Robot Languages, Computer, December
1982
2. Mujtaba, S and Goldmann, G AL , User’s Manual Stanford University, Stanford, Califonua,
1979
3. Brooks, R A , Symbolic Error Analysis and Robot Planning, International Journal of Robotics
Research. Vol 1, No 4. 1982, pp 29-67

4. Kinnucan, P Flexible System Forges Turbine Blades. High Technology, June 198), pp 2&-22
.

Jl Kenip^ X C, AniSaal InteHigencem RobcfKS. Tt/Kmal on Ar7il?cial Intelligence, JJCAhKuh-

mhe, 1983
6. Duff, M and Levialdi, S , Eds , Languages and Architectures for Image Processing, Academic
Press, 1981

7. RAIL Reference Manual AUTOVISION, Automalix Inc . Burlington, Massachusetts, 1981

8. Binford, T
et al Exploratory Study of Computer Integrated Assembly Systems, Progress Report
, ,

4, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1977

9. Stute, G and Worn, H , Mehrprozessorsteuersysteme fur Industneroboter, Proceedings of the

8th ISIR, Stuttgart, 1978

10. Albus, J , Barbera, and Fitzgerald, A
, Hierarchical Control for Sensory
, M
Interactive Control,
Proceedings of the llth ISIR, Tokyo, 1981
Berlin,
11. DIN 66264 Mehrprozessor-Steuersystero fiir Arbeitsmaschinen (MPST), Beuth-Verlag,
1981
12. Luh, J Y S . Walker, M W , and PauL RPC. Rcsolved-Acceleration Control of
Mechanical
468-474
Manipulators, IEEE Transactions on Automatic QiRrro4 No 3, June 1980, pp
13. Freund, E and Hoyer, H Das Pnnzip mchthnearer Systementkoppelung mit der Anwendung
,

auf Industne-roboter, Regelungstechnick, No 28, Jahrgang, Hefl 3, 1980, (m German)

Controlled Aim,
14. Paul, R C, Modelling Trajectory Calculation and Servoing of a Computer
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, California, I Memo A
September 1972
15. Pieper, D L , The Kinematics of Manipulators under Computer Control. Ph D dissertation.

Stanford University, 1968

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 SXOHdSV
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468 SOQAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
TABLE 25.1 INTERNATIONAL ROBOT POPULATION—FEBRUARY 1982

Country Type A« TypeB* TypeC Type D'*'' Total

Japan _ 6,899 — 7,347 14,246^

US 400 2,000 1,700 600 4,700«
USSR — — — — 3,000
West Germany 290 830 200 100 1,420
Great Bntain 356 223 54 80 713
Sweden 250 ISO 250 50 700
France 120 500 620
Italy — — — — 353
Czechoslovakia 150 330
Poland 60 IIS 15 50 240
Norway 20 50 120 20 210
Denmark 11 25 30 0 166
Finland 35 16 43 22 116
Australia 62 62
Netherlands 48 3 5 0 56
Switzerland 10 40 — — 50
Belgium 22 20 0 0 42
Yugoslavia 2 3 5 0 10
Total 1,774 10.924 2,584 8,299 26.924''

Source Estimates for February 1982 Robot Institute of America (1982)

' Type A Programmable, servo coniroHed, continuous path.

Type B Programmable, servo controlled, point-to-point.
^Type C Programmable, nonservo robots for general-purpose use.
^ Type D Programmable, nonservo robots for diecasting and molding machines,
'Type E Mechanical Transfer Devices (pick and place) not shown —
^The estimated total for Japan as of December 1982 is 18,000, according to Paul Aron of Daiwa
Securities
* The estimated total for the US as of December 1982 is 6800, according to Hunt and Hunt (1982)
* World total, as of February 1982, excluding Japan and the United Sutes « 7978 Lower bound on
world total as of December 1982 = 18.000 -I- 6800 + 7978 = 32,778

aerospace firms who had acquired robots for experimental purposes under a Defense Department
program to modemue technology Of the prospective users considenng robot use in January 1981,
fewer than 50% had more than 1000 production workers, and only one-fifth were engaged m mass
production The recent increase in available tx>bot modcIs,inconjuncUQawith improvements incapabili-
tiesand reductions in cost per unit of capability, will undoubtedly result a continued expansion of m
the use of robots by smaller-sized establishments and by more custom and small-batch producers
The percentage of the robots in our sample accounted for by auto makers declined between 1976
and 1981, indicating growth in other areas of applications Outside the auto industry, most of the
increase in robots was concentrated in two firms, both diversified manufacturers of capital goods
Expenenced users accounted for more than 90% of the robots m
the sample added between 1976
and 1981, and almost 90% of the increase within all expenenced users was accounted for by five
firms In January 1981 six firms accounted for more than 30% of the total number of robots used in
the United States Within the United States, it is clear that the use of robots has spread rapidly
withm a small number of firms On the other hand, a growing number of firms have purchased one
or a few robots to evaluate them in a new environment More recent trends suggest that robot use in
the United States v-ill not remain concentrated in a relatively small number of firms
A comprehensive overview of patterns of robot use by industry and application in Japan has bew
published by the Japan Industnal Robot Assoaalion • The survey results m the report show

and a large fraction ot me

in the United Slates, robot use is spread across a large number of firms,
robots are used in small and medium-sized establishments

2SJ.. THE METALWORKING SECTOR

in the
Most of the present membership of the RIA and about 90% of current robot users
sector
States fall within a group of manufacturing industnes referrwl to as the melalyvorking
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470 SOOAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Number of Programmable Mampubtors
Company Installed (as of December 1982)

Sanyo Electric Machinery 1063

Sharp Electnc Machinery 897
Toyota Motor Company 780
Nissan Motor Company 730
Mitsubishi Electnc Machinery 427

The metalworking sector has been desenbed by Victonsr* as “the bell-wether of economic develop-
ment” for an industrial society because all of the fools and capital equipment used by all manufacturing
industnes {including itselQ, and hy all other sectors of the economy are produced within it It is the
place withm the industnal system where new knowledge ts embodied into a physical form, enabling
It to be utilized throughout the entire economic system Since all new products and processes require

the capital goods purchased by these industnes, it ts not farfetched to claim that much of the knowledge
that b^mes part of the economic system enters through the metalworking sector Since capital goo^
play such a cntical role m the creation of new products and processes and in the creation of new
wealth, one can argue that the importance of this sector goes beyond the number of people directly
employed within it
There are a limited number of robot applications in manufactunng sectors other than metalworking,
though, at present, problems assocuted with the processing of nonngid or debcate materials and with
very high speed production Lnes restnci their use Current and near-term future applications of robotics
in the processing of leather, rubber, asbestos, plastics, and food, and in the manufactunng of glass,
clothing, and wood products are bnefly reviewed in Schraft. Shults, and Nicolaisen * In both Japan
and in the United States demand for robots in the nonmanufactunng sectors of the economy currently
accounts for a negligible part of the total market Projections of robot use m nonmanufacturmg industnes
in Japan over the next several decades are given in Reference 5

25 PRODUCTIVITY IMPACTS IN THE METALWORKING SECTOR

We now turn more specifically to the metalworking sector and explain some of its important technological
features We discuss the comparative economics of small*, medium-, and large-volume production
and point out why and where there are substantial potentials for productiviiy improvement within
each of these “domains ” We estimate how much cost saving might be realized if robotics and compute^
aided manufactunng (CAM) technologies could make small- and medium-volume production closer
in efficiency to mass production operations Subsequently, we analyze the magnitude of cost saving
that might be realized by substituting robots for workers, and the potential for increasing output by
increasing (he utilization of machine loob Our calculations suggest that in low- and tmd-volume
manufactunng, savings theoretically obumable from increasing the utilization of capital equipment
are roughly an order of magnitude larger than savings that could be realized by eliminating a fraction
of production labor cost
We identify several consequences of achieving dramatic increases in output per unit of capital
and labor (or equivalently, of reducing unit cost) m robotic plants For one thing, fewer plants will
be needed to meet current Icveb of demand If demand remains at current levek, additional facilities
will not be needed, and older, less productive faCTlilies will most likely be shut down Lower unit
costs should result in some increased demand, but we later show that pnce-induced market growth
IS unlikely to keep up with increases m capacity To reap the benefits of robotics fully, managers will
have to find new ways of utilizing the added capacity by making greater use of the flexibility of
robotic production systems to manufacture new and rapidly evolving products Thus we suggest that
the full benefits of robotics will be realized only if there is a parallel emphasis on product innovation
Finally, we discuss briefly some of the broader economic impacts of improving productivity m
the

metalworking sector It appears that the application of robotics to batch manufactunng could r^t
This
in sigmficantly reduced real cost for capital goods m relation to other facton of production
could have npple eff’ects on the pnees of manufactured goods throughout the economy, and benefiaal
industry
long-term effects on the rate of pnee inflation and on the competitiveness of the manufactunng
in the United States and other advanced countnes

25,3.1. Low-, Mid-, and High-Volume Productioa

i^uenced
The appropnate choice of capital and orgamzation within particular establishments is strongly
The more
by the average batch size and the length of the average production run in the factory
for a given
pa
diverse the mix of parts (or products) being produced, the smaller the batch size
^
There has always bwn a conflict between retaining a capability for rapid redesign or _j
sometimes re e
of the product and achieving high levels of production and low unit cost This is
to as the flexibility versus efficiency trade-off
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472 SOCTAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

of matenal between machines In mass prodaclion. highly standardized parts are produced with equip-
ment that IS optimized by design to specific operations at fixed rates and dedicated to the particular
product The plant achieves high efficiency by sacrificing flexibility With conventional types of technolo-
gies—dedicated automation for mass production and stand-alone, general-purpose machine tools for
—
batch production efficiency is achieved at the expense of flexibility, and vice versa, making it impossible
to maximize both simultaneously

25.3.2. Cost Versus Batch Size

Examples of cost curves for technologies typically used for custom, batch, and mass production are
shown m Figure 25 3 The curve labeled piece production represents a labor-intensive technology typical
of custom (or piece) production Fixed capital requirements are lowest and the unit labor requirement
IS the highest of the three technologies The annualized capital charge is assumed to be negligible m
proportion to the annual labor cost, so the average cost curve is nearly constant over most of the
volume range The curve labeled mois production represents a capital-intensive, highly automated
system with relatively small unit labor requirements, typical of that used to mass produce a standard
product design The annualized capital equipment charge is the largest among the three technologies
Average cost is very high at small volumes because of the large fixed investment requirements, but
decreases sharply (by a factor of 1/outpui) as the volume of output increases The curve labeled
batch production represents a semi-automated production technique typical of that used when products
are manufactured in mid-sized batches In companson to the custom- and mass-production technologies.
It represents an intermediate case where average cost is not completely dominated by either vanable

cost, labor or fixed capital There is a cost-mimmizing choice of technology in the low-volume, mid-
volume, and high-volume range, as indicated by the bold line in Figure 25 3 Each of the three technolo-
gies IS the cost-minimizmg choice only wilhin the volume range for which it is intended, and is an
“inefficient" choice outside of us appropnate range For a given product, unit cost would decrease m
a regular fashion as output increases over a wide range of volumes, if one considers the lower envelope
of the “long-run" cost curve, where the optimal (i e , cosl-minimizing) technology is used for each
level of output
The current relationship between unit cost and the level of output in discrete parts production
can be seen roughly by companng most of the metalworking industnes m terms of unit-processing

ANNUAL TOTAL TOLUME

L..J Minimal Cost for A Given Volume

*'’)
Fig. 25 3. Average cost versus batch size (Source Adapted from Borzcik
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474 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

addition, there arc intenndusiry differences tn hourly wage rates and m

the mix of activities earned
out (fabncation versus assembly) Despite these differences, which account for most of vanation in
the scatter plot, it is still clear that umt-proccssing cost (as defined) decreases as the level of output
increases.
Unit cost measures for some of these industries are shown in Table 25 2 Within this group, the
highest measure of umt-processing cost (14 13) is forSIC 3662, radio and televuion communication
equipment, an extreme ease of custom or very small batch production The lowest measure of unit
processing cost is for SIC 3465, auto stampings, an extreme case of mass production. The range

urat-processmg cost of auto stampings ts compared to that of a more similar type of product that is
custom produced, such as nonferrous forgings, there is stilt a tenfold difference.
Using the data shown in Figure 25 4. we have estimated the elastiaty of unit cost with respect to
the level of output by means of regression analysis. Unit-processing cost decreases by 0436^ for
each ISr mcrease in output. Two pnncipal effects drive this decrease. As the level of output increases

More automated types of machinery with higher throughput rates are used, and nuchinc utilization
rates tend to mcrease.

There lends to be mcreasmg emphasis on using lowcr<ost matenals and on designing for ease of
manufacturability

This imphes that if a typical product were produced ‘'one-of-a-kind," unit-processmg cost would be
400 times greater than if it were mass produced at a miUicm copies per year If a typical product

TABLE 2SJ. UMT-PROCESSDSG COST MEASURES FOR SELECTED METALWORKING

INDUSTRIES
Uiut-Processmg Cost
Batch Sue SIC Code Industry Name (VA/Peund of Metal)

Custom and 3662 Radio and TV communicattOfl equipment 1413

Small Batch 3761 Guided missiles and space vehicles 13 10
3573 Electronic computing equipment 10 19
3721 Aircraft and parts 701
3724 Aircraft enpnes and parts 4 56
3565 Industnal patterns 4 29
3545 Machine tool accessories 4 OS
3541 Machine tools, metakuttmg 245
3463 Nonferrous forgings 2 27

Mid-Sue 3465 Residential lighting fixtures 141

Batch 3561 Pumps and pumping equipment 133
3494 Valves and pipe fittings 102
3S6S Power transmission equipment
3562 Ball and roller bearings 0 98
3582 CoRuneraal laundry equipment 0 83
3564 Blowers and fans
3792 Travel trailers 0 71
3451 Screw machine products 070
3433 Heating equipment

Large 3531 Construction equipment 0 65

Batch 3523 Farm machinery and equipment 0 63
3713 Truck and bus bodies
3743 Railroad equipment 047

Mass 3711 Motor vehicles, car bodies 0 39

3714 Motor vehicle parts, accessories
3644 Noncurrent carrying wiring devices
3411 Meta] cans
3441 Fabncated structural metal products
3465 Auto stampings

Source; Derived from data ii a Miller.‘«

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 8

476 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

REPLACEMENT SCENARIOS
Percent Replaced

Occupation Low Medium High

Fabncation workers 20 50 75

Assembly workers 0 25 75
Inspectors 0 0 75
Supervisors 0 0 75

Fabncation workers include alt types of skilled and seniiskiKed machine operators and setup worken,
as well as matenal handlers, laborers, and miscellaneous types of skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled
production workers It is assumed that maintenance workers will not be replaced The low scenario
represents the current potential for replacing factory workers with insensate robots The medium scenario
represents the near-term potential for replacing factory workers with the emerpng generation of sensor-
based robots From a technical standpoml, these two sccnanos could be resized within the decade
The high scenario is our own subjective estimate of the long-term potential for eliminating production
labor in the millennial “factory of the future “ The occupational structure within each industry is
considered in the calculation of the reduction in total bbor cost The potential for cost reduction m
these scenarios is calculated under the highly restrictive assumptions that the quantity and rmx of
physical output remain at current levels and that the organizatiori of production remains unchanged,
not unreasonable assumptions for the near term, although unrealistic when considering a longer honzon
In the low- and medium-replacement scenarios, the potential cost reductions appear to be modest,
averaging near 2 and 7% respectively The potential cost reduction is greater in the high-replacement
scenario, averaging about 13% Of course, the upper limit on potential cost savings from eliminating
production workers is given by the total production worker portion of output In the near term.

TABLE 25.4. POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF REDUCING LABOR COST IN SELECTED METAD

\>ORKING INDUSTRIES
Reduction in Total Cost for Re-
placement Scenario (%)
Labor Cost/
Industry Name Output (%) Low Medium High

Radio, TV communication equipment 165 1 5 54 11

Guided missiles, space vehicles 14 3 1 5 48 95

Electronic computing equipment 86 1 2 33 61
Aircraft and parts 154 1 7 5 1

Aircraft engines and parts 19 2 2 1 64 128

Industrial patterns 42 ? 59 16 4
Machine tool accessones 24 5 34 94
Machine tools, metalcutting 22 0 30 85
Nonferrous forgings 172 25 67
Residential lighting fixtures 159 14 5 2
Pumps and pumping equipment 157 22 60
Valves and pipe fittings 189 27 7 3
Power transmission equipment 23 2 32 89
Balland roller beanngs 27 9 38 10 7
Commercial laundry equipment 185 25 71
Blowers and fans 173 24 66
Travel trailers 14 2 1 5 47
Screw machine products 25 4 3 7 99
Heating equipment, not electncal 153 22 59
Construction equipment 16 8 23 1
Farm machinery and equipment 160 22 6 2
Truck and bus bodies 17 8 1 9
“
11 T
'

Railroad equipment 183 20 rr

Motor vehicles, car bodies 98 1 1

Motor vehicle parts, accessones 222 24

iK
Noncurrent carrying winng devices 17 6 16
Metal cans 131 1 9
Fabncated structural metal products 17 6 2 5 6 8

Auto stampings 25 6 37
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 )

478 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

*rl

Fig. 25.5. Breakdown of theoretical capacity in (o) low-volume, (b) mid-volume, and (c) hi|h-volume
manufactunng (Repnnted from Reference 1

Average estimates of the days per year that plants are open and of the shifts per day they are
actually operating arc givenm Table 25 6 We deduced ihescestimates from the breakdowns of theoretical
capacity shown in Figure 25 5 These are intended to represent normal operating conditions m a
“healthy” economy * These figures imply that even high-voIume plants shut down nearly 80 days
per year due to Sundays, holidays, and planned closings for retooling Mid-volume plants are closed,
on average, 102 days (all weekends), and low-volume plants are closed nearly 125 days out of the
year (weekends plus three weeks for holidays and shutdown) When open for production, high-volume
plants are typically operating more than 22 hr/day, whereas mid-volume and low-volume plants are
typically scheduled to operate 10 7 and 8 hr/day, respectively Clearly, there is considerable potential
for increasing output (and thereby decreasing unit cost) by saving long runs for an unmanned third
shift (or weekend), using robot operators Dunnglhencat two decades, as manufacturers gam expenence
with unmanned factory i
•

*
tasks could be reserved '

substantially reduced, c
ouipuij
technologies A summary of the potential for increasing available production time (and hence

• Actual figures vary with demand The high-volume manufacturing estimates are based on
operands
Acco
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i|i3
ing to a survey of plant capacity conducted by the Bureau of Census 1932, most metalwor
m
orders was
industnes were only producing 60-80% of their potential output Lack of sufficient

far the most important reason that operations fell short of practical capacity
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 '

4S0 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Robots Only Robots with CAM

Percent of Potential Potential
Operating Percent Adjusted Percent Adjusted
Function Time Reduction Percent Reduction Percent

Load/unload, 20 -10 18 -25 15

noncuttmg®
Workstation 20 -40 12 -80 4
allowances
Inadequate 10 0 10 -50 5
storage
Tool change” 10 0 10 -20 8

Equipment failure 10 0 10 0 10

Productive fraction 30 0 30 0 30
Total® 100 90 72

Potential output index 1 00 1 11 139

Sources. Ayres and Miller

Already highly automated in high-voIume plants

" Total equals total scheduled production time

robots Time losses due to tool changing, equipment failures, excessive machine adjustments, setups,
and scheduling inefficiencies will probably not be alTected directly by robots, but might be reduced if

more work were consolidated and controlled by sensor-based computer systems

aspects of factory
For example, sensors monitoring machine performance would eliminate unnecessary adjustments and
would sp^ op diagnosis of machine failures • If "stand-alone” machines were replaced by a flexible
manufacturing system, and parts processing were “rationaliied” by adopung group technology, there
would be less matenal handling, and the scheduling of parts and tools would be simphfled Even a
substantial fraction of the equipment-related losses could be eliminated in a fully integrated flexible
manufacturing system, since the whole system need not be stopped if one station malfunctions Robots
or programmable pallets under the control of a central scheduling computer could reroute parts to
other work stations
It IS difficult to discuss the potential improvements in productivity that may be brought about
from robotics in isolation of the development of CAM
systems and other forms of factory automation
Relroiining robots into existing production lines will bnng about some improvemenls, such as imprtmnB
the utilization of a single machine or work station, but we do not expect that it would dramatically
improve overall factory performance Substantial impacts on performance and cost at the factory level
require the integration of robots and other forms of factory automation into coordinated manufactunng
systems Also, it becomes more difficult and less meaningful to distinguish between robots and other
forms of factory automation as the concept of robotics evolves from programmable manipulators to
machines and systems that can "sense, think, and act "f
Our own rough estimates of potential increases in throughput that could be achieved from recouping
the "nonproductive” time lost dunng scheduled operations are shown in Tables 25 8 through 25 10
These estimates are based only on informed judgement but have been reviewed by several mdust^
experts They are not the result of detailed analysis We distinguish two levels of improvement (I)
as a result of the use of robots per se; and (2) as a result of integrating robots with CAM
systems

and other forms of factory automation We suggest that the installation of robots, without increasing
ihe time normally planned for operations and without extensively adding other forms of automation,
would result in a 109o increase in output in high-voIume machining operations (not including >>
used in
and nearly a 15% increase m output m mid- and low-volume production If robots were

become
• In the nexi few years, time lost to equipment failures could conceivably increase as systems
an m
mote automated and more complex However, we expect improvements m machine reliability
equip
sensor-based diagnostic systems to improve machine and system reliability and to reduce
failures over the next two d«ades
fom
t We borrow the broader defintion of robotics as machines that can "sense, think and act
Professor Raj Reddy, Director of the Camegie-Mellon Ri^tics Institute
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m SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

TABLE 25.11. SUM.MARY OF POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON CAPACITY

Potential Capaoty Increases

Type of Plant Base Case Robots Only Robots with CAM

High-Volume
Available hour index 100 1 31 131
Throughput index t 00 1 11 139
Output index 100 US 1 82
Increase in output (%) 45 82

Mid-Volume
Available hour index 100 2 98 2 98
Throughput index 100 1 14 155
Output index 100 340 4 62
Increase in output (%) 240 362

Low-Volume Single Shift

Available hour index 100 4 35 4 35

Throughput index ICO 1 16 1 52
Output index 100 5 05 661
Increase in output (%) 405 561

Low-Volume Double Shift

Available hour index too 2 \1 217

Throughput index 100 1 16 152
Output index 100 2 52 3 30
Increase in output (%) IS2 230

Sourrts- Potentul increases in output denved from data m Tables 25 7-2S 10

systems Thus if ue assume that hours available for production could be increased to its upper luniti
»e should consider the case of robots used in conjunction with other CAM
technologies For the
“robots with CAM”
case, high-volutnc machining operations show a potential output increase of
Mid-volume manufactunng and low-volume producers already on a double shift show a potential
output increase of 360 and 230fe respectively For low-volume producers operating on normal single
shifts, the potential increase is 560% In mid- and low-volume manufactunng, potential increases m

TABLE 25.12. PERCENT DECREASE IN UNIT COST DERIVED FRO.M

ESTIMATE OF OUTPUT ELASTICITY
Percent Decrease in Unit Cost
Assuming Scale Elasticity Equals
Percent Increase
m Output -0 295* -0436»

50 113 162
100 185 261
200 27 7 38 1

300 33 6 4S4
400 37 8 504
500 410 542
1000 507 648

Source Miller"
• Output elasticity includes the eSects of the use of more automated iyp« of machinery

with higher throughput rates and increases in machine utilization rates

* Output elasticity includes the effects of both the use of more automated types of
machin-

ery with higher throughput rates and increases in machine utilization rates
and merging
uy
emphasis on using lower-cost materials and on designing for ease of manufacturs
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484 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Minimal Cost lor A Crwen Volume (Conventional Technologies!

® Minimal Cost lotAGiven Wohrmel flexible Technologies!

Fig 25 6. Potential impact of robotics and CAM on cost per part and batch processes (Sourci
Repnnted from Reference I

In general, if capacity could be increased significantly, flexible manufacturing systems could reduce
both fixed and vanable costs of batch production per unit Figure 2S 6 shows how robotics and CAM
promise to shift the existing average unit cost curve envelope of Figure 25 3 closer to the ultimate
lower limit (materials cost) over much of the spectrum of the production rates, particularly the mid-
to-high-volume range

25.6.3. The Consequences of Dramatic Improvements in Productive Capabilities

Suppose, as we suggest, unit cost m batch and

custom manufacturing could be reduced below current
levels, mostly as a result of expanding the capacity (and output) of existing facilities * There are
several consequences for employment, depending on how demand for the product changes as pnee
declines This relationship is given by a parameter referred to as a product's (own) price elasticity of
demand, defined as the percentage increase m demand for a 1% decrease in pneef A distinction is
usually drawn between three cases as follows

higher
• Much of the savings could, m pnnciple, be achieved without eliminating labor However, the
o
machine utilization rates can only be achieved by using computers and robots to control the flow
work within the whole factory, eliminating the need for much of the “hands-on labor,” which
it coo
j

turn eliminates worker-related slowdowns and bottlenecks If capacity increases are achieved,
be profitable to pay some of the current workers just to stay out of the way m order that the
mac in
accepts .

can be more fully utilized However, this is unhkely to be the most productive, or socially
use of human resources It also depends on being able to sell the additional output
of other
t The demand for a product depends on its own price, as well as the pnee
o t
could be used as substitutes In the following discussion, we assume that only the pnee P
.
^
varta es, su
m question is varying, and that pnees of other products and of other important
income levels, remain constant
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 4«6 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
elistiaiy (-5) If demand increased by only *s much as pnces decreased (50Cc), then employment of
production workers would drop 40^ from previous levels.
The foregoing examples suggest that if robotic technologies were to be wridely used, not all displaced
workers could be expected to be reemployed m
their current tndusines as a result of pnce reductions
and increased demand The effects of pnce reductions on demand and the net employment effect,
balancing job displacement and job creation, will vary considerably among the various metiIworlin|
industnes. depending on the nature of the product and its market The logical conclusion is that
employment of production workers in most manufaclunng tndustnes would decrease, despite substantial
improsemencs m productivity within these industries and possible increases in production This docs
not mean, however, that total employment m
the economy as a whole would decrease Substantial
reductions in the pnc« of intermediate and capital goods (for example, 20^ in the first example
and SOTc in the second) should reduce the cost of manufaclunng consumer goods and of creating
new goods and services, both of which will increase the consumer's real buying power This will, m
turn, stimulate effective demand for other goods and services This should create new employment
opportunities
There one important point that has been overlooked in the preceding examples and in economic
is

analysis in general We implicitly assumed that the only way to utilize the “extra” capacity made
available by using robotic systems was to increase the output of the goods that are already produced
in that factory (or industry) However, there ts an option of making greater use of the expanded
capabilities and of the flexibility of robotic production systems to produce a wider range of products
and to manufacture new, high*performance products Tlius simply looking at the pnce elasticity of
demand for current products might substantially underestimate the extent to which additional flexible
capaaty could be utilized If the benefits of robotics and of other types of programmable manufactunng
technologies are to be fully exploited, there needs to be a concurrent emphasis on the development
of new products to utilize the expanded capabilities and the greater capacity A new strategy that
places much more emphasis on product performance and less on standardization and cost reduction
might require an abrupt shift in many existing corporate strategies
H ill the bfutfiu of mbotic lethnelogy be fully appteeiated and exploited by today's maniii/af/iiri/Tg
management? Almost all of the existing installations of robotics and of flexible manufactunng systems
have been motivated by the desire to reduce the cost, pnncipally the labor cost, of produced existing
goods To date, robotic production technologies have had little effect on product design and development
and on marketing strategy If this trend continues, the implications are that the amount of job creation
might be small in comparison to displacements But past trends with respect to the motivations for,
and uses of, robotics might be a misleading indicator of future applications To dale, producers have
had relatively little expenenee with programmable manufactunng technologies, and it u to be expected
that the initial applications are motivated by some of the more conservative and easily realized goals
However, there are already strong indications that designers and stratepsts within some of the major
manufacturing companies are giving senous attention to integrating developments in robotics and
other manufacturing teehnolopes with product development (using computer>aided design, (^D) and
overall corporate strategy If this trend continues, then there would be reason to expect that the
widespread use of robotic technolopcs will directly and indirectly create many more jobs than it
displaces
To summanze the foregoing argument, the primary economic benefit of robotics is likely to be a
reduction in the real cost of manufactunng products made in small to medium batches Capital goods—
machine tools and the other types of durable equipment —
as well as the parts used within them are
largely batch produced • Thus the pnce of capital goods m
relation to final products can be expected
to decline significantly over the next quarter century This will cause secondary npple effects on the
pnces of other manufactured goods and services throughout the economy This, in turn, will redure
the real pnce of final output of mass-produced consumer goods, as well as the real pnce of output of
the nonmanufactunng sectors Final demand would also be stimulated to some extent, depending on
the sensitivity of final demand to pnce (For consumer goods, high pnce elasticities tend to be more
the rule than the exception ) Lower production costs vvill also have a beneficial impact
on the rale of
inflation is caus^ by “too much money chasing too few goods.” an increave m
Insofar as inflation
productivity perhaps the best way to break out of the vicious cycle. Ultimately, such changes will
is

also affect other important macroeconomic vanables. including the overall level and composition of
employment and the level and disinbution of income These second-order effects, while less immeduie.
may have greater ultimate importance than the immediate improvements in labor productivity in manu-
facturing It IS beyond our present scope to attempt to forecast the detailed nature, the magnitude,
or the lime phasing of these broader econoniywide economic impacts ,

We expect improved robots and substantial reductions m the pnce of inlcrmedwte and ”1^'*
goods to play an important role in facilitating the development of several capital-intensive |ro»t

• Automobiles and consumer appliances, such as refngerators. air-condilioners, and washing

machines,

are mass produced, but arc not classified as capital goods since they are sold to consumers
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 488 SOOAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
TABLE 25.13. EMPLOYMENT OF PRODUCTION WORKERS, 1980. METALWORIONG
AND TOTAL MANUFACTURING
Employment in Total Employ- Employment in
Metal woriung ment, All Metalworking {?l)
Occupation SIC (33-38) Manufactunng

Total, 9,964,878 20.361,568 48 9

all occupations
Production workers, 6,688,306 14,190,289 47 1

total (craft workers,

operatives, + laborers)
Craft and related 2,015.212 3,768,395 534
workers, total
Metalworking 582,861 668,002 87 2
craft workers
Other 1,432,351 3,100,393 461
craft workers
Ofieraiives, total 4.060.916 8,845,318 45 9
Nontransport 3,880,876 8,134,123 47 7
operatives
Assemblers 1.311.870 1.661,150 78 9
Metalworking 1,030,132 1,069,540 96 3
machine operatives
All other machine 893,701 4.231,988 21 1

operatives
Welders and 369,558 4(0,629 92 2
flame cutters
Production 79.594 106,178 74 9
painters
Packing and 78,413 587,631 133
inspection opera-
tives
Sawyen I7.6<M 76,728 22 9
Transport I80.(MO 711.195 254
operatives
Laborers, except 612,178 1,576,576 38 8
farm
Nontransport 4.493,054 9.710,699 462
operatives and labor-

Source Repnnted from Ayres and MiUer •

true that most early robot applications in these jobs will be in metalworking since metal products
are most suitable for robot handling
While the majonty of jobs that can be robotized are semiskilled operative jobs, there are already
robot applications m
heat treating, sheet metal work, and forge and hammer operations, all of which
are classed as skilled jobs As computer-aided design and manufactunog become more integrated,
and factones are redesigned to fully exploit robotics and other types of programmable automation, a
larger fraction of the so-called skilled metalworking will witbm the domain that can be
craRs be
automated
The analysis of
technical potential for replacing workers by robots has been estimated from an
industry employment by occupation and from survey responses of the potential for substitution within
a given occupation Two levels of robot technology are distinguished robots similar to those on the
market m 1981 (Level 1) and robots with rudimentary sensory capabilities (Level 2) In 1980 t ere
were nearly 6 7 million production workers employed m the metalworking sector in the Umted mates
Of these, nearly 5 million worked within the three broad categories of jobs most amenable to
tion —metalworbng craft workers, semiskilled machine operators, and laborers (see Table 25 13)
*
on the survey results, we estimate that Level I robots theoretically could replace 16% of the
a ion
m these three groups, and that Level 2 robots theoretically could replace 40% of the same popu
in
of workers Thus, if all the potential for job displacement of Level I robots were realized in metalwor
,

more than 800,000 jobs could be eliminated If Level 2 robots were available and fully
‘

eliminated * f*
additional 1 2 million jobs, or a total of nearly 2 nulhon jobs, theoretically could be
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 ) '

490 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

IS (hat young people seekwg jobs near future mil have to learn marketable skills other than
in ihe
welding, machining, and other operative tasks that are now being robotized Even though the adjustment
problems seem manageable, the potential for social unrest in specific locations cannot be dismissed
so lightly Consider the following points

1. —
Nearly half of all the unskilled and scniiskilled “operative" workers the types of jobs which
—
could be replaced by robots are concentrated in four metalworking industnes (SIC 34-37) In the
United States almost one-half of all production workers in these four industries are geographically
concentrated in (he five proaimatc Great Lakes States (Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin)
plus New York and California In the five Great Lakes Slates, the metalworking sector also accounts
for a large percentage of the total statewide employment in manufacturing Adjustments in response
to the rapid diffusion of roboticsmay be intensified in these areas (The adverse impacts of not improving
the productivity and competitive standing of these industnes would also be concentrated in the same
few states, of course
2. Older established workers will generally be protected by union seniority rules, except in cases
where Ihe whole plant closes Unfortunately, this is happening with increasing frequency Even m
the newest, most efficient plants, some younger workers with less senioniy may be “burap^ ” When
either event occurs, the displaced worker starts again at the bottom of the ladder Thus reemployed
"displacees" are also more vulnerable to subsequent layoffs A class of perpetually insecure, marginal
workers could result This would be a potential source of soaal problems and political dissension
3. The states where jobs are most likely to be lost to robots are mainly in the North Central

became established with a stable employer

4. There would likely be a disproportionate impact on racial minonttes and on women Konwhites
account for only 11% of the national workforce, but comprise more than 16% of total etnployisent
and unskilled manufacturing jobs Women employed in semiskilled and unskilled inanufac*
in semiskilled
tunng jobs are less likely to be represent^ by labor organizations than their male counterparts De
facto economic discnmmation will accordingly increase
5. Unions representing the affected categorized workers will probably expenence sharp declines
in membership and political/economic clout A policy of organized resistance to Ihe introduction of
labor-saving technologies might seem attractive to fearful workers and their unions, resulting in a severe
drag on the productivity of the manufacturing sector

Projected employment trends in the meulworkmg industnes provide a point of departure for estimat-
ing (he potential displacement of employees (hat could take place m
the i980s Projections of mdustiy
employment for 1990 (sec Table 25 15) are made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), denved
from a macroeconomic model of the economy as a whole The productivity and employment estimates
assume continuing technological change but make no special assumptions about the impact of robots
or related technical advances for employment in the 1980s
Within manufacturing, employment growth rates for the durable goods industnes (comprised mostly
of the metalworking industnes) are higher than growth rates for nondurable goods industries According
to B1.S projections, by 1990 more than bairofall employment in manufactunngwillbein the metalwork-
ing industnes (SIC 33-38) Machinery, except electn^ (SIC 35) and fabneated metal products (SIC
34), are projected to have Ihe highest growth rates in employment among the metalworking industnes
At the more detailed industry level, lypewnters and erffice equipment and computers and pcnpheral
equipment, both in SIC 35, are projected to be among the most rapidly growing industnes throughout
the entire economy On the basis of BLS projections, we see that the manufactunng industnes most
increases m
likely to be subject to robotization m the 1980s are also those in which above-average
employment would otherwise be anticipated ,
These figures suggest that if robots arc fully implemented over the next decade, increases in manufac*
tunng output will not necessarily be accompanied by increases in employment requirements, es^ia* 7
iro
for operatives and laborers The extent to which the potential impacts will become translated
wage
actual displacement of people from jobs will »l«iv depend on the rate of investment m industry,
trends, and robot price trends and performance v
r t i, *y
Job losses that may have a minor effect on total employment can have a magnified impact
are concentrated in specific industries A
total loss of a million jobs would have a
modest effec
total employment if Ihe displacement were evenly dispersed throughout the country
The
~
amount to less than 1% of the total pnv > e • I »s- -i s I
•

(low-growth trend) The social problems •*,•••, i i'-

'•i ‘

majority of the job losses occurredm few}“ i' • 'i, •• •> '
i
'

occupations in areas that are already expenencing slow economic growth

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492 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

by the year 2000 On the average, skilled workers »re older, but they arc not as likely to be replaced

190,000 retirees from the Big Three automobile manufacturers among its members in the late 1970s
Faced with escalating Social Secunty taxes and costs, national policy has been shifting from favonng
early retirement as an employment-creating system for young persons toward proposals to keep more
older persons in the labor force Recent proposals to raise the age for qualifying for full Social Secunty

of creating intergenerational conflicts within the unions, since the gains for the employed memben
must be traded off for inflation adjustments or other benefits for older persons who are already retired
or who are about to retire
Unions can be expected to favor two approaches in dealing with the job losses for their members
threatened by robotization The first is to transfer and retrain the displaced employees into other
jobs that have been created by attntion or by growth This type of remedy is likely to be least costly
to employers and to constitute a minimum barrier to the introduction of robots The limitation of
this approach is that it assumes a pace of roboiization that is consistent with the number of suitable
job Ofiemngs created within the same plant (or in other plants belonging to the firm) Intraflrm transfers
may not be possible in small firms or in declining mdustnes, or may be impeded by union rules As
a rule, there are severe restnctions on the transferability of senionty rights for promotion and for
protection against job layoffs Seniority nghls in these two cntical areas are usually forfeited if the
worker transfers out of the bargaining unit * In some contracts, senionty is specific to particular
work areas within the plant There are even cases where these nghts are only retained if the worker
remains within a specific occupation within the bargaining unit Nontransferability of senionty t$ one
of the most elfective impediments to labor mobility since i< inhibits upgrading of skills, especially
among older employees
The other approach favored by many unions is to attempt to protect threatened jobs by raising
the cost of introducing new technology and, in this way, iransfernng part of the productivity gam
from employers to employees Policies in this category include restnctive work rules, shortening the
work week, lengthening paid vacations, or adding paid personal holidays They also include employment
guarantees and employer-financed pensions for older employees who retire early Another possible
measure intended to assure that workers' interests are considered in the decisions affecting job displace-
ment IS a requirement for advance notice to be given to unions before the new technology can be
introduced A
side effect of these measures, however, is to slow down the introduction of new technology,
thus adversely affecting international competitiveness Typical collective-bargaining contract provisions
found in US labor contracts are shown m
Tabic 25 16 According to Koshiro,’ the Federation of
Japanese Automobile Workers Union asked Nissan and all of its related companies m 1981 for an
agreement on new technology which requested prior consultation on technological change, protection
against layoffs due to the introduction of robots, no demotions or wage reductions due to robots,
and education and retraining for workers prior (o, and aflcf, the introduction of robots.

25.7.4. Job Openings

In the occupations expected to be pnmanly affected by robotization, the job openings likely to be

created by attntion in the 1980s provide a basis for assessing policies dealing with displacement dun^
the next two decades Attntion rates for semiskilled workers in metalworking are approximately 3%
these
a year, depending on the sex and age distnbuiion ofthe persons employed in them However,
figures substantially underestimate the number of people transfernng out of specific occupations, since
they include only people who A 3% per annum attntion rate suggests an
leave the establishment t

ove ime,
• Senionty nghts for other pnvileges, such as vacation preferences, health care, pensions, or for
as
arc more easily transferred across bargaining units within the same company If a union such
UAW has national agreements with a large company, there are exceptional circumstances under wan ic

senionty nghts can be transferred In some instances when this has happened m
the past, the transp
worker was greeted with hostility by other workers in the plant to which he transferred
quits,
t Attrition IS used to refer to workers who leave the establishment as a result of
permanent disability, death, retirement, or transfers to other companies The other
mam .

days
labor turnover are layoffs (suspensions without pay for more than seven consecutive
separation
the employer) Together, the attntion rale and the byoff rate compnse the “total
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 494 SOCUL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
elderly, the retarded, and the handicapped would be reflected in new kinds of jobs for persons with
the appropnate retraining Private and public efforts to rehabilitate physical infrastructure (badges,
subways, watcr/sewer systems, etc ) could create large numbers of job opemngs that could be filled
partially by displaced production workers
The 40-hour standard work week has remained unchanged in most manufacturing industnes for
the last 20 years White-collar workers typically enjoy a shorter work week For example, two-thirds
of all office workers m the finance, insurance, and real estate sectors now work a standard work
week of less than 40 hours A gradual reduction in the standard work week, leaving the hourly wage
unchanged, would dimmish job losses by spreading the available work over more employees Clearly,
the reduction in annual work hours could be accomplished in various ways Sabbaticals, now confin^
to teachers and to some civil servants and steel workers, could be extended generally to production
' ‘ ’ " « •
workers Required sabbaticals,
for babies, or to become a stude
while on a sabbatical could pn "

with shanking enrollments b^use of low bmh rates two decades earlier

25.8. IMPLICATIONS FOR RETRAINING

In their study of the human resource implications of robotics. Hunt and Hunt* conclude

The most remarkable thing about the job displacement and job creation impacts of industrial
robots IS the skill-twist that emerges so clearly when the jobs eliminated are compared to the
jobs created. The jobs eliminated are semi-skilled or unskilled, while the jobs created require
significant technical background. We submit this is the true meaning of the robotics reyolunon

Based on the Japanese expenence, Kuwahara** amves at the same conclusion

Traditional skills of craftsman are being replaced by machines or diluted into simpler skills
On the other hand, new types of skills have emerged Major characteristics of these new types of
skills are profound knowledge concerning complicated machinery and its functioning, programming
ability, and perspectives upon the total machine system. This transformation makes it more and

more difficult for aged workers to follow and adapt to the new technology

Hunt and Hunt suggest (hat an effictent human resource management strategy would be to train
the former semiskilled operator to operate a machine that will not be robotized and to concentrate
the robotics-related training (repair and maintenance) on plant maintenance workers who are already
skilled We add that older, displaced workers without skills would be most effectively used in semiskilled
jobs that robots can not perform well, namely, those requiring complex types of sensory-mformation
processing
Koshiro* reports the results of a survey by the Japan Economic Research Institute on the impact
of numencal control and microelectronics on the quality of work life m
Japan Most of the companies
responded that they want to utilize the skill of older workers in spite of technological progress and
that older workers will require more reeducation and retraining to cope with the new technologies.
Many firms indicated they would use older workers in the development of advanced software

2SS. CONCLUSIONS
The increased use of robots forces socicly to confront the short-term prospects of technological displace-
ment and the longer-term prospects of basic structural shifts in the economy But robots are only
one of several change agents m the work environment Concurrent advances in product design, metal
will also
cutting, metal forming, finishing, assembly, and inspection, under the control of computers,

by trade
industry mix and changes m the competition of the labor force are indirectly influenced
and defense policies too
shou
As a nation, are not confronting radical technological changes for the first time Robots
we
not be given the credit (or blame) for mitiating these changes This does not make the
problems associated with the phasing ui of robots less important, or less urgent It does
wou n
the need to cope with technological change is conlinuing Resistance to the use of robots
of having a surplus of peopk whose skills are no longer needed while
I
affect the likelihood
tec no ogi
simultaneous shortage of people with the ^ills required to develop and support the new
Both mismatches are potentially troublesome .. .
.f,g
Expenences from a long history of technological innovation in the S. economy sugges
U ,
on fac ors
rate of robot introduction, as well as the social impacts of their use, will depend
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496 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

6. Yonemoto, Kanji, The soao-economic impacts of industna] robots in Japan, Industna! Robot.
Vol 8, No 4, December 1981, pp 23&-241
7. Koshiro, Kazutoshi, The Employment Effect of Microelectronic Technology, in Highlights in
Japanese Industrial Relations. A Selection of Ameles for the Japan Labor Institute. Japan Institute
of Labor, Tokyo, 1983. pp 80-88
8. Vietonsz.T , USIDO Monographs on Industnal Development Volume 4 Engineering Industry.
United Nations Industnal Development Agency, Vienna. Austna, 1969
9. Schraft, R. D , Scbults, E., P
Po^bilities and Limits for the Application of
and Ntcolaisen, ,

Industnal Robots m
New Field, in 10th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Milan,
IFS Publications, Ltd Bedford, England, 1980
,

10. Borzcik. P S Manufactunng Systems, in Thompson, A R , Working Group Chairman

, Flexible
(Ed Machine Tool Systems Management and Uiiliiation, Machine Tool Task Force Report on
),

the Technology of Machine Tools. Vol 2, Lawrence laverroore National Laboratory, October
1980, pp 62-74
11. Miller, S M , Potential Impacts ofRobotKS on Manufacturing Cost Hithin Metalworking Industries

PhD thesis. Camegie-Mellon University. 1983

12. Mayer. J E, and Lee, D
Estimated Requirements For Machine Tools Dunng the 1980-1990
,

Penod, in Thompson. Arthur R (Ed ), Machine Tool Systems Management and Utilisation, Ma-
chine Tool Task Force Report on the Technology of Machine Tools, Vol 2, Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, October 1980, pp 31—41
13. Carter, Charles F , Towards Flemble Automation. Manufactunng Engineenng. Vol 89, No 2,
August 1982, pp 75-79
14. —
Kuwahara, Yasuo, Living with New Technology Japan’s Expenence with Robots, in Highlights
in Japanese Industnal Relations. A Selection of Articles for the Japan Labor Institute. Japan
Institute of Labor, Tokyo, 1983, pp 75-79

15. Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor. Characteristics of Major Colleetive Bargain-
ing Agreements. I January 1980. Government Pnniing Office, Bulletin 2095, Washington, D C
1981

BIBLIOGRAPHY
AFL-CIO, Industnal Union Depanmeni, Comparative Survey of Major Collective Bargaining Agree-
ments. Manufactunng and Son-Manufacturing. Technical Report, AFL-CIO, January 1982

Amencan Machinist, The 12(h Amencan Machinist Inventory of Metalworking Equipment, 1976'
1978, Amencan .Machinist. Vol 122, No 12. December 1978, pp 133-148
Ayres, R U and Miller, S M
Robotics and Conservation of
,
Human Resources, TKhnology and
Society. Vol 45, No 3. Winter 1982
Bureau of Labor US
Dept of Labor, Occupational Employment in Manufacturing Industries,
Statistics,
1977, Government Pnnting Office, Bulletin 2057, Washington, DC, 1980
Hasegawa, Yukio, How Society Should Accept the Full-Scale Jnfrwfucfion ofIndustrial Robots, Technical
Report, Japan External Trade Organization, Machinery and Technology Department, 1982
Hasegawa. Yukio, Age of Robolizatiaru Technical Report. Japan External Trade Organization. Machin-
ery and Technology Department. 1982
Robot Institute of Amenca, Robot Institute of America Worldwide Robotics Survery and Directory
Society of Manufactunng Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, 1982
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 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

regarded as the capital equipment most closely related to robots, averaged only 15% annually for
the penod from 1965 to 1981 and only 12% annually dunng the 10-year period from 1972 to 1981
in the United States Furthermore, after 25 yean, only 3-4% of all metal-cutting machine tools are
numerically controlled Hunt and Hunt also report that digital computers, widely heralded as the
most significant technological innovation of the 1960s and 1970s, had an annual percenUge increase

industrial technology,two areas out of the several that might be ascnbed a significant role seem
most important for the purpose of this chapter These two interrelated areas are social/demographic
and human factors

26.1.1, Social/Demographic Factors

Several social and demographic factors must be considered in conjunction with the speed and degree
to which Amenca becomes a high-tech information society These factors, developing mresponse to
existing social, political, and economic needs, include (I) rcdedication of resources to basic mdustnal
sectors of our society, (2) anticipated shifts in the labor force; and (3) fear of massive unemployment
because of any type of automation These countertrends to how we move into a new mdustnal age
will have their own impact on the types of skills required by the labor market in the near and not
so near future and how these skills will be developed through education, training, and/or retraining
programs

26.1.2, Rededication of Resources to Basic Industrial Sectors

Amitai Etzioni believes that the changed economics of world energy and the decaying state of the
economy's infrastructure have been recognized and that a redirection is being achieved of resources
to basic secion of the society (mining, transporution, construction, steel) that have been neglected
and cannot be replaced by high technology and knowledge industries * Our national secunty requires
that we not rely on other nations for shipbuilding, steel manufacturing, and mineral mining, especially
coal The United Stales must shore up its maienats infrastructure and capital goods sectors after a
generation of public and pnvate overconsumption and underinvestment This entails repainng U S
ports, railroads, highways and waterways, pipelines, building massive plants for synthetic ftiels, and
substituting for existing machinery energy-efficient models that could possibly be adapted to energy
other than oil These are all pnmary- and secondary-sector heavy-duty industries By such rededieation
of resources, Etzioni has estimated, two out of three workers will work in essential basic industries
and related services while only one-third of the work force will engage in high technology

26.1.3, Pace of Labor Force Shifts

Anticipated changes m
the labor force m
the various sectors of the economy do occur, but at a very
— —
slow pace less than 1% a year Far from closing down One sector and opening another—a marginal
and Very gradual shift of resources takes place Etzioni points out that over a penod of 20 years
(1959-1979), the proportion of workers employed in manufactunng declined at an average annual
rate of 0 175%, and is expected to decline another I 4%
by 1990 * Between 1959 and 1979, services
increased their share of the labor force at an average annual rate of 0 3%, a nse of less than 2% is
expected by 1990 Although each percentage point represents man thousands of people, in actuality
there is only a gradual shift in the total employment mix

26.1.4, Fear of Massive Unemployment

Fear of massive unemployment with the introduction of new production processes is as old as the
mdustnal era Both labor and unions have often obstructed or delayed the introduction of automated
processes out of concern for the loss of jobs These fears arc particularly acute dunng major recessions
recovery
For example, the automation problem caused national concern m
the early 1960s after a slow
from the sharp recession of 1958-1959 There were gmn predictions that automation was causing
permanent unemployment m
the auto and other industnes A national commission was appointed
W
render
study the problem, and m
1966, with the labor force almost fully employed, the commission
cause o
Its final reports It concluded, to no one's surpnse, that a sluggish economy was the major

unemployment rather than automation Nevertheless, pressures from labor and unions to preserve

and protect jobs had an impact on the introduction of automated processes

26.1.5, Human Factors

Three human factors stand out as important in the application of mdustnal robotiw m
the

personnel, (2) I e
States (I) the lack of skilled and trained profesuonal and paraprofcssional
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 500 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

TABLE 26.1. ECTI.MATES OF THE NUMBER OF JOBS ROBOTS COULD DO IN ALL

MANUFACTURING
Percentage of Jobs Number of Jobs That
Total Employed, That Could Be Done Could Be Done
1979 (All
Occupiation Manufactunng) Level 1“ Level 2* Level 1® Level 2*

Assemblers 1,289.000 10 30 128,900 386,700

Checkers, examiners and
inspectors 746,000 15 35 111,900 261,100
Packers and wrappers (except
meat and produce) 626.000 IS 40 93,900 250,400
Production painters 1 85,000 45 65 83,250 120,250
Welders and flaraecutteis 713,000 25 50 178,250 356,600
Machine operators 3.027.000 20 50 605,400 1,513,500
6.586.000 1,201,600 2,888,450

Source The Impacts of Robotics on the Workforce and Workplace, Department of Engtneenag and
Public Policy, School of Urban and Public Affairs, Camegie-Mellon University, 1981

* Level 1 robots have no sensory input

^ Level 2 robots have sensory capabilities such as rudimentary vision and touch

Converting the projected number of robots into numbers of displaced workers is misleading, however,
because automation affects different tasks in different ways Analyses are needed that relate effect of
the technology on specific segments of the work force to establish a time frame for possible displacement
In addition, detailed analyses must develop strategies for both the development and the diffusion of
the technology
For example, if an entire production cell is computer controlled, then human workers will not be
needed except for maintenance, provision of the necessary material inputs, and for movement to output
If off-line reprogramming capability becomes available, then human operators will not even be ne^ed
to switch to the next batch Such flexible automated systems will ultimately be linked together and
will lead to the automated factory of the future
However, both flexible cells or systems and the automated factory are still in the future Bela
Gold, an economist at Case Western Reserve who has studied technological change for more than
20 years, expects this “factory of the fu(ure“ to lie beyond the year 2000 *
Hunt and Hunt do not concur with the Ayres and Miller theory that suggests that the gradual
job displacement by occupation is proof (hat our public institutions are currently training their cLentele
m obsolete skills.** They note that Ayres and Miller offer no evidence about the nature of emerging
occupations. If policy responses to the challenges of the future are to be formulated, including the
possible effects of robotics technology on the work force, then the assessment must be based upon
the most probable events expected to occur wiihin a definite time frame For these reasons, new methods
of occupational forecasting need to be devised and employed to assess the impact of robotics technology
and other technologies upon the work forces of present industnes and employers, and to provide
reliable forecast information for guiding the development of education, training, and retraining programs
for transition to the year 2000

26J.1. Job Displacement

Before discussing the displacement effects of robots, it is important to ensure that the meaning of the
term “displacement" is clear Displacement refers to the elimination of particular jobs, not
layoff of mdividual workers Clearly it is possible that using a robot for a particular job could
leM
to the
to the layoff of the occupant of that job, but this is not necessarily the case Layoff refers
jo
involuntary separation of a worker from his job, displacement refers to the ehmination of the
Itself
There is general agreement that although job displacement due to robots will not be a
problem before 1990, there are specific areas that will be significantly affected and that can ^
are
be identified. Chief among these will be painting and welding jobs, for which today’s robots
a
weU suited Metalworking machine operations and assemblers will also be affected, but to
the curr
extent It is not expected that job displacement will lead to significant job loss among
mig
employed Turnover rates histoncally have been suffiaent to offset the reduction in force
t

occur It will be the new entrants to the labor market who will find more and mw fa^oo^
less educat
closed Thus if robotics technology reduces the work force, the less experienced.
of the labor force will be the most affected
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502 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

of robotics

26.3. SKILL SHIFTS ARE INEVITABLE

A National Alliance of Business study found that the skills of worken likely to be displaced by automated
manufactunng technology differ greatly from those required for high-growth jobs '* What was evident,
according to the study, is that the displaced workers often must undergo significant retraining and/
or reeducation before being able to qualify even for entry-level positions in some of the occupations
where the largest number of jobs will be
Some dispanty in skills would exist even if the shift w«-e mainly within the manufactunng sector
Jobs created by automation will require technical skills that production workers may not possess
For example, the results of Hunt and Hunt’s study on robotics effects in automobile plants in Michigan
show significant movement of factory jobs from production line to professional categones Thus signifi-
cant retraining would be required in this area of displaced workers on the producfion line Furthermore,
most new jobs created by robotics will require a vanety of technical skills not needed for today's
jobs Such a skill shift could present problems for people training for manufactunng occupations
since their skills could be obsolete in a few years Failure to recognize a potential mismatch Ixtween
skills and jobs could result in both unemployment and a shortage of workers trained to program,
operate, and maintain automated machinery

26.3.1. Skill Twist

The most remarkable aspect of the job displacement and job creation impacts of industnal robots is

the skill twist that emerges so clearly when ihe yobs eliminated are compared to the jobs created
The jobs eliminated are semi- or unskilled, whereas the jobs created require significant technical back-
ground This skill twist IS the most salient factor m the impact of robotics on education and training

26.3.2. Transfer of Skills

Stump into uncovenng the human performance requirements (knowledges,

'The basic research efforts of
and attitudes) that are consistent across a variety of occupations should be reexamined and
skills,

expanded in view of the skill shifts created by the implementation of robotics technology “ Stump
raisessuch questions as, “What are transferable skills’” "What charactenstics of jobs should be consid-
ered common’” His research has explored the development of classification and analysis systems that
permit the identification of potential transfer of skill from one occupation to another—also, Ihe determi-
nation of the similanties of performance requirements of jobs and the nature of the process of transferring
performance from one program to another or from one pb to another
It may not be necessary to develop different training programs for each emerging occupation

According to Dr Leonard Greenhalgh. Assistant Professor of Business Administration at Dartmouth

College, these new jobs will have certain basic similarities It will thus be the duty of the public
schools to teach these basic core requirements and the company that hires the graduate will tram
the person for its specific needs

B. EDUCATION AND TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

26.4. SHORTAGE OF SKILLED PERSONNEL AT ALL LEVELS

One of the most consistently identified bamers to efficient applications of robotics technology is the
shortage of engineers, technicians, and other skilled persocmel trained in automated manufactunng
systems
Interna-
Industry executives recognize the pr(4>lem Management in automation users such as Ford,
specifically ®
tional Harvester, and Deere and suppliers such as Robogate, Prab, and Autoplace
manufactunng and systems engineers and technicians trained to implement and mainUin
lack of
new manufactunng technology This problem is being linked to our educational system The Ma^^
n
Tool Task Force study on machine tool state of the art, for example, found more programs are
planning, an ^
that offer courees on programming languages for numencal controls, machine shop
computer graphics for machine tools FurtherniOFc. the Task Force reported that
or four
training in manufactunng of machine tools has been neglected dunng the last three
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504 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

inherently interdisciplinary, cutting across the boundanes of traditional engineering departments and

Steenng Committee arc the follovking

Coordinating robotics courses across departments

Acquiring and maintaining laboratory facilities for robotics education

Informing the faculty of seminars and conferences

Maintaining liaison Viith local industnes regarding their educational needs

Curriculum

use now offers four specific courses in robotics

EE 545 Introduction to Robotics

EE 546L Basic Robotics Laboratory

EE/CS 547 SoBware Methods in Robotics

MM/EE 548 Analytical Methods in Robotics

These courses are supplemented by numerous related courses throughout the School of Engineenng
in fields such as

Mechanics
Control theory
CAD/CAM
Engineenng economics
Computer vision

Artificial intelligence

After completing formal courses, promising students arc encouraged to continue work in robotics
by means of seminars and indmdual research The implementation of a degree program m robotics
IS still under consideration Students now take their degrees in a traditional department with a specialira-

tion in robotics

26.6J. Purdue University

A somewhat different approach is followed at Purdue University,*® although, here too, no degree
program in robotics is available yet Three mam courses m
robotics are offered separately by each
of

the Electncal, Industnal, and Mechanical Engineenng schools Each course emphasizes the unique
professional aspects of the school Thus in Electncal Engineenng the course is Robot Manipulator
Programming and Control, in Industnal Engineenng. Industrial Robotics, and in Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Analysis and Design of Manipulators (Tables 26 3 lo 26 5) Students specializing m robotics
are

encouragrf to lake at least two of the courses Thus students arc provided with a multifaceted new
are
of the subject of robotics and the interdisciplinary objective can be better sened The courses
supported by ctlcnsive laboratory eapenments, research projects, and related courses in computer
computenzed manufaciunng. computer-aided design, and image process-
science, artificial intelligence,
Design.
ing A strong influence on robotics education at Purdue comes from the Computer Integrated
center
Manufacture and Automation Center (CIDMAC). a university-industry collaborative research
Schoo o
The center supports interdisciplinary research by the vanous engineenng schools and the
Management, attempting to integrate CAD, CAM. and italics

26.6,3. GMI Engineering and Management Institute

The robotic facilities at GMI Engineenng and Management Institute have been developed
engineenng s
objectives in mmd The pnmary objective is to educate both undergraduate “
^
not on y
and practicing engineers through continuing education (CE) programs This philosophy
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TABLE 26 4. COURSE OUTUNE FOR PURDUES IE 575: INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
Objective

To study the design, control and operation of programmable robot systems in industry Specific
objectives are

1 Review control theory as a basis for robotic manofactunng

2 Analyze problems of design and operation of industrial robot systems
3 Learn, through laboratory expenments, the programming and use of industnal robots
4 Examine new technologies of computer control, robotics and programmable assembly
Recommended Texts

1 Boothroyd. G , Poll, C ,
Murch, L E , Automatic Assembly, M Dekker, 1982
2 Engelberger, J F. Robotics in Pnclice, AMACOM, 1980
3 Wamecke. H J and Schraft, R D , Industrial Robots. I FS Publications, 1982

Laboratory Expenmenis
1 Lab introduction to robots, safely

2 T* leaching
3 Load-unload tasks
4 Palletizing

5 Part insertion
6 RTM exercises

7 IBM AML basic program

8 AML advanced programs
9 Complance
10 Assembly
1 1 Recovery
12 PTP and CP in path control
>3 Multiple robot control

Topics

1 Control fundamentals
a Review of control theory and models
b Control of motion, position and operation
2 Industrial robot hardware
a. Basic structure, control and performance specifications
b Control hardware and sensors
c Design considerations of control systems and mechanical components
3 Robot programming and application planning
a Teaching {T’)
b Programming (AML)
c Robot programming languages
d Task level programming
e Task evaluation (RTM)
4 Control of robotic systems
a Adaptive and optimization control
b Distnbution and hierarchical control
c Operational control
d Algonthms for industnal task control (conveyor tracking, welding, bin picking, inspection)
5 Programmable assembly
a Components and control
b Planning assembly cells
c Economic and other design considerations
d Product design for assembly

Source Nof. S Y

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508 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

nication," offered by the Electrical Engineenng Department, which includes such topics as analog
and digital electronics, controls, vision, speech, and networks

Conlinuing Education (CE) Robotic Programs

procedures for the vanous robots

Future CE Program
New robotic courses are being developed for regular engineenng students, and corresponding continuing
engineenng education courses are planned to be offered to the public

26.7. ROBOTICS AND THE TWO-YEAR COLLEGES

Technical education is defined by the U S Department of Labor as “programs that prepare individuals

at the technical or specialist level in a specialized field of technology in the physical, related engineenng,
"
biological, and/or social sciences
The education of technicians has generally required that they learn and be able to apply the underlying
scientific principles of their special field and the mathematics that support the pnnciples Technicians
also must have enough knowledge and judgment to perform specific portions of the work of the
professionals they support This of^en involves the supervision of skilled or semiskilled workers
Preparation of technicians is different from that of skilled worken or craftsmen, who generally
need to master much less theoretical and more practical science and mathematics related lo the special
skills needed to perfonn their jobs The current developments in industrial robotics will increase the

need for technicians while decreasing the need for semiskilled workers and craftsmen The largest
number of robotics technicians will be taught in formal two-year programs

26.7.1. Robot Technician Job Description

Robot techniaan is a generic term that describes individuals who have sufficient familianty with robotics
technology to be capable of testing, programming, installing, troubleshooting, and maintaining industnal
robots The Occupational Analysis and Testing Section of the U S Department of Labor has recently
(1983) developed a job descnption for Robot Tethmaan and assigned a permanent Dictionary of
Occupational Titles Code, 636 261-580, to this job title (see Table 26 7) This is a new code under
the category of “Miscellaneous Occupations in Machine tnslalhtion and Repair ” New jobs in robotics
will The fourth digit of the occupational code U) and the sixth digit (I)
be assigned in this area
of Analyzing and Precision Working This indicates that a relatively high
refer to the skill levels
skill has been assigned to this job, which can be taken into consideration when establishing
level
training requirements
The Department of Labor has also established a code of 05 05 09 for this job the Guide for m
Occupational Exploration This code, which comes under the category of "Craft Technology.” can
be used for guidance in establishing job relationships or in job counseling

26.7.2. Preparation of Technicians

Sout/i Carolina's Technical Education System iTEC)

A system of 16 technical colleges provides courses specifically geared to the South Carolina job market
for
Currently, TEC is emphasizing its "Design for the Eighties" program which focuses on training
emerging high-technology industries

Piedmont Technical College

Designated the Robotics Resource Center fo • ' '

~ - i - •"d
' '
created under the “Design for the Eighties' .

from industry, education, and the media On^ " "

'
onconsjgnment, and a Seiko watchmaker hast- . .
'

''
for instructors in the State TEC System as '
rt>ooii>. ^
South Carolina Programs have been developed that known experts in the
utilize nationally
field (see Figure 26 I)
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510 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Fig. 26,1. Students at the South Carolina robotics center become acquainted with their new partner
on the production line

research centers Engineering education is receiving Turther assistance from industry to address faculty
shortages in engineenng schools For example. Exxon Educational Foundation is providing SIS million
in grants to 66 institutions to create 100 leaching fellowships and 100 salary-support grants, eight
high-tech conglomerates are financing the Amencan Soaety of Engineenng Education to study faculty
shortages, and the Ford Motor Company is sponsonng a program lo develop a new cumculum with
the Society of Manufactunng Engineenng In addition, the Massachusetts High Technology Council
has proposed that its 125 members coninbute up to 2% of their yearly research budgets toiAard
funding more engineenng faculty and buying computer equipment This funding could reach $14 million
in 1983

.tfrcftigan’s Industrial Technology Institute

An [ndusinal Technology Institute has been established m Michigan with the shared commitment of
the Michigan state goventmeni, the business community, labor, and Michigan’s education network
This nonprofit institute is designed lo use the resources of Michigan’s higher education system, while
working wiih private industry, to develop leading-edge training and retraining programs needed to
integrate advanced robotics technology into the workplace The Institute is supported by pnvaie corpora-
tions, foundations, individuals, and governmental sources

26.9. ROBOTICS AND PRIVATE-SECTOR TRAINING

26.9.1. Engineering Education and Training in Industry

a grrat
In addition to university-industry cooperation eflbrts, industry has taken the initiative to do
deal of teaching itselfAs the pace of technology change accelerates, more training will occur on the
investing
job where new knowledge is generated and skills have been developed For example, Boeing is
has ns
m training engineering graduates lo use iheir computer-automated systems, General Motors
as a post-
own accredited engineenng mstituie, and IBM has grant and fellowship programs as well
doctoral program that bnngs people into their research bbs for one or two years

26.9.2. Training for Users of Robots

is an
David M Osborne** has asserted that proper training, before and after a robot
mstallalion.
training a ec
important factor in the economic use of robots The mam areas in which he sees
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512 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

the use of robots are (1) removing the robot’s false mystique, (2) properly utilizing the robot’s potential,
and (3) maintaining the robot for greatest productive life
Osborne believes that for the best robot installation people must be trained from areas of the
company that may seem far from the actual use of the robot Although each case is different, employees
a company may expect to train include

Process engineers
Tooling engineers
Matenal-handling engineers
Plant engineers
Engineenng staff designing the product
Maintenance staff

Production operators
Production supervisors
Personnel staff
Purchasing staff

Pfant personnel working near the robot that may become uneasy at its presence

While It is obvious that the people who will actually implement the robot and will use it daily as a

part of their work must receive training, it is a relatively new concept that those who will design the

product on which the robot will work must become familiar with its capabilities
Osborne proposes the following five levels of training to be considered by users who plan for the

installation of a robot

1. Extensive technical training

2. Simple technical training
3 Operation training
4 Features/economies training
5. Awareness training

Extensive technical training would include the most intricate details of the working of the robot,
eg, the details for the customer to maintain the robot properly without the help of the vendor Thu
training might not be as necessary if the user is to have a service contract with the vendor, but must
still be considered for the manufacturing engineering staff that will rely on the robot's ability to accom-
plish a task Simple technical training might include the development of skills such as the repair of
the robot and its ability to interact with other equipment
Operational training would include such features as the programming and the day-to-day operation
of the robot Education on the features and the economies of robot operation could include the ability
of vanous robots to accomplish the dilTercnt tasks of the user and the relative ments the robot has
for the economic operation of the plant
Awareness training is a simple explanation of the facts about robots that will allow everyone to
judge a robot properly on its real features
Much of the training that is needed by the customer can be provided by the robot vendor A
suggested schedule of training that could be expected to fill all of the user needs is listed as follows

Electneal maintenance
Mechanical maintenance
Scheduled maintenance
Robot use engineenng
Nontechnical features
Demonstrations and literature for awareness training

technology
Some of the individual classes might be combined to allow several aspects of robotic
to be taught at once

26.10. ROBOTICS AND RETRAINING PROGRAMS FOR DISPLACED WORKERS

The need for large-scale retraining programs depends on how rapidly displacement
determine w ®
of jobs are created, and the location of these j(A» These factors may also
to retrain w
the retraining responsibility It is clear that employers would be more willing
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514 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

The California program, unlike that in Michigan, will provide training, both pnvate and public,
in demand occupations These demand occupations will be given pnonty and will include smog-contro
auto mechanics, aerospace equipment assemblies, data processing equipment repairers, and heavy-equip-
ment mechanics

26.12. ROBOTICS AND VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

Robotia
Patncia A Cole in a report for the CAO Renew called “Vocational Education and the
appare
Revolution" has stressed that as the parameters of the impact of this new technology become
,

with
so do the challenges facing those who must prepare the work force The skills associated
mable automation require new highly technical training programs However, these new
as we i^s^
not need to tram as many people as have the traditional vocational programs, such ^
drafting Thus the vocational education system will have to provide very
con
relatively small number of students At the same lime, the vocational education system wi
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516 SOOAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
about the decline of educational quality ** The report, more than anything else, suggests that what u
needed is not only a revitalization of the decaying state of capital goods and works but also a renaissance
of the American mind m
the classroom, training program, and workplace and a renewal of personal,
moral, and work values.
Histoncally, the entire course of American deveIopm«it was based on what used to be called the
economy of high-wages pnnaplc, for example, that hi^-wage labor undersells low-wage bbor because
It IS high-productivity labor The Amencan worker was better paid, better trained, and more highly

educated (“human capital”) with values that led biia or her to work hard ("social capital") The
most important thing in the development of the wealth and productivity of the United Sutes was
that technological innovation was being made and direct investment was occurring This innovation
—
was in the area of industnal technology stetl-makmg, automotive production, the assembly line, and
most important of all, m expensive machinery embodying better technology at lower cost Industnal
technology was the capital that Amencan bbor was working with then, and will, m the form of
high technology, be working with today and tomorrow Increase m Amencan productivity wiU depend
not only on the availability of capital to develop and expand direct investment in high technology
but also on the education, training, and retraining needed to support, maintam. and expand that
technology
Educational and training institutions in the United States are beginnmg to ask the vital questions
necessary to improve labor productivity —
questions such as “What kinds of professional and technical
education must we produce to enable Amencan labor to work with the new high-technoIogy capital'’
—
What kmds of education professional and technical education in particular—arc being offered in
Europe’’’ “Should we be developing a more advanced professional and technical education system
for this country’” “What type of planning needs lo be done and what educational inputs axe necessary
to tram or retrain the human resource needed for an industrial technology boom’” “How will we
alter our programs to include more women, minonlics. and handicapped who will comprise a larger
proportion of Ihe workforce of the next decade"^
Federal support for education and vocational training has declined, however, leaving questions
unanswered about which sectors of the economy should be responsible for the training and retraining
of new technical skills and for education programs in engineenng. computer science, and other disapliaes,
for which a bottleneck to industnal technology exists
This chapter has attempted to emphasize some promising beginnings education, iraiiung, and m
retraining programs that begin to answer some of these questions and to outline strategies and a
range of education and training needs that must siiU be met

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Pnicker, P F The , re-mdustruiitation of America. The Street Joumat, Tune 15. 198^ p
10

2. Naisbitt, J ,
Megatrends. Ten Sew DtreKUota Transforming Our Livex Warner, 1982
3. Levin, H M and Rumberger, R W . High-Tech Requires Few Brains, lyaskingion Post, January

30. 1983. p 30
4. Bylinski. G , The race to the automatic laclory. Fortune, February 21, 1983, pp 50-61
5. Hunt, H A and Hunt, T L . Robotics. Human Resource Implications for Michigan, W L
Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Michigan, November 1982 (Final Report under
Contract No 99-1-1818-17-23-0, Michigan Occupational Information Coordmaling Committee.)
6
10.
Etzioni, AmiCai, An Immodest Agenda, Rebuilding America Before the 2lsl Century, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1983
7. Etzioni, Amitai, Prematurely Burying our Industnal Society, 77ie Sew York 77mei June 28,

1982
8. Ayres R. and Miller, S, The impacts of robotics on the workforce and workplace, Camegi^
the
Mellon University, Department Engineenng and Public Policy, 1981 The study reports
results of the onginal student project in which Ayres and Miller were the pnncipal investigators
Its estimates of potential job displacement caused by robots were based on a survey of corporate
manufac-
users It concludes that today’s robots could theoretically replace 1 million operatives in
tunng and that the next generation of robots could potentially replace an additional 3 mi on
operatives m manufacturing
9. Gold, Bela, Robotics, Programmable Automation and Increasing Competitiveness, in Exploratory

Workshop on •• States,

Office of Tec >

'
pp 91-117
than expected owing to an overconcentration on the change
iiy-u
have usually been less
neglects the total production framework and its many interactions

Hunt and Hunt, ibid.

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 CHAPTER 27
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
STANDARDIZATION
YUKIO HASEGAWA
Waseda Univeretty
Tokyo, Japan

27.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF STANDARDIZATION

Industnal robots are new machines used mainly to substitute for human workers in many working
places The machines are backed up by such new technologies as computer engineenng. mecbatronics,
and sensory devices and are making progress very rapidly like young creatures
Although there are some opinions expressed that it is too early to start standardization activities
when we think of the age of robotization and the industry for manufacturing them, the author believes
that the necessity of industnal robot standardization is very crucial for the following reasons

1. Establishment of international measure of industnal robot statistics Several years ago, the
Robot Institute ofAmenca surted to make robot population statistics m
cooperation with industnal
robot associations in major countnes However, precise companson of the statistics is very difficult
because no internationally authorized deltniiion and classification of industnal robots has been established
yet
2. International exchange of academic and technical infonsalion Since the first International
Symposium on Industnal Robots (I S I R). held in 1967 in the United States in Chicago, more than
a dozen meetings of 1 S I R have been held in the United States, Europe, and Japan In addition,
other robot events and the distnbution of maienals have been increasingly active However, because
there is no international standard of terminology, symbols, or rules to measure performances of the
robots, exchange of information has been confusing
3. IntemaCional trade of industnal robots When we export and import industrial robots to
and from other countnes, confusion is possibile in understanding of catalog speciHcations, connecting
power and pipes,
cables machines, and so forth
installing
4. Ensunng s^ety Today, the dnving mechanism of passenger cars is very widely mtemationally
standardized We can dnve foreign cats But in the world of industnal robots, the design of
easily
control panels has not yet been standardized Imagine a scene where one operator controls five •'0^“
made in different countnes In case of emergency be may easily confuse the different controls This
situation presents the possibility of senous accidents through mistakes with the robots’ control
In the recent results of surveys by the U S and Japanese governments
5. Education and training
about the impact of robot introduction on workers, it was commonly reported that reeducation m

27.2. INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION ACTIVITIES

27.2,1. Present Status of Industrial Robot Standardization

industry
Figure 27.1 shows the results of a survey by the Robot Institute of Amenca
*^®8arding

robot standardization activities m

each country in the world The survey reports that
has been started eight and not yet in 1 1 robot-using countnes The survey was
m done m .

the author hopes that more countnes will start the standardization process

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520 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
TABLE 27.2. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Overshoot

The degree to which a system response to a step change m reference input goes beyond the desired
value

CompJiant behavior of a robot’s endpoint m

response ro forces everted on it No sensors, controJs,
or actuators are involved The remote center compliance provides this in a coordinate system acting
at the tip of a gripped part

Point-to-Poini Control

A control scheme whereby the inputs or commands specify only a limited number of points along a
desired path of motion The coniro! system determines the intervening path segments

Position Control

Control by a system in which the input command is the desired position of a body

Process Control

Control of the product and associated variables of processes (such as oil refining, chemical manufacture,
water supply, and electneal power generation) which are continuous in time

Source International Standard Organization

27.2.2. International Standard Organization (ISO) Activities

ISO began international standardization of mduslnal robot activities m I97S under Working Group
2, which oversees standards of machine tools, tn a technical committee (TC 97) that handles standariiza-
non of electronic computer and information-processing standardization
The working group, of which the author is the Japanese representative, is composed of specialists
from several countries The following items have been the subject of numerous meetings held in European
countnes

I. Definition

2 Classification

3. Graphic representation
4. Glossary of terms
5. Performance to be tested
6. Safety

working
France, Germany. Japan, Sweden, and the United States have submitted matenals to the
of the projec
group, which IS sch^uled to be reorganized and reinforced because of the importance

27.2.3. Standardization Activities in Each Country

standardization
The author has collected information that the following activities for industrial robot
have been executed m each country

I France host to the fSO working group for industnal robot standardization,
A
representation, an g
submitted its proposal for industnal robot definition, classification, graphic
Normalisation
of terms The activities are organized by the Association Francaisc de
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522 SOaAL AI^ ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Plan

Fig. 27J, Graphic symbols for a cylindncal coordinate n^t and /{dw length between origin
and limit of "out" ("in”) and —$mu maumum tumm| angle of arm in positive (negative)
direction +Za*x and -Zau. length between origin and upper (lower)
limit Rtmtx length between
ongin and outer limit of tail end of arm Z« length between position of arm corresponding to ongin
and ground basis B width of body L length of body H height of body H' height of base
(Source International Standards Organization )

2. West Germany The major standardization activities of industnal robots has been done by
VDI (Society of German Engineers) and some of their work is a* follows definition of industrial
and
robots, charactenstics of handling devices, definition of safety statements, definition of assembly
handling functions, and a glossary of terms
I e
3. Japan Industnal robot standardization efforts are for the most part undertaken through
close cooperation of the Industnal Science and Technology Agency of the Ministry of Intemationd
Trade and Industry and the Japan Industnal Robot Association Research and development for standar s
was begun in 1974, and the assignments were done by committees set up by the Japan Indi»tna
Robot Association The association also started a committee to support ISO industnal robot standardly*
Japanese resn is
tion activities in 1982, which is becoming more important internationally The major
are shown m Table 27 1
rv
their proposal ofr a glossary
i

4. Sweden SIS (Standardisenngskommissionen i Svenge) submitted

of terms to the ISO working group m 198? _
5. United States Industnal robot standardization activities are managed by the Natmnal
of Standards (NBS), and the Robot Institute of Amenca and Robotic International -i
for m us ,
cooperating with NBS They have recently completed standards for safety procedure
robots, an
robots in the workplace, the interface between the wnst and end effector of industnal
the electncal interlock between robots and simple sensors

21X STANDARDIZATION EXAMPLES

introduce a
Although still in the process of international study, the following examples
scenario of industnal robot standardization the future The author believes thy ^
m ® jpj^
of inons na
authonzation standards will greatly contnbute to the smooth incorporation
society
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524 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

3. Graphic symbols standard Figure 27 2 sho«s graphic symbols for a cylindrical coordinate
robot By using this type of standardized expression «-e can identify specifications of the robot
without overlooking any important Hem The symbols have been proposed by Japan to the
ISO working group
4. Functional symbol standard of matenal-bandhng motions Table 27 4 shows the functional
symbol standard of matenal-handling motions, which allows a more detailed expression of
the matenal-handling motions from a functional standpoint

27.4. FUTURE DIRECTION OF STANDARDIZATION

At the present stage, standardization of industnal robots has begun with fundamental items such as
glossary of terms, symbols, and hardware elements

standardization in the future

REFERENCES
1 Research and Survey Report on Industnal Robot Standardization (I)-(IV), Japan Industnal Robot
Association, 1975-1980

2. Worldwide Robotics Survey and Directory. Robot Institute of Amenca. 1982

3. ISO/TC, 97/SC8/WG2, Documents (N1)-(N29), Inicmalional Standard Organization, 1982-83

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I Standards for Computer-Aided Manufaetunng, Final Report. AFML-TR-77-145, National Bureau

of Standards, January 1978
2. Evans, J M
, Barbera, A
J and AJbus, J S
, , Standards and Control Technology for Industnal
Robots, Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Tokyo, October
1977. pp 479-186
3. Evans, J , CAM Standards Directions, SME Paper No MS78-483, 1978
4. Hasegawa, K
and Kaneko, T Study on the Standardization of Terms and Symbols Relating to
,

Industnal Robots in Japan, Proceedings of the 3rd CISM-IFTO.MM Symposium on Theory and
Practice of Robots and Manipulators, Udine, Italy, September 1978, pp 471-478

5. Kozyrev. Y G , Constructing a Standard Senes of Industnal Robots. Machines and Tooling Vol
49, No 7, 1978, pp 3-10
6. Ozaki, S , , and
Ito, K
Inagaki. S , Standardization of Characterization Relating to Industnal
Robots, Proceedings of the 7ih International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Tohyo, Japan, Octo-
ber 1977, pp 453-439
7. Inagaki, S, What is the Standardization for Industrial Robots'* Industrial Robot. Vol 7, No I.

March 1980, pp 4649

8 Sugimoto, N , Safety Engineenng on Industrial Robots and Their Draft Standard Safety Require-
ments, Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Industnal Robots, Tokyo, Japan. Octo-
ber 1977, pp 461-470
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526 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Robotization should be a remedy for lack of or low d«scipline in the labor force at the lower end
of work distribution, incentives of more income diffcrcntation are supposed to further help problems
of the ensured workplace policy
—
Economic justification for robots is also different in Eastern Europe Nominal wages if they are

although this is also in permanent transformation, approaching more the practice of the more mdustnal-
ized countnes The consequence of these circumstances in that the justification for robots takes into
consideration two major factors the loss in production and depreciation of capital investment not
used efficiently (more shifts, etc ) if they arc not served by robots, and the savings in social benefits,
especially bousing, infrastructure This latter is important because the fast urbanization of these mostly
developing countnes has made the settlement restnictunng an additional burden on the economy

28,2. SaENTinC AND TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

Mathematical-mechanical scientific heritage has determined the course of robotics and many other
technological innovations in Eastern Europe The modem science of the dynamics of motion steins
mostly from a Franco-Russian school of the turn of this century and thereafter Wc refer here to
Euler, Poincare, Ljapunov, Krylow, Bogoljubow, Andronow. Chaikin, Witt, and Lurje This outstanding
school survived several generations, and their present representatives have found the field of robot-
mampulation techniques a bonanza for application of iheir skills onenled toward mathematical mechan-
ics The results of their activity are summarized in numerous monographs (see References 1-30)
Most of the publications and investigations are related to a hypoihetical or a laboratory environment,
the models are mostly abstract, —
and the calculations although demonstrated on some general-purpose
—
computen are not m real-time The emphasis has been more on the mathematical-algonthmic phase—
—
which IS also very important but until recently much less on the real-time aspects Cross references
are rather rare in the literature, although by having faster and longer word-length microprocessoR
and pursuing faster robot movement the practical need and possibility increase for these more accurate
force, torque, and motion calculations
Relevant research has been done in the field of problems of motion descnption and analysis One
of the most outstanding projects is the work of the Ochotsimsky groups the analysis of the requirements
of a highly stable walking robot The enormous variation possibilities of a multileg-multilimb walking
procedure was reduced to a six- or eight-leg/lwo-limb solution and proved that nature is a good

TABLE 28.1 METALAND

ENGINEERING PRODUCTION
AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCHON (1978)
Czechoslovakia 34 0
Hungary 33 6
Poland 3 1 6
Belgium 30 0
France 37 8

Germany, Federal Repubhc 37 9*

Italy 34 4
Netherlands 29 7®
United Kingdom 24 4®
Austna 27.8
Finland 26 3
Norway 27 8
Sweden 41
Spain 24 8®
Yugoslavia 29 4
Canada 36 3

Source. United Nations Yearbook of In-

dustrtaJ Statistics, 1978 Edition, Vol 1.

® Figure for 1976 is available only

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528 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

TABLE 28.3. MANUFACTURING OF

METALCUTTINC MACHINE TOOLS (1978)
Number Units

Bulgana 15,315
Czechoslovakia 34,247
German Democratic Republic 19,328
Hungary 12,689
Poland 27,545
Rumania 27,197
USSR 237,885

Sources. United Nations. Yearbook of Industrial Sta-

listies, 1978 Edition. Vol 2 CMEA, Statistical Year-

book of the Member Countries ofthe Councilfor Mutual

Economic Assistance. 1978

speed, acceleration and deceleration, range of action, and so on These requirements are not to be
solved by high inertia masses and relatively free vanable dimensions but, first of all, by intnnsieally
dynamic, active methods, for example, highly sophisticated controls and those means more typical of
precision mechanics low inertia, high momentum, smalLvolume dnves, combined ivith high-resolution
positioning, very high-quality magnetK matenals, gears, and so on The technological bottlenecks of
robot construction are rather different from conventional machine tools As the integration of manufjc-
tunng progresses and more flexible solutions emerge, these differences become narrow, but the startinf
differences were significant
Analyzing the ongins, one notes that Oncinnati Milacron is one of the major vendors for robots
in the United States Although this is true, (he background structure, the inclination, of Oncinnati
toward the electronic technologies is different from the machine-tool industry and even more from
what the application of heavy-duty robots requires, in this respect the technical gap is much smaller
than in other fields, for example, assembly
The reliance on more conventional industries, such as machine tools and elecinc motors, traditional
dnves, pneumatics and hydraulics, and long lacking the impetus of revolutionary technologies, was
one of the major causes of the slow and inadequate start of indusinal robot production in Eastern
Europe The expenence gamed in this respect M
industna) managers m the COMECON countnes
to investigate Western solutions and to an attempt not to copy the types already successful on the
market, but to try buying licences

28.2.2. Way of Technical Approach

A —
technology which differs entirely from that of any other
result typical of the situation in Soviet
COMECON —
is a dual face of gap and connection between high-level science and relatively
country
low-level technology which can be very well demonstrated by the example of the Lunokhod The
Lunokhod is a very typical Soviet engineenng design a rather simple and extremely robust device
avoiding any sophistication that could decrease reliability The two Lunokhods each worked four
months long, rolling through an uneven surface of about 3 by 37 kms No high-level control was
applied to them a simple command system broadcast from the earth base was received by the movemern
control for the two forward and one backward speeds, turns nghl, left, and on the spot, and relayed
back control signals of the movement, of the wheel temperatures, wheel-dnve currents, and the solidity
nothing
of the soil The entire mechanics of the movement was based on the eight driven wheels,
at
more, the movement control, as desenbed, was completely detached from any other operations t
ingenious
were the duties of the robot These design pnnciples may remind one of the famous and
roc e
Russian devices of the Second World War when the Kalashnikov machine guns, the Katyusha
war ma
organ and the T-34 tanks showed performance supenor to the highly sophisticated German
chines
elecironi
To must be realized that following the advent of highly reliable
balance this statement it

the validity of this philosophywas transformed Another remark that should be repeated
and educational tradition of the region discussed here is
'

IS that the technical philosophy

It contains a real and tradition-kecpmg German part, a Central European part
that was detac
an me
a long time from the East, and has had and maintains now, too, a tradition of mixing
several parallel influences ma rather pragmatic practice
^
has not pr uc
,

As emphasized earlier, in this region is a latecomer and

computer control _

indicate
relevant new results in the robot software field This very sincere remark does not
new robot-contro angua
are no institutions and people who could not develop anykind of
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TABLE 28.4. DISTRIBUTION

OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
TYPES BY COUNTRIES
Country Robot Types

Bulgana n
Hungary 6
GDR 6
Poland >5

Czechoslovakia 8

Soviet Union S6
102

TABLE 28J.
OISTR/nUTION OF
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
TYPES nV LOAD
Load Range (kg) Types

0-01 5

ot-os b
05-10 5
10-50 26
5-10 14

10-50 )2
50-100 9
>100 5

102

m
Most earlier applications <A«re concentrated heavydoad tasks, and small special-purpose pneumatic
pick-and-place units were used mostly in precision mechanics assembly, for mass production Tlie
low number of electric types reflects many aspects of our earlier discussion The picture is now changing
dramatically
The application fields arc not difTcrmi from those of any other country mostly pick -and place,
especially m heavy industry (forging, molding, etc), feeding machine tools, painting, and welding
As described here several times, since the machine-tool industry has been given prominence mthe

distributedCNC mullimicroprocessor controllers for each machine component and a more powiiml
control mini (mostly of PDP-11 class) for the programming and supervision of the entire cell The
micros and minis are produced for (he most part by the ojuntry or by another COMECON member

TABLE 28.6.
DICTRIBUnON OF
INDU^RIAL
ROBOT TYPES BY
THE ACTUATING
POWER
Power Types

Pneumatic 49
Hydraulic 38
ElectiK 15
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532 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

but with international audience, some in the frameworlc of the or cooperation uuh COMECON m
the Academies of Sciences In Bulgaria a regular summer school is devoted every year to this topic
for young people interested robotics In the German Democratic Republic a four-day obligatory
m
seminar was recently organized for high-level industry executives on the possible applications of robots,
future plans, human aspects, and so on

research and development, design, technology m every aspect, application know-how, support, service,

training, and social implications

28.4. CONCLUSION
The and eastern part of Europe has been somewhat different from
histoncal evolution of the central
that of the Western Hemisphere, and, depending on the country, the general economic and industrial
progress lagged behind by 50-200 years up to the eighteenth and nineteenth centunes On the other
hand, the intellectual gap was always much less, and in some penods and in some respects this region
added much to the general human and technological development This histoncal inertia is also reflected
in the present stage of robot development and application
There may be a few cntical technological components of high demand that are more easily available
on the Western market than manufactured in small volumes, at high pnees, with lower yield, in
some special laboratory or otherwise dedicated environment m
Eastern Europe, but the cniciaJ issue
IS really the histoncal inertia that cannot be offset by commercial imports, never can change real

balances or broad gaps of technology This issue encompasses the general culture of manufactunng,
reliability, economy, and the systematic environment of application everything that is really needed —
for a more cooperative. less dangerous world, which has always been brought together by peaceful
connections of commerce and exchange and always been separated by prejudices and impatience in
understanding other peoples' beliefs and cultures A long-range policy of equalization and cooperation
IS therefore in the interest of the entire human race

REFERENCES
These references include books on robotics and closely related subjects in Russian For better identifica-

tion, titles are first given in transliteration, then in translation (the second in parentheses)

1. Artobolevskij, I I ,
Tecnycmikhanizmovimashtn (Theory of Mechanisms and Machines), Nauka,
Moskva, 1952
2. Artobolevskij, I I ,
Teoriya t usiropno manipulyatorov (Theory and Equipment of Manipulators).
Nauka, Moskva, 1973
3. Aksenov, E P Teonya dvizhentya iskustvennyh spuintkov Zemlt (Theory of Satellite Motion),
,

Nauka, Moskva. 1977

4. Andreenko, S N , Vorosilov. M
S . and Petrov, B A Proektinvantt prifodo* mampulyoiorov ,

(Design of Manipulator Dnves), Masinostroeme. Leningrad, 1975

5. Belyanin, P N , Promyslennye roboty (Industrial Robots), Masinostroeme, Moskva, 1975
6 Ignat’ev, MB Kulakov, F
, , and Pokroskij. M M
Algoriimy upravlenifa nbotami-manipulya-
A ,

lorami (Control Algonihms for Robot-Manipulators). Masinostroeme, Leningrad. 1972

7 Katys, G Informaisionnye roboty u manipulaloty (Information Robots and Manipulators),
P ,

Mir, Moskva, J976

8. Korenev, G
V Tsel' pnsposoblyaemosi'
, i Aim and Adaptability), Nauka,
dnzhentya (Motion
Moskva, 1974
9. Korenev, G V Vvedenie v mekhantxm tseloyeka (Introduction to Human Mechanisms), Nauka,
,

Moskva, 1977
G V Mechanics of
10. Korenev, , Oiserki mekhamki iselenapravlennogo divzheniya (Essay on the
Purposeful Motion), Nauka, Moskva, 1980
Control o
11. Kulakov, F M
, Supervizornoi upravlenie manipulyacionnymi
robotami (Supervisory
Manipulating Robots), Nauka, Moskva, 1980
(Dynamics
12. Kulesov, V
S and Lakota,, N
A , Dmamika iutem upraylemya manipulyaiorami
of Manipulator Control Systems), Energiya, Moskva. 1971
(Design of ore
13. Kulesov, V
S Proektirovanie sledyashchikh sistem dvusloronnego dejstviya
,

Reflecting Servo Systems), Masinostroeme; Moskva. 1980

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534 SOaAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECT
43. Vamos. T Research Works
, in ike Field of Intelligent Robots and Possible Application, MANUFA-
CONT, Budapest, 1980
44. Vamos, T , Bathor, M
and Siegler, A , A Knowledge-Based Interactive Robot-Vision
, System,
in Bole, L Kulpa, Z Goos, G , and Hartmanis, J Eds Lecture Notes m Computer
. , , , Science
Digital Image Processing Systems. Vol 109, Spnnger-Verlag, 1981

45. Vamos, T and Siegler, A Intelligent Robot Action Planning. Prepnnt of the 8th World
, Congress
of IFAC, Kyoto. Japan. 1981
46. Mere, L and Vamos, T Medium , Level Vision, ift Rosenfield, A and Kanal, L , Eds , Progress
in Pattern Recognition, Vol 1, North Holland, New York, 1981
47. Vamos, T and Bathor, M
A robot vision lab concept, m Michie,
, D . Ed , Machine Intelligence,
Vol 10, Horwood Ltd Chichester, Wiley, New York. 1982
,

AS. Siegler, A andBathor, M ,

GraphicSimulation/or Robot Programming. Proceedings of the AUTO-
MAN. Brighton, UK, 1981
49. Siegler, A
Kinematics and microcomputercontrolofa 6 degrec-of-freedom manipulator. Research
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Report, Cambndge University Engineenng Department, CUED-CMS 185/1979

50. Chetvenkov, D
Experiments in Rotation-Invariant Texture Discrimination Using Anisotropy
, Fea-
tures, Proceedings of the 6th ICPR, Munich, 1982

51. Mere, L , Chetvenkov, D ,

and Bathor, M , Bus-Body SHEET Idenltficaiton-Oriented Tvio-Dimen-
stonal Recognition System, MANUFACONT, Budaptest, 1980
52. Chetvenkov, D
Textural Anisotropy Features for Texture Analysts,
. IEEE Conference on Pattern
Recognition and Image Processing. Dallas, Teaas, 1981
53. Jakubik, P , Supervisory Control of MuUtjomted Robot Arms, Dr Tcchn thesis. Technical Univer
sity of Budapest, 1982
54. Marton, J and Jakubik. P . Laboratory and Practical Expencnces with VAL Robot Control
Language, Mires is Automattka. Vol 31, No I, 1983
55. Promjshlennje Roboty, Katalog (Industnal Robots Catalog). Vasilev, V C Ed , ,
Moskva, 1981
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538 APPLICATION PLANNING- TECHNIQUES

Cycle time is less than 5 sec

Working volume exceeds 30 m’

Load to be handled exceeds 500 kg
Positioning precision must be better than iO 1 mm
“Randomness" in workpiece position and orientation cannot be eliminated
“Randomness" in process cannot be eliminated
Work lot size is typically less than 25 pieces
Number of different workpieces per process is locally greater than 10

With regard to judgment requirements, generally avoid operations where

The robot’s alternative actions cannot be readily identified

The robot may be required to execute, at random, any one of more than five alternative actions

Specific, quantified workpiece and process standards do not exist

The cntical properties of the workpiece and the process cannot be measured
Workpiece identification, condition, and oncntaiion may be ambiguous

With regard to justification, the economic attractiveness of a potential robot application, as measured
by return on capital or by payback penod, is usually of pnmary importance (See Chapter 33, Evaluation
and Economic Justification
In the incorporation of robots into existing operations, the major source of savings is the reduction
of labor cost resulting from displacement of workers A rough estimate of these savings can be made
based upon the potential labor that could be displaced, along with an estimate of the cost of the
robot installation, a rate of return or a payback penod could be calculated For purposes of the initial

survey, however, a simple "rule of thumb" may suffice

A single robot installation can be justified by the displacement of two workers (assum-
ing a 40-hour work week for each worker)

During the initial survey, value judgments regarding the relative merits of potential applications
should be avoided The purpose of this step is to develop objectively a list of opportunities chat are
technically and economically feasible and which will next be screened and pnontized

29,3, QUALinCATION
The second step in the launching of a robotic production system is ihe qualification of the operations
identified in the flnt step as potential robot applications Although some screening was done in that
step, there are likely to be operations on the list that arc not,upon further scrutiny, technically or
economically feasible for robotics Also, all operations on the list will not be of equal importance or
complexity, nor can robot production systems be implemented on all of them simultaneously, thus
the qualification step will also involve pnontizing the qualified applications
Qualification and pnonlization will be an iterative process The first element of the process involves
the review of each listed operation to answer the b«ic question, "Can I use a ro^t?" There are
seven factors that should be considered at this time in deciding whether or not a potential exists to

apply a robot on that particular operation

Complexity of Ihe operation

Degree of disorder
Production rate
Production volume
Justification

Long-term potential
Acceptance

the Iis^
For each of these factors, a simple rule has been presented Reviewing each operation on
the ru
one finds that the process will eliminate (hose where a robot should not be used unless
given can all be clearly applied to the operation in question .

Regarding complexity, although simple robots exist and are well suited to simple
^
other ca
operations where a cylinder, a valve, and a couple of limit switches are sufficient In .

^
attitude to ano
gravity chute may suffice to transfer and even reonent a part from one location and
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540 APPLICATION PLANNING TECHNIQUES

The rule lo apply here is

For very short runs (about 25 pieces or less), use people; for rery long runs (several
million per year of a single part), use speciaFpurpose automation; use robots in be-
tween.

The application of an industrial robot can represent a significant investment in capital and m
effort Economic justification must therefore be carefully considered on the balance sheet, increased

and rearrangement costs, operating expenses and maintenance cost, special tools, test
facility, tooling,

equipment, and spare parts, and cost of downtime or backup expense

Ballpark estimates of the potential costs and savings should be made whether or not a reasonable
return on the investment can be expected The savings can be roughly estimated by multiplying the
number of direct labor heads displaced per shift, limes the number of production shifts per day,

times the fully burdened annual wage rale The costs can be roughly estimated by multiplying the
basic cost of the robot planned for the operation limes 2 S
“Management direction," “following the crowd.” and emotion are no substitutes for economic
support the application of robots In some cases, safety
justification and, in the long run. will not or
working conditions may ovemde economics, however, these are usually exceptional circumstances
The rule to apply here is

If ballpark costs do not exceed ballpark savings by more than a factor of 2, the
application can probably be economically justified.

Another consideration is the long-term poteniul for indusinal robots in the particular manufacturing
facility Both the number of poientui applications and their expected duration must be taken into
account
Because of a robot can usually be used on a new application if the onginal operation
its flexibility,

IS discontinued Since the usefullife of a robot may be as long as 10 years, several such reassignments

may be made Unless the application of the robot is to be of relatively long duration, it's possible
first

that reapplication must be considered In the process of justifying the initial investment! the cost of
reapplying the robot should also be included If the initial application is of significantly shorter duration
than the robot's useful life and no follow-on applications can be foreseen, it can seldom be justified
As with any electromechanical device, an mdusinat robot requires some special knowledge and
skills to program, operate, and maintain An inventory of spare parts should be kept on hand Auxiliary

equipment for programming and maintenance or repair may also be required Training of personnel,
spare parts inventory, special tools, test equipment, and the like may represent a sizeable investment
The difference between the amount invested ifl these items lo support a single robot or to support
half a dozen or more robots is insignificant
Maintenance and programming skills and reaction time in case of problems tend to deteriorate
without use Few opportunities will normally arise to exercise these skills in support of a single robot
Under these conditions, the abilities may eventually be lost and any senous difficulty with the robot
may then result in us removal
The rule to apply here is

If there are not feasible opportunities for more than one robot installation, the single
installation is seldom warranted; don’t put just one robot into a plant.

Not everyone welcomes robots with open arms Production workers are concerned with the possible
loss of jobs Factory management is concerned with the possible loss of production Maintenance
personnel are concerned with the new technology Company management is concerned with
tha
on costs and profit Ckillectively, all of these concerns may be reflected in a general attitude
“Robots are OK, but not here ”
» t.

It IS essential to know whether a robot will be given a fair chance Reassignment

of
displaced by a robot can be disruptive Trainmg of pcnonnel to program and maintain the
deve op«
upset maintenance schedules and personnel assignments, and new skills may even have lo be
«
The installation and startup can interrupt production schedules, as can occasional breakdowns o
to accep
robot or related equipment Unless everyone involved is aware of these factors and is willing
them, the probability of success is poor
The rule to apply here is

oa the
A robot must be accepted by people, not only on general principles, but
specific operationunder consideration.
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 1

TABLE 29.1. SCORES FOR RANKING ROBOT POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

Element Measured by Score Range

1 Complexity of task Number of parts 1-10 to 5-5

Number of operations 1-10 to 5-5
Number of batches 1-5 to 5-1

2 Complexity of tooling Number of parts 1-10 to 5-5

and penpherals
Part orientation at delivery Single, onen(ed-I0
Matnx-5
Bulk, random-0
Paxe of onenting parts Easy-lO to difficult-

3 Facility and equipment Relocation required No-2

Yes-0
Utilities availability At site-5
Ncarby-3
Not available-O
Floor loading Adequate-3
Need new-0
4 Product and/or Product changes required No-10 to mtnor-5
process changes to major-0
Process changes required No-IO to mmor-5 to

major-O
5 Impact on related Synchronized with previous operation No-3
operations Yes-0
Synchronized with following operation No-3
Yes-0
"Bottleneck'’ No-3
Yes-0
Gackup/bufler Easy-3
Hard-l
No way-0
6 Impact on work force Monotonous, repetitious Yes-3
No-0
Bad environment Yes-3
No-0
Safety hazard Yes-5
No-0
Fast pace or heavy load Yes-3
No-0
Labor turnover High-3
Low-1
7 Risk of unforeseen Number of potential 1-10 to 10-1
or random problems different occurrences
Understanding, rea-
Atlitude/expectations
sonable-10 to
of management
tough, unrealis-
tic-0

8 Potential benefits Labor savings, per shift One point per 0

head
shift
Production shifts per day Five points per
Quality improvement Yes-5
No-0
One point per per-
Productivity improvement
cent increase

Reduced repair and rework Yes-5

No-O

542
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 )

544 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

manual backup u to be employed, then a manual control station may also have to be provided This
control station must have a •‘manual/automatic” mode selector, which should be a lockable selection
switch

task .
'

inte

End-of*arm tooling design

Parts feeders, onenters, and positioners design
Equipment modifications
Part (product) redesign
Process revisions

29.5.1. End-of-Artn Tooling

Typically, a robot is purchased without (he end-of-arm tooling unique to its intended task The robot

supplier may furnish a “standard gnpper” actuating mechanism, or a suitable device may be obtained
from another source, however, adaptation of a standard mechanism may still require some design
effort Likewise, a standard power tool such as a screwdriver or gnnder or a spray gun or welding
torch which is to be mounted on the end of (he robot arm will require the design of mounting hardware,
such as brackets, adaptors, and so on The lack of standard robot/tooling mechanical interfaces means
that little “off-the-shelf” hardware is available
End-of-arm devices lack the dexterity of a human hand. thus, m
the case of batch manufacturing,
several interchangeable tools may be required A
multifunctional tool for such tasks must represent
a practical compromise between simplicity, for reliability, and flexibility, to perform a number of
functions or handle a number of Interchangeable tools should be designed for ease of
different parts
removal and installation and for repeatable, precise location on the robot arm to avoid the necessity
to reprogram the robot with each tool change In some cases, automatic exchange of tools by the
robot may be possible through the use of quick-disconnects, collet/drawbar arrangements similar to
preset machine tool holders, toot racks, and the like (More discussion of end-of-arm tooling is in
Chapter 28

29.5.2. Part Feeders

Another engineenng requirement may be for parts feeders, onenters, and positioners, or other parts
acquisition systems As noted earlier, today’s robots require an ordered, repeatable environment and
cannot easily acquire randomly oriented parts delivered in bulk There are several solutions to this
problem, including trays or dunnage that contain parts in positive locations and orientations, mechanical
feeder/onenter devices, manual transfer of parts from bulk containers into feeder systems, and sensor-
based acquisition systems, such as vision or tactile sensing Table 29 2 summanzes typical mechanisms

for part feeding and their functions

The mechanically simplest approach is to use parts' containers that retain individual parts m spea^
locations A robot with microprocessor or computer control and sufficient memory can be programmed
to move to each location in the container, in sequence, to acquire a part Multiple layers of parts
may be packed in this manner, with the robot also programmed to remove empty trays or separators
between layers The only requirement in the workplace is to provide locators for repeatably posiiiomng
the containers The multiple pickup points, in addition to requinng a computer control or large
capacity, may increase the average cycle time for the operation And. if the robot lacks the capabi
ity

to acquire parts from a matnx array, some other approach must be taken
small pa
Another parts-presentation approach is to use mechanical feeder/onenters These, for
may be centrifugal or vibratory feeders which automaucally orient parts in a feeder track Urge^
whic a
parts may be handled with hoppers and gravity chutes or elevating conveyors and chutes,
adapta
present parts in proper onentation at a speafic pickup point Usually, these devices are
of standard, commercially available equipment Advantages of this approach are that the single
tion point for each part minimizes nonproductive motions, and the onenters can often
~ » •

parts in attitudes that require little manipulation by the ro!

in onenting and feeding some parts, relatively high cost
handle a vanety of parts (as mbatch manufacturing), ,
^ v,
finuhed, or high-accuracy parts, and inability to handle large, heavy, or awkward-shaped
A third approach is the manual transfer of parts from bulk containers to mechanical
^
as gravity chutes or indexing conveyors An obvious disadvantage of this approach
is °
^
labor, especially to perform the very sort of routine, nonrewarding tasks to or
hand e ‘

applied Advantages are relatively low capital investment requirements, ability to

manu a
cntical parts, and flexibility to accommodate a vanety of similar parts, as In batch
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546 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Powered clamping and shutlle devices may be substituted for manually actuated mechanisms In ma-
chine-tool operations, coolant/cutting fluid systems may be changed or chip blow-off systems added
to automatically remove cuttings (chips) from the work and work holders Assembly operations may
require the development of simple jigs and fixtures in which to place parts during the process (remember
that robots are generally single-handed devices and cannot hold something in one hand while adding
components to it with the other) Likewise, manual tools such as screwdnvers and wrenches will
have to be replaced with automatic power tools

29.5.4. Part/Product Redesign

Part onenting and feeding and/or part handling by the robot's end-of-arm tooling may require some
redesign of a product IdeaUy, the product should be designed so that it has only one steady-state
onentation. that is, it should be self-onenting As an alternative, the product should be designed so
that Its onentation for acquisition is not cntical (for example, a flat disk or washer shape) A family

of parts which are all to be handled by the robot should have some common feature by which they
are grasped, this feature should be of the same size and in the same location on all products m the
family
Vacuum pickups are simple, fast, and inexpensive Product designs that incorporate surfaces or
features to which a vacuum pickup can be applied facilitate easier handling by the robot Products
should be designed so that the robot's task (such as load, unload, insert, and assemble) requires a
minimum of discrete motions, complex motions, especially those that require the coordinated movements
of two or more robot axes (such as a helical movement of the part), should be avoided Tolerances
should be “opened up’’ as much as possible Chamfers should be provided on inserted parts to aid m
alignment Parts should be self-aligning or self-locating, if possible Parts that are to be mechanically
or gravity oriented and fed to the robot should be designed so that they do not jam, tangle, or overlap
Because product redesign is costly and time-consuming, it should not be undertaken lightly, but
should be considered only when its potentui benefits significantly outweigh its cost In the design of
new products, however, incorporation of features that facilitate the use of robots should add little or
nothing to the cost and should, thus, be encouraged In Table 29 ) and Figure 29 1 rules and pnnciples
are provided for design of parts and products for automatic assembly Such rules can guide designers

in the design of parts for robotic handling

29.5.5, Process Revisions

Another engineenng requirement may be the modification of the process with which the robot is
involved Process revision may include changing an operational sequence so that cntical part onentation
IS not required Process revision may involve moving several machines into an area and setting up t

TABLE 29J. PART/'PROOlfCT REOESKN FOR AUTOMATIC ASSEMBLY

A Rules for Product Design

1 Minimize the number of parts

2 Product must have suitable base part on which to build
3 m
Base part should ensure precise, stable positioning honzontal plane
4 If possible, assembly should be done in layers, from above
5 Provide chamfers or tapers where possible to aid correct guidance and positioning
6 Avoid expensive and time-consuming fastening operations, e g screwing, soldenng
,

B Rules for Part Design

1 Avoid projections, holes, or slots that may cause entanglement in feeders

2 Symmetneal parts are preferred because less onentation is needed and feeding is more efficient
3 If symmetry cannot be achieved, design appropnate asymetneal features to aid part onentmg

C Design Features that Determine Cost-Ejffecliveness of Automatic Assembly

1 Frequency of simultaneous operations

2 Onentmg efficiency
3 Feeder required
4 Maximum feed rate possible
5 Difficulty rating for automatic handling
6 Difficulty rating for insertions required
7 Assembly operations required (number and type)
8 Total number of component parts per assembly

Source' References 2 and 3

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 ) )

548 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

machining advantage of initial part onenting and to increase the robot's utilization It
cell to take
may involve linking of operations with conveyors so as to retain part onentation for the robot, or
the incorporation of compartmentalized pallets or dunnage to retain onentation between operations.
Process revision may involve the rescheduling batch operations to increase lot size or to minimize
changeover between batches

carefully examined for cost-effectiveness

The first four steps of launching a robotic production system, initial survey, qualification, selection,
and engineering, which have been descnbed in this chapter, should, if followed carefully and thoroughly,
make the fifth and last step, implementation, relatively easy and trouble free

REFERENCES
1. Wamecke, H J and Schraft, R D , Industrial Robots Application Experience, IPS Publications,
1982
2. Boothroyd, G ,
Poll, C , and March, L E , Automatic Assembly, Marcel Dckker, New York,
1982
3. Boothroyd, G
and Dewhurst, P Design for Assembly. Department of Mechanical Engineenng.
.

University of Massachusetts, 1983

4. Bailey. J R , Product design for robotic assembly. Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium
on Industrial Robots, Chicago, IlLnois, Apnl 1983, pp 1 144-1 157
5. Pham, D
T On designing components for automatic assembly. Proceedings of the 3rd International
,

Conference on Assembly Automation. Stuttgart, West Germany, May J982, pp 205-214

6. Tanner, W R and Spiotta, R H , Industnal robots today. Machine Tool Blue Book. Vo! 7S,
No 3. March 1980, pp 58-75 (Analyzes applications m
which robots can be efficient and econonu-
cal)
7. Engelberger, J Production problems solved by robots, S.ME Paper No MS74-167, 1974 (D^
F ,

senbes production applications problems that rolMis can and cannot solve
8. Estes,V E An organized approach to implementing robots. Proceedings of the 16th Annual
,

Meeting of the Numerical Control Society. Los Angeles, California, March 1979, pp 287-307
(Desenbes the approach taken by General Eleclrm Consulting Services to implement robotics lue-
cessfully in the company
its

Fig.

29.1.

Coding

system

for

automatic

assembly

processes.

(Source:
Digit

Reference

2.)
 )

550 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNlQl

1.

F?g. 30,1. Ergonomics procedure for optimizing indusJnaJ robot work {Source Reference 1

30,2,1, The Robot*AIan Charts

charts, onpnally prepared by Nof. Knight and

Sal^endy,* arc developed with two functions i
mma. namefy. (J) to aid engineers in dcteimining
whether a robot can perform a job. and (2) t
^SU'deline and reference for robot specifications
(See Table 30 2 ) The Robot-Man Chan
of combined systems that integrate both robots
and human operator
fie Kobot-Man Charts
1
contain three mam types of work charactenstics

Physical skills
and charactenstics, including manipulation, body dimensions, strength and powei
insistency, overload/underload performance,
and environmenlaj constraints Table 30 2fl provide
etaits ol this category Typical
rang« of ma-tiinum motion capabilities (TRMMl are given for severs
categones of body movement and
speed, and arm and wnst motions

To clarify the meaning of "typicaJ ranges of consider

maaimum motion capabilities" (TRMM),
nght-left traverse, the table lists '•Maximum movement range
'
im
off IDO to 6000 mm at a maximum velocity range of 100-1500 mm/sec” This means that for the
survey^ ^ulafion of robot models, ii was found that a maximum arm nght-left linear motion is
typically 100 mm
(for some models), and up
to 6000 (for mm some other models) The rna-unwm
velocity values for nght-left traverse
were found to be from 100 mm/sec up to 1500 mm/sec

Mental and communicative charactenstics The

Robot-Man Charts contain mental and commu-
2.
nicative system attnbutes for robots
and humans, listed m
Table 30 21>
3.Energy considerations A comparison of representative values of energy-related characteiuticSi
such as power requirements and energy efficiency,
for robots and humans, is given in Table 302c
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 TABLE 30 2. ROBOT-AMN CHARTS
Charactenstics Robot Human
a Comparison of Robot and Human Physical Skills and Characteristics

1 Manipulation
A Body a One of four types a A mobile earner (feet) com-
Uni- or fnuldpnsmalic bined with 3 DF wmihkc
Uni- or multircvoluie (roll, pitch, yaw) capability
Combined rcvolute/pns- at waist
malic
Mobile
b Typical masimom move- b Examples* of waist
meni and velocity capabili- movement
ties Role “ 180*
Righl-len traverse Pitch =• 150’
5-18 m at Yaw « 90’
SCO- 1 200 mm/sec
Oui-m traverse
3- IS m
SOO-1200 mm/sec
B Arm a One of four pnmary types a Articulated arm comprised
Rectangular of shoulder and elbow revo-
Cylindrical lute joints
Sphencal
Articulated
b One or more anns, with in- b Two arms, cannot operate
cremenial usefulness per independently (at least not
each additional arm totally)
c Typical maximum move- c Examples of typical znov^
ment and velocity capabili- ment and velocity panm^
ties lers
Oul-in traverse Maximum velocity 1500
300-3000 mm mm/sec in linear ^10 V^
100-4500 mm/sec ment
Righl-lefl traverse Average standing lateral

lOO-bOOO mm reach 625 mm

100-1300 mm/sec Right-left inierse rasge
Up-down traverse 432-876 mm
504800 mm Up-down traverse range
51^5000 mm/sec 1016-1828 mm
Right-left rotation Right-left rotation (horuon-
50-380’* tal arm) range 165-225’

5-240’/sec Average up-down rotation

Up-down roCaticm 249»

25-330’
10-l70Vsec
C Wnst a One of three types a Consists of three rotational
Pnsmatic degrees of freedom roll,
RevoluCe pitch, yaw
Combined pnsmaiic/revo-
lute
Commonly, wnsts have 1-
3 rotational DF roll, pilch,
yaw, however, an example
of nghl-Ieft and up-down
traverse was obscrv^
ca
b Typical maximum move- b Examples of movement
ment and velocity capabili- pabilities

ties Roll =180’

Roll Pitch =180’
lOO-STS’* Yaw = 90’

35-600»/sec
Pitch
40-360’
JI>-320Vsec

552
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 TABLE 30.2 ROBOT-MAN CHARFS (Coot
Charactenstics Robot Human
c Can be fitted M hostile envi- c Sensitive to vanous nomous
ronmcnts stimuli and toxins, altitude.
and airflow

b Comparison of Robot and Human Mental and Communicative Skills

Computational capability a. Past. eg. up to 10 Kbits/ Slow — 5 bits/sec

sec for a stn^l minicompu-
ter <»ntrol
b Not affected by meaning b Affected by meaning and
and connotation of signals connotation of signals
c No evaluation of quality of c Evaluates reliability of in-
information unless provided formation
by program
d Error detection depends on d Good error detection cor-
program rection at cost of redun-
dancy
e Very good computational e Meunstic rather than algo-
and algonthmic capability nfhmic
by computer
r Negligible time lag f Time lags increased, 1-3

sec
g Ability to accept informa- g Limited ability to accept in-
lion IS very high, limited formation (ld-20 bits/ses)

only by the channel rate

h Good ability to select and h Very limited response selee-

execute responses lion/execution (l/see), re-

sponses may be ‘‘grouped"

with practice
I No compatabihty limita- I Subject to vanous compati-
tions bility effects

)
If programmable —not diffi- j Difficult to program
cult to reprogram
k Random program selection k Vanous sequence/transfer
can be provided effects

1 Command repertoire lim- I Command repertoire hm

ned by computer compiler ited to experience and train-
or control scheme ing
2 Memory a Memory capability from 20 a No indication of capacity
commands to 2000 com- limitations
mands, and can be extended
by secondary memory such
as cassettes
b Memory partitioning can be b Not applicable
used to improve efficiency
very
c Can forget completely but c Directed forgetting

only on command limited

basic
d must be specified
“Skills” in d Memory contains
accumulated by espe-
programs skilis
neoce
Slow storage access/re-
c
tneval
regis-
f Very limited working
ter “ 5 Items
to deal
3 Intelligence a No judgment ability of un- a Can use judgment
problems-
anticipated events with unpredicted
b Decision making limited by b Can anticipate problem*

computer program
4 Reasoning a Good deductive capability. a Inductive
poor inductive capability
b Limited to the program- b Not applicable

ming abibty of the human

programmer

554
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556 APPLrCATION PIANNrNG: TECHNIQUES

TABLE 30^ ROBOT-MAN CHARTS (Ctont)

Charactenstics Robot Human

12 Self-diagnosis Self-diagnosis for adjustment Self-diagnosis may know when

and maintcRance can be pro- efficiency is low
vided

13 Individual differences Only if designed to be different 100-150% variation may be ex-

pected

c Comparison of Robot and Human Ener^ Considerations

1 Power requirements Power source 220/440 V, 3 Power (energy) source is food

phase. 50/60 Hz.0 5-30 KVA
Limited portability
2 Utilities Hydraulic pressure 30-200 kg/ Air Oxygen consumption 2-9
cm* liiers/min
Compressed air 4-6 kg/cm*
3 Fatigue, downtime, and life a No fatigue dunng penods a Within power ratings, pn-

expectancy between maintenance manly cognitive fatigue

(20% in first 2 hr, log-

anthmic decline)
b Preventive maintenance re- b Needs daily rest, vacation

quired periodically
c Expected usefulness of c Requires work breab
40.000 hr (about 20 one-
shifl years)
d No personal requirements d Venous personal problenw
(absenteeism, injuries,
health)

4 Efiergy effictency a Relatively high, eg (120- a Relatively low, l(h2S?i

135 kg)/(2 5-30 KVA)
b Relatively constant regard- b Improves if work is dis
less of workload tnbuied rather than massed

« Where possible, fifth and ninety-fifth percentile figures from Woodson’ are used to present mm
and max values Otherwise, a general average value is given
^ A continuous nght-lef) rotation is available
‘
A continuous roll movement is available

For example. Figure 30 2 depicts an analysis relative to reachability In (a), a comparison is made
between human and robot reachability In (6). alternative robot models arc compared Usually three
cases can be identified in the process of job selection for robots

A human perfonned
1. operator must perform the job because the task is too complex to be
economically by any available robot
2. A robot must perform the job because of safety reasons, space limitation, or speaal accuracy
requirements
3. robot can replace a human operator on an existing job, and the shift to robot opera'io”
i4
shortages
could result in improvements such as higher consistency and belter quality Labor
in certain types of jobs may also result tn robot assignments

a
In the two cases, the selection is dear In the third case the mam concern is whether
first
jo
robot can at perform a given task The Robot-Man Charts provide a means of identifying
alt

dimensions that can or cannot be done by robots or humans

Another approach for assessing different dimensions in the problem is a systematic coiupanso^
between robot time and motion (RTM) task method dements for a robot, and methods time
(MTM) elements for a human operator (See Section 305 and Table 30 10) Additional informa
for this decision can be obtained from a data base of robot work abilities

30.2.2, Robot Anatomy and Distribution of Work Abilities

A thorough exammadon ofindustnaf robots and their controls^ provides anatomy of the basic
senso area of
and controls of robots and reveals thar resulting limitations, particularly tn the
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 )

558 APPLICATION PLANNING. TECHNIQUES

AetuJtor type
Degrees of freedom
Control mode
Sensory ability
Repeatability by actuator type

These distributions were categonzed for three cases O) Japanese models, (2) models marketed in
the United States, including many European robots but excluding the Japanese models covered by
the first eategory (hereafter, "U S marfcct”), and (J) the combined total of all models from tfie tao

previous categones Of the 282 models surveyed, 183 were Japanese models and 99 were U S market
models Figure 30 3fl-y contains the distributions for the surveyed robot parameters (Figure 303 k-p
shows the result of an update survey that was conducted in 1984, which we discuss later m this

chapter

In Figure 30 3 a it can be seen that the Japanese have concentrated much more on the rectangular
1.

modeb (52% of all their models) whereas the U S market has more articulated models (48?5i of
US market models) By far, the most common model size is “medium" (maximum dimension of
robot envelope from 2 to 5 m) with the next being "smaH" (maximum dimension of robot envelope
from 1 to 2 m) Note This analysts is for modeb and not actual numben of each, which are certainly
different
2. More US market modeb have rebtively greater lifting capacity compared to the Japanese
modeb. although both concentrate their capacity in the under 40-kg range
3. Whereas most U S models employ hydraulic systems, it is observed that the Japanese hsve
built more electne-actuated models From this survey it is apparent that, recently, U S and European
manufacturers are also producing more electnc models owing to the need for improved accuracy
capability for assembly and other precision tasks Overall, the pneumatiC'actuated model is the least
available
4 In the United Sutes a 6 DF (degrees of freedom) robot i$ most frequent, with S DF models
placing second Japanese modeb tend coward S DF by a margin of double the nearest categones of
3, 4,and 6 DF This leads to an observation of generally less articulated models in Japan relative to
the United States and supports the assumption that many robot applications can employ simpler models

Fig. 30J. Frequency distnbutions of 1982 industrial robots work characteristics (a) Rol*®' ,

micro, X < I, small, I < x S 2. medium. 2 x < 5. large x > 5. x = maximum dimension
<
robot envelope (m)
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Rg. 30J. («f) Actuator type

Fig. 30.3. (e) Degrees of freedom (Modular robots that can have 1 DF, or more, are available

the United States but are not rnctuded m the survey)

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Fig. 30 3. (/) Robot size versus arm structure

)
%
(

requency

Fig 303. (m) LiR capacity (kg)

566 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Servo-PTP (pomt-to-point) models are definitely m the majonty in both markets However
5.
when the other two categones are examined, it can again be seen that the Japanese have opted for

position, repeatability was analyzed relative to the actuator type (Figure 30 3y) It is noted that repeaubil-
ity decreases, that is, the positioning tolerance becomes larger, as the actuator type tends towards
hydraulic, whereas in the opposite direction of achieving greater repeatability, electnc actuators are
more prevalent The best repeatability surveyed was 0002 mm, present m
a pneumatically actuated
model However, this is misleading since that repeatability is gamed through an external mechanical
stop

Molion-Velocity Graphs

In analyzing a prospective robot task, it is useful to have knowledge of translational and rotational
and the velocities at which they can be performed Figure 30 4a-/i shows regions of maximum
capabilities
movement and velocity combinations for common arm and wnst motions As in the preceding section,
US market (solid-Iine regions) and Japanese (broken-lme regions) models were examined However,
allinformation was condensed to a single graph for each motion category to aid the companson
Individual points inside the region shown in the graphs were generated for individual robot models
(whenever information was available) For example a t^botech V-gO arm can rotate up to 270“ nght
to left at up to 1 rad/sec (57®/sec) This case is included as one point inside the region in Figure
30 4 The regions shown were developed by connecting extreme penmeter points Thus a region illustnies
overall ranges Since motion/velocity combinations are not equally distnbuted inside a region, centroids
were computed for each graph The centroids are indicated in the figures and listed in Table 303

Fig. 30.4. Motion-velocity graphs (a) Arm out-in traverse

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(%)
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<deg/5ee>

Velocity

568
570 APPUCATION PLANMNC: TECHNIQUES

Fig. 30.4. (A)Wnstyaw

Based on the graphs the rollov.mg can be observed

1 Motion/velocily capability ranges differ considerably between ihe two markets Only in the
case of arm out-in traverse are both the centroids and regions similar In all other cases considerable
differences exist
2. Generally, the centroids calculated for wnst motions m US market models indicate that,

among those rotets, models with larger maximum velocity are available The same is true with regard

to the maximum movement range For instance, in the wnst-yaw combinations, up to over 500* of
yaw at a velocity of about 300*/sec arc available in Ihe U S market. This is compared with maximum
combinations of 300* at 120Vsec, and 200* at l50V$ec in the Japanese market
3. Oa the other hand, Japanese robot atodeis fca»e the advanUge oF a rehtivtiy larger vanei.v
of model motion/velocity combinations in terms of arm nght-lelt traverse, arm up-down rotation A
clear advantage to Japanese robot modek is in the availability of larger capabilities in terms of arm
nght-left rotation velocity As Japanese models have relatively smaller arms on the average, consequently
lower inertias, higher rotation velocities could be designed

1984 Update Survey of Robot Work Characteristics

Dunng 1984 an update survey was initialed, mainly to establish trends m robot work ability develop-
prmling.
ments Specification guides for over 700 models (1983 and 1984) were analyzed, at the lime of
Figure
partial results for 551 Japanese and OS market modds were available, and are shown in
or
30 'ik-p (It can be seen that complete information on all the charactenstics was not available
robots m the survey ) Based on the update survey, here are several observations

1. While in the S market robot models of medium size continue to be most common
U
they are now followed closely by small models (38%) In contrast, the most
Japanese models is now small (52%), with medium at only 36% A
change is .

articulated
in arm is now the least common, and
structure In both markets rectangular
the
plus honzontal) Ihe most popular In the current Japanese models, however,
«tn
exceeds Ihe articulated vertical model Figure 30 3/ provides the robot sifuclurc
within each arm size class
unchanged, as is shown m
2. The distnbution in terms of lift capacity remains relatively
30 3/n.
“ 60^
a Soul
3. In terms of actuation, both markets now overwhelmingly employ eicctnc actuators
com m
m Japanese models, 48% in the U S market. In both markets models that
emerg
and hydraulic actuators, and AC
(rather than DC) electric motors, have
572 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

4. In Japan, a 5 DF robot continues lo be the most frequent, in the U

S market, an adjustment
has taken place and now the 5 robot is also most frequent On the other hand, it can be
DF
noted from Figure 30 3n that in the Japanese models the 4 and 6 DF models are now close
in populanty to the 5 DF class

5. In both markets repeatability of 0 l-O 5 nwn is still most common (see Fig 30 Jo) The most
significant trend is the increase, relative to the previous survey, in the number of Japanese
models with repeatability of 001-005 mm
The general trend of improved repeatability can
be explained by belter design of robot mechanism and control It is also strongly associated
with the frequency increase in electric actuation The distnbution of repeatability within each
actuator class (see Fig 30 3p) remains relatively unchanged compared to the previous study
However, more electric robot models can now provide relatively better repeatability, in the
range 0 01-0 05 mm, and the repeatability of hydraulic robots has improved none are specified
with repeatability of above 1 5 mm in both markets
6. The current distnbution of maximum nominal velocity is quite similar both markets, with m
10-50 ips (250-1250 mm/s) the most common range (65% in Japanese models, 53% m the
U S market) However, while in Japanese robot models very few, only S%, can exceed 90
ips (250 mm/s), m
the US
market 15% can now move at up to 90-130 ips (2250-3150
mm/s), and 9% can exceed even this range

Through can be denved for vanous necessary performance parame-

careful robot task planning, limits
ters By examining the Robot-Man Charts and moiion/vetocity graphs for parameters of importance,
the applicability of a robot for a particular task can be belter ascertained In many cases it may be
seen that a human >s much better suited to the performance of a given task If a rotot is appropnaie,
the charts can help in visualizing those systems that may best suit the application
Although in this section pnmary emphasis has been placed on choosing robots to perfoim a task,
engineers can redesign a workstation and task lo belter accommodate available automation Work
method and workplace analyses techniques are helpful these situations m
30.3. PLANNING WORK METHODS AND PROCESSES
A good work method determines how well limited resources such as time, energy, and matenals are
being utilized and has major influence on the quality of the product or output In planning robot
applications, there are two levels of consideration the macro and the micro levels The macro level
includes the production process planning and system planning, as described in Chapters 29 and 34,
and ergonomic studies as described in Section 30 2 In the micro level ergonomics techniques are

applied to plan the detailed work method The latter is supposed to include the following items

7.
Type and quantity of required parts and matenals
Type and quantity of required equipment
Type and quantity of operators (human and robot)
Specification of tasks and operations lo be performed
Sequence and precedence of operations
Layout of equipment and work stations
Work flow in the layout

A strategy for designing new methods or for improving existing methods is comprised of seven
’
steps

1. Determining the purpose of the method

2. Conceptualizing ideal methods
3. Identifying constraints and regulanty
4. Outlining several practical methods, using pnnciples such as those in Table 30 4
as hazard,
5. Selecting the best method outline by evaluating the alternatives using criteria such
economics, and control
6 Formulating the details of the selected method outline
Analyzing the proposed method for further improvement

Work methods must be documented for records, ongoing improvement, time study,
There are several tools for methods documentation, as wdl as for gathenng and analyzing
wor p
about work methods (see, for instance, Clark and Close*) Examples are process chart,
chart, multiple activity chart, and product flow sequence chart
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 578 APPLICATION PLANNING: TEOINIQUES

Comment Column

This column is for details about additional requirements such as position tolerances and utilities. Special
precautions »hich are typical in the human-onented analysis arc probably not necessary here because
they should appear in written decision logic infonnauon
As indicated before, robots possess no basic knowledge or expcncnce and therefore necessiuie
much detail the task speafications Therefore, elements will most commonly specify micromotions
m
with their time measured in seconds or (minutc/IOO)
Once a task is speafied. its analysis basically follows the three stages desenbed the human- m
onented method, that is (1) examine task elements, (2) document the what and how of all elements,
(3) systematically examine and evaluate alternative ways However, since it is possible to select a
robot and design its capabilities to best suit the task requirements, the performance evaluation in the
last stage should be expanded as follows From the documentation m Table 30 6 examine systcmaticaJly,
using robot motion-economy pnnciplcs. the possibilities of performing the task m different ways and
of using different robots

Job and Skills Analysis oj Robotic Assembly Task

We use an automobile water pump assembly task to illustrate the job and skills analysis approach
Each water pump consists of a pump base, a pump lop. a gasket to be inserted between the lop and
base parts, and six identical screws used to fasten the foregoing three parts together First, the analysis
approach can be applied to a human operator and then to a robot Assuming a robot is preferred,
the task can be performed m a workplace as shown in Figure 30 7 by a Stanford Arm robot, as
desenbed by Bolles and Paul "

1 Visually locale the pump base

2. Determine the base-grasping position by touch sensing
3. Bnng and place the base on its plate

4. Insert the two aligning pins m the base

5. Put a gasket on the base, guided by pins
5. Visually check the position of the gasket
7. Place the top on the base and gasket
8. Screw m the first two screws
9. Take out the aligning pins and place in their standard position
10 Screw in the last four screws
11. Cheek the force required to turn the pump rotor

Subcask 7, placing a lop pan on divided into 12 elements, as shown in Table 307
a base, is
Each of the elements
is speafied according to the method with its required senses, limbs, memory

and program, and special comments The time estimates per element given in the Uble are based on
the actual, onginaJ operation The total time is 12 5 sec
The original method can be improved by two of the pnnciples desenbed previously replacement
of senses and elimination of elements Since vision is required by earlier subtasks, some touch and
force sensor requirements may be removed Reviewing the 12 task elements in Table 30 7 it is evident
that in elements 3 through 7 the robot arm reaches the beanng twice The first time the robot only
identifies the prease location of the top part in order to align it later If it is feasible with the vision
system used, both the location and onenlation of the lop part could be found by the camera at the
same lime Then it would be possible to eliminate all elements from the end of element 3, “save
prease beanng location," to and including element 9 The result, shown in Table 30 8, could yield a
savings of 4 sec, almost one-third of the total original lime
On the other hand, if vision were not needed in other subtasks, the method could apply a relatively
simple fixture to locate the top part at a fixed and preprogrammed position With the top part at a
fixed and preprogrammed position and orientation, the arm could reach directly to gnp the top by
the beanng (first part of element 3) Both the camera and the Cartesian coordinate offsetting capabilities
could be eliminated, and a simpler, less expensive computer could be used to control the robot Again,
elimination of the end of element 3 through element 9 tn the task method could be achieved Further
improvement can be obtained by another fixture for positioning the pump base
The time required for the improved work method can now be considered with the cost of robot
and workstation to compare with other robots and with the manual work method for water pump
assembly If replacement by robots can be justified, then the selected robot and work method combination
will yield optimized work results
 slop

0,
>
force

resistance

If

BASE

ON

TOP

Compliance

PUMP

WATER

0
2
PLACING

FOR

top
METHOD

insert
cm

30
to

WORK pins,
cm

S
down
locating

ORIGINAL

Move
over

30.7.

TADLE

580
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 582 APPLICATION PLANNING. TECHNIQUES

A6. Actions should be distributed body muscles according to their abilities.

and assigned to
Reason upper limbs are fasi, accurate, and more flexible, lower limbs have strength and
stability Distnbution among different muscle groups provides rest periods
—
Robot work this pnnciple is only partially useful for robots the robot work abilities should
be specified according to the precise task requirements
A7. Muscular force required for motions should be minimized
Body momentum should be utilized to advantage, on the other hand, momentum should be
minimized to reduce the force required to overcome it, for example, it is belter to slide
parts than to carry them Usually, a human arm weighing about 5 kg handles parts or tools
weighing much less
Robot work this principle applies to robot for similar reason

B Principles Related to the Work Ensironment

Bl. Workplace should be designed for motion economy

That IS. tools, parts, and materials should be placed in fixed, reachable positions and m the
sequence they are used by a human operator Additionally, work surface height should be
designed to allow for human operator's sitting or standing
Robot work the first part of the pnnciple appLes directly to robots The height of a work
surface should be designed within the robot work envelope
B2. Tools and equipment should be designed and selected with ergonomics guidelines.
This pnnciple is concerned with the dimension and shape of items handled by human operators,
with safety, effectiveness, and comfort in mind
Robot work this pnnciple is directly useful for robot end-of-arm tooling

B3. Materiab'handhng equipment should be selected to minimize handling time and weight
For instance, parts should be brought as close to possible to the point of use, fixed items
position and onentation simplify pickup and delivery
Robot work this pnnciple is directly applicable to robots

C Principles Concerning Time Conseri-alion

Cl. Alt hesitations, temporary delays, or stops should be questioned

Regular, unavoidable delays should be used to schedule additional work
Robot work this pnnciple holds for both humans and robots For instance, in a foundry
delays caused by metal coo[ing*off penod can be utilized by humanor robot for gate removal,
in machine tending, when one machine is performing a process the operator can load/unload
another machine
C2. The number of motions should be minimized
Elimination and combination of work elements are the two most common methods to achieve
this goal
Robot work this pnnciple is applicable for both humans and robots
C? IVarkiitg on more ehon one parr at a Ome should be arrempfed
This pnnciple refers to (wo-armed human operators
Robot work it can be generalized to mulliarm robots Again, the number of robot arms or
hands can be chosen for the most effective work method

D. Principles Concerning Robots

These new pnnciples are based mainly on the fact that robot work abilities can be designed and
optimized to best fit the task objectives

Dl. Reduce the robot’s structural complexity

That IS, minimize the number of arms and arm joints, which are determined by the number
of hand orientations, reduce the robot dimensions, which are determined by the distance
the robot must reach, reduce the load that the robot must carry These reductions will result
in a requirement for a less expensive robot, lower energy consumption, simpler maintenance,
smaller work space
D2. Simplify the necessary motion path
Point-to-point motion requires simpler control of positioning and velocity compared to continu-
ous-path motion
D3. Minimize the number of sensors.
Each sensor adds to installation and operating costs by additional hardware, information
one
processing, and repairs The use of a robot with no senses is preferred to one sense,
sense is preferred to two, and so on
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LAYOUT EXAMPLE LAYOUT EXAMPLE #7

• Variation in heighth between work station and

pallet will require additional robot axes as
shown
• Increases programming effort

LAYOUT EXAMPLE #8
• Al [east Saxes o( motion required
• Extensive axes motions complicate
programming tash

LAYOUT EXAMPLE »S

• Axes of robot motion reduced by making work

Station heighth and part pickup, same'
• Simpler programming task

LAYOUT EXAMPLE #9

• At least 3 axes of motion required

• Axes motions reduced somewhat but
programming still not simple

LAYOUT EXAMPLE #6
• You never trust a robot within its mechanical
function parameters
• Overpowering restriction posts or other
barriers are the only acceptable protection for
humans in thearea
• Interlock gates should be used tokeep
personr^el cut of robot area
• Interlock footpads can alsobeused

• At least two axes of motion required

• Simplest of last three work stations to
program

Fig. 308. (c) {Comtnued)

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30.5. PERrOR.NtANCE MEASUREMENT

Performance measurement, including »ork tneaturement, performance prediction, and performance
esaluation. it the ergonomics function that accompanies a stork t)siefn throughout us life c)cle

Mxtiiflirsg centers

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 590 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

30.5J. The RTM Method

The RTM, robot time and motion method (Paul and Nof,** Nof and Paul,” Nof and Lechtman*’)
for predetermined robot c>cle times, is based on standard elements of fundamental robot work motions
RTM IS analogous to the MTM (methods time measurement) technique (Maynard et al ” and Antis
et al *’). which has long been in use for human work analysis Both methods enable users to estimate
the cycle time for given work methods without having to first implement the work method and measure
Its performance Therefore these methods can be highly useful for selection of equipment as well as

work methods, without even having imlially to purchase and commit to any equipment MTM users,
however, must consider human individual vanabihly and allow for pacing effects RTM, on the other
hand.canrely on the consistency ofrobotsand apply computational models based on physical parameters
of each particular robot model
The RTM methodology provides a high-level, user-fnendly technique with the following capabilities
Systematically specifying a work method for a given robot in a simple, straightforward manner
Applying computer aids to evaluate a specified method by time to perform, number of steps, position-
ing tolerances, and other requirements so that alternative work methods can be compared

Repeating methods evaluation for alternative robot models until the best combination is established

The RTM system is compnsed of three major components RTMelements, robot performance
models, and an RTM analyzer The system has been implemented, espenmented with, and applied
with several robot models, including the Stanford Arm equipped with touch and force sensing, Cincinnati
Milacron's T3, PUMA, Unimates, and others Several companies have adopted and applied the RTM
methodology, originally developed at Purdue University, and there has been one development of a
commercial product (ROFAC) based on it (Hershey et al *•)
The RTM user can apply 10 general work elements to specify any robot work, by breaking the
method down to its basic steps The RTM
elements, shown in Table 30 lOA, are divided into four
major groups
RTM Croup 1 Movement elements — REACH, MOVE, and ORIENT
RTM Group 2 Sensing elements—STOP-ON-ERROR, STOP-ON-FORCE/TOUCH
and VISION
RTM Group 3 Gnpper or tool elements —GRASP and RELEASE
RTM Group 4 Delay elements— PROCESS-TIME-DELAY and TIME-DELAY
By applying these elements with their parameters as shown in Table 30 lOA, the alternative robot
work methods can be analyzed, evaluated, compared, and improved Table 30 lOB provides a companson
between RTM and MTM work elements It can be used to evaluate systematically possible conversion
from manual to robotic work methods

RTM Performance Models

There are two possible ways to approach the modeling of robot work by approximating empincal
data gained from laboratory etpenments, and by ihe engineering design of the robot operation The
first way is exemplified by the use of element tables and regression equations, the other by the use of

motion control models and motion path analysis

Element Tables

The simplest modeling approach, which follows the ongmal MTM approach for human work methods,
applies a set of tables with estimates for each element according to particular parameters Tables are
developed based on laboratory experiments with the robot type for which data are prepared For
instance. Table 30 11 shows RTM element tables for the Stanford Arm Table 30 12 contains time
data for elements REACH (Rl) or MOVE (Ml), and for ORIENT (ORl) by the TNote that for
the "P REACH and MOVE elements are identical, since earned weight does not affect performance
time
The table approach is relatively simple, although it requires extensive laboratory expenmentation
to develop the table values for each robot model family However, once tables are established for a
particular robot type, they can be applied by everybody Times for motions at distances not in the
table can easily be interpolated It is important to note that despite Ihe relative simplicity of this
approach, it has been found to be quite satisfactory for its prediction purposes In laboratory expenments.
vanations between predictions based on the table approach and actual, measured time values of complete
tasks have been within the range of about ±S to 10%
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61
S92 APPLICATION PLANNING; TECHNIQUES

TABLE 30 lOB. RTM EQUIVALENT WORK

ELEMENTS FOR MTOI
Equivalent
MTM Work Element RTM Work Elements
RA Rn, SE
RD Rn. SF. SF
RC t
RD R, SE, V, R. SF
RE R, SE
MA t
MB Mn
MC Mn, SF. SF
GIA GR
GIB SF. ST
GIC t
G2 t
03 SE. SF. RE
G4 t
G5 GR
PI SF
PI and P3S SF. Ml. SF
P3SS and P3NS SF, Ml. Ml. SF
t Impossible lo perform by a robot

In expenmental work with Unimate 4000B, for example, the equation for RTM element Ml was
found (with 95% confidence level, as shown in Figure )0 10) to be

r(MI)*0423 + 0009X L

where L is in centimeters, HMl) is in seconds

Regression equations developed for the RTM system have been found to yield a predictive accuracy
similar to that of the table approach

A/ofion Control Models

A different modeling approach predicts motion time according to the pattern by which the robot
velocity IS controlledFor the T*. like several other robot models, the velocity is controlled as shown
in Figure 30
1 1 From kinematic relations, and expenmental work for very short motions, the following
equations were developed for the T®

TfRl or Ml, in seconds) = — +- for S'>-

(30 1)

= + 0365 r
-i>
forS>
2 857
= 0 82 for 17 50 < S < 43 75 err
= 0610 fof6 25 S 5'< 175cm
= 0413 forS<625cm
where S is the total distance moved m centimeters and y is the user-specified velocity in centimeters
per second
For multisegment motions (see Figure 30 lie), the analysis yielded the following general relationship

/(Rr Of Mn, mseconds)=024 -f-—

«
—^— 8 =2 I
1

Ki
-h 5! ~
,r, K,
(30 2)

,here n is the number of segments

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1 REACH (R1) or WOVE (Ml)

Time {sec)
at Velocity (cm/sec)
Distance to
Move (cm) 50 12 5 25 0 500 100 0

1 04 04 04 04 04
30 64 28 1 6 10 08
100 21 3 87 45 24 14

2 ORIENT (ORl)
Time (jec)
at Velocity (cm/see)
Angle to
Move (*g) 50 12 5 25 0 50 0 100 0

IS 30 1 4 08 06 06
60 10 8 46 25 1 4 09
120 21 3 87 46 25 14

Fig. 30.10. RTM element Ml legieuion line for Unimate 4000B

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 596 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Fig. 30.12 RTM analyzer

The RTM Analyzer

The RTManalyzer has been developed lo provide a means of syslemalically specifying robot work
methods «ith direct computation of performance measures The general structure of the analyzer is
shown in Figure 30 12
The input to the RTM analyzer includes control data <e g . task and subiasL titles, type of robot.

TABLE 30.14. SUMMARV OF RTM SYSTEM’S STATEMEhfTS

Statement Type Statement Structure

1 Subtask title SUBT. (no ), (title), (comment)

2 REPEAT control card REP.no offirst.TO.no of last, no times, (comment)
operation operation to repeat'
3 PARALLEL control card PAR.no offirst, TO, no of last, (comment)
operation operation
4 Conditional branching IF, (condition name condition value), GOTO, operation no or
subtask number
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(comment)
or sublask no
6 Movement elements
(Rn.Mn. ORn)
a By detailed commands
Position (Joints parameters)
initialization (operation no ) (RTM symbol), (comment)
Followed by End point (velocity), (foiRts parameters)
of segments
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or D-Linear
7 All other RTM elements (operation noX (RTM symbol), (operation parameter), (comment)
8 END Card END
9 CONDITION initialization COND
(condition name), (set of initial values')
END
These can be generated randomly
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 APPUCATION PLANNLNG: TECHNIQUES
TABLE 30.15. RTIVI EVPUT DATA FOR INSERTION TASK BY THE T*

Statement Comments

T Robot type
Insertion Task Task title

•Conditions
Input of condition signals, if
•
any were used
[REPEAT 1 To 26 SEVEN TIMES] Repetition command could be
stated here

1 R1 5.7 5 Reach 7 5 cm at 5cm/scc to

start position above base
2 GRl Grasp base
3 MI 5, 5 0 Raise base
4 Ml 25, 48 0 Move to above assembly posi-
tion

5 M2 25, 12 5, 5, 5 0 Bnng base down in two seg<

ments movement
6 RE Release it

7 R1 25, 23 0 Rise
8 R1 25. 55 0 Reach fixture

9 D2 Wait 2 sec (for continuation)

[IF (SIGNAL NE VALUE) Conditional branching could
GO TO END] be used
10 R1 5. ISO Bnng fingers above peg 1

11 GRl Grasp peg 1

12 Ml 5, ISO Raise peg 1

13 Ml 25, 55 0 Move It to above base

14 M2 25, 110, 5. 90 Insert peg m two steps
15 RE Release peg 1

16 R1 25, 22 0 Rise
17 R1 25. 500 Reach above peg 2
18 D2 Wait 2 sec
19 Rl 5, 12 5 Bnng fingers above peg 2
20 GRl Grasp peg 2
21 Ml 5. 12 5 Raise It

22 Ml 25, 500 Move It above base

23 M2 25, too. 5. 5 0 Insert it in two steps into
peg 1

24 RE Release peg 2
25 Rl 25, 17 5 Rise
26 Rl 25. 60 0 Reach start point

in both individuals and in organizations, and in both cases follows the typical learning curve (see
Figure 30 14) The general form of a learning curve can be

T(»i)=r(l)Xn->

where T =» time (or cost) per cycle

7(1) = time (or cost) of the first cycle
n =» the number of cycles performed
A =» an improvement constant, determined by the learning rate.

In human leanung, the main amount of previous crpcnence

factors are (1) person’s age; (2) the
in learning, (3) personal physical and psychological capabilities. (4) the job complexity in terms of
cycle length, amount of uncertainty, and degree ofsnnilanty to previous jobs Learning by an organiza-
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600 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

1 S
Cycle number

Fig. 30 14 The teaming curve

1.

tion IS characterized by production progress functions that indicate the rate at which the organization
learns to produce its products The main factors that have been found to cause such improvements

are (1) organizational improvement, (2) improvements introduced in work methods, (3) training pro-
grams to improve employees’ skills (4) improved production technology and new equipment Although
operators differ in their learning rate by the factors of human learning, organizations differ both by
the foregoing factors and by the nature of ih«r major activity
In both individual and organization learning the objective oHeaming curves as performance measure-
ment tools IS to provide a model relating past expenence with future performance Such information
IS in planning the system’s operations elfeclively, for example, lime and cost
valuable estimates of
new orders, estimation of training costs, and performance monitoring and evaluation
Robot learning can be found in three mam areas in industry

Human operators learning to accept and work with robots

2 Organizations teaming to introduce and utilize robots
3, Robots learn about their operation

The first two areas follow, in pnnciple, the previous discussion about human learning and are
further discussed in Section 30 6. "Integrated Human and Robot Ergonomics " Robots themselves
learn, or acquire knowledge, according to Seltzer,** by three different methods

1. Being taught by an operator by means of a teach box

2. Being taught by means of an off-line geometric data base and programs
3. Learning from on-line experience

Robot teaching and off-line programming arc covered in detail in Chapters 19 and 20 Other robotic
knowledge acquisition approaches are covered in Chapters 22 and 23 In the area of vision, Gleason
and Agm*^ and others have shown that pattern recognition techniques can be combined with simple
learning algonthms into a machine vision system that can, m certain cases, program itself to recognize
objects Contact sensing can also be used to guide a variable process by compliance (see details in
Chapter 64) A new learning technique based on stochastic control theory is desenbed by Whitney
and Junkel** for long-term control According to this technique, which is applicable for both contact
and noncontact sensing, ongoing measurement of force or displacement is performed in the robot’s
environment for feedback Random errors occur in the robot environment because of factors such as
inaccuracies or wear in jigs, tolerances in parts, errors tn sensors, and thermal dnft Applying the
stochastic control technique, the robot can utilize the feedback to learn, accumulate knowledge, about
world parameters such as weight of grasped objects and force required to join parts Thus it can
automatically learn to identify random events when they occur, and how to react effectively to them
by bridging the gap between ongmally taught points and actual destinations Figure 30 15 depicts
how the technique can be applied by the rolMt controller to improve its performance by learning
The latter type of intelligent learning by a robot can significantly improve the effectiveness of
program-
robot work, and may in the future completely revise the need for accurate rotot teaching and
 66S

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602 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Months after initial introduction

Fig. 30.16. Reduction of robot cycle lime at die-castmg operation (Source Data taken from Refer-
ence 64

In a prototype study (Argote, et al **) the objective was to investigate how employees, as individuals,
perceive and accept a new robot, the first in their company Workers were interviewed 2 5 months
before and 2 S months after the robot introduction As can be expected, with time and experience
workers increased their understanding about what a robot really is However, with time, workers'
beliefs about robots, for instance, the potential hazards associated with robots, became more complex
and pessimistic Additionally, an increase in stress was indicated among workers interacting directly
with the robot Further research is needed on this problem, however, the researchers saw their findings
as another indication that effective strategies for correct introduction of robots to the factoo' are
vital to the success of robot implementations More about human factors and robots is covered in
Chapter 32 and about humans in supervisory control of remote robot applications in Chapter 17

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The education I received from Professor H Gershom, who taught me systems integration through

methods engineering at the Technion, stimulated my interest in the general area that I have termed
“Robot Ergonomics ’’ For this I am grateful to him Thanks are also due to the students who worked
With me enthusiastically in this area over the years Hannan Lechtman and Andy Robinson, who
developed the RTM software and robot simulation, Ed Fisher and Richard Penmgton, who earned
out the extensive statistical robot surveys, and Oded Maimon and Bob Wilhelm, who worked on
robot cell design and control Their contnbulions were valuable to the development of this chapter

REFERENCES
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Engineering. Wiley, New York, 1982

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6(M APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

38. Luh, J S and Lin, C S Optimum path planning for mechanical manipulators. ASME Transac-
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Stegemerten, , Q J , and Schwab, J L Methods-Time
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Hill, New York, 1948
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Honeycutt, J M , and Kock, E N , The Basic Motions of MTM. 4th ed (The Maynard
Foundations), 1973
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Letzt, A M , and Nof, S Y
Computerized methods for predicting robot
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mance, Aulofaet 5. Detroit, Michigan, November 1983, pp 3 9-13 16
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of the 9th ISIR. Washington, DC . March 1979, pp 323-330
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simulation of robotic systems. Proceedings of the 1980 iVinter Simulation Conference, pp 207-
214
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SINDECS-R A robotic work cell simulator. Proceedings of
the 1983 iVmter Simulation Conference pp 350-355
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Industnal Engineers, 1977
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, for rmpravud robot leamtng, SME Paper No MS79~
799, Autofact, Detroit, November 1979
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and inspection, Proceedings of the 9ih ISIR, March 1979

58 Whitney, D E and Junkel, E F Applying , stochastic control theory to robot sensing, teaching,
and long term control, Proceedingsof the Joint Automatic Control Conference, Alexandna, Virginia,
June 1982, pp 1175-1183
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and Kearsley, G P. Robotics and human factors Current status and future
prospects. Human Factors, Vol 24, No 5, 1982,
pp 535-552
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Focus on the human factors in applying robotic systems, Roftoftes Today December
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1982, pp 32-34
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Robotics The human touch, Robotics Today, April 1982, p 28
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Detroit. Michigan, 1982, pp 18-181
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, High speed and flexible automated assembly line Why has automation successfully —
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Tokyo. 1980
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, S , and Schkade.D, The human side of robotics Resultsfromaprotot>pe
study on how workers react to a robot. Technical Report CMU-RI-TR-83-11, Camegie-Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, May 1983
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and Information Technology, Vol 2, No 3, 1983, pp 263-287
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= 3172 average total time sper»t by a job from arrival to departure

Iw = 3172 average time spent by a job while waiting for a processor
= 3172 utilization of processor
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31.1.
Xu = 3141 proportion of OPi requirements to be performed at

INTRODUCTION
31.1.1. Scope of the Chapter

There are many quantitative techniques that can be used as effective aids dunng the planning, design,
and operation of a robotic system This chapter reviews a number of such techniques with the aim
of enabling readers to identify quickly which may be suitably used for their situation An overview is
given of the mam methods, and for readers interested in further details, references to more comprehensive
works are included
At the outset, the reader should be aware of the types of issues that are addressed m this chapter
First, and foremost, the chapter is concerned with macro system design, rather than micro system
design At the micro level, thedesigner would be concerned with details of individual robot workstations
such issues are addressed in Chapter 30 At the macro level, the designer addresses a system having
(possibly) multiple robot workstations, and issues of concern include choice of alternative workstations
and combinations of workstations, configuration of the workstations and matenal*handling system,
evaluating the performance of the system of interacting workstations, and integration of this robotic
facility into the rest of the manafactunng plant These arc the kinds of issues addressed here

Second, it is useful to make the distinction between analysis techniques and synthesis techniques
In the former, the designer has a panicular system conOguraiion planned and wishes to analyze its
performance, whereas in the latter the technique presents the designer with a candidate plan to be
evaluated Although both analysis and synthesis techniques are covered here, it should be mentioned
that more emphasis n placed on the former The reason is simply that the state of the art a less
advanced in synthesis techniques for robotic system design
In summary, this section of the handbook deals with the systems aspects of multistation robotic
systems The need for an entire chapter devoted to this aspect anses from the fact that even a small-
sized robotic facility is a complex system, consisting of many interconnected components of hardware
and software, as well as many limited resources such as buffer storage space, part feeders or onenters,
end effectors, and matenal-handlmg equipment Designing such a system and operating it efficiently
can be difficult tasks because of the interaction between the components, which makes it hard to
predict the overall system performance It is therefore important to use sophisticated techniques to
analyze the system design and operation This chapter gives the designer an overview of available
techniques for this task
Space considerations limit the extent to which each technique can be discussed As a general rule,
techniques that have been widely studied in the context of production and operations management
are treated bnefly, and references to well-known publications are given for them Techniques that
consider problems particular to robotic systems, or new problems introduced by these systems, are
given more coverage

31.1.2. Phases of the Design Process

In the planning, design, and acquisition of a robotic system an organization goes through several of
the following distinct phases of activity

1. System Planning Phase. This involves a feasibility study and/or a preliminary system design
with the pnmary aim to establish the feasibility of the project, with coarse estimates of the
and operational aspects of the project As a result, a few alternatives
strategic, financial. logistical,
are earmarked for more detailed study
2. Process Planning and Configuration Design Phase. Dunng this phase, for each of the foregoing
alternatives selected, the operations to be performed by the system are identified, and detailed
system design is earned out in terms of equipment selection and placement and workstation
design
3. Installation Phase. This includes the system procurement, installation, and debugging
4. System Operation Phase. After the system is installed, it must be operated in a manner
that meets production requirements and other management cniena (such as limits on work
 CHAPTER 31
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS
RAJAN SURI
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts

TERMINOLOGY
Symbol Section Reference and Brief Explanation

S = 31.7.2: mean time between arrivals

B = 31.4.1; budget limit

Cj= 31.4.1; cost of lESj

Cs = 31.7.2: coefficient of variation of service time (standard deviation divided by mean)

D = 31.7.2; deterministic (i.e., constant time) process
ei =31.4.1: existing annual cost of performing OPi

f =31.7.6: mean time to failure (MTTF)

F{t) =31.7.6: cumulative distribution function (CDF) for failure

G =31.7.2: general (arbitrarily specified) distribution

hj =31 .4. 1 : annual number of hours IVSj is available
M = 31.7.2: Markovian (or exponential) distribution
Nj =31.4.1; number of WSj that will be purchased
tiToT =31,7.2: average total number of jobs in the facility

nw = 31.7.2: average number of Jobs waiting for service

0{j) =31.4.1; indexes of operations that can be performed by fVSj
OPi =31.4.1: operation /

r = 31.7.6: mean time to repair (MTTR)

n =31.4.1: annual rate for OPi
Ri =31.7.6; reliability of component i

Rm[n ~ 31.7.6: reliability of “m out of n” structured system

Rp = 31.7.6; reliability of parallel structured system
Rs =31.7.6: reliability of series structured system
T^tmr =31.7.6: reliability of triple modular redundant system
R{t) =31.7.6: cumulative distribution function (CDF) for repair
s = 31.7.2: mean service time of a job
Sa — 31.7.6: standard deviation of times system is available
sj =31.7.6: standard deviation of time to failure
Sr =31.7.6; standard deviation of time to repair
Ta = 31.7.6: mean of times system is available
t,j =31.4.1: time required to perform a single OP, on WSj

605
 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

not necessanly the best policy The accuracy arises from a greater level of detail in the model and
greater thoroughness in its analysts An accurate technique tnvanably requires more detailed knowledge
about the system to up the model correctly, thus requinng a lot of time to be spent on determining
set
the precise model structure and model parameters, as well as values for these parameters It is more
than likely that exercising this technique will also beexpeosive in terms of computer resources Therefore,
at the preliminary stage of the design process, when many widely differing system alternatives arc to
be explored, it may be impractical or even infeasible to use such a technique In contrast, a simpler
model may be very easy to set up, and may allow a wide range of alternatives to be explored at
relatively little effort and cost Since this technique may be more coarse, it should be used pnraanly
to eliminate alternatives and to identify potential designs for more detailed investigation Nevertheless,
at the feasibility phase or preliminary design phase, such a technique may be sufficient to identify
"ball park” values of the significant variables, such as total investment, rate of return, and production
capacity
To make this point concrete, consider the use of a queueing model (probabilistic/steady-state)
instead of a detailed simulation (probabihstic/dynainic) for a multi-workstation system (These models
are desenbed later ) The former model might require only 20 input data items, and execute in under
a second on a minicomputer The latter might require 500 input data items, and take many minutes
to execute Clearly the former is far more suited to rapid interactive design for cxplonng a wide
range of alternatives Furthermore, as discussed in later sections, the queueing model may supply
enough information for an initial decision

31.1.5. Structure of the Chapter

The remainder of the chapter devoted to describing specific quantitative techniques It is envisioned
is

that the reader is manager engaged in one or more phases of implementation of

a system designer or
the robotic system it would be useful to know Ihe issues to be addressed and the
At each phase
relevant techniques that can aid m
addressing ihese issues The first part of the chapter is therefore
divided into sections, one for each phase of the implementation process, which enables the reader to
focus on the phase that is currently of importance Within each section, there are three mam subsections
The first summanzes major requirements to be met, and issues to be addressed, by the particular
phase This subsection should serve as a useful checklist for the designer The second subsection indicates
typical performance measures used m
studying decision alternatives for this phase and explains their
significance The final subsection then describes quantiufive techniques relevant to studying Ihe require-
ments, issues, and performance measures detail^ in Ihe previous subsections
The last part of the chapter (Section D) discusses issues relevant to the entire design/operation
process

A. SYSTEM PLANNING PHASE

This section addresses the preliminary system design phase dunng which the concern is to estaWish
of the project with initial estimates for system size, cost, return on investment, and other
feasibility
variables of interest to upper management

31.2. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND ISSUES

As the first step in fulfilling the typical requirements of this phase of the design process, as well as
issues that must be addressed, the major parameters of concern should be identified and qualified to
provide guidelines for the scope of the planning study Such parameters would include the following

1. Management Objectives. What is the reason (or the set of possible reasons) for the organization
to consider a robotic system’ Knowledge of this is important so that the planning phase can
result in performance indicators that relate to the reason(s) Typical reasons could be one or
more of the following reduced labor costs, improved quality, worker safety, increased product
flexibility (Some reasons may not be known in advance and may become apparent only as

the analysis proceeds These will then have to be incorporated into the models and methods
being used by the study )
2. Location, If a new plant is bang constructed to house the automated facility, what is its
best location with respect to material supply and demand and with respect to overall costs’
If the automated facility is being placed in an existing plant, what is its best location withm
the plant, again with respect to material movement’
3. Operations to be Considered. What are the operations that will be considered for potential
for a
robot automation’ For example, in a manufactunng factlily, is it only a given operation
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 607

of reconfiguration due to failure, or due to unanticipated production require-

in process). Issues
ments, constantly need to be addressed.
5. Ongoing Tasks. Even after a system hasbeen made operational, there are long-term tasks
thatmust be addressed in addition to theday-to-day operating tasks. Examples are gradual
performance tuning of the system, identifying and evaluating potential modifications to the
system, and planning/designing potential expansions of the system.

In each of the activity phases listed, the task of the designer can be aided by quantitative techniques.
Details of the design requirements for each phase, as well as appropriate quantitative techniques for
addressing those requirements, are given in Sections 31.2 through 31.6 of this chapter.

31.1.3. Overview of Quantitative Techniques

The techniques covered here range over a wide spectrum of methods, although, broadly speaking, all
of these methods are related to the area of operations research/management science (OR/MS). Neverthe-
less, the unfamiliar reader may be overwhelmed by the diversity of methods discussed. It is useful

therefore to place the methods in a simple classification scheme which aids the reader in identifying
the critical elements addressed by each technique and in comparing and contrasting the techniques.
This scheme is introduced here and is used throughout the chapter.
The scheme is based on two attributes. The first attribute states whether the technique is based
on a deterministic or probabilistic model. In the latter case, uncertainties prevalent in the situation
model of the situation. In the former case, such uncertain-
being studied are explicitly incorporated into a
ties are either neglected altogether, or modeled indirectly (e.g., by using “safety factors”). The second

attribute states whether the technique uses a static or dynamic model. In the latter case, the technique
explicitly models the evolution and interaction of the system components over time, thus enabling
study of phenomena that are prevalent at some times and not at others, and of effects due to particular
sequences of behavior. In the former case these details are replaced by aggregate models of behavior
that (attempt to) summarize the system performance over the entire time period. For consistency
with accepted terminology, in the case of a probabilistic model the term steady state is used rather
than static.

With these attributes it is seen that all the quantitative techniques described here fall into just
four categories (Table 31.1). In order of increasing complexity these categories are as follows;

TABLE 31,1. CATEGORIZATION OF

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES: AN EXAMPLE
OF EACH CATEGORY
Attribute 2

Static
Attribute 1 (or Steady-State) Dynamic

Deterministic Linear Scheduling

programming
Probabilistic Queueing- Simulation
network
algorithms

Deterministic/static
Probabilistic/steady-state

Deterministic/dynamic
Probabilistic/dynamic

An example of a technique in each category can be found in the table.

In the rest of the chapter, any quantitative technique introduced is classified in this scheme. This
enables the reader to decide whether, at first glance, the technique addresses these two important
aspects in the manner desired. It also enables a quick comparison between other techniques in the
same category.

31.1.4, Matching the Techniques to the Project Implementation Phase

The four categories of methods are also listed in order of increasing accuracy. The conservative designer
or manager may therefore be tempted always to use the most accurate technique. However, this is
610 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

31.4.1. Planning Example

Suppose the main objective of automation ts to maximize the annual cost saving, given that a limit
exists on the capital to be invested m the robotic system Let

[OPi. OP2, , OP,\ be the set of candidate operations for possible automation The guidelines
m Section 31 2 should have helped to define and limit this set

IKS2 . . II^jI be the set of possible worirstations that could be used for automation of
one or more of the foregoing operations Again, by limiting the set of candidate operations, it is
easier to review capabilities of available equipment and identify alternative equipment that is suitable
for these operations

r, be the annual rate at which OPi must be performed (e g , number of times per year)

Cj be the cost of IVSj

be the annual number of hours that
hj is expected to be available, taking into account the

number of shills, reliability, and other stoppages

0(.j) and 1P(0 be sets of indexes 0(j) contains indexes of operations that can be performed by
and IPCi) contains indexes of workstations that can perform OP,
l,j be, for j in (Pfi), the time required to perform a single OPt on WS,
e, be the existing annual cost of performing OPt using current methods this includes vanable
costs (e g , labor and matenals) as well as related overheads

B be the capital budget limit

be, for j in IF(i). the annual cost of perfonning OP, on IVSj this includes vanable costs and
related overheads, but not recovery of capital investment

Several parameters require an economic model of the system Relevant approaches for robotic systems
are descnbed m Benedetti,‘ Boothroyd,* Ciborra and Romano,’ Fleischer,* Heginbotham,* Owen,”
and Whitney et al •*

Next, the decisions to be made for the prebminary design are represented by vanables

ATj = I if OP, is chosen for automation (= 0 if not)

= proportion of annual OP, requirements that will be performed at WS,
Sj = number of WSj that will be purchased
31.4.2. Linear Prograniming’*'^*'**-**

With decision vanables and data items as given, the preliminary design problem can be formulated
as the following linear programming (LP) problem

(311)

subject to

(312)

2 Xif = Xi for all I (313)

2 t'it,)X,j < hfNj for all j (314)

Xi < I for all I (315)

x„.X,.Ni>Q for all /,j (316)

Equation (31.1) states the objective, which ts to maximize the annual savings in cost, while (31 2)
IS the budget constraint Equation (31 3) ensures that if an operation is selected (1 e , A"! = 1). Ihm

the proportions of that operation’s requirement assigned to vanous workstations add up to unity
Equation (31 4) is the available capacity on workstations of type j Equations (31 5) and (31.6) ensure
that the decision vanables are nonnegative and that Xi does not exceed unity Observe, however,
that m this formulation the decision vanables are not restncted to integer values, and thus a solution
with A*! =
0 6 and A} = 2 3 could be obtained Such a solution would be meaningful only if partial
automation of an operation were acceptable (ATj =06
says that 60% of the annual requirement
of

OPi should be performed on the new system, and 40% should continue to be performed in the existi^
way) Also, if it were possible to buy part of a workstation, for example, if three WSj were purchased
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 609

given product that is possible operations for all the products (or any
being studied, or all

limited combination in between)? preliminary stage, it is not necessary to study each

At this
operation in detail to decide whether to include it. Rather, various gross characteristics of
the operations/products should be used to select or eliminate candidates. Group technology
codes can assist in this process.*^'*"*
4. System Size. What are rough limits on system size dictated by floor space, number of elements,
overall system complexity, or other criteria?

5. Capital Budget. What is the range of dollar amounts that is being considered as the capital
outlay for this system?

The main aim of identifying these parameters is to narrow the scope of the preliminary design
study. In some situations management may not wish to limit its alternatives and might require many
of the parameters to be determined during the study. However, the more that can be done to elicit
estimates such as the preceding using qualitative arguments, the more focused and productive will be
the quantitative study described.
Given these general guidelines, specific requirements of this preliminary phase are, typically, to
identify the following:

1. One or more alternative systems that could satisfy management objectives.

2. For each alternative, estimates of performance indicators relevant to upper management.

3. For each alternative, the operations to be automated and the typical equipment that might
be used.

31.3. PERFORMANCE MEASURES

In comparing the alternatives with each other, and with the technology currently in use, several indicators
of performance are used. Prime among these are the following:

1. Amount of Investment. What will be the total cost of the system, and how will the investment
be phased in time?
2. Return. What will be the return on investment (ROI) for the project? Some organizations
use measures such as internal rate of return (IRR), net present value (NPV), and payback
period as alternatives, or as additional measures. Organizations will usually have a standard
procedure for evaluating these financial measures, but if there is some doubt, an extensive
discussion can be found in the work of Canada.®

3. Operational Flexibility. How easily will the system adapt to day-to-day perturbations in work-
load and variety of tasks and to subsystem failures?
4. Capacity Flexibility. What will be the system’s capacity to accommodate lasting changes in
production requirements?
5. Strategic Flexibility. To what extent can the system be adapted to changes in operation,
for example, to assemble a different product mix?

31.4. QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR SYSTEM PLANNING

In addition to the description of techniques that are useful in the planning phase given in this section,
reviews and literature surveys can be found in Fisher, Nof, and Seidmann,* Fleischer,^ and Nof.®
There are, clearly, many
elements of the preliminary design phase that are not unique to robotic
systems, and these elements might already be familiar to system planners/designers. One such element
is strategic planning.^^'^^ Depending on the size and scope of the robotic system being considered,

management may wish to use methods of strategic planning along with the other tools discussed in
this section. Another important element is forecasting. The rate of operation required of the system
is usually dependent on certain exogenous variables such as demand for a product. It is therefore
essential to forecast the relevant exogenous variables for a given time period into the future. Uncertainty
in forecasts
can be dealt with rigorously, using decision analysis. A
fourth element is facility location
analyzed by the techniques of location analysis.** *^ Since these aspects are not special to robotic systems,
the reader desiring more information is referred to the well-known works cited previously. (There is
an aspect of location analysis that is particularly relevant to automated facilities. Further discussion
and references are in Section 31.7.1.)
The which operations should be automated and what equipment should be used
task of selecting
to automate these operations can be a very complex one and, of course, is particular to the concept
of automation. It is for this task that we introduce the first set of quantitative techniques. These fall
in the deterministic/static category and are linear programming (LP), integer programming (IP), and
mixed integer programming (MIP). The techniques are introduced in the context of a simple example.
612 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

do not fit easily into the framework of mathematical programming methods

into account constraints that
Good suboptimal solution methods for robotic system planning have been developed by Whitney et
al and Graves and Lamar *® For large problems with many candidate operations, Whitney and
Sun’® present a very fast suboptimizing algorithm Heuristic methods have also been developed for
this task An algonthm by Whitney and Sun” has been empincally shown to perform well, and in
addition it can be used when there is resource shanng (as above) or many other unusual constraints,

which the other procedures are not able to model effectively For extremely large problems, involving
automation of entire plants, where the number of operations could be in the tens of thousands, it
may be worthwhile considenng a different formulation of the objectives, in terms of constraints alone,
since in this case considerable theory can again be brought to bear on solving the problem efficiently ”

31.4.7. Parametric Studies

Much more insight is gained during the planning stage by solving a model for a range of values of
an input parameter For instance, in the planning example of Section 31 4 1, the model can be solved
for a range of values of B (the budget constraint) Suppose the IP model (Section 314 3) is used,
and the optimal solution (i e , the annual cost savings) is plotted as a function of £ A typical graph
might be as shown in Figure 31 1, which serves to illustrate some important points Note fint that
—
the function is quite irregular in its behavior this is due to the integer nature of the problem Next,
for any solution, the ROI is given by the slope of the line joining the ongin to the point x representing
the solution This shows that the highest ROI is obtained for an investment of 40,000 dollars (line
A), but this option provides an annual savings of just 15,000 dollars On the other hand, the highest
annual savings is obtained when 240,000 dollars is invested, but this decision gives the lowest ROI
(line C)' One approach to resolving this trade-off could be to specify the minimum acceptable ROI,
say, 207e (line B), and to maximize the annual savings subject to this ROI constraint In that case
the best decision is the one where 120,000 dollars are invested Thus the parametric study in Figure
31 1 provides useful insight for management
Another type of parametric analysis that is helpful is a study of the surge capacity of a given
system Ifthe models of Sections 31 4 2-31 4 4 give nse to several candidate designs, all with comparable
cost and performance measures, this additional study may help to pick out a supenor candidate For
a given system (i e , choice of workstation), the model is solved for successively increasing production
requirements of a given operation or product line The production requirement is increased until the
solution becomes infeasible (the system capacity is just exceeded), giving nse to a measure of surge
capacity A typical result, for a system with three products A. B, C, might be that the system has a
surge capacity of 35% with respect to product A alone, and 10% with respect to all three products
simultaneously This provides management with another dimension on which to judge alternative
candidates

Initialsystem cost
(SXWOI

Fig 31 1. Parametric study of annual savings as a function of system cost

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 611

and another department used 70% of one of them, then Nj = 2.3 would be meaningful. In practice,
however, such fractions are usually not reasonable, and this is the shortcoming of the LP formulation.
Still, the advantages of the LP formulation are numerous. Theory and algorithms for LP are well

known and well understood,^®'^®-^®-^^ and efficient software programs exist even for very large problems
(e.g., I = 1000 and J = 50). The LP solution serves as an upper bound (the best value that might

be attained) and thus can suffice in eliminating alternatives, for example, alternatives for which even
the value is not satisfactory. Often, the LP solution is close to the optimal integer solution, and
LP
so can be used as an approximation to the true solution. In a preliminary analysis this may be
it

enough to identify feasibility of the project and typical values of financial and operational variables.
31.4.3.

Integer Programming^’-s^

Refinement of the LP formulation involves adding the following constraints which prevent splitting
of operations or workstations:

A) =0 for 1 for all i (31.7)

Aj =0, 1, i: . . . (nonnegative integer) for all j (31.8)

Xy =0 or 1 for all i.
j (31.9)

Equations (31.1) through (31.9) now constitute an integer prorgamming (IP) problem. Note that Equa-
tion (31.9) has added the additional constraint that if an operation is selected for automation, it should
be done only on one type of workstation. This restriction is discussed further later, but in many
situations the alternative preferred by system managers anyway. The preceding IP problem is
it is

considerably more complex than the LP. Typical computer time can easily be 1000 times that for
solving the LP, depending on the size of the problem. Still, this IP constitutes a well-known problem,
and several algorithms and software packages exist.^^

31.4.4. Mixed Integer Programming^^

A third formulation is obtained by removing the constraint of Equation (31.9), in other words, requiring
only whole operations or whole workstations to be selected, but it may be
if an operation is selected,
performed at more than one type of workstation. The reason that this may be discouraged, as in
Equation (31.9), is that it leads to additional costs associated with designing and procuring different
end effectors, feeders, orienters, and so on for this operation on each type of workstation. However,
in some contexts it may be necessary to split an operation, since this is the only way to fill spare
capacity on two types of workstations. The resulting formulation. Equations (31.1) through (31.8),
constitutes a mixed integer programming (MIP) problem. The level of complexity is somewhat less
than that of the foregoing IP, but still it remains closer in magnitude to that of the IP than the LP.
Again, this formulation can be solved using well-known algorithms and software.^*’®^

31.4.5. Enhancement of the Model

All the preceding formulations neglected several factors, primarily for clarity of the examples. Depending
on the of detail required of the preliminary analysis, several more factors can be incorporated
level
into the model. Examples of such factors follow.
Alternative objective functions may be desired, such as others stated in Section 31.3. Differences
in operation times due to sequencing can be incorporated: for instance, load/unload times and end-

effector change times may depend on which operation follows the current one.^® Additional constraints,
such as a limit on the number of workstations or available floor space, can be included. Cost savings
due to sharing of resources, such as end effectors, by more than one operation on the same workstation
can also be studied.®® If the operations being considered constitute processing for various product
lines, then it may be desirable to automate either all the operations for a product, or none of them.

Then the decisions become whether or not to automate a group of operations, and Equations (31.1)-
(31.9) can be suitably modified.®®

31.4.6. Suboptimal and Heuristic Techniques

When the model is enhanced by adding becomes considerably more

in detail factors, its solution
difficult to obtain. (In principle the solution can always be found, but in practice the
computer time
required for each solution may be unacceptably high.) So, for these more complex problems suboptimal
or heuristic approaches are used. A suboptimal solution refers to one obtained by prematurely stopping
an optimizing technique (a technique that would obtain the optimum given enough computer time)
and then picking the best feasible solution obtained so far. A heuristic technique is one that uses a
set of rules to generate a solution.®® In this case, there is no guarantee the solution will be
optimal
614 APPLICATION PLANNING- TECHNIQUES

5. Queue The number of workpieces or tasks that are waiting for a

Sizes. particular workstation
or other equipment (e g transporter)
.

6. Blocked Times. The amount of lime that a given item of equipment ready to perform a
is

task but IS "blocked” for reasons such as its output buffer is full, or the end effector it needs

IS being used by another robot, or a transporter is required to remove the current workpiece
7. System Reliability. An evaluation of how the reliability of the components will interact in
the given configuration, leading to a measure of overall system reliability

These indicators are used, not just as means for evaluating a design, but as aids to diagnosing
problems m
a design and perhaps indicaling directions for improvement The configuration design
process is inevitably an iterative one where each candidate design is successively refined by modification
and reevaluation

31.7. QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR CONFIGURATION DESIGN

This section discusses techniques that can assist the system designer dunng the configuration design
phase

31.7.1. Location Analysis

In the preliminary design phase the location of vanous system components was not considered The
first step of refining a candidate design is to work out the details of the placement of workstations,

buffers, material-handlingequipment, acccssoncs, and so on Study of such decisions belongs in the

domain of under the titles of facility location and layout planning
location analysis,**** also studied
The from this field belong mainly in the delerministic/static categoiy
quantitative techniques ansing
Locational problems encountered in designing an automated facility can be broadly placed into three
classes

1. Location of the automated facility with respect to existing facilities

2. Location of equipment within (he facility

3. Location of workpieces, accessories, and toob within a workstation

The first problem

is part of the system planning effort, and, for reasons slated in Section 314,

not dealt with m chapter However, some of the techniques to be described would be
detail in this
relevant for the problem too The third problem belongs in the realm of workstation design,
first

discussed in Chapter 30 Thus this section focuses on (he second problem, with occasional remarks
on the first problem
In deciding the location of equipment (or of (he entire facility), the following are typical factors
that must be considered

1. Transport Time (or costs) In locating a workstation or designing a maienal-handhng system

the time to transport workpieces may be a considcraliOD (In locating an ejiure facility, where
distance to other plants is significant, transport costs could be a factor)
2. Workstation Dimensions. This can be important if the workstation size is significant compared
to the facility size

3. Transporter Reach. Some material transport systems (such as a radial arm) have limits on
their reach Others (such as under-floor (ow-lme systems) might have an existing layout, or
limits/costs associated with length of a new track
4. Fixed Costs. These may depend on the site chosen for the equipment (or facility)

5. Capacity Limits. Matena] movement between workstations may be limited by transporter

capacity

The simplest approach to location analysis involves planar location models. These involve simplifying
assumptions such as any point m
the plane is a valid location, fixed cosb are negligible, and distribution
problems can be ignored A final assumption concerns the way in which “distance” is measured between
two locations A wide variety of measures arc permitted, but the measure always depends only on
the relative coordinates of one point with respect to the other (In particular, it cannot depend on a
given network of paths ) In spite of these assumptions, planar models are often used because they
are easy to solve and can provide useful insight «* An introduction to such models can be found in
Francis and White,** and recent surveys with detailed references are in Hearn and Vijay,*’ and m
Francis, McGinnis, and White **

An important concern m the design of an automated facility is the layout of the automated matenaf-
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 613

31.4.8. Limitations and Benefits of Planning Models Described

All the approaches so far still neglect certain other factors, to keep the problems simple and the

computer solution times reasonable. Layout of the workstations is not considered it is assumed that —
a feasible layout will be found for the selected design. Intermediate buffer spaces are not modeled.
—
There is no limit on the number of operations assigned to a station it may be that some robots
have a limited repertoire of tasks they can perform. Intricate details of sequencing and/or grouping
of operations are not considered —
it is possible that time and cost savings could be achieved by these

methods.
Despite these limitations of the models, these techniques are useful in the preliminary design phase,
as they give approximate values of the main performance indicators, and enable the designer to select
a few alternatives for more detailed study as described in the next section. Above all, these quantitative
implemented effectively as software decision aids, not only help the organization in exploring
tools, if

wide ranges of parameters for the system, but also in so doing enable the designer to learn at first
hand the elements that are significant for the more detailed project that lies ahead.

B. CONFIGURATION DESIGN PHASE

This phase begins when a preliminary set of operations has been selected for automation, along with
a preliminary set of workstations to comprise the robotic system. It may
be that two or three such
operation/system combinations have been selected for further study. The aim of this phase
is to provide

a detailed system design for each of the candidate operation/system choices. While the planning phase
used gross characteristics of the operations and workstations, this phase requires further refinement
of the data on these items. Operations must be studied in detail, and if necessary modified to be
compatible with available automation technology. The capabilities of selected workstations must be
understood, and the types of accessory equipment required (such as end effectors, fixtures, partfeeders,
must be identified. These points are described in Chapter 29, so in the remainder of this section
etc.)

it assumed that the operations and workstations have been studied, and necessary information on
is

them has been obtained.

31.5, DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND ISSUES

The main requirement of this stage is to design the detailed system configuration, which involves
deciding the following:

1. Equipment Location. Includes location of workstations and other facilities such as tool cribs,
supervisors, and maintenance personnel.

2. Material-Handling Equipment. Includes types of equipment to be used for moving workpieces

between workstations (e.g., conveyors, robots, wire-guided carts) and the layout and capacity
of this subsystem (transport speed, number of transporters).
3. Buffer Storages. Location and sizes of intermediate storages in the system.
4. Accessories. Numbers and types of end effectors, part feeders, part orienters, part magazines,
fixtures, tool holders, and so on.

31.6. PERFORMANCE MEASURES

The performance indicators used for judging the detailed configuration design are many. First of all,
the organization would be interested in refined estimates for all the measures stated in Section 31.3
since these are the leading financial and operational indicators. The reader is advised to review those
before reading on. In addition, the configuration design would be evaluated using the following more
detailed measures:

1. Production Rates. For performing each operation, and/or net values for a product line.

2. Turnaround Time (for a manufacturing operation). This is the average time it takes from
the entry of a workpiece into the system to the exit of the same piece from the system after
all operations on it have been performed.

3. Work-in-Process (WIP) Inventory. The average level of inventory accumulated at various

parts of the sytem.

4. Equipment Utilization. The time that each piece of equipment is being productively used,
as a proportion of available time.
616 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Jobs being processed

oO
Jobs wailing
O©
o o I

Arriving Departing
I

jobs jobs
I

o©
Waiting
area
Processing area
with »i processors

Fig. 31.2. A single-queue facility

n IS the number of processors (Extensions of (his notation exist*^ but arc not considered here ) Standard
“values’* for the symbols A and $ are

M »= Markovian (or exponential disinbution*)

D — deterministic (i e • constant lime)
G = general (the analysis js done for an arbirranly specified distnbution)

Thus M/D/2 denotes a facility where the time between amvals has an exponential distribution, all

jobs take the same amount of time to be processed, and there are two processors
The following symbols are also used in the discussion that follows

a = mean lime between arrivals to the queue

s = mean service time of a job at a processor
= coefficient of vanation of the service time (standard deviation divided by mean)

Little's Law
This IS the most basic and widely used result in queueing theory, and it relates arnval times, total

system limes, and number of jobs in a system It was first denved under resincted conditions, later
Stidham** showed that the result holds under fairly general conditions, which can be assumed to
hold in a practical facility The result stales simply that for a queueing system

rTOT^IlTOTO (3110)

Thus if any two of these quantities are known, the third is automatically determined Letting the
“system” now be only the waiting line (not the jobs m
service) and applying Little’s law to this
“system," another useful result is obtained

l„=nw a (31 II)

For a with a single processor, it is also useful to know that the following relations hold for
facility
general arrival- and service-time distributions, that is, for the G/G/1 queue

£_ G/G/1 (31 12)

nTOT= H + »tr G/G/1 (31 13)

tTOT=S + tir G/G/1 (31 14)

The reader will find it a useful exercise to find intuitive explanations for these three results

• The exponential probability distribution widely used in queueing and reliability theory,
is

m can
referred to frequently this section Descnptions of this and other common distnbutions
found m standard texts on probability *®
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 615

handling system. In the study of this problem, related work on conveyor theory^^ and on automated
storage and retrieval systems can prove useful. A
recent survey of quantitative tech-
niques for material handling is in Matson and White.®*
between locations must take place by way of a given network, such as an existing
If the transport
track layout for a transport system or a network of aisles, then planar models may not be accurate
enough and a network location model should be used. Introductions to such models can be found in
Handler and Mirchandani'*’ and Minieka,®^ and an up-to-date survey of solution techniques is in Tansel,
Francis, and Lowe.®*
The most realistic location problems are solved using discrete location models. These limit the
decisions to a given set of locations and allow the inclusion of fixed costs, which can depend on the
site. They also admit many other features, such as capacity limits, limits on the number of sites

chosen, and distribution decisions. Surveys of work on these models can be found in Francis, McGinnis,
and White,*® and Krarup and Pruzan.®® Some basic formulations and extensions are given in Akine
and Khumawala,®® Elshafei,*^ Khumawala,*® and Ross and Soland.®® The disadvantage of including
these details in themodel is, of course, that the model rapidly becomes very difficult to solve as the
number of candidate decisions increases. Model formulation requires much more input data to be
gathered, and solution requires very sophisticated computer software. If, however, the scope

of the problem is such that potential savings could be high, it merits investigation by these more
sophisticated models.

31.7.2. Queueing Models

The next of detail for evaluating a design can be provided by the techniques of queueing the-
level
61-®®.*®
ory. These are quantitative methods that explicitly model some of the variability encountered
in day-to-day system operation, as well as modeling the system dynamics. As we show, however,

usually only aggregate indicators relating to dynamic performance are obtained, so this method falls
into the category of probabilistic/steady-state models.
The main improvement of a queueing model over all the capacity models described in preceding

sections is models not only the processing time required for an operation, but also the time
that it

that jobs wait for a processor* as they move through any facility. In practice, the arrivals of jobs to
any processor are not evenly spaced in time, and also the processing time required may vary for
different jobs. This dynamic imbalance of flow rates can produce effects not predicted by the determinis-
tic/static planning model: that model simply ensured that the average processing rate exceeded the
average demand for processing. Examples are given later where the queueing model reveals deficiencies
in a design that appears feasible from a deterministic/static viewpoint.
The performance indicators available from a queueing model include the following (these symbols
are used throughout this section):

u = utilization of the processor(s).

nw — average number of jobs waiting for service (not including the job being processed): this is

useful for designing buffer space.

ntoT = average total number of jobs in the facility (waiting and being served): this measures the
WIP inventory.
tw = average time spent by a job while waiting for a processor: this measures the “wasted” time
for each workpiece.

txoT = average total time spent by a job from arrival to departure: this measures the turnaround
time of the facility.

Other measures are available too, but those listed are the most useful for a system designer.

Single-Queue Systems

The is concerned with study of a single-queue facility (Figure

simplest branch of queueing theory
31.2).This consists of a number of identical processors, each of which can process any of the arriving
jobs (one at a time). Jobs arrive at the facility from some external source, and if all processors are
busy with a job, the arriving job must wait. When some processor finishes its current job, it picks
another job from those that are waiting, according to a prescribed priority scheme. Such a queue is
characterized by a standard shorthand form: the A/S/n notation. Here A
is a symbol that identifies
the arrival process, that is, statistics of the time between arrivals of jobs at the facility. Similarly, S
identifies the service process, that is, the statistics of the time that it takes to complete a job. Finally,

* The term processor denotes an Examples are workstations,

entity that processes tasks. transporters,
repair personnel.
€18 application PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

number of jobs waiting* The WIP is also mote than doubled (btot changes from I S to 3 4) Thus,

even in this simple example the queueing model has pointed out major effects of the (apparently)
minor parameter vanations

Af«//j-Pr£»cesior Queues

Another useful model M/M/m queue Here the arrival of jobs is the
for multi-robot systems is the
same can be of many different types, each type requinng
as in the previous example, however, the jobs
different processing time at a processor is therefore variable, and in some
The time spent by a job
situations is modeled well by assuming an exponential distribution There are m identical processors,
and any job can be done at any processor For an m-processor facility, the general analogs of
(3 2 3-1) are«

11=-^ M/M/ra (3117)

nTOT=m« + nii- M/M/m (3118)

where u is the utilization of any individual processor For the M/M/m case it turns out that’®

u (mu)* M/M/m (31 19)

""(I-i,)' ml

where

M/M/m (3120)
M m’ J

ipn IS the proportion of time there are no jobs in the facility) These expressions can be simplified
for the M/M/2 case to’®

I- u
M/M/2 (31 21)

n M/M/2 (31 22)

Example of Pooling Facilities

The preceding results form a useful basis for comparing alternative designs with and without pooling
of processors Consider the problem of designing a system to process two types of jobs, using two
robots One possible design, which is likely to be the less expensive one, is to dedicate each robot to
processing one type of job The second design, which could be more expensive owing to duplicated
end effectors, part onenten, robot capabilities, and so on, would be to let each robot be capable of
processing either type of job Suppose the time between arrivals, considering both types of jobs, has
mean o*, and that for each type of job alone has mean 2o* Both types of jobs have the same mean
service time f Then the first design has two identical M/M/1 queues, and letting 2a* in Equation 6=
(31 3), It IS seen that each queue has

u = (3123)
2a*

The second design has one queue, and setting 4" * o* and m = 2 in Equation (31 15) gives
M/M/2
exactly the same value for u as above This value would also be obtained from a deterministic model
for each design, and so that type of model does not distinguish between the designs. An expenenced
designer would recognize that the second design is preferable from a reliability point of view, since
both types of jobs can still be processed if one robot fails However, there is another important difference
in the designs In the first design each queue has*

——M M/M/1 (3124)

I

exponentia
• M/M/1 IS a special case of M/G/1 where the general service time is chosen to be the
distnbution, for which the mean equals the standard deviation, so putting G=
I in Equation (3 )

gives this equation

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 617

M/G/1 Queues

One type of single-queue model that can be adapted to many situations is the M/G/1 queue. Here
jobs arrive at a workstation from other facilities, and the randomness in the time between arrivals is
found to be suitably modeled by an exponential distribution with mean a. The distribution of service
times required by jobs can be arbitrary (but known), and there is one processor. Formulas for the
performance of such a facility are given here, and their use is illustrated next. The first performance
indicator of interest is the utilization u whose value is given by the general Equation (31.12). The
next measure is given in terms of u and the known value of Cj:®*

(1 + C|)
nw==u^- M/G/1 (31.15)
2(1 - u)

The value of tiv then follows from Little’s law, Equation (3 1 1 ), while n tot and tTOT follow by application
.

of Equations (31.13)-(31.14). Notice that the only derivation required that is particular to the M/G/
1 case is that of nw," these other measures follow by application of general results.

Example for Robotic System

We use the M/G/1 model to illustrate a situation commonly found in robotic systems, the M/D/1
queue. The arrival process is as explained before. All jobs require precisely the to be same operation
done at this station, which take
time units (no variation, so Cj
s =
0). There is only one robot at
the workstation. The utilization u is given by Equation 31.12, and the value of nw follows from
Equation (31.15);

nw = M/D/1 (31.16)
2(1 - u)

and tw, «T0T. and Itot follow as before.

The value of u is the same as that predicted by a deterministic/static capacity model. A measure
not provided by that model, though, is nw, which is graphed as a function of u in Figure 31.3. Note
how approaches unity. This brings out an important distinction between
steeply the function rises as u
the deterministic model and the queueing model. Suppose initial estimates are o = 10 sec and f = 7
sec, giving u = 0.7 and nw = 0.8. Now suppose it is acknowledged that the estimates of a and f

may each have up to 10% error, so that, in the worst case, the actual system will have a = 9 and
s = 7.7. In the deterministic model this gives u = 0.855, which seems feasible. But the queueing model,

while giving the same value for u, also shows that nw — 2.5. This is a threefold effect on the estimated

Fig. 31.3. Average number of jobs waiting at an M/D/1 queue.

620 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

where M number of processors and AT is the number of fixtures So

is ihe M
— 10 and = 13
(chosen by the foregoing nik) gwe a utilization of only 59% If a design specification of 75% utihiation
IS to be met, then 27 fixtures are needed’
The preceding example
*= — *-- * — ‘ -

gives little assistance for th

fixtures multiplies the utiliz.
phenomena being modeled
here The technique is modeling a high vanability in the processing demanded by different jobs Although,
on average, all processors are equally used, at a given lime several jobs may be waiting for one processor

while several other processors are lying idle It is this dynamic imbalance in the usage of resources
that IS captured m
the aggregate measures provided by the queueing model

Example of Splitting Operations

The second example and four types of jobs Each job type
involves a system with three workstations
uses a different fixture type Two
different designs are possible for the system (see Tables 31 2 and
31 3) In the first, job type A
processed entirely at one workstation, whereas in the second, its
is
processing is split up The totals in the last row of each table show that, from a deterministic point

of view, both designs are the same Calculations based on queueing network algonthms^' show, however,
that to achieve the desired production rates, the number of fixtures of each type differs for the two
designs, see Table 31 4 In the second case the total number of fixtures is 20% smaller, which might
be a significant saving Again, this insight was not available without the queueing model

31.7.4. Accuracy of Queueing Models

The theory behind some queueing models (Section 31 7 2) and queueing network models (Section
31 7 3) based on several assumptions, which are often not satisfied by a practical robotic system
IS

An example is the assumption of exponentially distnbuted processing times Still, quite reasonable

predictions of system performance can be obtained using these models This has been explained to
some extent by a new approach to queueing called operational analysis.’’*''* A ngorous study of the
alternative assumptions of operational analysis has recently been done*” which justifies the use of
these models in practical systems Another analysis shows that the queueing network models give
reasonable predictions even when there are substantial errors in the original data •*
All the foregoing queueing models do not work well when there is significant blocking (defined
in Section 31 6) This is illustrated in Section 31 104 Extensions and approximations of queueing

TABLE 31 2. PROCESSING TIMES FOR DESIGN 1

Processing Times in Minutes

Total Tune
Workstation Job Type Job Type Job Type Job Type Used at
Typ. A B C D Workstation"

I 60 7 7 7 81
2 0 27 27 27 81
3 0 27 27 27 81
Total” 60 61 61 61

® This IS the total time used at a workstation for unit production of all job types
* This IS the total processing time for one workpiece of that job type

TABLE 31J PROCESSING TIMES FOR DESIGN 2

Processing Times m Minutes

Total Time
Workstation Job Type Job Type Job Type Job Type Used at

Type A B C D Workstation"

I 20 7 27 27 81
2 20 27 7 27
3 20 27 27 7
Total” 60 61 61 61

°
This IS Ihe total lime used at a workstation for unit production of all job types

*’This IS the total processing time for one workpiece of that job type
quantitative techniques for robotic systems analysis 619

So the total number of jobs waiting at the two stations in design 1 is

(31.25)

In the second design Equation (31.13) shows that this value is

«»'(2) = -[^ (31-26)

So the first design has

Ml)-nH'(2)=Y^^ (31.27)

more jobs waiting on average. For a utilization of 75%, these numbers are nit'(l) = 4.5, nH'(2) =
1.9, or an excess of 2.6 waiting jobs in the first design. Similarly, the total WIP (i.e., /jtot) is 6.0
versus 3.4, and the turnaround time is 6.0a* versus 3.4a* time units. Clearly the queueing model
points out a number of advantages of the more expensive design, in which the two robots have been
pooled to form a facility that can process all jobs.

Many extensions of the foregoing models can be used to give insight into operation procedures
used at a facility. Details can be found in Shanthikumar.*®

Although the distributions assumed (such as M) for the arrival and service processes may not be
exact models of the real system, performance predictions from these queueing models tend to be quite
robust. More is said about this in the next section.

31.7.3. Queueing Network Models

In a multirobot system, there may be many types of workstations, and several of each type of workstation.
The system may also be capable of handling a number of different types of jobs simultaneously. Each
job enters the system, and visits various workstations, depending on its requirements. In this situation,
a queueing network model may be useful. (To each job, the system appears as a network of queues
through which it must traverse.) Such models are of three main types: open, closed, and mixed. In
an open model each type of job arrives from an external source, independently, according to a prescribed
arrival process. Jobs circulate around the system, visiting stations according to rules specific to each
job type. The total number of jobs in the system varies with the arrival and service events. In a
closed model there is a fixed number of each type of job in the system. This can be the case if there
is a limited number of fixtures available for each job type. Only when a job of that type is completed

and dismounted from its fixture can another job of that type be mounted on this fixture and put in
the system. In a mixed model some job types have open arrivals while others have closed arrivals.
The study of queueing network models began in the operations management context, but these
models were found extremely useful in the fields of computer systems and communication networks,
so a number of significant developments were made in those contexts: reviews of these developments
are in Koenigsberg’® and Trivedi.®® More recently, these models have been used for studying automated
systems, particularly of the flexible manufacturing type,^*-'''''''®"’® and it is clear that they can be used
for multirobot systems such as the one described. A tutorial introduction of these models from a
manufacturing system designer’s point of view can be found in Suri and Hildebrant.®*
Two examples are given to illustrate the insight obtained by a queueing network model. In both
it is assumed that jobs require expensive fixtures, and so the number of fixtures is a significant design

parameter in terms of system cost.

Example of a Balanced System

In the first example all jobs use the same type of fixture, but there are variations in the processing

requirements of each job. The system is designed and operated in a balanced manner, in which each
processor (e.g., workstation or transporter) is assigned the same workload on average, resulting in
Now suppose there are 10 processors (including the stations where
equal utilizations of all processors.
jobs are fixturedand defixtured). How many fixtures should be purchased? A superficial analysis
might be to say there should be one fixture per processor (to keep each processor busy) plus 30%
more “for good measure.” However, it can be shown®® that in a balanced network the utilization of
each processor will be

u = N (31.28)
M + N+i
622 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Note that this result holds for general dismbulions_F(f) and R(t) The long-term proportion of time
the s>stem is available is thus seen to be Ti/T or f/{f -f f)

Muldcompontnt S)stems

The next step in reliability analysis is to consider a system consisting of n components, with being

( 3131 )

A para//e/-structured system is one that fails only when alt components fail, and its reliability Rp
IS*’

/?p = i-n («-«!> (31 32 )

The effect of structure on reliability can be quite dramatic, as illustrated by a system consisting of
five components, each with reliability of 90% If all five arc required to perform a task (high interdepen-

dence), system reliability comes down to 59% (see R, above), whereas if only one of the five is required
for task performance (high redundancy), reliability goes op to 99 999%'
The preceding two basic formulas can easily be used to compute the reliability of a more complex
system, as long as it is composed of a hierarchy of only senes and parallel substnicturts, by beginning

at the component level and using the appropriate formula to combine the reliability of each level of
the hierarchy *’
Another commonly used system structure requires any m (or more) out of n components to function
for correct operation of the system (n this case if all components have reliability R. the system
reliability Rm « is given by*’

( 3133 )

As an application of this equation, consider a safety device consisting of three components each of
reliability R, which functions correctly as long as two or more components are working (This is

called inple modular redundancy*’ or TMR ) The reliability /Irua of the safety device is then

= RHy-2R) ( 3134 )

With component reliability of 90%, this device achieves a reliability of 97 2% Instead, if it consisted
of just two components, both of which were required to function correctly, its reliability would be
only 81% The value of the third component m a TMR system ts clear

Machine Repairman Model

This model is useful for studying the amount of resources to be devoted to maintenance personnel
Let there be Af machines in a system, and for each machine let / and r be as before (The value for
r assumes all the maintenance resources arc concentrated on repairing one machine at a lime) It is
usual to assume exponentially distnbuted failure and repair times Then the proportion of time k
machines are failed is given by*’

(31 35 )

( 3136 )
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 621

TABLE 31.4. COMPARISON OF

NUMBER OF FIXTURES REQUIRED
FOR TWO DESIGNS
Number of Fixtures
Required"

Job Type Design 1 Design 2

A 1 2
B 3 2
C 3 2
D 3 2
Total 10 8

“ This is to ensure a production of 10

pieces per day of each job type. (One day
is assumed to have two 8-hr shifts.)

models have been proposed to deal with blocking due to shortage of buffer space, or sharing of
end effectors,®’ Alternatively, a detailed simulation may be required to study such problems, as described
next.

31.7.5. Simulation

Before finalizing a design it is highly advisable to check it and fine-tune it using a detailed simulation,
particularly if several workstations are involved. Since techniques used are similar to those used during
system operation, the reader should see Sections 31.10.2 and 31.10.4.
The question of when to use a queueing model and when to use simulation is an important one.
Simulation should be employed whenever detailed operating rules must be studied, whereas queueing
models are useful for studying a wider range of designs. (See the discussion in Section 31.1 on the
trade-offs between these models.) Further discussion of this issue can also be found in Suri and
Hildebrant.®'

31.7.6. Reliability Theory

An issue, critical from a system manager’s viewpoint, is how often (and for how long) an automated
system will be unavailable due to component failures. The quantitative study of this issue belongs in
the realm of reliability theory.®” ®*'®® ®’

Single-Component Systems

Consider first the behavior of a single-component system which may fail and, if failed, may be repaired,
with

/ = mean time to failure (MTTF).

r = mean time to repair (MTTR).
Sf = standard deviation of time to failure.
Sr = standard deviation of time to repair.

The statistics of the failure and repair processes are given by their cumulative distribution functions
(CDFs) F(t) and R(t) as follows:

PO) = probability that a failure occurs by time t since the last repair.

^(0 = probability that a repair is completed by time t since the last failure.

It is assumed that each failure [or repair] is an independent random process, with the same CDF
F(t) [or R(t)].
A amount of time Ti that it is available (i.e., not
basic result for such a system concerns the
failed). For a observation time T, where :^is very large compared with
total or r, Ta can be /
considered to be normally distributed with mean Ta and standard deviation Sa where®^

To=-j^-T (31.29)

s,
(/-fr-)3
T (31.30)
624 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

This section concentrates on methods that arc particular to operation of robotic systems techniques
that are already widely used in production and operations management are mentioned only bnefly
and references to well-known publications are given for them

31.10.1. Batching, Scheduling, and Sequencing

Batching

The need for batches (or lots) arises when a system cannot easily perform a vanety of tasks in random
order Typically, a particular system configuration is set up, and tasks belonging to a certain family
can be performed A new setup is necessary before tasks of a different family can be performed
Changing the setup may be relatively expensive and time-consuming, so it is preferable to operate m
a mode where a batch of tasks of one family are performed, followed by another batch from another
family, and so on

special charactenstics First, there may be some unusual constraints ansmg from capacities of part
magazines, or from different tasks shanng a limited set of end effectors or tools Second, the flexibility
of the system makes the setup times relatively small, and so batch sizes (and WIP) can be quite
small Often this means that the batch mix and size will be decided in real time, from the tasks
done Both these characlcnslics make it difficult for the mathematical program-
currently waiting to be
ming methods conventionally used to be applied for ihe robotic system problem Recently some new
algorithms have been proposed which appear to be promising and efficient The algorithms use a
heunstic approach which enables them to incorporate the difficult constraints They also use a technique
knownasa roZ/rnghcfc^ which allows future batch composiiton to be modified to account for information
on system perfonnanee, matenai avaitabiliiy. due dates of jobs, and so forth These methods therefore
extend into the probabilistic/dynamic category

Scheduling Algorithms and Rules

The problem of scheduling tasks to machines within a batch, or of scheduling batches of tasks onto
the system, can be a difficult one, especially for a complex system wiih many workstations of different
types Again, scheduling is manufactunng for which many theoretical results
a well-known problem in
*** *** ***
exist Most of these results use a deierministic/dynamic model Useful reviews can
be found in Gelders and Van Wassenhovc,*** Graves,*** and Schrage ’*’
In an automated shop floor environment it is necessary to react quickly to disturbances and changes

as mentioned before, so probabilistic/dynamic models would give a better analysis of the situation
For simple systems, theoretical analysts of such models is possible using Markov decision processes,**’ ***
and scheduling problems have been analyzed for some manufactunng systems **• *’* However, practical
automated systems often have several workstations and part types and do not obey the Markovian
assumptions For such models ngorous solutions arc hard to oblain,, so instead a large body of heunstic
scheduling rules have been developed An example of a simple scheduling rule is the shortest processing
time (SPT) rule This says that if a number of jobs are wailing for a workstation, then the job with
ihe smallest processing time should be scheduled first

The perfonnanee of a particular scheduling rule, compared to that of an alternative rule, is dependent
on the specific system charactenstics and the measures of performance being used Ideally then, alterna-
tive scheduling rules should be tested on a detailed simulation of the system (see Section 31 10 2) If
this IS not feasible, the system operator can refer to general guidelines obtained by researchers who
have perfonned many expenments with these rules “* “* *** •** **« These references also provide a
useful source for the different rules and performance indicators used to study them

Operation Sequences

At each workstation, the detailed sequence of operations to be performed for a particular task can
also be optimized to minimize the time for the task In contrast to the preceding scheduling problem,
in this case it makes sense to study the sequencing in a detcrministK^dynamic framework This is
because once the sequence has been decided, that same sequence of operations will always be used to
perform that task The element of uncertainty can thus be removed from the model Although well-
known quantitative methods exist for deterministic sequencing problems, this aspect belongs m the

realm of individual workstation design, which is covered mChapter 30

31.10J. Computer Simulation

discrete
The most accurate model of robotic system performanu is obtained by using a computer-based
event ii/nu/afion,**® lasus ^ simulation views the system operation as a succession of
events.
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 623

For a system with four machines, each with / = 10 hr, and a single repairman, with r = 1 hr, the
proportion of time that all machines are working po is calculated to be 64.7%.
These examples cover only the simpler types of reliability analyses. Generalizations involve systems
that cannot be decomposed into series or parallel subsystems, repair models that involve fault detection
followed by fault correction, inclusion of irrecoverable failures, and more general probability distribu-
tions. Details can be found in Stiffler et. al.®® and Trivedi.®’ In most of these cases the analysis becomes
quite tedious, and computer-based reliability analysis packages such as CARE®^’®® and ARIES®® have
been developed to assist in this task.

C. SYSTEM OPERATION PHASE

Following the approval of a detailed configuration design, a robotic system will be purchased, perhaps
by putting out a request for proposal (RFP) and receiving competitive bids, or by “shopping around”
for components. The system will then be installed, typically going through a testing and debugging
period during the installation. It is not the intention of this chapter to cover either the RFP/purchase
activities or the installation/testing activities. This section considers the next phase of activity, when
the system is declared operational. The aim now is to ensure that the system performance lives up to
the specifications that were laid down. Many points need attention during day-to-day operation of
the system: details that were neglected at the design phase, such as how to cope with short-term
changes in material supply, production targets, or workstation availability. These are the subject of
this section.

31.8. REQUIREMENTS AND ISSUES

The main requirements at this stage can be broadly stated as, first, to meet the production targets,
and, second, to operate the system efficiently and effectively. There are many issues to be addressed
to meet these requirements;

1. Batch Sizes. Need for operation in batches or lots may be dictated by system capacity, setup
times, material availability, part magazines, or end-effector availability. If batch operation is

necessary, then the size, constitution, and timing of each batch must be determined.
2. Scheduling and Sequencing. Within each batch, tasks must be scheduled for different worksta-
tions. At each workstation the detailed sequence of operations must be decided for each task.

3. Dynamic Work Allocation. During system operation minor disturbances (or errors in operation
time estimates) maycause imbalances in the work allocated to each station. There must be
ways to correct this dynamically, that is, while the system is operating.
4. Reacting to Disruptions. In contrast to the minor disturbances just mentioned, significant
by equipment failures, nonavailability of material,
disruptions in system operation can be caused
or sudden changes in production requirements. Strategies for dealing with these situations
must be available.

5. Maintenance. Scheduling of preventive maintenance, as well as scheduling of emergency main-

tenance, must be considered.

To decide between alternative strategies for addressing these issues, the impact of each strategy
on several performance indicators should be considered. These indicators are discussed next.

31.9. PERFORMANCE MEASURES

The measures used to evaluate system performance at this stage are essentially the same as those
used in the detailed configuration design phase. This is because that phase should have considered
most of these indicators before settling on a final design. The difference is that while the final design
phase would have used a simulation, or some elaborate model, to approximate the system behavior,
in thisphase the actual system is being used. This necessarily forces a greater level of detail on the
issues tobe considered and the models to be used. Nevertheless, the performance indicators remain
the same as in Section 31.6. The reader therefore may wish to review Section 31.6 before proceeding.

31.10. QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR SYSTEM OPERATION

In the planning and control of day-to-day system operation, many quantitative methods can be used
as aids to decision making. Running a production or assembly facility smoothly is not a new problem
—
introduced by robotic technology most organizations would be familiar with typical problems encoun-
tered. Robotic systems have certain features, however, that distinguish them from conventional
facilities.
626 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

solving a delennmistic nonlinear optimization firoblefn The middle level explicitly models medium-
term uncertainties using a queuemg model, and the lowest level uses scheduling rules for the actual
dispatching of jobs In an alternative approach. Kimemia*** explicitly models the long-term uncertamty
in the top level, but then must resort to an approximate-solution procedure since the model becomes
intractable for exact solution The lower levels use flow models and scheduling rules Other approaches
can be found in Graves,*** Hax and Meal,'** Stecke,*** and Sun.**®
It can be seen that the hierarchical approaches combine static and dynamic models, as well as

detenmnistic and probabilistic models, using different models at different levels of the formulation
Further discussion on the design and implementation of decision aids, in an appropriate hierarchical
structure, is given m Section D of this chapter

31,10.4. System Monitoring and Fine-Tuning

It IS important to have a means for momionng the performance of the robotic system relative to

management goals and for ascertaining the economic (and other) returns from the automated operations
This IS best done by a mechanism that collects real-time data dunng system operation Such monitonng
systems are relatively inexpensive given current microcomputer technology **’ Analyzing and summariz-
ing the detailed data can then be done according to management needs, using a standard management
information system (MIS)
Although conventional MIS packages produce useful statistics of system performance (such as
equipment utilization, downtimes, production rates), if a problem exists (e g , low utilization of a
workstation) these statistics do not necessarily give insight as to how the problem can be rectified
Recently a new analytic technique has been developed that denves much more information and insight
from the real-time data The technique, called perturbation analysis (P/A), is equally applicable to
simulation output, and has been successfully applied for design and real-time control to automated
systems '**

operates by using recently developed analytical methods*** •“ to implement calculations on

P/A
data asit is obtained from a monitonng system (or from a simulation) —
the amount of additional
computer time/memory used for this is negligible compared with the needs of the monitonng system
or simulation itself As a result of these calculations. P/A applies the sensiiivity of system performance
measures to alt the decision parameters That is. it answers questions such as. What would have
been the production of all part types today if there were one more fixture for part type A'’, and it
does so for all decision parameters of interest Thus effectively, it computes gradient vectors of perfor-
mance measures with respect to decision vanables dunng regular monitonng or simulation For simula-
tion studies of S parameters, this provides an N-fold increase in efficiency over the "brute-force”
method mentioned in Section 31 102, while for a monitonng system, since it operates directly on
actual data,it is free from the restnctions and assumptions of most analytical models It should therefore

be of interest to designers and managers of automated systems and greatly enhance the information
obtained from monitonng systems (see Figure 31 4 )
The P/A approach has been successfully applied lo optimization of senal production lines'** and
flexible nunufactunng systems As an illustration of its use, consider the design of a three-station
system where Wricking can occur since each sumtm has an inpol buffer wiih a hmii of five workpieces
The aim is to find the number of fixtures that maximizes the production rate of the system. Figure
31 5 displays three graphs the first, obCamed using the simple queueing-network model described m
Section 317 4, the second, using detailed simulation, and the third using the marked customer method,'**

Real time

Conventional
reports

Production rates
Utilization
Downtimes

Sensitivity
information
Marginal benefits
of resources
Answers to
•'what if"
questions

Fig. 31.4. Enhancement of conventional MIS with perturbation analysts system

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 625

and, in principle, it can mimic system behavior in as much detail as is desired. Characteristics of all
the hardware components (workstations, buffers, transporters) and software components (control pro-
grams, scheduling algorithms) can be incorporated in the model. System dynamics and interactions,
as well as failures and other uncertainties, can all be modeled, so this technique belongs in the probabilis-
tic/dynamic category.
There are three main approaches to simulating a given robotic system:

1. “Canned” Package Approach. This involves adapting a manufacturing system simulation

package'^’’^^'’ *'*^'*^'''’'*’
to fit the system —
often the easiest alternative and quickest to implement.
However, it may not be able to model specific characteristics of the given system or allow
much freedom to explore alternative control strategies.
“‘'''‘® is
2. Simulation Language Approach. Here a discrete event simulation ianguage*^2’‘^^-‘®®
used to write a simulation of the given system. The language makes it simple to model such
systems, and characteristics can be modeled in as much detail as desired. However, a simulation
language must first be purchased and learned. If portability between different computer systems
is important for the organization, this must be ascertained for the language. Finally if other

language subroutines are to be used (e.g., a FORTRAN

linear programming package for decision
making in the simulated system), then the simulation language must have interface capabilities
for other languages. Still, modem simulation packages are implemented on most computer
systems and have good interface capabilities, so this is often the best overall approach.
3. Programming Language Approach. In this alternative a common programming language, al-
ready in use at the organization (such as FORTRAN or PASCAL) is used to write a simulation
of the system. The main advantages are no initial cost, wide portability, and ease of interfacing.

The disadvantage is that all components of a simulation (e.g., scheduling of events,

the basic
statistics collection) must be written from scratch.

Further discussion of these trade-offs, along with descriptions of available packages, can be found
in Bevans.*^*

Parameter Optimization Using Simulation

Since a simulation is capable of modeling as much detail of the real system as desired, it can be used

(in principle) to study any or all of the issues in Section 31.8, and any or all of the performance
indicators in Section 3 1.9 (for example, see Nof, Halevi, and Bobasch).'^^ To optimize some performance
measure with respect to a number of decision parameters, a baseline simulation is performed at a
chosen set of parameter values, then each parameter is changed a small amount, one at a time, and
a new simulation is performed after each change. This gives an estimate of the gradient vector (sensitivity)
of the measure with respect to each parameter. This gradient can then be used along with any mathemati-
cal programming procedure^^"^'*-^^'’^-^* to get a new
of parameters, and in this manner to iteratively
set
optimize that measure. The disadvantage N
parameters, each iteration step requires
is that, for N
new simulations. A simulation of an automated facility can take (typically) 30 min on a PDF 1 1/34
computer.'^® This method can therefore be computationally very demanding.
Recently, an efficient alternative to this “brute-force” simulation approach has been developed.
The alternative retains the precision of a detailed simulation model, while incorporating some efficiency
by using analysis. The efficiency obtained is 1 where A N
is the number of parameters as before.
=

Even for 20 parameters, then, the savings can be considerable. The approach is described under “fine-
tuning” (Section 31.10.4).
The same system that required 30 min to simulate (before), can be analyzed in under 10 sec on a
PDP-1 1 using a simpler queueing model.®* The choice of when to use a detailed simulation and when
to use an aggregated queueing model is therefore important, see Sections 31.1 and 31.7.5.

31.10.3. Hierarchical Approaches

Since a robotic system is usually part of a larger manufacturing environment, the inputs and outputs
of material to the system must match the overall plant material requirement plan and master production
plan.*<® *®® '®‘These plans specify various availability dates for raw material and due dates for completed
pieces, as well as quantities to be produced. At the same time, while trying to meet the overall plans,
the system manager must satisfy many other constraints, such as limited numbers of part magazines
and end effectors, workstation time, and amount of work in process.
The task of meeting all the production requirements, while using the robotic system resources
efficiently, is clearly complex. To make its solution tractable, it is usually
divided into a number of
stages or levels*®* that correspond to a hierarchy of decisions. Several alternative
approaches have
been proposed for partitioning this problem in the context of automated manufacturing.
For example,
in Hildebrant and Suri*®* the top level makes trade-offs
between alternative resource allocations, in
the face of long-term uncertainty, by incorporating the uncertainty in
an aggregate way, and then
 628 APPUCATION PLANNING: TEQIMQUES

have been decided, and onl> a limited set of modificalions ts under study Keeping this m mind, all

the techniques in Sections A and B could be used for studying these decisions

D HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE STRUCTURES FOR

DECISION SUPPORT

It has been seen how quantitative techniques can aid in the design and operation of robotic systems
Owing to thecompleiity of the task of operating such systems efficiently, the capacity of these advanced
systems is often underutilized after their installation Indeed, the complexity of operating a multistation

automated facility should not be underestiinaled, even expenenced shop floor supervisors find that
running such a system can be very diflicull
This section underscores the point that a decision support system (DSS) can be designed to enable
an organization to achieve maximum benefit from a rototic system *’* The structure
of this DSS
IS presented in terms of the organizational aciiviiics involved in running the robotic facility, and it is

shown how this structure should be implemented using appropriate hardware and software components
The concepts here are summanzed from Sun and Whitney,*” and for details the reader should see
the onginal reference
To structure the DSS, it is useful to place the robotic facility m the overall context of the organization,
since successful functioning of the facility will require ongoing activities at all levels of the organization
The various activities required are best understood in lenns of the classical three-level view of organiza-
tional operation
The first level consists of long-term decision making, typically done by higher management This
involves establishing policies, production goals, economic goals, and making decisions that have long-
term effects The second level involves medium-term deasions, such as getting the production targets
for each pan for the next month These decisions are typically made by ihe robotic system line manager,
aided by decision-suppon software The third level involves short-term decisions, such as which work-
piece should be introduced next into ihe system Under normal circumstances, these decisions are
made by the robotic system control computerfs) However, when an exception occurs, such as a worksia
lion failure, the line supervisor may decide to take over some of this decision making, again aided by
the decision-support software
A summary of the three levels of decision making and associated software, hardware, and manage-
ment tasks IS given tn Table 31 S and they aredesenbed next The aim here is to give an understanding
of the issues involved in operating a robotic faaliiy. and the typical software decision aids that should
be available to the facility managers/supervisors The detailed architecture of the software and hardware
components are not discussed here, examples of suitable hardware/soflware components can be found
tn references cited throughout this chapter
It IS assumed that the robotic facility is part of a larger manufacturing environment, so that the

fi^latnag funclKtfn are aUcady betrtg peiVomwi at ffte dorporafe for pfanfmtfe/ /eve/

Plantwide matenal requirement planning (MRP)

Plantwide production plan
Pbntwide data base management and information system

These plantwide functions typically and production goals for a long time
will set overall targets
honzon This information usually will reside in a mainframe corporaie/plant computer and wrill serve
as inputs of the three levels of operations desenbed in these sections

31.11. FIRST-LEVEL OPERATIONS

These should encompass Ihe following operational areas

1. Strategic decision making for the robotic faality

2. Evaluating performance of the faalify

3. Ancillary support for faalily operation

The execution of activities at this level typically will be supported by software on a mainframe
computer In some organizations, a feasible altemative is to have a separate medium-sized computer
for these actmties which can be considered a DSS ampuler
Software components to assist in strategic deasion making and performance evaluation can be
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 627

Fig. 31.5. Application of marked customer method of perturbation analysis.

which is a technique based on P/A. The queueing model fails to predict the blocking phenomenon
(as explained in Section 31.7.4), but the marked customer method predictions are in close agreement
with the simulation. This method becomes computationally very attractive for a facility that is processing
many different parts.

31.10.5. Maintenance Strategies

Broadly speaking, in automated systems the issue of maintenance strategies can be considered for
two types of situations. The first concerns preventive maintenance and addresses a single piece of
equipment. It involves trading off the cost of a scheduled interruption for preventive maintenance
with the cost of disruption due to an unexpected breakdown and its repair. The second situation
concerns allocation of maintenance persons and resources when several maintenance tasks need to be
performed. Analyses dealing with each type of situation can be found in the references.'®*"””

31.10.6. System Modification or Expansion

Even after a robotic system is operational, management will continue to make decisions that have
far-reaching consequences for the system. Examples of such decisions are the following:

Parts-mix changes, for example, allocating a new part type (or part types) for production on the
system.
System modification/expansion, for example, adding a new workstation or changing the layout.

These decisions involve complex trade-offs between economic investments and resulting changes in
system performance. The trade-offs are of the same nature as those studied during system planning
or configuration design (Sections A and B). The main difference is that most of the system parameters
 )

630 APPUCATION PLANNING: TEOINIQUES

based on the quantuattve techniques descnbed in this chapter Ancillary support includes such items
as extended part-programming and program-vcnficalion tools

31.12. SECOND-LEVEL OPERATIONS

This level encompasses decisions typically made the robotic facility manager over a time horizon
of several days or weeks The mam tasks to be performed at this level are

1. Dividing overall production targets into batches of parts

2. Within each batch, assigning system resources in a manner that maximizes resource utilization

3. Responding to changes in upper-level production plans or matenal availability

The issues involved m each of these tasks have been descnbed in previous sections Also mentioned
were quantitative techniques on which soUware tools could be based, which would aid the manager
or line supervisor m decision making These software decision aids typically reside on the facility's
control computer, or if this is not feasible, then on a DSS computer (as defined in the previous section

31.13. THIRD-LEVEL OPERATIONS

This level is concerned with the detailed decision making required for real-time operation of the facility
including the matenal-handling system (MHS) The lime horizon here is typically a few minutes or
hours, and the decisions involved are as follows

1. Word order scheduling and dispatching which workpiece to introduce next into the facility,

and when
2. Movement of workpieces and MHS which workstations to send this workpiece to next, which
transporter to send to pick up this work(Hece, and so on
3. Tool management
4. System monitonng and diagnostics
5. Reacting to disruptions such as failure of one or more system components, or a sudden change
in production tequiremenu

Dunng normal system operation, most of these decisions are made by software in the facility's
control computer However, when an exception occurs, such as failure of a workstation, the line supervi-
sor will usually take charge of the decision making If it is going to take a long time to repair, he
may, for example, decide to reallocate its production to other workstations This involves a complex
sequence of trade-offs between production rates and workstation capabilities, magazine capacities, end-
effector availability, and so on Again, the supervisor's task can be simplified considerably by employing
vanous software decision aids These would be based on the techniques descnbed in Section C of
this chapter The aids should typically reside on the facility’s control computer to enable rapid implemen-
tation of the changed decisions, but in some systems the architecture could involve use of a separate
OSS computer, as descnbed

31.14. INTEGRATION OF OPERATIONAL LEVELS

The preceding sections descnbed the vanous levels of decisicm making relevant to successful and efficient
facitiiy operation Figure 316 summanzes the decisions involved at each level (only the major decisions
are shown, for clanty)
Of importance equal to the decision making H-irAw each level, is the question of communication
between the levels The organization should be sure of the answers to these questions before becoming
“locked in" a particular system architecture

1. How will data (such as control programs) be moved from the mainframe computer to the
facility’s computer?
2. How will information (such as
system perfonnance} be communicated from the facility's com-
puter to the mainframe computer?
3. Will a separate DSS computer be used, and if so, how will it communicate with the preceding
two computen?

be incorporated wilhm
Integration of the operational levels is also the
an important ability to
DSS software to be used with the facility For example, it should be possible to test any decision

made at a higher level (e g workstation selection) by trying out all the lower levels
,
(such as batching
and balancing, and detailed simulation) and thus evaluating that decision m detail In this respect, it
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632 APPLICATION PLANNING. TECHNIQUES

3. Nof, S Y
Decision Aids for Planning Industnal Robot Operations, Proceedings of ike
, HE
Conference. New Orleans, Louisiana, May 1982

Economic Aspects

4. Benedetli,M .The Economics ofRobotsm Industnal Applications, The Industrial Robot. Septem-
ber 1977,pp 109-118
5. Boothroyd, G Economics of Assembly Systems. Journal of Manufacturing Systems. Vol
, 1,

No 1, 1982, pp 111-127
6. Canada. J R , Intermediate Economic Analysts for Management and Engineering, Prcntice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1971
7. Ciborra, C and Romano, P . Economic Evaluation of Industnal Robots, Proceedings of the
8th ISIR. Stuttgart, June 1978, pp 15-23
8 Fleischer, G A A
Generalized Methodology for Assessing the Economic Consequences of
,

Acquinng Robots for Repetitive Operations. Proceedings of the Spring Annual Conference. HE
New Orleans. Louisiana, May 1982, pp 130-139
9 Heginbotham, W
B, Can Robots Beat Inflation’ SME Paper. No MS77-756. 1977
10. Owen, A E Economic Cntena for Robot Jusiiticalion. The Industrial Robot September
, 1980,

pp 175-177
11. Whitney, D E Design and Control of Adaptable-Programmable Assembly Systems, Final
et al ,

Report. C S Draper Laboratones, Cambndge, Massachusetts. December 1980

Group Technology

12. Burbidge, J L . The Introduction of Group Technology, Wiley, New York, 1975
13. Burbidge, J L Group Technology
,
tn the Engineering Industry. Mechanical Engineenng Publica
tions Ltd , London, 1979
14. Gallagher, C D and Knight, W A . Group Technology. Buiterworth and Co , London, 1973

Strategic Planning

IS Freidenfelds, J, Capacity Expansion. North Holland, 1982

16. D and Tirole, J, Capital as a Commitment Strategy Investment
Fundenberg, in Continuous
Time MIT, Cambndge, Massachusetts, May 1981
17 Porter. M E , Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, Fm
Press. 1980

18 Spence.A M , Entry, Capacity, Investment and Oligopoly Pneing, The BellJournal of Economics,
8, Autumn 1977, pp 534-544

Forecasting

19. Bunn, D W A Companson of Several Adaptive Forecasting Procedures,

, Omega Vol 8, 1980,

pp 485-191
20. Hollier, R H and Storey. R R
, Khir, M , . A Companson of Short-Term Adaptive Forecasting
Methods, Omega. Vol 9, 1981, pp 96-98
21. Makndakis, S and Wheelwnght, S C, Eds, Forecasting. North Holland. 1979
22 Martino, J P, Technological Forecasting for Decision Making. North Holland, 1982

Mathematical Programming and Decision Analysis

23. Behn, R D and Vaupcl, J W ,

Quick Analysts for Busy Decision Makers, Basic Books. New
York, 1982
24 Brown, R W , Norihup, W D
and Shapiro, J F LOGS An Optimization System for Logistics
, .

Planning, MIT Operations Research Center Working Paper No ORI07-81, May 1982
25. Dantzig, G B , Linear Programming and Extensions, Pnneeton University Press, 1963
26. Graves, S C and Lamar, B W
, A Mathematical Programming Procedure for
Manufactunng
System Design and Evaluation, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Circuits
and Computers, 1980
27. Hillier, F H and Lieberman, G J , Operations Research, Holden-Day, San Francisco, California,
1974
 '

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 631

Plantwide production plan

t
Corporate Plantwide MRP
level
L

'
1

r
Robotic facility
System configuration and
- levels
hardware selection
I
First Parts-mix selection
level
L .J

r
I
Batching
“1

1
Second
level I

Balancing I

L J
, V

'

r “1

Work-order scheduling

Workpiece/MHS movement
Third
level

Tool management

Reacting to disruptions

Fig. 31.6. Integration of operational levels.

should be noted that all the decision aids for lower-level decisions are part of the decision aids for
a
higher Thus, for example, simulation should also be thought of as a decision aid for the batching
level.
and balancing problem, even though this was not mentioned explicitly in the section on batching
and balancing.
In summary, appropriate software and hardware components can be integrated into the organiza-
tional hierarchy to help achieve the objective of maximizing the benefit from a robotic facility. The
resulting decision support system should be thought of as an integral part of the facility, and the
design, purchase, and operation of a robotic facility should explicitly include provision for all the
components of such a DSS. If a robotic facility is not supplied with an adequate DSS, the creation
of one should receive top priority. Without this support system, the organization may find itself with
a highly sophisticated manufacturing system, but without the ability to use the sophistication
effectively.”*

REFERENCES
General Reviews and Surveys

1. Fisher, E. L., Nof, S. Y., and Seidmann, A., Robot System Analysis: Basic Concepts and Survey
of Methods, Proceedings of the HE Conferences, Cincinnati, Ohio, November 1982.
2. Fleischer,G. A., A Generalized Methodology for Assessing the Economic Consequences of
Acquiring Robots for Repetitive Operations, Proceedings of the HE
Spring Annual Conference,
New Orleans, Louisiana, May 1982, pp. 130-139.
634 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Basic Probability

58 Clarke, A B and Disney. R L .

PnAability and Random Processes for Engineers and Scientists,
Wiley. New York, 1970
59. Meyer, P L ,
Introductory Probability and Statistical Applications. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, 1972
60. Papoulis, A , Probability. Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1965

Queueing Theory

61 Bhat, U N Elements of Applied Stochastic Processes. Wiley. New York, 1972

,

62. Cooper, R B Introduction to Queueing Theory. Macmillan, New York, 1972

,

63. Cox, D R and Smith, W L Queues, Methuen, 1961 ,

64 Gross, D and Hams, C M Fundamentals of Queueing Theory. Wiley, New York, 1974
,

65. Klemrock, L Queueing Systems. Vol 1, Wiley. New York, 1975

,

66. Klemrock, L, Queueing Systems, Vol 2, Wiley. New York, 1976

67. Little, J D C A Proof of the Queueing Formula L = X IP. Operations Research, Vol
, 9,

1961, pp 383-387
68. Shanthikumar, J G
Approximate Queueing Models of Dynamic Job Shops, Ph D Thesis.
,

Department of Industnal Engineering. University of Toronto, 1979

69. Stidham, S A Last Word on L = XIP Operations Research. Vol 22, 1974, pp 417-421
,

70. Tnvedi, K S , Probability and Statistics mih Reliability, Queueing, and Computer Science Applica-
tions, Prentice-Hall, Englewood ClilTs, New Jersey, 1982

Queueing Networks

71. Buzacott, J A and Yao, DOW. Flexible Manufactunng Systems A Review of Models,
Working Paper No 7, Department of Industnal Engmeenng. University of Toronto, March
1982
72. Buzen, J P and Denning, P J ,
Operational Treatment of Queue Distnbutions and Mean Value
Analysis, Computer Performance, Vol I, No !, June 1980. pp 6-15
73. Denning.P J andBuzen,J P .TheOperational AnalysisofQueueingNetworkModels, Compurer
Surveys, Vol 10, No 3, September 1978. pp 225-262

74 Hildebrant, R R Scheduling Flexible Machining Systems Using Mean Value Analysis, Proceed-
.

ings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1980
75. Koenigsberg, E Twenty Five Years of Cyclic Queues and Closed Queue Networks A Review,
,

Journal of the Operational Research Society. Vol 33. 1982, pp 605-619

76. Solberg, J J A Mathematical Model of Computenzed Manufactunng Systems, Proceedings of
,

the 4th International Conference on Production Research. Tokyo. Japan, 1977

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78. Stecke, K E .Production Planning Problems for Flexible Manufactunng Systems, Ph D Disserta-
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Analytical Models of Blocking

84 Buzacott, J A .The Production Capaaty of Job Shops with Limited Storage Space, International
Journal of Production Research. Vol 14, No 5, 1976, pp 597-605
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 633

28. Lasdon, L. S., Optimization Theory for Large Systems, Macmillan, New York, 1970.
29. Luenberger, D. G., Introduction to Linear and Nonlinear Programming, Addison-Wesley, Read-
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30. Moder, J. J. and Elmaghraby, S. E., Eds., Handbook of Operations Research, Van Nostrand,
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31. Muller-Merbach, H., Heuristics and Their Design: A Survey, European Journal of Operational
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32. Pfaffenberger, R. C.and Walker, D. A., Mathematical Programming for Economics and Business,
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33. Raiffa, H., Decision Analysis, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1970.
34. Shapiro, J. F., Mathematical Programming, Wiley, New York, 1979.
35. Suri, R., Resource Management Concepts for Large Systems, Pergamon Press, New York, 1981.
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37. Whitney, D. E. et al.. Design and Control of Adaptable-Programmable Assembly Systems, Final
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Location Analysis

38. Akine, U. and Khumawala, B. M., An Efficient Branch and Bound Algorithm for the Capacitated
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636 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Scheduling

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118. Fisher, M
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120. Graves, S C A ,
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MarkoT Decision Processes

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Simulation

131. Bevans, J P, First Choose an FMS Simiibtor, Amencan Machinist, May 1982, pp 143-145
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No. 9. 1966, pp 671-678

134. ElMaraghy, H A Simulation and Graphical Animation of Advanced Manufactunng Systems,
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135. ElMaraghy, H A and Ho, N C , A Flexible System for Computer Control of Manufactunng,
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85. Buzacott, J. A. and Hanifin, L. E., Models of Automatic Transfer Lines with Inventory Banks

A Review and Comparison, AIIE Transactions. Vol. 10, No. 2, 1978, pp. 197-207.
86. Buzacott, J. A. and Shanthikumar, J. G., Models for Understanding Flexible Manufacturing
Systems, AIIE Transactions, December 1980, pp. 339-350.
87. Diehl, G. and Suri, R., Queueing Models for Efficient Analysis of Tool Sharing and Blocking
in Automated Manufacturing Systems, TIMS/ORSA, Chicago, Illinois, April 1983.
88. Gershwin, S. B., An Efficient Decomposition Method for the Approximate Evaluation of Tandem
Queues with Finite Storage Space and Blocking, Technical Report LIDS-P-1309, MIT, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, October 1983.

89. Suri,R. and Diehl, G. W., A Variable Buffer-Size Model and Its Use in Analyzing Closed
Queueing Networks with Blocking, Management Science, submitted, 1983.

Reliability

90. Amstadter, B. L., Reliability Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.

91. Barlow, R. E. and Proschan, F., Statistical Theory of Reliability and Life Testing, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1975.
92. Mathur, F. P., Automation of Reliability Evaluation Procedures Through CARE The Com- —
puter-Aided Reliability Estimation Program, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol. 41, Fall Joint
Computer Conference, 1972, pp. 65-82.
93. Ng, Y-W., Reliability Modeling and Analysis for Fault-Tolerant Computers, Ph.D. Dissertation,
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94. Parzen, E., Stochastic Processes, Holden-Day, San Francisco, California, 1962.
95. Shooman, M. L., Probabilistic Reliability: An Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1968.

96. Stiffler, J. J. et. al., CARE III Final Report, Phase NASA Contractor Report
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1979.

97. Trivedi, K. S., Probability and Statistics with Reliability, Queueing, and Computer Science Applica-
tions, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1982.

Batching

98. Afentakis, P., Gavish, B., and Karmarkar, U., Exact Solutions to the Lot-Sizing Problem in
Multistage Assembly Systems, Management Science, to appear.
99. Berry, W. L., Lot Sizing Procedure for Requirement Planning Systems; A Framework for Analy-
sis, Production Inventory Management, Vol. 13, 1972, pp. 19-34.
100. Crowston, W. B. and Wagner, M. H., Dynamic Lot Size Models for Multi-Stage Assembly
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101. Doll, D. C. C., An Iterative Procedure for the Single-Machine Multi-Product
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102. Elmaghraby, S. E., The Economic Lot Scheduling Problem (ELSP): Review and Extensions,
Management Science, Vol. 24, 1978, pp. 587-598.

103. Goyal, S. K., Determination of Optimum Packaging Frequency of Items Jointly Replenished,
Management Science, Vol. 21, 1973, pp. 436-443.
104. Graves, S. C., Multistage Lot-Sizing: An Iterative Procedure, Technical Report No. 164, Opera-
tions Research Center, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979.
105. Peterson, R. and Silver, E. A., Decision Systems for Inventory Management and Production
Planning, Wiley, New York, 1979.
106. Silver, E. A., A Simple Method of Determining Order Quantities in Joint Replenishments Under
Deterministic Demand, Management Science, Vol. 22, 1976, pp. 1351-1361.
107. Silver, E.A. and Meal, H. C., A Heuristic for Selecting Lot Size Quantities for the Case of a
Deterministic Time-Varying Demand Rate and Discrete Opportunities for Replenishment, Pro-
duction Inventory Management, Vol. 14, 1973, pp. 64-74.
108. Van Nunen, J. A. E. E. and Wessles, J., Multi-Item Lot Size Determination and Scheduling
Under Capacity Constraints, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 2, 1978, pp
36-41.
109. Wagner, H. M. and Whitin, T., Dynamic Version of the Economic Lot Size Model, Management
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110. Whitney, C. K., FMS Batching and Balancing, TIMS/ORSA, Chicago, April 1983.
as APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Theory, Proceedings of the 22nd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. San Antonio, Texas,

December 1983
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Optimization of Flexible Manufactunng Systems Using New Perturba-
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163. Sun, R and Cao, X The Phantom Customer and Marked Customer Methods for Optimization
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of Closed Queueing Networks with Blocking and General Service Times, Performance ACM
Evaluation Review, August 1983, pp 243-256

Vlamtenance

164. Assaf, D and Levikson, B On ,

Optimal Replacement Policies, Management Science. Vol 28,
No 11, November 1982, pp 1304-1312
165. Barlow, R E and Hunter, L C Optimum ,
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166 Derman, C , Lieberman, G J , and Ross, S M A . Renewal Decision Problem, Management

Science. Vol 24, 1978, pp 554-561
167. Gertsbakh, ! B Models
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168. Haune, A and L’Ecuyer, P , A Stochastic Control Approach to Group Preventive Replacement
in aMulticomponent System, IEEE Transactions on Auiomatie Control, Vol AC-27, No 2,
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169. Nahmias, A, Managing Repairable Item Inventory Systems A Review, m Schwarz, L B,
Ed , Multi-Level Productton/Inventory Control Systems. Theory and Practice. North Holland,
1981.pp 253-277
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of Detenorating Systems, Naval Research Logistics Quarterly. Vol 18, No 3, 1976

Decision Support

171. Baxter, J D, Line Managers Move from MIS to DSS for Decision-Makmg Help, Iron Age
September 28, 1931, pp 71-73
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.73. Nof, S Y, Theory and Practice in Deasion Support for Manufactunng, in Holsapple, C W
and Whinston, A B Eds Data Base Management Theory and Applications, D Reidel, 1983,
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pp 325-348
74. Nof, S Y and Gurecki, R MDSS Manufactunng Decision Support System, Proceedings of
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the AlIE Spring Annual Conference. May 1980, pp 274-283

75. Sun, R and Whitney, C K Decision Support Requirements for Flexible Manufactunng, Journal
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of Manufacturing Systems, Vol 3, No I, 1984

76. Wagner, G R , Mind Support Systems, JCP Interface Manufacturing and Engineering Spnng
1982, pp 19-22
QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR ROBOTIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 637

138. Gordon, G., The Application of GPSS V to Discrete System Simulation, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1975.

139. Gordon, G., Simulation-Computation, in Moder, J. J. and Elmaghraby, S. E., Eds., Handbook
of Operations Research, Van Nostrand, New York, 1978, pp. 566-585.
140. Hutchinson, G. K. and Hughes, J. J., A
Generalized Model of Flexible Manufacturing Systems,
Proceedings of the Multistation Digitally Controlled Manufacturing Systems Workshop, University
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141. Kiviat, P. J., Villanueva, R., and Markowitz, H. M., The SIMSCRIPT II Programming Language,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969.

142. Lenz, J. E. and Talavage, J. J., General Computerized Manufacturing Systems Simulator (GCMS),

Report No. 7, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana,
August 1977.
143. Nof, S. Y., Halevi, G., and Bobasch, M., Simulation Helps Minimize WIP, American Machinist,
February 1982, pp. 126-130.
144. Phillips,D. T. and Handwerker, M., GEMS: A
Generalized Manufacturing Simulator, Proceedings
of the 12th International Conference on Systems Science, Honolulu, Hawaii, January 1979.
145. Pritsker, A. A. B., and Pegden, C. D., Introduction to Simulation and SLAM, Wiley, New
York, 1979.
146. Rubinstein, R. Y., Simulation and the Monte Carlo Method, Wiley, New York, 1981.

147. Runner, J. A. and Leimkuhler, F. F., CAMSAM: A Simulation Analysis Model for Computer-
Aided Manufacturing Systems, Report No. 13, School of Industrial Engineering, Purdue Univer-
sity, West Lafayette, Indiana, 1978.

Hierarchical Approaches

148. Gelders, L. F. and Van Wassenhove, L. N., Production Planning: A Review, European Journal
of Operational Research, Vol. 7, 1981, pp. 101-110.
149. Graves, S. C., Using Lagrangean Techniques to Solve Hierarchical Production Planning Problems,
Management Science, Vol. 28,No. 3, March 1982, pp. 260-275.
150. Hax, A. C. and Meal, H. C., Hierarchical Integration of Production Planning and Scheduling,
in Geisler, M. A., Ed., Logistics, North Holland, 1975.
151. Hildebrant, R. R. and Suri, R., Methodology and Multi-Level Algorithm Structure for Scheduling
and Real-Time Control of Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Proceedings of the 3rd International
Symposium on Large Engineering Systems, Memorial University of Newfoundland, July 1980,
pp. 239-244.
152. Kimemia, J., Hierarchical Control of Production in Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Ph.D. Thesis,
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
April 1982.
153. Orlicky, J. A., Material Requirements Planning, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
154. Peterson, R. and Silver, E. A., Decision Systems for Inventory Management and Production
Planning, Wiley, New York, 1979.
155. Stecke, K. E., A Hierarchical Approach to Production Planning in Flexible Manufacturing
Systems, Proceedings of the 20th Allerton Conference on Communication, Control and Computing,
Monticello, Illinois, October 1982, pp. 426-433.
156. Suri, R., New Techniques for Modelling and Control of Flexible Automated Manufacturing
Systems, Proceedings of the IFAC 8th Triennial World Congress, Vol. 14, Kyoto, Japan, 1981,
pp. 175-181.
157. Suri, R.and Whitney, C. K., Decision Support Requirements for Flexible Manufacturing, Journal
of Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1984.

Monitoring and Fine-Tuning

158. Behee, R. D., Measuring Multiple Channels of Transient Data with a Microcomputer-Based
Acquisition System, Computers in Mechanical Engineering, January 1983, pp. 18-23.
159. Ho, Y. C., Ed., SPEEDS: A New Technique for the Analysis and Optimization of Queueing
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160. Ho, Y. C., Eyler, M. A., and Chien, T. T., A New Approach to Determine Parameter Sensitivities
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161. Suri, R., Infinitesimal Perturbation Analysis of Discrete Event Dynamic Systems: A General
640 APPLICAflON PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

must be in effect or designed for the robot It may be possible to eliminate the tote bins which may
assume production space Forklifts and their operators may be modified or eliminated, and the matenal-
handling personnel may also be displaced Over an extended time penod, humans can work only one
shift per day, since a robot is capable of workmg more than one shift, it may replace more than one
worker * In this particular situation, it can be seen that direct and indirect cost savings may be quite
significant,and robots can conlnbute to disproportionate displacement per job
The impact ofsimilar situations for unskilled and semiskilled workers is fewer hours of work,
which and less job secunly This has spurred organizations such as the United
translates to fewer jobs
Auto Workers (UAW) to develop positions on integrated automation, chiefly concerning industrial
robots Precarious as it is to permit one specific organization to speak for all production employees,
the UAW does encompass a larger proportion of employees in an industry that utilizes the greatest
number of industrial robots The UAW
does not place a specific emphasis on robots but instead
considers them another technological advancement it must consider * The union also recognizes that
enhanced productivity is necessary for long-term economic viability * * It is, however, aware of possible
detnmental impacts upon its membership pnmanly due to job insecunty The union believes that
technological advancement is acceptable and is encouraged as long as the current work force retains
job secunty * The UAW
is well aware of the Japanese workers’ “lifetime employment" status,* the

UAW's response to job secunty and robotics follows along these lines

Management provides advance notice of new technology to enable discussion

Introduction of new technology should displace as few workers as possible by using normal work-
force attntion
When increases in productivity outpace atinlion rate, the protection of workers against displacement
IS an appropnate first charge against productivity
Bargaming-umt integrity must be maintained, bargainmg-unit work must not be transferred to
out-of-unit employees

In-unit employees must be given adequate training to perform jobs introduced by new technology
Work time must be reduced to afford adequate job opportunities to all who want to work * *

Douglass Frasier asserts that to achieve these objectives, hours of employment depend on paid work
needed to produce a desired output, the number of job slots depends upon the need to equate that
output To equate the two, we need to reduce the number of work hours per job * The asserts UAW
that a work-time decrease is an aliemaitve to bargaining for higher wages*** Funher, the union is
adamant that there must explicitly be pay for lost work hours* The extent to which these issues
affect the entire work force
impossible to detennine
is

Quality of work (QWL)

t$ also affected by the introduction of robotics
life In reference to job
secunty, it is may ultimately improve jc^ secunty Robot adaptability enables
possible that robots
the ro^t to be assigned and tooled to many production tasks, the degree to which those tasks are
similar to tasks performed by humans increases the likelihood that a human and robot are interchangeable
in task performance * In the case of consumer items where market fluctuations may be quite drastic,
robots can offer a distinct advantage m
production assemblies * In QWL
terms, a company may initiate
"robot layoffs" due to downward fluctuation in demand and temporarily assign humans to the assembly
line, thus minimizing the displacement effects of a market downturn

It IS often argued that technological change

(i e , There is a
industrial robots) will create jobs
wide range of estimates on the extent to which displaced jobs will be compensated by newly developed
jobs due to increases and complex robotic utilization * Tins may well be the case, but it is naive and
myopic to compare only quantities To discuss adequately job displacement and job creation as one
being a counteractani for the other, the type of job created must be compared to the type of job
eliminated The literature evidences a discrepancy in skill level between those jobs that will become
available and those that will be eliminated There is and probably will be a significant demand for
highly trained personnel in computer programming, mechanical engineering, electronic design, and
so forth, all highly skilled positions to implement, utilize, and/or maintain the industnal robot * In
all probability, those to be displaced will ^
workers m
unskilled and semiskilled jobs A large void
m skill level exists between those jobs eliminated and those jobs created Companies in the United
States who currently utilize robots appear not to attempt any major effort at refraining displaced
employees ’ The United Auto Workers observes that benefits denved from automation (robotics) are
applied to a smaller hourly work force *

32.2.2. Worker Retraining

One of the most acute problems associated with introducing and utilizing flexible manufacturing and
build
industnal robots is that the skill requirements these new technologies do not capitalize and
m
on the skills, perception, and knowledge accumulated by the industnal worker * This implies that
 CHAPTER 32
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING
ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
GAVRIEL SALVENDY
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

32.1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of chapter is to acquaint practitioners with the nature and characteristics of the
this
human impact effective planning, design, control, and operation of industrial robotic systems.
factors that
A good understanding of the human element in robotics systems contributes to wider adoption and
more effective utilization of industrial robots than currently is feasible. The current robotic technology
(Part 3) is developed to a level that would currently enable American industries to utilize more than
one million robots. Present utilization of only 1% of that number is largely attributable to insufficient
consideration given to human factors in the analysis, design, operation, control, and implementation
of industrial robotic systems. Human factors issues —
which impact effective implementation and utiliza-
tion of industrial robotic systems that are economically viable, humanly acceptable, and result in
increased productivity —
and quality of life must give due consideration to the social, safety, human
performance, and motivational issues in the analysis, design, implementation, control, and operation
of industrial robotics systems. Although these issues are conceptually integrated, for operational purposes
each is discussed separately in the chapter.

32.2, SOCIAL ISSUES

There are at leasttwo major social factors that impact the effective and widespread utilization of
industrial robots; worker displacement and worker retraining.

32.2.1. Worker Displacement

The extent of worker displacement due to automation is difficult to ascertain. Historical data in relation
to the application of automation in manufacturing are not particularly reliable indicants of future
trends. Technological change does not necessarily create jobs or avoid job displacements.' Senker'
states that there are two phases in major technological revolutions. In the initial phase new technology
primarily generates employment. The latter phase, or mature phase, tends to displace labor. Senker
asserts that the mature phase has been reached in the “electronics technological revolution.” The
extension of this, as it applies to industrial robots, is that the low cost and high reliability of microproces-
sors aid in decreasing robotics costs and concurrently enlarge their range of applicability. The result
is the expansion of production without a proportionate increase in employment.' In the past, increased

product demand has caused an increase in manual and expanded work-force demand. The impact of
automation has therefore been masked.
To demonstrate a possible net decrease in work as a result of robotization of manual production
operations, a simple material-handling operation is presented. If these manual material-handling systems
are required to feed three numerical control (NC) machines, a great deal of cost is incurred for manual
labor and indirect costs due to manual labor. A worker may incur a total first-shift cost of nearly
$30.00 per hour. Tote bins typically cost $125 to $150.^ Other expenses may include forklift operators
to move pallets of tote bins, and so on.

Suppose these NC machines were arranged in a manufacturing cell; owing to the electronics and
software capabilities currently available, one robot is capable of tending each machine even though
each may perform a different operation. It must be realized that some type of materials-feeding system

639
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 641

acquired industrial skills, which were widely utilized in the premicroelectronics-automation era,® are
completely lost and have become redundant for the industrial robot revolution era.
This has two major implications. First, it must be assessed who can be retrained for the new
skills. This can be achieved by analyzing skills and knowledge requirements for robotics jobs. From
this analysis, either work samples or tests that simulate the job can be developed. After assessing the
reliability and validity of these tests, the samples can be administered to displaced workers to assess

the likelihood of their success in mastering new skills.*® Based on this evaluation and on the nature
of human abilities, it may
be estimated that more than one-half of these displaced workers will not
possess employable abilities for the new robot-oriented and computer-based manufacturing work environ-
ment. If we do not provide careful manpower planning, we may end up with more than 20 million
unemployed Americans by the year 2000, an intolerable social and economic situation. To eliminate
or reduce this situation, the industrial robotics systems must be so designed, developed, and operated
to capitalize on (as far as possible) acquired and used human skills.

32.3. ORGANIZATION DESIGN AND JOB DESIGN ISSUES

The introduction of industrial robots to the workplace changes the requirements for the design of
new organizational structures that link computational hierarchy through behavioral hierarchy to organi-
zational hierarchy (Figure 32.1).
The command and control structure for successful organizations of great complexity is invariably
hierarchical, wherein goals, or tasks, selected at the highest level are decomposed into sequences of
subtasks that are passed to one or more operational units at the next lower level in the hierarchy.
Each of these lower level units decomposes its input command in the context of feedback information
obtained from other units at the same or lower levels, or from the external environment, and issues
sequences of sub-subtasks to a set of subordinates at the next lower level. This same procedure is
repeated at each successive hierarchical level until at the bottom of the hierarchy there is generated
a set of sequences of primitive actions that drive individual actuators such as motors, servo valves,
hydraulic pistons, or individual muscles. This basic scheme can be seen in the organizational hierarchy
on the left of Figure 32.1.
A single chain of command through the organizational hierarchy on the left is shown as the computa-
tional hierarchy in the center of Figure 32.1. This computational hierarchy consists of three parallel
hierarchies: a task decomposition hierarchy, a sensory processing hierarchy, and a world model hierarchy.
The sensory processing hierarchy consists of a series of computational units, each of which extracts
the particular features and information patterns needed by the task decomposition unit at that level.
Feedback from the sensory processing hierarchy enter each level of the task decomposition hierarchy.
This feedback information comes from the same or lower levels of the hierarchy or from the external
environment. It is used by the modules in task decomposition hierarchy to sequence their outputs
and to modify their decomposition function to accomplish the higher-level goal in spite of perturbations
and unexpected events in the environment.
The world model hierarchy consists of a set of knowledge bases that generate expectations against
which the sensory-processing modules can compare the observed sensory data stream. Expectations
are based on stored information which is accessed by the task being executed at any particular time.
The sensory-processing units can use this information to select the particular processing algorithms
that are appropriate to the expected sensory data and can inform the task decomposition units of
whatever differences, or errors, exist between the observed and expected data. The task decomposition
unit can then respond, either by altering the action to bring the observed sensory data into correspondence
with the expectation, or by altering the input to the world model to bring the expectation into correspon-
dence with the observation.
Each computational unit in the task decomposition, sensory processing, and world-modeling hierar-
chies can be represented as a finite-state machine. At each time increment each unit reads its input
and, based on its present internal state, computes an output with a very short time delay.
If the output of each unit in the task decomposition hierarchy is described as a vector, and plotted
versus time in a vector space, a behavioral hierarchy such as is shown on the right side of Figure
32.2 results. In this illustration a high-level goal, or task (BUILD SUBASSEMBLY ABCD), is input
to the highest level in a The H5 task decomposition unit breaks this task
robot control hierarchy.
down (ASSEMBLE AB) is the first. This “complex” subtask command
into a series of subtasks, of which
is then sent to the H4 task decomposition unit. H4 decomposes this “complex” subtask into a
sequence
of “simple” subtasks (FETCH A), (FETCH B), (MATE B to A), (FASTEN B to A). The H3 unit,
subsequently decomposes each of the “simple” subtasks into a string of “elemental moves” of the
form (REACH TO
A), (GRASP), (MOVE to X), (RELEASE), and so on. The H2 decomposition
unit then computes a string of trajectory segments in a coordinate system fixed in the work space,
or in the robot gripper, or in the workpiece itself. These trajectory segments may include acceleration,
velocity,and deceleration profiles for the robot motion. In HI each of these trajectory segments is
transformed into joint angle movements, and the joint actuators are served to execute the commanded
motions.
6U APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

At each le>el. the G

units select the appropnale fcedbacL infonnatton needed bj the modules H
in the tasl-decomposition hierarchy The M
units generate predictions, or expected salues. of the
sensory data hawt on the stored knowledge about the enwonment in the context of the task bang
executed
The operatiorul effects of thu hierarchical control are illustrated in Figure 32 2. This shows the
information fiew from the robots in a computemed flexible manufactunng system. Such orgamzaoonal
structures create a supervisory control in »hich the production processes and productivity are controlled
by the operator by computer terminals
The computing architecture shoa-n in Figure 32 1 is intended as a generic system that can be
applied to a aide vanety of automatic manufacturing facihtics and can be extended to much larger
applications. The basic structure ts hierarciucal. aith the computational load distributed evenly over
various computational units at various levels of the hierarchy At the loaest level in this bcrarchy
are individual robots. N/C machining centers, smart sensors, robot carts, conveyors, and automatic
storage systems, each of which may have its Own internal hierarchical control system These machines
are organized into workstations under the control of a worlstabon control unit. Several cell control
uruts may be organized under and recave input commands from a shop control unit, and so on.
This hierarchical structure can be extended to as many levels with as many modules per lev e] as are
necessary, depending on the complexity of the factory
On the nght side of Figure 32 2 is shown a data base which contains the pail programs for the
machine tools, the part-handling programs for the robots, the materials requiranents. dimensions,
and tolerances denved from the pan design data base, and the algonthms and process plans required

On the left ts a second data base which contains the cti/reni status of the factory Each part in
process in the factory has a file in this data base which contains information as to the pan's position
and orientation, its stage of completion, the batch of parts that it is with, and quality control information

This data base u also hierarchicdty structured. At the lowest level the position of each part is referenced
(0 a particular tray or table top At the next higher level the worlscation. the position of each pan
refers to which tray the pan ts in At the cell level position refers to which worlstation holds the
pan The feedback processors on the scan each level of the data base and extract the information
left
of interest to the next higher level A management information system makes it possible to query
this dau base at any level and determine the surus of any pan or job in ibe shop It can also set or
alter pnontics on vinous jobs
This resulting organizational design raises a number of cntical questions such as.

'b'hat IS the optimal allocation of funaioas between human supervisory control and the computer’
'^’hai IS the relationship between the number of machines controlled by one supervisor and the
productivity of the overall system’ ^kTiai ts the optimal number of machines that a supervisor
should cotitroP
'k’hai IS the impact of work isoUiioo of the suf>crvisor in a computer-controlled W’ork environment
on the qaahty of hfe asfd caattai bcaltb of the opera tor’

In allocating functions between computer and humans, emphasis must be placed on optimizing
human arousal job satisfaction, and productivity
Evidence pertaining to job design. Table 32.1. indicates that the numbers of people who prefer to
work at and are more satisfied and giroduciive in performing the task in simplified mode are equal lo
those who prefer enriched jobs, but 10% of the labor force does not like work of any type. When
270 shop floor workers performed their work m
both enriched and simplified modes, it was evident
that the numbers of people who preferred sunphfied jobs and those who preferred cixncbed jobs were
equal It is typically the older worker who prefers simplified jobs, whereas the younger workers prefer
ennehed jol^ In this study. 9% of the labor force did not hke wort of any type.
In the simplified job design, the operator performs only very small components of the total job
without having decision biitude about Iasi pe^ormance. These simplified ^bs can be enlarged other
vertically or honzonially Thus the operator may ather do more of the same thing, thus enlarging
the job vertical]), or additional tasks may be added for the task performance, thus enlarging the
task honzontally. which results in job ennefament It is typically the older worker (past 45 years of
age) who work at simplified jobs whereas the ymmger worker prefers to work at, and is
prefers to
both more satisfied and productive ui, ennehed jobs. The overwhelming majonty of computer-based
supervisory control tasks are manned by younger operators (below the age of 4S years) Hence
m
the
allocating the function between human and computer, the division should be made such that
task content of the human ts sufficiently ennehed to provide for psychological growth of the individual
BEHAVIORAL
HIERARCHY

COMPUTATIONAL

HIERARCHY

ORGANIZATIONAL

HIERARCHY
 1

6X6 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Based on safety studies of induslna] robots in Japan” the percentage dislnbution of near-accidents
caused by industrial robots is illustrated as follo«s

NEAR-ACCIDENTS CAUSED BY INDUSTRIAL

ROBOTS
Cause Percent

Erroneous action of robot in normal

operation 5 6

Erroneous action of peripheral equipment

in normal operation S 6

Careless approach lo robot by human 11 2

Erroneous action of robot in teaching and

lest operation 16 6

Erroneous action of penpherat cquipmmt

dunng teaching and lest operation 16 6
Erroneous action dunng manual operation 16 6
Erroneous action dunng checking,
regulation and repair 16 6
Other 112
From this summary can be seen that about 28% of near-accidents were human related, 61%
it

were equipment related, and 11% were not classified The 61% that were equipment related owing
fo (he tow reliability of robot systems are itiustrated as follows

RELIABILITY OF ROBOTS
(b) Mean Time between
(a) Trouble m Robots <%) Failure of Robots

Faults of control
system 66 9 Under 100 hr 28 7%
Faults of robot body 23 5 IOD-250 hr 12 2
Faults of welding gun
and tooling parts 18 5 255-500 hr 19 5
Runaway II 1 500-1000 hr 14 7
Programming and other
operational errors 19 9 1000-1500 hr 104
Precision deficiency,
delenoration 16 1500-2000 hr 49
Incompatibility of jigs
and other tools 45 5 2000-2500 hr 1 2
Other 2 5 Over 2500 hr 8 5

The methodology of fault tree analysis illustrated in Figure 32 4 shows the sequence and Imk of
events in robot-related accidents

32,5. HUMAN INDUCTRIAL WORK PERFORMANCE

A number of human performance capabilities impact the effective design and operation of robotic
systems design of controls, human variability in work performance, information-processing capabilities,
task pacing, and job satisfaction Although these variables are conceptually integrated, for purposes
of presentation each of them is discussed separately

32.5,1. Design of Controls

In designing monitonng systems for robots that are compatible with human performance capabilities,
one must be concerned with two mam questions, namely, which control is best lo use for which
purpose, and. given the selection ofa certain control, the determination of iheappropnatcand applicable
range for size, displacement, and resistance for each control The values for these parameters are
presented in Tables 32 2-32 3
human factors in planning robotic systems 645

TABLE 32.1. WORKER JOB SATISFACTION IN RELATION TO JOB SIMPLICITY

Satisfied with Dissatisfied
Enriched Jobs with Enriched Do Not Like
(Dissatisfied with Jobs (Satisfied with Work of Any
Variable Measured Simplified Jobs) Simplified Jobs) Type

1. Percent of labor force 47 44 9

2. Percent of labor force in category
I who are dissatisfied 4 87 100
3. Productivity of the labor force in
category 1 91 92 84
4. Percent of labor force over 45
years of age 11 82 50

Source. Salvendy.^®

In making the allocation of functions, it should be noted (Figure 32.3) that an optimal arousal
level exists for maximizing productivity and job satisfaction: when the arousal level is too low, boredom
sets in; when the arousal is too high, mental overload occurs.

32.4. SAFETY ISSUES

Humans can interact with industrial robots in the following ways; as supervisors, as co-workers, and
preparing and setting up as maintenance robots. The only safe way to design industrial robot systems
is keep operators physically away from the robot.
to
For example, in West Germany, robot manufacturers have spent one-third of the total robot program-
ming time on progamming for safety. But, even in these carefully designed situations, accidents and
injury to the operator do occur. Hence, it is safest and most effective for the human to exercise
supervisory control through computer-based information networks —
a subject which is discussed later
in this chapter. Potential injury to the setup and service personnel is apparent for maintenance and
repair work. Potential accidents can be reduced (but not entirely eliminated) when careful consideration
is given to safe job design for the maintenance personnel.

>
O
Zi
T3
O
a.

Boredom Mental
overload
Arousal

Fig. 32.3. When task performance requires low arousal level it then results in low human attention
and increased job productivity. High arousal level results in mental overload and decreased
productivity.
For each job and each individual an optimal level of arousal exists that results in
maximum productivity.
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HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 649

32.5.2. Range of Human Performance Abilities

Variation in human performance levels occurs both among different operators and within a single
operator over a period of time. This variation arises from the following three general classes of operator
characteristics;

Experience and training.

Enduring mental and physical characteristics.
Transitory mental and physical characteristics prevailing at the time of task performance.

Transitory characteristics are influenced by many specific factors, including the following:

Motivation
Temporary illness

Fatigue
Stress

Alcohol and other drugs

Hours of work (e.g., overtime, shift worked)
Physical, social, and psychological work environments
Food intake

Human performance also is influenced by task characteristics such as equipment variability, defects
and malfunctions, and, especially among different operators, the methods employed by operators to
perform their tasks.
The combined impact of these various factors on the performance variability of an individual operator
(i.e., within-operator variability) has been documented among blue-collar workers in manufacturing

industries. These studies® indicate that reliability* of production output varies from .7 to .9, with a
mean of .8. This implies that about 64% (i.e., 8® X 100) of an operator’s performance in one week
can be predicted by his or her performance observed during a prior week. Conversely, 36% of the
operator’s performance cannot be explained in this manner, but is apparently explained by such factors
as those previously listed.
It should be noted that individual variability within a working day is markedly smaller than between

working days. Furthermore, performance variability within a workday is smallest from mid-morning
to early afternoon (Figure 32.5). During performance fluctuation around a mean level is
this period,
only about 5% markedly on either side of the mid-moming
(of the mean), but this variability increases
to early afternoon period. These patterns of within-operator variability, as well as warm-up and slowdown
at the beginning and end of the workday, must be accounted in the design, control, and operation of
robotics systems in which the human is a part.
Based on many studies, it is well known that human performance variability among operators is
much larger than that observed within the same operator over successive observations. Generally a
performance range of 2 to 1 encompasses 95% of the working population.*® However, in practical
work situations the range encountered is likely to be much smaller than this because of preemployment
selection, attrition of some low-performance operators, and peer pressures that may limit the output
of high-ability operators. Thus, when these limiting factors are not operating, in a group of 200 workers,
if the highest-performing 5 and the lowest-performing 5 are not considered, then in the remaining

190 operators, the highest-performing will not perform more than twice as well as the lowest-performing
(and, conversely, the lowest-performing operator will do at least half as well as the highest-performing
operator). The recognition of this range of performance levels
is critical to the design of robotics

systems and to the development of effective production planning and control techniques.

32.5.3. Human Information-Processing Memory and Decision-Making Capabilities

The operator’s ability to perform these crucial mental activities, and therefore the ability to perform
tasks effectively, rests upon fundamental cognitive processes and functions. These basic mental functions
and processes (or stages) appear in Figure 32.6, which represents an information-processing model of
the human operator. is continuously presented with information to accomplish
In this model, the operator
his or her work objectives. The operator
viewed as a channel through which information flows. In
is
the model of Figure 32.6 three major information-processing stages are shown: perception, decision

* The reliability
coefficient is a measure of consistency determined by the extent to which two successive
samples of same-task performance provide similar results. Thus, for example, reliability of performance
•nay be obtained by correlating one week’s performance with another’s.
652 APPLICATION PLANNING: TEQINIQUES

Fib. 32.5. Companson of output curve and ratings made on one operator dunng a repetitue manual
operation (thread-roll bulb holder) dunng a «orLtng day. utilizing conlmuou^ time studies Similar
results were obtained for other manual repetitive tasks and for other operators (ikiurce Dudley.
N A Work Measurement Some research studies. London Macmillan. 1968 )
.

making, and response control Also shown are three memory systems (sensory, short-term, and long-
term and response control) which depend upon, and arc limited by. the information-processing capacities
of these three major stages and the storage charactenstics of the three memory systems
Limits of human performance anse from two charactenstics of the major information-processing
stages (1) they require a minimum time in whKh to perform their functions, and (2) they have limits
as to the amount of information they can process per unit time If information amves loo rapidly, a
stage may become overloaded and unable to operate effectively This limit to the rale at which a
stage can handle (i e . transmit) information is its channel capacity

Fig. 32.6 Information processing model of the human operator {Source Reference 36
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654 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

dicular arrangements (one forward, one sideways) Sinularly. responses that start at the same time
are easier to time-share than those that do not Selecting, initiating, or monitonng parallel (or successive)
responses that have similar charactenstics apparently requires less information processing than occurs
in the case of unrelated movements Symmeincal rdation^ips between movements enhance this similar-
ity effecteven when the movements are made in opposite directions
Time-shanng efficiency will be greatly enhanced when highly compatible stimulus-response (S-R)
relationships are used High S-R compatibility reduces the load on the decision-making stage responsible
for selecting responses Responses may almost become “self-selecting” with the most compatible map-
pings This most readily occurs with tactile signals For example, a vibrating machine control provides
a highly compatible signal for the response of grasping the control more firmly The operator may
do this almost immediately with no disruption of other movement activities
Finally, at the most complicated level, performing two separate tasks at once, performance depends
on a wide variety of factors including the pnonties that the operator attaches to the competing tasks
Typically, when an easy task was combined with a more difficult one, a greater percentage decline m
perfonnance was found for the easier task '*
Time-shanng efficiency improves with task experience for a vanety of reasons First, there is evidence
that time-shanng is a general ability that can be enhanced by training Operators who efficiently tune-
share one pair of tasks often are supenor at time-shanng other task pairs Second, as operators become
”
well trained, tasks impose lower information-processing loads and even appear to become "automatic
Several reasons for this have been considered, including the following

An internal task model frees the operator from processing redundant information
Kinesthetic mformation, which may be processed faster than visual information (Table 32 4 ) and
which often is highly S-R compatible, isgradually substituted for visual information

Certain information-processing steps (e g , “check” operation) may be minimized or deleted entirely

More efficient movement sequences involving less second-phase, close-loop control are developed

Because the "automatic" time-shared tasks each impose lower information-processing demands upon
the operator, there is less likelihood of overload, and efficient time-shanng is possible
The preceding discussion has focused on time-shanng difficulties resulting from "central" (i e
cognitive) interference between (wo activities Obviously, tasks also may interfere with each other
because of “structural" interaction if one task requires the operator to look to the nght while the
other requires the operator to look left, the tasks will be mutually int erfenng Such structural interference
often ts quite difficult to distinguish from central interference This represents a pnmary difficulty m
attempting to use "secondary-task" methods to assess mental workload

Dectsion Making

Decision making refers to the processes whereby operators evaluate information made available by
the initial perceptual processing Decision making results tn the selection of an intended course of
action Two decision-making characteristics are espeaatly important how much time decision making
requires and how accurate decisions are
Decision delays stem from two sources, capaaty limitations and refractory limitations Capacity
limitations anse because decision-making stages can process information at only a limited rate The
amount of information transmission involved in a deasion increases loganthmically with the number
of possible stimuli that might be presented and the number of alternative responses from which the
operator might select In general, doubling the number of possible stimuli and responses increases
the information transmitted in the decision by one bit
Hick'* showed that the rate of information flow per umt time remains constant at about 1 bit/
220 msec However, if the operator exceeds these margins by trying to go loo fast, accuracy drops

TABLE 32.4 MINIMUM

REACTION TIMES <Kp) FOR
VARIOUS SIMULATION
MODALITIES
Simulation Reaction Time
Modality (msec)

Visual 150-225
Auditory 120-185
Tactual 115-190
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 653

This limit can be reached in three ways. First, a task may be inherently difficult and present
information to a particular stage at an excessive rate. Psychomotor performance can improve if the
processing capacity of the affected stagefs) increases. Kalsbeck and Sykes’® studied the task of handwrit-
ing and found evidence for increasing capacity limits of the response-control stage.
Inexperienced operators are prone to a second source of stage overload. Typically, much of the
information available to an operator is either irrelevant or redundant. A
novice operator will fail to
recognize this and attempt to process more information than necessary. This results in overload and
consequently low performance. For example, an operator may attend to (i.e., process) many small
and irrelevant details appearance of a workpiece and thus fail to detect a critical flaw.
in the
The process whereby an operator comes to attend to only essential information in a task is a
critical mechanism underlying the development of skill. To take advantage of redundancy, an internal
model of the task being worked on must be developed by the operator. This internal cognitive model
uses available information to make predictions about future task requirements. Thus, in the preceding
example, the operator, having acquired knowledge of path regularities in the movement of the workpieces,
was able to predict future workpiece locations and regularities in the movement of the workpieces,
thus avoiding processing unnecessary information. The availability of an accurate internal mode of
the task is the most significant advantage enjoyed by a skilled operator over a novice counterpart.
The third way in which overload may occur is when two tasks compete for an operator’s attention
and simultaneously present information to the same limited-capacity stage. In this case, the operator
may choose to process the information from only one task, thus drastically degrading performance
in the other task. Or, the operator may choose to process some information from each task, thus

producing milder degradation in both cases.

The foregoing model of the industrial operator as a series of stages sensitive to information flow
rate (i.e., transmission rate) emphasizes the need for information-selection mechanisms to protect the
operator from overload. An internal model enhances the ability to select properly only the essential
information. The skilled operator is one who efficiently selects only needed information for processing
during psychomotor activity.
The information-processing model contains three memory systems. These systems contribute several
essential functions in psychomotor performance. They act as buffers to store temporarily (from 1 to
2 sec) rapidly arriving sensory information (sensory memory). They temporarily store up to seven
“chunks” (words, names, digits, etc.) of information (short-term memory). Finally, they provide long-
term storage that underlies learning and improvement in psychomotor performance (long-term memory).
Industrial work often requires the operator to time-share, or simultaneously perform, several separate
subtasks. This time-sharing demand occurs on three levels. First, in even simple tasks, the operator
must receive information, make decisions, and control response movements. Efficient performance may
require that these activities occur parallel to one another. Second, more complex tasks often require
the operator to make several separate responses simultaneously, for example, concurrent, but separate,
hand motions. Third, the operator may be asked to perform two quite separate tasks at once. How
efficiently can activities at each of these levels overlap?
At the first level, evidence suggests that information reception can efficiently overlap both decision
making and response control. However, these latter two functions interfere with each other. More
specifically, the initiation and correction of movements interferes with decision making. These response
functions occur primarily in the second phase of movement control. Hence performance can be enhanced
by eliminating or minimizing second-phase control. This can be done by terminating movements with
mechanical stops rather than with closed-loop, operator guidance.
Time-sharing at the second level can be enhanced if the same mental function, information reception,
decision making, or response control is not needed simultaneously by both activities. The refractory
period* of the central decision-making stage requires that successive inputs to this process be separated
by at least 300 msec. For example, if the operator is required to identify and respond to two successive
signals, those signals should not occur within 300 msec of each other.
The movement control, including monitoring, selecting an appropri-
processes involved in closed-loop
ate corrective response, and initiating the correction, impose particularly high information-processing
demands. Hence, when these processes are required by two simultaneous subtasks (e.g., independently
moving each gripper), information overload and consequent interference between the subtasks can be
expected. For example, elements “position” and “grasp” both impose high information-processing
loads because they require significant second-phase, closed-loop control. Therefore they cannot be
effectively time-shared. At the other extreme, elements “reach” and “move” (which do not generally
involve precise, closed-loop movement control) generally can be carried out parallel with other elements.
Another critical factor in time-sharing efficiency is response-response compatibility. Some combina-
tions of responses can be performed more easily than others. In executing simultaneous movements,
performance is best when the hands (or feet) move in the same direction (e.g., both forward). Next
best is complementary movements (e.g., one forward, one backward). Performance is worse for perpen-

The period during which the operator is unable to process any new information.
656 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

TABLE 32.6. ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MACHINE-PACED

WORK
Advantages

1 Reduces overhead cost through economic use of high technology, reduction of stock in progress,
reduction in factory floor space, reductron in supervision cost
2 Reduces direct cost through decreased trainmg tunc, lower hourly wages, high production return
per unit of wages
3 Contnbutes to national productivity through provision of employment for less capable workers,
reduction in the production costs of goods and services

Disadvantages

1 Does not provide for each worker’s rtiaMmal work capacity

2 Economically viable only for high-volume production

3 Does not provide for ihe psychological growth of workers

S/P task the operator had to keep track of the quantity of work output, whereas in M/P tasks the
work output was controlled by the machine It was hypothesized that this additional task of keeping
track of work output imposes additional mental load and increases the stress associated with high
mental load task performance In a study by Knight and Salvendy,^' subjects performed a task with
high perceptual load both in the M/P and S/P modes In the S/P mode the subjects performed the
task with a vanety of different performance feedbacks Table 32 7 shows that the stress associated
with task performance is the function of performance feedback The more precise the performance
feedback, Ihe lower (he stress associated with task performance
3. In man-computer interactive work, theaitenlional work environment has a much greater impact
on the stress associated with task performance than do the stresses associated with M/P and S/P
task performance This is illustrated tn Table 32 S In this expenment,” subjects were asked to perform
the same task, both M/P and S/P, in both financial and nonfinancial work environments A waiting,
or anticipation, period of 4-6 sec was introduced between each work cycle The physiological measures
presented in Table 32 8 reflect on the deceleration and acceleration of the heartbeats dunng the waiting
penod The external attention task required visual input from a VDT terminal, whereas the mtemal
attentional task required arithmetic calculations
4. Theresome expenmental evidence to suggest^ that (wo-thirds of ihe blue-collar labor force
is

prefer to work an S/P work environment whereas one-third of the labor force prefers to work m
in
an M/P These job preferences correlate very closely with job satisfaction and productivity
setting
The psychological profiles of those who prefer M/P work versus those who prefer S/P work are
illustrated in Table 32 9

32.6. SUPERVISORY CONTROL OF ROBOTICS SYSTEMS

Humans can supervise mdusCnal robots in one of the following two ways

1. When humans are working adjacent to industrial robots This type of supervision is strongly
discouraged on grounds of lack of safety and the potential psychological and mental health
implications of working adjacent to robots 1 he only partial justification for this work arrange-
ment may possibly exist for low-reliability robots that require a high degree of operator attention

TABLE 32 7. EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE

FEEDBACK ON THE REDUCTION OF STRESS IN
SELF-PACED WORK
Work Condition Stress Index®

Self-paced
No feedback 100
Cycle feedback 90
Time feedback 86
Combined time and cycle feedback 57
Machine-paced 62

A difference in the stress index of six or more units is

statistically significant at 5% level

HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 655

very rapidly, and the rate of information transmission will fall. This occurs when the operator tries

to increase the speed more than about 20%.

The other source of decision-making delay is a fixed delay of about 300 msec that must separate

successive decisions. This the so-called psychological refractory period. If information is presented
is

to the decision-making stage within 300 msec of a previous decision, decision making will be delayed
until the psychological refractory period has elapsed. This refractory delay does not decline with practice.
Decision accuracy depends not only on the operator’s speed and accuracy strategy, but also on
built-in biases. Some of these biases are listed in Table 32.5.

32.5.4. Paced Work

Various subjective estimates suggest that more than 50 million people worldwide are working on
machine-paced (M/P) tasks. Hence, improving the working conditions on M/P tasks has spurred
the interest of many researchers. In effect, more than 100 scientific papers have been published on
this subject.'® However, there is a high degree of diversity in the results obtained from these experiments.

It is quite common to find a situation where results obtained from one study are completely contradicted

in another study. This makes it very difficult to draw inferences that can be used to improve the
working conditions on M/P tasks.
If there had not been a distinct economic advantage in utilizing M/P work, there might not have
been more than 50 million people working in this area. It also would be true to say that if there had
not been some disadvantages for the human working on M/P tasks, there might not have been over
100 publications in this area.
The economic advantages and disadvantages of using M/P tasks are reviewed in Table 32.6. The
frequently referred to psychological disadvantages of M/P work include the following: (1) M/P work
does not provide psychological growth for the workers; (2) M/P work causes boredom and job dissatisfac-
tion.

We should maintain M/P tasks in the work environment only if we can simultaneously maintain
the economic benefits and alleviate the disadvantages of working on an M/P task.
human
From the research findings relating to the comparative merits of M/P and self-paced (S/P) work,
the following emerges.

1. It becomes evident when utilizing young subjects on a pump ergometer, a bicycle ergometer,

and a Harvard step test that the human body's efficiency is higher in S/P than in M/P work'’; however,
for older subjects, using an arm ergometer, the highest efficiency occurred in M/P work. On the
same task for younger subjects, the highest efficiency occurred in S/P work.'®
2. Perceptual load associated with task performance plays a significant role in evaluating M/P
and S/P tasks. When the perceptual load of the task is low, there are no significant differences in
stress levels between M/P and S/P tasks; however, for tasks with high perceptual load the stress is
significantly lower during M/P than S/P task performance, and the error rates are higher.'® These
results are attributed to two facts, namely, (1) high stress during task performance is associated with
high achievement motivation, high production performance, and low error rate’®; and (2) during the

TABLE32.5. SOME HUMAN BIASES THAT MAY AFFECT

PERFORMANCE
Quantity
Estimation Bias

Horizontal distance Underestimate

Height Overestimate when looking down
Underestimate when looking up
Speed Overestimate if object accelerating
Underestimate if object decelerating
Angle Underestimate acute angles
Overestimate obtuse angles
Temperature Overestimate heat
Underestimate cold
Weight Overestimate if bulky
Underestimate if compact
Numerosity Consistently underestimate
Probability Overestimate pleasant event likelihood
Underestimate unpleasant event likelihood
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 657

TABLE 32.8. ACCELERATION AND

DECELERATION IN HEARTBEATS
AS A FUNCTION OF JOB CONTENT,
JOB DESIGN, AND THE NATURE OF
INCENTIVES
External Internal
Attention Attention

M/P S/P M/P S/P

No incentive 66 63 71 69
Financial
incentive 68 62 75 72

2. When robots form a part of a flexible manufacturing system, such as that illustrated in Figure
32.7. In these cases, the entiresystem is, typically, jointly supervised by computer and human.
The human supervisor sits in front of a computer terminal and has an impact on certain
parts of the total systems functioning.

This second mode of supervisory control is the way current and future industrial robots should
be supervised, and, as such, is the subject of discussion in this section.

32.6.1. Concept of Supervisory Control

An important point to consider in advocating the role of the human in supervising FMS comes from
Figure 32.8 compares the reliability of completely automatic systems at different levels
reliability data.
of redundancy, against a single-redundant system in which one of the components is a well-trained
human.
The human should feel in control of the plant and thus the computer software should be at his
disposal. Heshould have the option to override the computer if he feels that it is necessary. This is
because the human is much more flexible to novel situations than the computer. An important point
is that the human’s role should be coherent. This coherence of the human’s role must be assured in

the initial stages of the design process when system tasks are allocated between man and computer
(Figure 32.3). As Figure 32.3 indicates an inverted “U” relationship exists between arousal level,
productivity, and job satisfaction.
an FMS through the computer is given too little to do, boredom results,
If the operator supervising
which leads to degraded performance and less productivity. On the other hand, if the operator is
given too much to do, mental overload occurs, which also leads to decreased performance and less
productivity.
Thus some level between the two extremes of Figure 32.3 will result in maximum performance.
Salvendy^® has hypothesized that enriched jobs result in lower fatigue and psychological stress than
simplified jobs. The rationale is that simplified jobs have less decision making than enriched jobs.
In assigning functions to humans in a FMS, many decision-making responsibilities correspond to
an enriched job, whereas low arousal levels and minimum decision making for the operator correspond
to a simplified job. Thus, in allocating responsibilities between human and computer in FMS, one
must be cognizant of levels of arousal for the human and the degree of decision making allocated
between human and computer.
Figure 32.9 shows that allocation of functions takes place after separation of functions. At this

TABLE 32.9. PSYCHOLOGICAL

PROFILES OF OPERATORS WHO
PREFER S/P AND THOSE WHO
PREFER M/P WORK
M/P Work S/P Work

Less intelligent More intelligent

Humble Assertive

Practical Imaginative
Forthright Shrewd
Group-dependent Self-sufficient
660 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Some have developed models of human decision making in multitask situations

investigators
Senders** has modeled instrument-monitonnE behavior of humans He assumed that the human used
his limited input capacity to sequentially observe a number of instruments in a random order The
fraction of time spent observing a particular msirument was a measure of work load
Tulga and Shendan’* developed a multitask dynamic decision paradigm with such parameters as
interamval rale of task, time before tasks hit the deadline, task duration, the productivity of the
human for performing tasks, and task value densities In this expenment, a number of task-shanng
finite completion times and different payoffs appear on a screen The subject must decide which task
to perform at vanous limes to maximize the payoff When the human performs a vanety of tasks by
the aid of computer, allocation of responsibihly for different tasks is important for optimum performance
making where the human is required to
Several investigators**** have studied multitask decision
and discrete tasks In a queueing theory formulation, the
allocate his attention between control tasks
human “server" serviced vanous tasks, at exponentially distnbuted interamval limes The
amving
growing model predicted the mean wailing lime for each task as well as the mean fraction of attention
devoted to each task
For optimal performance of different tasks, Govindaraj and Rouse** developed a model i^ith a
number of parameters (I) ratio of weights on control to weights on later error, (2) ratio of nominal
weights on control to weights on control over discrete task intervals, and (3) threshold on changes
in control The model could be useful in evaluating displays where the future reference is known for
a certain distance If the discrete task characteristics are known, the amount of time required for the
discrete tasks and when they should be performed can be determined An expenment was conducted
where subjects controlled an airplane symbol over a map. shown a fixed distance into the future
Results revealed that the model compared favorably with expenmental data

32.7.MAJOR ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR THE EFFECnVE

INTEGRATION OF HUMAN FACTORS PRINCIPLES IN PLANNING
ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
According to the U
S Congress Office of Technology Assessment,** there are a number of institutional
and orgaaaational barriers to the use of rnformational technology, which also has bearing on the use
of industnal robots These include high initial cost, the lack of high>qua]ity programming, and the
dearth of local personnel with adequate training In this connection Rosenbrock* addresses two vital
behavioral and social issues, namely, (I) the skills that robots call for will usually be new, yet there
ISno reason why they should not be based on older skills and developed from them, and (2) industnal
robots will aid us to carry on rapidly the process of breaking jobs into their fragments and perfbrming
some of these fragments by machines, leaving other fragmmts to be done by humans This has broad
implications for the Itaining and retraining of personnel and for the design of the psychological contents
of jobs Many of these implications associated with the miroduction of industnal robots have effectively
been managed in Japan * In this regard, seven positive and seven negative aspects of the social impact
of robots are summarized m
Table 32 10
The most significant study yet conducted on the impact of robotics on supervision, management,
and organization was published in 1983’“ in bothJapanese and English This 30O-page report summanzes
a large-scale study undertaken by the Japan Management Association In this study, more than 20
“robotized"' Japanese companies were selected as case studies to determine just what kind of impact
on management the introduction of robots to the workplace has had to date For instance, what

TABLE 32.10 SOaAL IMPACTS OF ROBOT DIFFUSION

Positive Impacts Negative Impacts

1 Promotion of worker’s welfare 1 Unemployment problems

2 Improvement of productivity 2 Elimination of pnde in old skills

3 Increase in safety of workers 3 Shortage of engineers and newly trained

skilled workers
4 Release of workers from time restncfions 4 iVoduction capacity nonproportional to the
size of the labor force
5 Ease m maintaining quality standard 5 Decrease in flow of labor force from under-
developed to developed countries
robot
6 Ease of production scheduling 6 Safety and psychological problems of
interaction with human
7 Creation of new high-level jobs 7 Great movement of labor population from
the second to the third sector of industry
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 659

Fig. 32.8. The reliability of a double-redundant navigation system in which one redundant component
is a human (dashed lines), as compared with the reliability of systems with various orders of redundancy
in which all components are machines (solid lines). (Source. Reference 25.)

human performs and tasks that the computer performs are separated. Also, there
point, tasks that the
can be some overlap between human and computer to increase reliability and efficiency in the FMS.
Tables that show primarily what the human does and what the computer does are useful in assigning
tasks to computer or to man. Thus we have developed human/computer comparison tables to help
decide which tasks go primarily to the computer or primarily to the human in the FMS.^® At the
initial stages of allocation, one must design function tasks that are meaningful to the operator.

32.6,2. Models of Supervisory Control

The operator in FMS may among many machines, rendering to each in turn as
shift his attention
much attention as is properly or keep it under control. The human tends to
necessary to service it

have more responsibility for multiple and diverse tasks. It is appropriate to view the human as a
time-shared computer with various distributions of processing times and a priority structure that allows
preemption of tasks. This can be done by queueing theory formulation.^’'^®-®”

Fig. 32.9. Levels of allocation of functions in a system. (Source. Reference 2S.)

662 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES
planning more means that the amount of stock on hand can be reduced thus
stable quality
lowering stock costs and making production planning easier, and (g) elimination of problems
related to skilled labor shortages

There are also quite a few companies that have attained results not anticipated prior to the

introductionof industrial robots Some examples of these are

() Improved —
worker attitudes workers, stimulated by the neH- technology, have been motivated
to take a more active part in the improvement of work processes submitting suggestions concerning
how best to utilise that technology.

() Improvements in those work processes before and after the ones making use of industrial
robots —improved peripheral equipment and overall production technology to keep pace with the
robots

(c) realization of total production systems

The —
the installation of robots makes it possible to
encode the job knowhow of skilled laborers thus approaching a total production system for the
entire assembly lines

(d) The stabilization of production oulpul-~ouiput can be stabilized regardless of the number
of workers show up for work each day. or their degree of skill,

(e) Afore re/iad/e teeknalogical capabfhnes have fed <»> increased product orders.

The strategic implications of industrial robots for those enterprises utilizing them in their manufac-
turing processes can, in broad terms be summarized as follows

(o) By enhancing productivity and improving product quality, companies are capable of increasing
their shares of markets and thus improving their market positions

(6) Companies utilizing industrial robots find it possible to open new lines of business [including
the development of new products) and enter into new markets.
(c) Industrial robots assure companies of stable labor power and provide laboe itself with improved
benefits

Based on results seems safe to conclude that robot utilization not only provides
such as these, it

the user company with a competitive edge m the marAef. but also ploys a major role in stabilizing
Its labor situation.

m order to realae this kind of performance on the part of industrial robots the
S'everiheless
managers of user companies have a number of areas which they must give proper consideration
to Principal among these are-

() The re-education and re-training of employees m tme with the introduction of robots

() The carrying out of robot engineering for the purpose of installing and operating industrial
robots and
(e) The implementation of measures aimed at improving the worksite and ensuring worker safety

There are still any number of jobs currently being aone by humans that can be classified as
dangerous or heavy labor both within and outside of the manufacturing industry However, the
installation and utilization of industrial robots to perform these kinds ofjobs is seen as continuing
It IS also expected that ro^ls will begin to serve in the realm of social services as well before
too long

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is grateful to Professor Shimon Y Nof, who has inspired the author to write on this
subject matter; to Peter J Faber for his contnbutions to the literature search on the social impacts
ofindustnal robots, and to Shue-Ling Hwang for her contribution to the literature search on supervisory
control Parts of the section on industrial work performance is taken from Salvendy, and Knight, G
J K.'Tsychomotor Work Performance,” in/fandhooA^/ndasrno/ Engineering (Editor Salvendy), G
New York John Wiley, 1982 A
version of this chapter ts published in Behavioral and Information
Technology, Wo] 2, No
3, 1983 The author is grateful to the publishers of Eeliaviour and /n/orma/ion
Technology for the permission granted to reproduce significant parts of the article this chapter m
REFERENCES
1. Senker, P ,
Social Implications of Automation, The Industrial Robot. Lolswold Press, Oxford,
England, Vol 6, No 2, June 3, 1979, pp 59-61.
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 661

kind of problems did these companies encounter during the introduction process and how
did they

go about overcoming them? What have they experienced following the robotization of their respective
manufacturing processes? How have they coped with day-to-day worker-related problems? How has
robotization of their various operations affected them overall? What type of utilization is envisioned
for the future? These and other key points are taken up and discussed in detail in this new study on
robotics in Japan. The various case studies and other data contained in this report should prove an
effective tool for any manufacturer considering the robotizing of its operations.
32.7.1.

Study Objectives

The 1980s are expected to witness more widespread, advanced use of industrial robots, and the impact
this technology and its extensive applications will have is certain to be far-reaching. Accelerating
this trend toward industrial robotization are the following several factors:

Improvement of productivity
Prevention of labor accidents and occupational hazards
Conservation of materials and energy
Improvement of production control
Improvement of working environment
Coping with the shortage of skilled labor

These are some of the advantages of introducing robots into the manufacturing process. At the same
time, however, a company that intends to robotize its manufacturing process cannot avoid coming to
grips with some very serious problems in terms of management, such as labor-management relationships,
work displacement, surplus manpower, retraining, optimum investment levels, and assessment of the
effects of robotization.
This study is an in-depth analysis and assessment of the technologies, applications, labor-management
issues, and demand trends of robotics. As such, it should provide some significant insights into the
issues surrounding technological innovations and management, thus proving an effective tool for corpo-
rate managers, labor union leaders, government-related agencies, and research institutes worldwide
who are seriously considering introducing robot technology.

32.7.2. Study Method

Interviews were conducted with top-level managers from more than 20 companies at varying stages
of robotization from a variety of industries. This interview process has been supported by extensive
and in-depth independent research to generate a complete and comprehensive picture of the present
and future aspects of robot utilization in Japan, with special emphasis on management. The companies
interviewed were chosen from among the general machinery, transportation machinery, electric equip-
ment, and precision instrument industries, with equal numbers selected from among different corporate
sizes (large, medium, and small).

32.7.3, Study Results

The study summarizes the social and economic factors contributing to the spread of robots and the
results derived from robot utilization, as follows:’*

A close look at the situation in Japanese industry shows that industrial robots are being utilized
primarily because

(a) thereis a shortage ofskilled labor at those worksites called “hazardous or otherwise undesirable

—
working environments” what skilled workers there are, are mostly older workers:

(b) competition between companies is intensifying as productivity rises and quality improves —
market needs have become more advanced;

(c) regulations for the prevention of labor accidents are being strengthened —Labor Ministry re-
quirements.

The development of industrial robots in Japan apace with the needs of the manufactur-
is proceeding
ing industry. Robot utilization is fulfilling the above requirements
and can be said to be achieving
(q) increased productivity and improved adaptability vis-a-vis the product changes that occur in
multi-product, small-batch production processes; (b) improved and consistent quality; (c) more
efficient equipment investments {reduced time until returns on investments are realized)-, (d)
worker protection and prevention of labor accidents: (e) labor savings:
(f) more efficient production
 ,

664 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Human and Computer in Multitask Situations. IEEE Transactions on Systems. Man, and Cybernet-
ics, SMC-9, No 12. December 1979, pp 769-778

30. Walden, R
S and Rouse, W
B A Queueing Mode) of Pilot Decision Making in A Multitask
.

Flight Management Task, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man. and Cybernetics, SMC'8, No
12, December 1978, pp 867-875

31. Tulga. M K and Shendan, T B Dynamic ,

Decisions and Work Load in Multitask Supervisory
Control, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-10, No 5, May 1980, pp
217-232
32. Govmdaraj, T and Rouse, W
B Modeling the Human Controller m Environments that Include
,

Continuous and Discrete Tasks, IEEE Transactions on Systems. Man. and Cybernetics, SML-
II. No 6, 1981, pp 41tM!7
33. Office of Technology Report, Information Technology and Its Impact on Amencan Education,
US Government Pnnting Office, GPO Stock No 052-003-00888-2, 1982

34. Hasegawa, Y How Robots Have Been Introduced into the Japanese Society, presented at the
,

Microelectronics International Symposium. Osaka. Japan. August 17-19, 1982

35. FUJI Corporation, Robotics and the Manager, Business Building 5-29-7 Jingu-mae, Shibuya-
ku, Tokyo 150, Japan, 1983
36. Salvendy, Q and Knight, J R , Psychomotor Work Capabilities, Chapter 6 1 in Salvendy, G
Ed ,
Handbook of Industrial Engineering. Wiley, New York, 1982
37 Sugimoto, N and Kawaguchi, K . Proceedings of the I3th International Symposium on Industrial
Robots, Chicago, Illinois, April 17-21, 1983

38. Hwang, S L . Barfield. W

Chang. T-C . and Salvendy. G “Integration of Human and Computers
, .

in Flexible Manufactunng Systems." International Journal of Production Research. Vol 22, 1984,

pp 841-856

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ayres, RV and Miller, S M Roboricr<fppl<cationson(JSoci<}//mpl(cotions. Cambndge, Massachusetts,
1983
McCormick, E J and Sanders, M S .
Human Factors in Engineering and Design. 5th ed , McGraw-
Hill, New York. 1982
Parsons, H M and Kearsley, Q P Robotics and Human Factors Current Status and Future
, Prospects,
Human Factors. Vol 24, 1982, pp 535-552

Office of Technology Assessment, Exploratory Workshopon the Social Impact of Robotics. U S Superin-
tendent of Document Catalogues. No 90-240-0-82-2, Washington, DC , 1982
Office of Technology Assessment, Blumenthal, M S . et a1 . Computeraed Manufacturing Automation
Employment Education, and the IVorkplace. Government Printing Office, Washington, D C 1984 ,

G
Salvendy, , Ed , Handbook of Industrial Engineering Wilcy, New York, 1982
G
Salvendy, , Ed , Handbook of Human Eaciorj, New York Wiley In pnnt
Wamecke, H J and Schrafl, R D ,
Industrial Robots Application Experience, I FS Publication Ltd
Bedford, England, 1982
HUMAN FACTORS IN PLANNING ROBOTIC SYSTEMS 663

2. Mangold, V., The Industrial Robot as Transfer Device, Robotics Age, Robotics Publishing Corpora-
tion, Houston, Texas, July/August 1981, pp. 20-26.

3. Weekley, T. L., A View of the United Automobile Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers
of America (UAW) Stand on Industrial Robots, SME Technical Paper MS79-776, Dearborn,
Michigan, 1979.
4. Sugarman, R., The Blue Collar Robot, IEEE Spectrum, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, New York, Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1980, pp. 52-57.

5. Nof, S. Y., Knight, J. L., Salvendy, G., Effective Utilization of Industrial Robots A Job and —
Skills Analysis Approach, AHE Transactions, Vol. 12, No. 3, September 1980, pp. 216-225.

6. Albus, J., Robot Technology and Productivity Improvement, in OTA, Exploration

Industrial
Workshop on Impact of Robotics, U.S. Congress Number 90-240 0-82-2, 1982.
the Social

7. Aron, P., Robots Revisited: One Year Later, Office of Technology Assessment, Exploratory Work-
shop on the Social Impact of Robotics, U.S. Congress Number 90-240 0-82-2, 1982.
8. Rosenbrock, H. H., Robots and People, Measurement and Control, Vol. 15, March, 1982, pp.
105-112.
9. Salvendy, G. and Seymour, W. D., Prediction and Development of Industrial Work Performance,
Wiley, New York, 1973, pp. 105-125.
10. Borman, W. C, and Peterson, N. G., Selection and Training of Personnel, Chapter 5.2 in Salvendy,
G., Ed., Handbook of Industrial Engineering, Wiley, New York, 1982.

11. Warnecke, H. J. and Schraft, R. D., Industrial Robots: Application Experience, Bedford, England;
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12. Wechsler, D., The Range o/ Human Capabilities, 2nd ed., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore,
1952.

13. Kalsbeck, J. W. H. and Sykes, R. N., Objective Measurement of Mental Load, in Sanders,
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14. Kantowitz, B. H. and Knight, J. L., Testing Tapping Time-Sharing: II. Auditory Secondary
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15. Hick, W. E., On the Rate of Gain of Information, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
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16. Salvendy, G. and Smith, M. J., Eds., Machine Pacing and Occupational Stress, Taylor and Francis,
London, 1981,
17. Salvendy, G., Physiological and Psychological Aspects of Paced Performance, Acta Physiologica,
Vol. 42, No. 3, 1973, pp. 267-275.
18. Salvendy, G. and Pilitsis, J., Psychophysiological Aspects of Paced and Unpaced Performance
as Influenced by Age, Ergonomics, Vol. 14, 1971, pp. 703-711.

19. Salvendy, G. and Humphreys, A. P., Effects of Personality, Perceptual Difficulty, and Pacing of
a Task on Productivity, Job Satisfaction, and Physiological Stress, Perceptual and Motor Skills,
Vol. 49, 1979, pp. 219-222.
20. Salvendy, G. and Stewart, G. K., The Prediction of Operator Performance on the Basis of Perfor-
mance Test and Biological Measures, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Produc-
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21. Knight, and Salvendy, G., Effects of Task Feedback and Stringency of External Pacing on
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Mental Load and Work Performance, Ergonomics, Vol. 24, No. 10, 1981, pp. 151-16A.
22. Sharit,J. and Salvendy, G. External and Internal Attentional Environments: II. Reconsideration

of the Relationship between Sinus Arrhythmia and Informational Load, Ergonomics, Vol. 25,
No. 2, 1982, pp. 121-132.
23. Salvendy, G., McCabe, G. P., Sanders, S. G., Knight, J., and McCormick, E. J., Impact of
Personality and Intelligence on Job Satisfaction of Assembly Line and Bench Work —An Industrial
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Dudley, N. A., Eds., Production and Industrial Systems, Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 1978.
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Hill, New York, 1982.
29. Chu, Y. Y. and Rouse, W. B., Adaptive Allocation of Decision Making Responsibility between
 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

TABLE 33 I. JUSTIHCATION FOR USING ROBOTS AS FOUND IN COMPANIES THAT

ARE USING ROBOTS
Rank US Companies Japanese Companies”

1 Reduced labor cost Economic advantage

2 Improved product quality increased worker safety

3 Elimination of dangerous jobs Universalization of production system

4 Increased output rate Stable product quality

5 Increased product flexibility Labor shortage

6 Reduced matenal waste
7 Compliance with OSHA regulations

8 Reduced labor turnover

9 Reduced capital cost

Source Reference 21

• Survey in Japan consisied of only five eaiegoncs

33.2. GENERAL PROCEDURE OF ROBOTIZATION PROJECT EVALUATION

AND JUSTIFICATION
Figure 33 1 summanzes the senes of steps used to evaluate fully the economics of a robotization
project The step numbers presented in the figure correspond to the detailed discussion that follows
The evaluation and analysis of a robotization project can be divided to a precost and a cost-analysis
phase

33.2.1. Precost Phase

The on (he feasibility of a proposed robotizalion project feasibility in

precost phase focuses basically
terms of technical capability to perform the necessary job and in terms of production capacity and
utilization relative to predicted production schedules This phase follows six sieps

STEP 1: Determination of alternative manufacturing methods

STEP 2: Feasibility study

STEP 3; Select which job to robotize

STEP 4: Noneconomic considerations
STEP 5: Data requisition and operational analysis
(a) Projected production volumes
(b) Parts throughput requirements

(c) Projected daily production hours

(d) Robot utilization

(e) Capacity-volume requirements

STEP 6: Deasions concerning future applications

33.2J. Cost'Analjsis Phase

This phase focuses on detailed cost analysis for investment justification and includes five general steps

STEP 7: Penod evaluation, depreciation, and tax data requirements

STEP 8: Project cost analysis
(a) Labor considerations.
(b) Acquisition and siart-up costs

(c) Operating expenses.

STEP 9: Evaluation techniques
(a) Minimum cost rule method
(b) Capital recovery method
(c) Rale of return on investment method
(d) Permissible investment amount method
 CHAPTER 33
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC
JUSTIFICATION
YUKIO HASEGAWA
Waseda University
Tokyo, Japan

33.1, INTRODUCTION
Investment in new technology requires careful planning and uses cost-evaluation techniques similar
to those for traditional capitalized equipment. However, through robotics and systems integration,
the potential for cost savings, flexibility, and improved throughput is much higher for certain applications.
It should be remembered that the objective of any robotization project is not to emulate existing

methods and systems, simply replacing humans by robots, but to develop a new, integrated system
providing the following:

1. Flexibility.

2. Increased productivity.
3. Reduced operating costs.

4. Increased product quality.

5. Elimination of health and safety hazards.

Economic evaluation provides the decision framework to compare the benefits of automation through
robotics with the present system and with other alternatives. The economic justification is based on
the comparison between the capital cost and operating expenses of the robot installation that is being
considered and the cash flow benefits projected.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the complete procedure for economic evaluation and
justification of proposed robotization projects. Although investment in a robotization project is similar
to other capitalized equipment projects, four major differences stand out.

1. Robots can replace human labor and yield not only labor and benefit savings but also significant
reduction in requirements for employee services and facilities.
2. Robots can provide such production capability that the capacity of a company
flexibility in
to respond effectively to future market changes has a clear economic value, but this capacity
is usually difficult to measure.
3. As components of computerized production systems, robots force their users to rethink and
and integrate the functions of their operation. This in itself carries major
systematically define
economic benefits and frequently lets a company “clean up its act.”
4. A robot is by definition reprogrammable and reusable and has a useful life that can often be
longer than the life of a planned production facility.

33,1.2. Justifying Industrial Robot Applications

A primary decision issue is whether a robot is indeed the best solution for a particular application.
The justification used by companies that have applied robots generally follows the five benefit areas
listed earlier. The results of recent surveys on such justification factors are found in Table 33.1.

665
668 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Step 10: Addiliond economic considerations.

(a) Effects of interest rates

(b) Performance gaps

(c) Use economic evaluations for reference only
(d) Two types of replacement mistakes

(e) Effect of recession and mfiation

STEP 11: Recommendations based on analysis results

333. PRECOST PLANNING ANALYSIS

Pnor to any thorough economic evaluation of capitalized equipment, several mitial considerations
and planning studies must be earned out The first sis steps of the project cost analysis are related
to determining the best manufactunng method, selecting the best jobs to robotize, and the feasibility
of these options Noneconomic considerations must be studied as well as pertinent data collected
conccrnins product volumes and operation times

333.1. STEP 1: Determination of A!ternatl?e Manufacturing Methods

The three main alternative manufactunng methods, namely, manual labor, flexible automation and
robots, and hard automation, are compared in Figure 33 2 These alternatives are economically compared
by their production unit cost at varying production volumes Rexible, programmable automation and
robots are most effective for medium production volumes These medium volumes can range, depending
on the particular products, from a few tens or hundreds of products per year per part type to thousands
ofproducts per year For annual volumes of hundreds of thousands, hard automation is usually preferred
In the area of assembly. Boothroyd* compared alternative assembly systems, including manual
assembly «ith transfer devices or with special-purpose parts feeders, special-purpose automatic assembly
with indexing transfer or with free transfer, programmable robotic assembly with fixtures or with
moving conveyors. Effects of the number of parts per assembly, annual volume, and style/design vana-
tiORS have been studied Results are illustrated in Figure 33.3

effective
Production volume per year

Fig. 3J3. Companson of manufacturing methods for different production volumes

Fig. 33.1. Flowchart of project economic evaluation procedure.

667
670 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

33 J.4. STEP 4: Noneconomic and Intan^le Considerations.

Several noneconomic issues should be addressed in regard (o specific company characteristics, policy,
social responsibility, and management’s direction, such as

1. Will the robotization meet the general direction of the company's automatization'^
2. Will the robotization meet the fundamental policy of the standardization of equipment and
facilities’’

3 Will the plan be able to meet future product model change or production plan change?
4 Will the plan promote improved quality of working life for workers’’

5. Will the plan influence good company reputation^

6. Will the plan raise the morale of employees’’
7. Will the plan promote technical progress of the company'’

Table 33 2 lists several other intangible benefits associated with robotization

Several special differences between robots and other capitalization equipment also provide numerous
intangible benefits

1. Robots are reusable

2. Unlike hard automation, robots are multipurpose and can be reprogrammed for many different
tasks

3. Because of TepTogrammabiliiy. the useful life of the tobotic system can often be three or more
times longer than that of fixed (hard) automation devices
4. Tooling costs for robotic systems also tend to be lower owing to the programming capability
around certain physical constraints

TABLE 33.2 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS OF ROBOTIZATION"

Robotization On
Reduce
Robotization Can Improve or Eliminate

Flexibility Hazardous, tedious jobs

Plant modernization Safety violations and accidents
Labor skills of employees Personnel costs for training
Job satisfaction Clerical costs
Methods and operations Cafetena costs
Manufacturing productivity Need for restrooms
capacity
Need for parking spaces
Reaction to market fluctuations
Burden, direct, and other
Product quality ovediead costs
Business opportunities Manual material handling
Share of market Inventory levels
Profitability Scrap and errors
Competitive position New-product launch lime
Growth opportunities
Handling of short
product-life cycles

Handling of potential labor

shortages
Space utility of plant
Level of matiagemenC

* Analyzing the amount ofchangemeachofthesecategones in response

to robotization and assigning quantitative values to the intangible factors
IS necessary if they are to be included m
the financial analysis Otherwise,
they can only be used as waghting factors when determining the best
alternative
evaluation and economic justification 669

e
ro
a
QJ
a
o
o
JD

c
o
c
0)
E
5

Annual production volume per shift (millions)

Fig. 33.3. Comparison of alternative assembly systems (based on Reference 6.)

33.3.2. STEP 2: Feasibility Study

At first it is very important to check the feasibility of the robotization plan carefully. Generally speaking,
there have been some cases that have passed (by mistake) the economic justification, but then still
had a problem of feasibility. The author imagines that the reason there have been many failures in
robotization plans is that the robotization system design includes many complicated conditions that
are more difficult than the conventional production systems design and are not yet fully understood.
In the feasibility study of the alternatives we must consider the following items:

1. Is it possible to do the job with the planned procedure?

2. Is it possible to do the job within the given cycle time?
3. Is it possible to ensure reliability as a component of the total system?
4. Is the system sufficiently staffed and operated by assigned engineers and operators?
5. Is it possible to maintain safety?

6. Is it possible to keep the designed quality level?

7. Can inventory be reduced?
8. Can material handling be reduced in the plant?
9. Are the material-handling systems adequate?
10. Is the product designed for robot-handling and automated assembly?
11. Can the product be routed in a smooth batch-lot flow operation?

The alternatives that have passed the feasibility screening are moved to the next level of evaluation.
But if the plan is not passed, as shown in Figure 33.1, we must search for other solutions, such as
developing a new robot, improving the proposed robot, or developing other alternatives without robots.

33.3.3. STEP 3: Select Which Job to Robotize

Job selection for a single robot or a group of robots is a difficult task. In general, the following five
job grouping strategies can be used to determine feasible job assignments.

1. Component products belonging to the same product family.

2. Products at present being manufactured near each other.
3. Products that consist of similar components and could share part-feeding devices.
4. Products that are of similar size, dimensions, weight, and number of components.
5. Products with a rather simple design that can be manufactured within a short cycle time.
 Adjuster screw 5 Housing 1 Boot 12) 5 Bleeder valve
Adjuster 6 Pistoft (2) 2 Piston (21 6 Dust cap
Dust cap 7 Boot 3 Cup (2) 7 Circlip
Bleeder valve 8 Cup 4 Housing

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 33 4. Subassemblies and components of (he brake drum example (a) Front wheel cylinder, (b)
rear wheel cylinder, (c) brake shoe

TABLE 333. BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE PRODUCTION VOLUMES

Year

Brake Drums 0“ 1 2 3 4 5 6

Version I

Annual 20110 15590 8430 7120 5700 0

Daily* 80 62 34 29 23 0
Version II
Annual 0 4535 I23SO 16300 7660 6700
Daily 0 18 49 65 31 27
Total
Annual 20110 20125 20780 23420 13360 6700
Daily 80 80 83 94 54 27

‘
Year 0 data (before robot) is shown for later use in cost analysis.
" Based on approximately 250 days per year, two shifts per day
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 671

5. Production operations can often be started up much sooner because of the lesser construction
and tooling constraints.
6. Modernization in the plant can be implemented by eliminating discontinued automation systems.

Questions often arise concerning long-range unmeasurable effects of robotization on economic issues.
A few such issues include:

1. Will the robotization raise product value and price?

2. Will the robotization expand the sales volume?

3. Will the plan decrease the production cost?
4. Will the robotization decrease the initial investment amount?
5. Will the robotization reduce lead time for products?

6. Can manufacturing costs be reduced?

7. Can inventory costs be reduced?

8. Will robotization reduce direct and indirect labor costs or just shift workers’ skills?

9. Can the burden (overhead) rate be reduced?

10. Will the robot be fully utilized?

11. Will setup time and costs be reduced?

12. Can material-handling costs be reduced?

13. Will damage and scrap costs be reduced?

33.4. CASE STUDY ILLUSTRATION: BRAKE DRUM ASSEMBLY OPERATION

An assembly operation analyzed as a case study for illustration purposes throughout the remainder
is

of this chapter. This is it involves assembly, the analysis procedure

a hypothetical example, and although
is general in nature and applicable to other application areas as well. Suppose the operation is responsible

for all parts and assemblies used in both front and rear brake drums manufactured by a given company.
The brake components are shown in Figure 33.4.
Presently only one type of brake drum being produced; however next year a new Version II
is

model be introduced. In five years, the original version will be phased out of operation at this
will
particular plant. Other product types may be announced in the future, but this case considers only
the assembly process and cost structure of Versions I and II. Version II will contain a longer bleeder
valve in both the front and rear wheel cylinder.
Parts are produced and inventoried in the general parts warehouse until needed on the final assembly
line. Management will alter the production schedule beginning next year to a just-in-time scheduling

approach. This control technique assigns a master production schedule for the month and a constant
production of parts per day to meet the next day’s final assembly schedule. Therefore the robot, if
implemented, would produce only one day’s supply of parts, and in-process storage would be essentially
eliminated.

33.4.1. STEP 5: Data Requisition and Operational Analysis

To analyze the economic effects of the robot operation fully, much data and subsequent analysis concern-
ing the plant’s operating and long-range manufacturing plans are required, including:

1. Projected production volumes.

2. Parts throughput requirements.
3. Projeeted daily production hours.
4. Robot utilization.

5. Capacity volume requirements.

Projected Production Volumes

Projected volumes for the two types of brake drums were obtained from the cost engineering department.
They indicate vast fluctuations in product and assembly production schedules as shown in Table 33.3.

Parts Throughput Requirements

The volumes of each of the three subassemblies used on both brake drum versions are listed in Table
33.4. These volumes are based on quantities required for assembly of new brake drums plus additional

quantities specified by the sales department. The total quantities are used later to determine parts
674 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

available prodaclion time for the robot drum example, assuming 18 hours of available
In the brake
time daily, the utilization results are shown m
Table 33 7 From these values, one can find the remaining
available time for additional products for increased production On the other hand, if it is found that
the robot is oserotilized (about 9(Kl. or more of the available time), it would indicate that a more
effiaent alternative must be found

Ca;>a«f>-ro/umf Requirements

As a reference consideration, it is useful to check the niamber of assemblies that could be made in a
two-shift day by either the manual or robot operation This information provides another companson
between the two approaches and indicates how much additional production volume can be assumed
by the facility Table 33 8 shows the capacity-volume potentials for the brake drum example The
manual values are based on 13 S productive hours per day dunng a two-shift opieration This assumes
87 57c efficiency dunng the first shift, 81 25% efficiency dunng the second shift, per time dedicated
to lunch and coffee breaks, departmental meetings, and vacations

33.4.2. STEP 6: Decisions Concerning Future Applications

Underutilized robots cannot be cost justified owing to (he high initial startup expenses and low labor
savings Additional applications or planned future growth are required to dnve the potential cost-
effectiveness up, however, there is also an increase in tooling and feeder costs associated with each
new application As determined in the robot utilization study of the brake drum example, for instance,
the assembly robot is only utilized approximately one quarter of its potential capacity

33.5. COST ANALYSIS PHASE

33.5.1. STEP Period Evaluatioa, Depreciation, and Tax Data Requirements

If,based on the previous six steps, it ts found that the proposed robotization is technically feasible
and preferred to other alternatives, a detailed economic evaluation can begin Determination of the
evaluation penod, property tax rates, income tax rates, and depreciation method is essential before
further analysis can be attempted The evaluation penod defines the project life for (he analysis The
tax values depend on the plant’s location and (he tax rales for the particular state or county Several
depreciation methods are available for analysis and are shown in Table 33 9

For the brake drum example, the following values are assumed

1, Evaluation penod = 6 years

2. Property tax rate = 67e per year
3 Income tax rate = 50% per year
4 Salvage value excluding tooling — SIOOO

TABLE 33 7. DAILY ROBOT UTILIZATION (PERCENT) FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE

Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

Total utilization 27 6 32 1 37 3 25 8 13 6 10 7

TABLE 33.8. CAPACITY-VOLUME

POTENTIALS FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE
aN UNITS PER TWO-SHIFT DAY)
Assembly Manual ° Robot*’

Front wheel cylinder 1226 2492

Rear wheel cylinder 2453 2069
Brake shoe 2726 3123
* 13 5 productive hours assumed per day
^18 0 productive hours assumed per day
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 673

TABLE 33.4. ASSEMBLIES PRODUCTION VOLUMES FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE"

Year

0" 1 2 3 4 5 6

Front wheel cylinder

Annual 60340 47670 62350 70270 40090 20100 18660
Daily" 241 191 249 281 160 80 75
Rear wheel cylinder
Annual 40250 40250 32000 41750 46750 26750 12500
Daily 161 161 128 167 187 107 50
Brake shoe
Annual 120690 95330 124700 140540 80180 40200 32320
Daily 483 381 499 562 321 161 149

“ The table represents the total number of assemblies considered to be assembled by the robot.
Year 0 data is shown for later use in cost analysis.
" Based on approximately 250 days per year.

throughput per day, number of production hours required to produce a single day’s supply of assemblies,
and percent utilization per part for the robot.

Projected Daily Production Hours

The RTM analysis technique was used to estimate robotic assembly times for the three assemblies.
These values are compared with the manual assembly times estimated by the method as shown MTM
in Table 33.5.
Although the robot is slower in assembling both the rear wheel cylinder and brake shoe, it is usually
more efficient in the long run because service is not interrupted for lunch, coffee breaks, and vacations
as for its human counterparts.
Using the daily production volumes and assembly time for each of the subassemblies, the necessary
hours per day for production can be determined as shown in Table 33.6.

Robot Utilization

To determine the hypothetical utilization of the equipment, the hours per day in production of each
product, based on the average daily production runs obtained previously, are divided by the assumed

TABLE33.5. ASSEMBLY TIME

REQUIREMENT FOR BRAKE DRUM
EXAMPLE
By By
Manual Robot
Assembly (sec) (sec)

Front wheel cylinder 39.628 26.000

Rear wheel cylinder 19.811 31.312
Brake shoe 17.826 20.744

TABLE 33.6. PROJECTED ASSEMBLY HOURS PER DAY FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE
Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

Assembly
Front wheel cylinder 1.38 1.80 2.03 1.16 0.58 0.54
Rear wheel cylinder 1.40 1.11 1.45 1.63 0.93 0.53
Brake shoe 2.19 2.87 3.24 1.85 0.93 0.86
Total assembly (hours/day) 4.97 5.78 6.72 4.64 2.44 1.93
 ) 1

676 APPUCATION PLANMNG: TECHNIQUES

Rg 33.5. Hourly cost of robot and direct labor in the United States Direct labor cost includes
fnnge support (maintenance, etc
benefits, robot cost includes

Acquisition and Start'Up Costs

The costs associated with robotic installaiion and start*up are

Acquisition robot, controller

Accessories pan feeders, testers, conveyors, tables, bins, other equipment —by acquisition or develop-
ment
Engineenng cost
Programming cost

Installation costs utility hookup, foundations, setup labor

Tooling costs end effectors, gnppen, fixtures

Training costs
Related expenses insurance and others

Typical robot system cost breakdowns are shown m Figure 33 6” Accessory cost is highly dependent
on the specific application, work method, and part design For illustration, the equipment expenses
associated with the brake drum example are listed in Table 33 1

TABLE 33.10. SAVINGS IN LABOR AND BENEFIT (L&B) COSTS IN BRAKE DRUM
EXAMPLE
Year

1 2 3 4 5

Manual production
Total hours/day 47 62 69 40 20 18
Total hours/yr 1,175 1,550 1,725 1,000 500
8 50 940 40 12 50 13 1
Labor rates (S/hr) 10 30 11
Benefit 10,000 00 12.00000 14.00000 16,000 00 18,00000
rates ($/yr)
Applied benefit 2 50 300 3 50 400
rates ($/hr)
Total L&D 12,925 19,220 23.805 15,400 8,500
savings (S/yr)
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 675

TABLE 33.9. DEPRECIATION METHODS

Depreciation Method Calculation

Straight line

Declining balance Dk = R(l - P

Sum of years digits
(JL . rp- f)
Vn(n + ly 2) ' ’

Variables: D = depreciation per year k

P = initial cost ($)
F = salvage value ($)
n = project life (years)
R = depreciation rate (%)
k = year (1,2, ... n).

5. Initial cost = $28,000.

6. Depreciation method = sum of years digits.
For example. Do = 0.

Di = • (28.000 - 1000) = $7715

Industry has tended to justify robotization mainly on the basis of labor displacement. In addition,
project cost analysis must involve the comparison of acquisition and operating costs, over the projected
life of the equipment, to the projected revenues.

33.5.2. STEP 8: Project Cost Analysis

Project cost analysis includes:

Labor considerations.
Acquisition and start-up costs.
Operating expenses.

Labor Considerations

As shown in Figure 33.5, direct labor hourly costs have risen exponentially over the last two decades
and are expected to continue to increase even more sharply. In contrast, robot hourly cost has remained
and will continue to be relatively constant. An important factor in this phenomenon is the fact that
production and operation costs of robots decrease with the increase in robot population.
The differences in labor costs among different nations may greatly affect economic decisions. An
inexpensive labor force will result in fewer robot installations owing to the relatively high acquisition
cost for the robot and relatively small, if any, direct labor cost savings.
In the brake drum example, three assumptions are to be made concerning manual versus robotic
assembly of brake drum components:

1. Each subassembly is currently being assembled manually by different workers.

2. If a robot used to assemble the parts, then there will be a reduction in workload for each
is

of the different workers.

3. This study is reviewing the potential reduced labor hours per year for the assembly operation
rather than total reduced headcount associated with installing the robotic system.

Table 33. 10 shows the manual workload reduction justification and associated labor and benefit cost
savings for years 1-6.
If robotization substitutes for manual labor to the point that the work force can be reduced, then
headcount considerations may lead to potential savings in reduced size of employee facilities, parking
lots, and the like.
678 APPUCATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

TABLE 33.11. CAPITAL EXPENSES FOR BRAKE DRUM

EXAMPLE
Equipment Estimated Cost

Robot and controller $ 28,000

Bowl feeder for housing 20.000

Bowl feeder for piston, piston and cup 18,000

Bow! feeder for boot 18,000

Bowl feeder for cup 12,000

Bowl feeder for bleeder valve 7,000

Bowl feeder for dust cap 6,000

Bowl feeder for adjuster, circlip 24.000

Bowl feeder for adjuster screw, anchor pm 7,000

"Com changer" for horseshoe clip 2,000
"Com changer" for spring washer 2,000
Chute rail feeder for brake cable lever (in-house) 12,000
Chute rail feeder for brake shoe (in-house) 18,000
Total equipment cost for three assemblies 5174,000

TABLE 33.12. ROBOT TENDING COSTS FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE

Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

Labor rates ($/hr) 850 940 10 30 11 40 12 50 13 70

Applied benefit 250 300 3 50 400 4 50 500
rates (S/hr)
Total LIB rates (3/hr) IlOO 12 40 13 80 1540 1700 18 70
Tending (hrs/yr)* 200 200 200 200 200 200
Total tending L&B costs 2200 2480 2760 3080 3400 3740

• (0 8 hr/day X 230 days/year)

Direct Maintenance

For maintenance cost calculations, suppose the robot is 98% reliable Therefore to determine planned
maintenance dow niime, it is assumed that 2% of the operation time per year will be used for preventive
maintenance and repairs Table 33 13 projects the planned maintenance costs associated with the robot
for years 1-6

33.5.3. STEP 9. Evaluation Techniques

Oierxiew of Economic Eivluation Methods

Several evaluation methods arc available for the economic analysis of competing alternatives Although
all of these methods are usually equivalent in detennining which alternative investment is preferred,

TABLE 33.13. MAINTENANCE COSTS FOR BRAKE DRUM EXAMPLE

Year

1 2 3 4 5 6

Hours/day in operation 4 97 5 78 6 72 464 244 1 83

Hours/year in operation 1242 50 1445 00 1680 00 1160 00 61000 457 50

Hours/year estimated 25 29 34 23 12
downtime (2%)
Maintenance 1580 1690 17 90 I960 2120
rates ($/hr)
Planned annual 395 00 49000 61000 450 00 253 00
mamlenancc costs ($/yr)
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 677

Installation

$115
Accessories
(e.g., gripper)

Basic
robot

Welding Material Machine Spray Assembly Machining All

handling loading painting robots

( 6)

Fig. 33.6. Typical robot system cost breakdown, (o) For all robots. (6) By application (in thousands
of dollars). (Source. Reference 27.)

Operating Expenses

The operating expenses associated with a robot typically include;

Direct labor to tend robot.

Supply parts to feeders.

Adjust tools for changeovers.
Maintenance.

Consider the brake drum example. To determine the required time for a worker to spend tending
the robot, two assumptions are necessary:

1. Sixteen hours per day labor time is assumed for a two-shift operation.
2. Five percent of one worker’s shift will be used to tend the robot. This 5% value is for the
entire shift and does not take into consideration worker inefficiency.

Therefore 0.80 hr per day (5% of 16 hr per day) will be spent by one worker to tend the robot.
Table 33.12 shows the costs associated with tending the robot.
 APPLICATION PLANNING: TECHNIQUES

Minimum Cost Rule Method

A typical minimum cost rule method i& the present value method The net present value of a proposed
project can be found in cash flow tables, or from the formula

_ X (-AC, +& - /gq)

A
.

(1+ 0* (1 +0

where PV = present value

ACi, = the acquisition cost in year k
5* = the potential savings in year k
RQ, = the running cost m year k
L = forecast of remaining (salvage) value
= interest rate
1

n = project life (years)

Computation of the yearly running cost is explained in Table 33 IS Tables 33 16a and 6 illustrate
one way of calculation with respect to the brake drum example In Table 33 16a the cash flow for
the current, manual system is summanzed, and tt is assumed that no capital expenditures, maintenance
costs, or cost benefits are expended relative to the robotic alternative The cash flow for the latter is
shown in Table 33 166 The tax rate is assumed at S0% in both tables The total present worth for
each alternative is shown, and should next be compared to the present value of the projected revenues
In companng several alternatives, that with the highest total present value should be preferred

If the evaluation period, or project life n. is not known, the following formula can be used

4 ACk . (& - RC.)

A(i + o* (1 + 0*

Minimum n is calculated, and if the inequality is satisfied, then the project with the shortest payback
penod will be preferred
If the yearly savings 5* are not clear, one can use the following equation to compute the life

cycle cost (LCQ of the proposed alternatives

L-
A (! + •)• (1 + 0"
The alternative for which this cost is the smallest should be preferred

TABLE 33.15. COMPUTATION OF RUNNING COSTS

Operanng Power cost (power cost per hour) X (yearly net working hours)''
Cost Supplies cost (supplies cost per hour) x (yearly net working hours)

Preventive (average preventive maintenance cost) X (frequency of

Maintenance maintenance cost preventive maintenance in a year)

Repair cost (average repair cost) X (frequency of out-of-order

m a year)

Setup cost (average setup cost) X (frequency of setups in a year)

Out-of-order (average time loss due to out-of-order) X (frequency of

Downtime time loss' out-of-order in a year)

loss'* Setup time (average time for setup) X (frequency of setups

m a year)

Scrap and rework cost (average scrap and rework cost) X (production m a year)
X (defect rate)

“
Note “Net working hours” is not the same as “net operating hours ”
" Do not count as downtime lost time that tt is possible to make up for dunng working hours
* In calculating the cost due to downtime loss, consider actual downtime loss, plus cost of substitute
operations to make up for lost time (if any)
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 679

different companies may prefer different methods under different conditions. Table 33.14 shows four
general types of such cost methods:

1. Minimum Cost Rule. Calculate the equipment cost such as operating cost, capital cost, and
so forth for each alternative, and decide desirability of investment by
comparing the totals.
2. Capital Recovery Method. Calculate the possible term to pay back for the invested capital,
and decide the desirability of the alternatives by length of the
payback term.
3. Rate of Return on Investment. Decide desirability of alternatives by comparing profit ratio
with the investment. The method is suitable for determining
priority of alternatives.

4. Permissible Investment Amount Method. Calculate the permissible maximum amount of in-
1.
vestment for saving the labor equivalent to one per-
son.

These methods, in turn, pertain to several different calculation techniques which are addressed in the
following sections.

TABLE 33.14. SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC EVALUATION METHODS

Calculations Method Outline

Minimum Cost Rule Method

Simple cost comparison Make simple comparison of total cost in a
method term
Present value Make comparison of converted present value
comparison method of investment and cost
Return on investment Make comparison of mean yearly cost of in-
method vestment and total cost
Adverse minimum In the case when operating costs differ
cost method yearly, calculate adverse minimum of operat-
ing cost and capital cost, and compare alter-
natives by number of years of economic
equipment utilization
Old MAPI method Calculate adverse minimum cost of challenge
and defend equipment, and decide invest-
ment by comparing both costs
2. Capital Recovery Method Calculate term of the capital recovery and
decide by length of return period

3. Rate of Return on Investment

Simple rate of return Compare profit rate of return with the invest-
method (the first year) ment of the first fiscal year with the target
rate and make decision
Discounted cash flow Calculate the profit rate that makes equal
method the cash flow in (income minus expense and
tax) and investment, and decide
Earning ratio method Calculate the profit rate by using the table
which makes equal present value of the in-
vestment and the profit, and decide
Mean rate of return Make comparison of mean profit and mean
method book value of equipment in each year and
compare the alternatives
New MAPI method Improve the defects of Old MAPI, and de-
cide the investment by the measure

Permissible Investment Calculate permissible amount of investment

Amount Method for one manpower saving on labor cost and
decide the investment from comparison with
amount to be invested
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6$4 APPLICATION PLANNING; TECHNIQUES

Be Careful with Expensi\'e ,\{oney

There are several sources of money for investment, each wiih a different type of interest rate

Bank'Ioaned money
Money by depreciation
Money from reserved profit
Money from issiung bonds
Other sources

Since interest rates are sensitive and fluctoale, a company may find itself with a bad investment
Also, by borrowing money from outside the company, the financial stability of the company is lowered
There is no such problem if the company can afford to use its own money

Performance Gaps Bias

Economic justification of a robotized system is frequently achieved by proving a significant performance

gap between the new robot(s) (challenger) and the previous workcr(s) or equipment(s) (defender)
Offen, however, such a comparison can be highly biased To reach an attractive result, a company
can keep a passive attitude for a long period of no replacement, then get a big gap of performance
between the new challenger and the old defender In Figure 33 7, by lengthening the duration of
replacement cycle, keeping a passive attitude, (he sawteerh of economical calculation become bigger
If we are not diligent enough to modemue the facilities, we can obtain an attractive result of economic
calculation superficially But, on the other hand, the company that continuously makes efforts to
keep the equipment up to date cannot achieve good results in (he calculation, and they need to modify
the operating conditions (e g . increase the number of shifts per day), or use inexpensive money, and
so forth

Use Economic Evaluation Figures for Reference Only

The economic calculation gives only referential information for deciding the pnonty of the
result of
investment However, we must not decide on the investment strictly based on the calculation results
The reason on any investment is made by comparison with many
In most cases, the final decision
other investment alternatives by higher management judgment, and not mechanically by the calculation
It IS recommended that deciding the pnonty of investments be based on the result of careful economic

calculation However, final decision on investment must be made after refemtig to available funds,
quality, and other management considerations

Two Types of Replacement Mistakes

Similar to (he iwo types of mistakes in quality control m industry and in replacement of capital
equipment, attitude of replacement may also display two types of mistakes

1, Too loose an investment-attitude mistake It isa mistake to decide to invest in spite of uneconomic
conditions
2. Too tight
an investment-attitude mistake It is a misuke to decide not to invest in spite of
good economic conditions

In capital investment, as a general tendency, the person who has made the first mistake had probably
earned out a very stnet investigation In the case of the second mistake, probably no particular survey
had been performed yet Therefore, it is natural that people generally take a rather conservative attitude
toward the facilities-replacement economic decisions

Effects of Inflation and Recession

Inflation and recession each have a significant mRuence on the possibility to justify robotization and
should be considered as part of the economic evaluation To account for inflation, the present worth
of the investment should be converted to its respective future worth in year k at a given inflation
rate. The future worth FiP amount represents the amount the investor would have to pay for
goods
capital
in the future Similarly, a future worth must be calcubted for revenues The future worth of a
purchase in the Future FfK whose present cost ts known Piy, can be figured from standard tables
for forecasted interest rate i at year k,
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 683

Capital Recovery Method

Management is usually concerned with the time necessary for the project to recover its capital investment.
The years-payback analysis is a useful tool in determining when this will occur. The simple formula
used to determine payback is

I
P=
S-E
where P is the number of years for payback, I is the total investment of the robot and tooling, 5 is
the total annual labor savings, and E is the total annual expense for the robot, including maintenance
and tending labor costs.
For the brake drum example, the analysis is as follows, assuming / = $174,000 investment for
robot and tooling, 5 =
$14,700, and E $3330 (S and = E
are taken as simple annual averages from
the foregoing figures for labor savings and direct labor expenses, respectively):

174000
15.3 years
14700 - 3330

The payback for assembling the three subassemblies using the robot is very high, as could be
expected from the low utilization that was indicated before. However, if additional applications were
determined for the robot, then increased savings would result, and a shorter payback period could
be expected.

Rate of Return Analysis

In this approach the rate of return of each alternative is calculated. The one with the highest incremental
rate of return should be preferred.
When the interest rate, specified before as i, is not clear, one can use this equation:

" A Cl, A (S, - RCk)

The rate of return r is calculated. The alternative with the highest incremental r will be chosen out
of those alternatives that have r higher than the minimum acceptable rate of return.

Permissible Investment Amount

This technique determines the investment limits based on a cost savings of one headcount reduction.
Consider the brake drum example. Suppose the proposed robot could be fully utilized for a two-shift
operation, thus replacing completely two assembly operators. Then

16 hours 250 days

^ ^ ^ years = 24,000 hours saved
day year

At the applied average labor and benefit rate of $ 14.60/hr the total cost savings is $350,400.00. Therefore
the potential investment limit for the robot, tooling, accessories, and operating expenses over the life
of the project is $350,400.00 based on reducing total headcount in assembly by two persons.

33.5.4. STEP 10: Additional Economic Considerations

Even after a successful feasibility study and economic evaluation, great care should be taken to avoid
common pitfalls. Many companies have experienced the mistake of the following:

1. Investing with expensive money.

2. Basing a decision on the inferiority of workers or old equipment relative to the proposed
robot.
3. Determining the investment strictly from the economic figures.
4. Establishing incorrect replacement attitudes concerning new automation equipment and tech-
niques.
n*. 3JJ fj'orability mflalKin raw A» mflajtun ni«. ihe projfwl in»eMmefit hf
comrt Irtt C - infijtirtfl magnitude l> - Tartar to <.c>n»eft C to pefiftitage inierml rale
f • irueatmenl fnofiNIii) fieior R number of product changeovert per >e3r n - number of
tbifli per day (Source Reference 16 >

ICO 90 M 70 CO M 40
\ le**’ of eacMC r f

>•'
ri4»ei/a
lit- 33 9 I frtt </ re4.e^%>'n tli>»fr le*tJ «>f cafucil) »ctrliin|;) on the rale of return of »
profit a »• rwi j-Tternmeni »upf»-rt. b •- 3*1*^ fmcrnmen! »upf»’rt (Source Keferervce 13 )
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 685

(1) (2) (3) (1)

Time

Fig. 33.7. Economic effect of replacement over time.

These future worth amounts A should then be incorporated into an equivalent cash flow to represent
the dollars required to make the desired purchases over time until year n. This can be done using

the equation

The effects of inflation on robot projects are studied in detail by Heginbotham.'® Figure 33.8 illustrates
the unfavorable affects of increasing inflation rates.
Recession typically means that there is less demand for production, and as a result the capacity
of a production facility will be underutilized. The direct result of underutilized equipment is an unfavora-
ble rate of return. Figure 33.9 illustrates the effect of reduced working capacity due to recession on
the project’s rate of return.

35.5.5. STEP 11: Recommendations Based on Analysis Results

The and rate of return on investment are two primary techniques used in
capital recovery period
industry to base decisionson alternative manufacturing methods. Often the values are satisfactory
and decisions concerning investment are simple. However, sometimes the payback and investment
rate do not meet management’s expectations because of underutilization of equipment and high start-
up costs.
In the brake drum example, the payback period was 15.3 years, and a rate of return investment
could not be calculated because the equipment was underutilized (operating an average of 4.5 hr per
day).
When this occurs, two recommendations are possible to make the robot alternative more financially
attractive:

1. Increase utilization by producing more subassemblies by the robot.

2. Decrease the tooling expense associated with start-up.

The first recommendation good solution for increasing the potential savings over the life
offers a
of the project but is by the need to keep capital and tooling expenses low. To the contrary,
restricted
the second recommendation can offer assistance in getting the project implemented at a more favorable
expense by utilizing in-house craftsmen to design and fabricate the necessary feeding and other peripheral
EVALUATION AND ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 687

devices. Designing in-house alternative feeding methods or simple devices can produce good results
in terms of efficiency at a much lower investment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author acknowledges significant and valuable contributions to this chapter by Cristy Sellers, a
graduate student at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, who previously has worked in industry
in robots cost justification.

REFERENCES
1. Abraham, R. G., Requirements Analysis and Justification of Intelligent Robots, SMS Paper No.
MS75-247, 1975.
2. Behuniak, J. A., Economic Analysis of Robot Applications, SME Paper No. MS79-777, 1979.
3. Benedetti, M., The Economics of Robots in Industrial Applications, Industrial Robot, Vol. 4,
No. 3, September 1977, pp. 109-118.
4. Blanchard, B. S. and Fabrycky, W. J., System Engineering and Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981.

5. Blank, L. T. and Tarquin, A. J., Engineering Economy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
6. Boothroyd, G., Economics of Assembly Systems, Journal of Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 1,

No. 1, 1982, pp. 111-126.

7. Bublick, T., The Justification of An Industrial Robot, SME Paper No. FC77-630, 1977.
8. Compton, P. A.,The Economic Justification of Automatic Assembly, Proceedings of the 1st Interna-
tional Conference on Assembly Automation, Brighton, U.K,, March 1980, pp. 125-136.
9. Engelberger, J. F., Robots and Automobiles: Applications, Economics and The Future, Society

of Automotive Engineers Paper No. 800377, March 1980.

10. Engelberger, J. F., Robots Make Economic and Social Sense, Atlanta Economic Review, July-
August 1977, pp. 4-8.
11. Engelberger, J. F., Economic and Sociological Impact of Industrial Robots, Proceedings of the
1st International Symposium on Industrial Robots, April 1970, pp. 7-12.
12. Govsievich, R. E., Determining the Economic Effectiveness of Industrial Robots, Machines and
Tooling, Vol, 49, No. 8, 1978, pp. 11-14.
13. J., Lowe, P. H., and Kelly, M. P., Robots: The Economic Justification, Proceedings
Grieve, R.
of AUTOFACT Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, September 1983, pp. 2/1-12.
14. Hanify, D. W., The Application of Economic Risk Analysis to Industrial Robots, Proceedings
of the 3rd International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Zurich, Switzerland, May 1973, pp.
41-50.
15. Hasegawa, Y., Economic Evaluation of Industrial Robot Operation Systems, Engineering Project
Research Report, Japan Industrial Robot Association, 1974.
16. Heginbotham, W. B., Can Robots Beat Inflation?, SME Paper No. MS77-756, November 1977.
17. Heginbotham, W. B., The Basic Economics of Industrial Mechanization and Automation, Interna-
tional Journal of Production Research, Vol. 11, 1973, pp. 147-154.
18. Hughes, T., Capital Equipment Strategy Up To Date?, Production Engineering, May 1983.
19. Lassi,K. G., Technical and Economical Considerations Concerning Industrial Robots, Industrial
Robot, Vol. 2, No. 2, June 1975, pp. 56-61.
20. Mosher, R. R., The Place of Industrial Robots in Manufacturing, SME Paper No. MS74-149,
1974.

21. Nof,S. Y., Decision Aids for Planning Industrial Robot Operations, Proceedings of the 1982
Annual Industrial Engineering Conference, Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1982.
22. Owen, A. E., Economic Criterion for Robot Justification, Industrial Robot, Vol. 7, No. 3, September
1980, pp. 176-177.
23. Technical Insights, Inc., New Jersey, Industrial Robots . . . Key to Higher Productivity, Lower
Cost, Report on robot applications design and economic analysis, 1980.
24. Thuesen, H. G., Fabrycky, W. J., Thuesen, G. J., Engineering Economy, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1977.
25. Van Blois, J. P. and Philip, P. A., Robotic Justification: The Domino Effect, Production Engineering,
April 1983.
26. Van Blois, J. P., Strategic Robot Justification: A Fresh Approach, Robotics Today, April 1983,
pp. 44-48.
27. Industrial Robots: A Summary and Forecast, Tech Tran Co., Naperville, Illinois, 1983.
PART 7
APPLICATION PLANNING:
INTEGRATION
 CHAPTER 34
PLANNING ROBOTIC
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
LANE A. HAUTAU
GMF Robotics Corporation
Troy, Michigan

FRANK A. DiPIETRO
General Motors Corporation

PREFACE
It is my stamp of approval on Lane Hautau’s contribution to this Handbook of
a pleasure to put
Industrial Roboticsand on the idea behind the handbook itself. When we consider the present condition
of our national economy, the robotics industry may very well represent our best foot forward into
the future.
Many industries have been retrenching because of international competition and poor productivity.
For example, the United States is pretty much out of the camera-making business, has lost much of
the electronics business, is suffering greatly in the steel area, and almost one of three cars sold in the
United States is made in Japan. While some industries have not yet found a way to recover. General
Motors and the other auto manufacturers have decided to take action and respond to the market
needs vigorously.
A formidable part of the strategy is the deployment of robot battalions
on the manufacturing
front to increase productivity, assure consistent quality, and help keep
down.
costs
Nobody imagines that robots are the whole answer to these challenges. But they are an important
part of the answer. One of the reasons robots are accepted now, not only by managements but by
the general public (including the work force) as well, is that people have come to realize that robots
are essential to our planning for a better future; they are productive, they are flexible, they can be
reprogrammed for maximum versatility, they are economical. They are, in short, indispensable to the
counterattack against competition.
That is why I say that the robotics industry may well be our best foot forward into the future. It
is one industry in which we can maintain a technological advantage. Maintaining that advantage is
critically important to us all and can only be done by making sure that the best, most useful robotics
information gets into the right hands and heads as soon as it becomes available.
Informational handbooks like this one are a practical method of getting robotics information to
the right people. Lane Hautau’s chapter on planning robotic production is a good example of the
kind of useful, state-of-the-art information needed to meet our robotic challenge.

34.1. INTRODUCTION AND PRODUCT CONSIDERATIONS

Production engineering’s most effective approach to robotics process planning is a systems approach.
In other words, we must look at all the givens collectively: the product, the tooling, the process, the
volume, and then set up an efficient overall strategy.
Planning a highly automated and robotic system cannot take place in a vacuum or piecemeal.
The product and process must constantly be reassessed in terms of the most effective resultant. The
final result of this systems approach may be an elaborate automated processing plan, as in Figure

34.1, but each system is a combination of subsystems that make up a truly large, totally automated

This chapter was written when the author was Senior Manufacturing Project Engineer and Coordinating
Engineering Group Manager with the Fisher Body Division of General Motors Corporation.

691
694 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

SPOT VliELDS NEAR CENTER UNEOF BODY

ARE VERY DIFFICULT TO ACCESS WITH
AUTOMATED SYSTEMS

Fig 34.4. Normal welding requirements rear seat back brace to back window panel

that in the event of trouble, prohibitive downtime penalties could develop, since much of the robot
arm is not easily accessible

This situation is best dealt with by eiiminalmg the entire product design concept and replacing it
with a robotic subassembly reinforcement operation that will accomplish the same thing, but without
the original nsk on line' A
separate reinforcement should be used to provide rear seat stiffness (Figure
34 5) A separate reinforcement eliminates the need for spot-welding a cargo bamer brace near the
centerline of the body
Additionally, attempts should be made to design features into major body panels, rather than
providing added small parts —as in Figure 34 6 — with their accompanying loading costs Figure 34 7
shows how this small part might be lanced out of the major panel In the last figure in this sequence
(Figure 34 8) we see an example of automatic pickup and load by a small fixture attached to the
robot’s weld gun In many instances, moreover, small parts are not accessible for robotic welding

FA8 APPLIED REINF

PREFERBED
UTILIZE REINFORCEMENT TO GET REQUIRED
SHELF STIFFNESS
THIS REINFORCEMENT COULD BE ADDED
IN FAB OPERATION OR SUB ASSEMBLY
OPERATION

CARGO BARRIER COULD BE PART OF

SEAT SACK ASSEMBLY

Fig 34.5. Preferred design and processing for rear seat back brace with added reinforcement
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 693

Fig. 34.2. Product deflnition relative to robotic welding.

arrangement, with a variety of automated islands supported by various shuttles and feeder lines. (For
a provocative discussion of this subject see Reference 1.)
Among other things, what we would like to accomplish
is to “de-myth” the feeling that this is a

tough, difficult, must start with a product definition, and

or excessively challenging operation. It all
the product considered in this chapter is an automobile body (Figure 34.2). The entire body must be
carefully reviewed during the design phase if it is to be fabricated in a highly automated robotic
body shop.
For instance, body joint design requirements should be carefully reviewed. They hold the keys to
establishing an efficient assembly flow. An example of this might be the treatment of the traditional
quarter-inner-panel-to-quarter-outer-panel-joining flange in the lock pillar area. Traditionally, a flange
designed primarily to suit fabrication and shipping conditions, as automated joining techniques
like this is
in assembly were not involved in this equation. However, now that automated assembly is possible
on a grand scale, the means to facilitate this end must be plowed back into the product.
Agood example of this philosophy is the development of the double-weld gun (Figure 34.3), which
can only be carried and maneuvered successfully by a robot. This obvious productivity gain cannot
be fully realized unless traditional flange irregularities can be ironed out, so the bulky dual guns can
move swiftly over the surface. This is important because precious seconds are lost in maneuvering
around these cranks, and this translates into a work-loss content in station.
It must be stressed that it is sometimes advisable to rearrange the sequence of a particular robotic
operation. In Figure 34.4, for example, note the welding required deep inside the body. This suggests

Fig. 34.3. Specially developed dual-weld gun for robotic spot welding.
696 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

l»ftEfeWB£0

DESIGN FEATURES INTO THE

MAiOR PANELS THAT DO THE
FUNCTX>N OF THE SMAU.ER
PART

Fig. 34.7. Small part load eiimination feature developed out of mam product

integnty must be preserved Consequently, the process engineer should dedicate the weld gun. bracket,
weld time, and cabling to this single operation (operation 4. Figure 34 12) and nothing else

34.2.2. Types of Robots —Brief OTerwew

When planning robotic systems, the process engineer should have a working knowledge of the kinematics,
or what can be referred to as the basic mechanical geometry of all the different specific types of
robots Following are four general categories that include the different types of basic geometry These

ALTERNATE DESIGN

DESIGN SEVERAL PARTS TO

ACCOMMODATE A SINGLE
GRIPPER DESIGN WHICH WILL
ALLOW AUTOMATIC PICK UP
OR HOPPER FEEDS OF THE
SEVERAL SMALL PARTS

Fig. 34.8 Small parts gripper/loader simple fixture attachment eliminating separate load sequence
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 695

FILLER NECK TO WHEELHOUSE INNER

NOT RECOMMENDED
• SMALL PART LOADS CAUSE
DIFFICULTIES IN ASSEMBLY
OPERATIONS.

Fig. 34.6. Small parts loading: fuel tank support clips.

34.2. PROCESS CONSIDERATION AND SYSTEM PLANNING

Now let us explore processing alternatives that can make a robotic operation more attractive from a

maintenance standpoint. The door opening, quarter window, front and rear header flanges, and so
on are typical places on the body to be considered for automated welding (Figure 34.9). Normally,
the rear quarter window operation would be performed by a typical operator with a single manual
weld gun (Figure 34.10). A review of this operation indicates that the engineer could perform the
welding with one robot, and still have some cycle time remaining.

34.2.1. Reshuffling the Process

In continuing his review, the applications engineer must be in a position to reprocess the line and/or
restructure the design to cater to high-volume automated robotics. When processing an operation
that requires a roll of this magnitude (270'’+), we generally find not only that the last axis of the
robot is the weakest link (for obvious design reasons), but also that the weld gun cables are twisted
beyond their capabilities, causing a serious maintenance problem. In summary, there are three problems:

1. Cycle time imbalance (time left over that would allow the robot to take some work off another
robot —for instance, the door line robot).
2. Challenging torque maneuvers for certain axes.
3. Excessive weld cable twisting.

By reshuffling the operations the engineer can overcome these problems directly.
To window and part of the front body hinge pillar can be welded
begin with, a part of the quarter
by the same robot. The first robot can weld the body hinge pillar (as shown by the dashed line in
Figure 34.11) and move to the quarter window and weld the front and lower surfaces. A second
robot does the top of the rocker and front lock pillar as a complete operation. third robot does A
the quarter window rear flange, then turns around to get the side of the back window opening.
To keep from twisting the weld gun cables, it is just as easy to make the move down the hinge
pillar,and then to the front and bottom of the quarter window. Although a smaller, easier move
could have been made by keeping the robot inside the window, this as pointed out — would have —
resulted in tangling the weld cables. In addition, too much welding time was required to process the
— —
whole door opening shown as the dotted line in Figure 34. 1 1 with one robot. By splitting the
operation, the need to purchase an additional robot was eliminated.
On the other hand, the across-car roof header type operation (Figure 34.12) should be kept as a
separate operation, regardless of any remaining cycle time. This gives us a convenient place for the
back light side by combining its welding with the quarter window rear welding (operation 3, Figure
34.12). The robot will have trouble reaching across the car to the opposite side of the body while
maintaining a nice, smooth flange. Remember, the body is only tack-welded at this point, and dimensional
 Fig. 34.11. Robotic reprocessing

DEFINING
ROBOTIC
OPERATIONS

Fig- 34.12. Robotic reprocessing

RECTANGULAR COORDINATE ROBOT

Fig. 3413

Fig 34.14

698
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 697

ROBOTIC PROCESS PLANNING

DEFINING
ROBOTIC
OPERATIONS

Fig, 34.9. Typical flanges available for robotic welding.

categories are not all-inclusive, but are listed to give the reader a general knowledge of the kinematics
involved (also see Reference 2, p. 30).
A typical rectilinear coordinate robot (Figure 34.13) moves in straight lines, up and down plus in
and out. Since these tend to be simple robots, they may lack control logic for coordinated axis drives.
That is, one axis drives by itself until it stops, then another takes over until it stops.
A second type of robot, built about a column, operates in a cylindrical work envelope (Figure
34.14) and is sometimes called columnar.
A third type of robot geometry is the spherical (Figure 34.15), which is typical of some Unimate
models and is sometimes called the world coordinate system, polar or prismatic.
The fourth category is the articulated arm type (Figure 34.16), typical of Cincinnati Milacron,
ASEA, and some GMF robots. Articulated arm robots share many attributes of the other three types
of robots, in that they can be made to configure themselves difierently, simply by asking the robot’s
computer to work in the different coordinate systems. If rectilinear coordinates are selected, the computer
will assist in making square moves. If cylindrical coordinates are selected, the robot moves accordingly.
Another coordinate system intrinsic to this design is the hand coordinate system. In this system the
robot’s last axis is gun-sighted in a certain direction, and when so directed, the robot will drive the
face plate along that line.

Fig. 34.10. Typical processing of door opening and rear quarter window.
information

vendoF'Supplied

robotic

Typical

34.17,

Fig.
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 699

SPHERICAL COORDINATE ROBOT

Fig. 34.15

JOINTED ARM ROBOT

Fig. 34.16

All these features are handy in programming. It ispossible on some robots to switch back and
forth among the various coordinate systems during programming, thereby allowing the engineer to
take advantage of the obvious efficiencies within these systems. Conversely, it is just about impossible

to program sophisticated robots in manual, which is the system where each axis is individually driven.
Computer assistance is required to move this robot efficiently. Consequently, when initially planning
the system, the processin^applications engineer must decide which type of robotic kinematics best
suits the particular conditions, as the kinematic features of these four categories are, in fact, shared
by many robotic designs.

34.2.3. Robot Manufacturers’ Specifications

The robot vendors supply an abundance of information (see Figure 34.17), such as motion and travel
diagrams, repeatability tolerances, maximum operating loads, maximum/loads axis and overall speeds,
and suggested applications.

34.2.4. Laying Out the System

When developing a plan of attack, some sort of rough system layout should take form (Figure 34. 1 8).
This advanced planning layout should contain key givens, such as style selection requirements, total
number of spots, robot positions sequence of operations, total station time, shuttle time, floor space
requirements, buffer margins, and any unused available operation time.
It is important when laying out a system that the process planner spell out all this information
so everyone understands what piece of the timing picture he owns. There may be several suppliers
working on individual parts of this equation. Trying to put this symphony together is the job of the
process planner, and the information must flow to everyone if it is to play reasonably well.
It also is important to rough out, for the plant, each station within the planning system layout

(Figure 34.19). Work envelopes for the robot, what the plan is for picking up parts, and where all
the various support equipment should be must be known up front. In this way it is possible to make
sure there is room for all the equipment that will be required in the station. It is also necessary to
make sure there is room to get the robot in and out so work can be performed on the equipment,
since consideration must be given to downtime. If the robot is going to be down for an hour, the
manufacturing process must be able to work around it.
Interference zones (Figure 34.20) should be avoided, even if it is possible to provide a software
or hardware limit to accommodate them. The truth of the matter is these zones are generally not
programmed out of the system. If robots can clobber each other they probably will, even if there is
a software limit. For instance, there may be a situation where a man pulls the robot out inmanual
and it accidentally crosses the interference zone of another robot running in automatic. The robot
702 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

34 J.6. System Planning

Stop-Go Versus iMoving Line

Figure 34 17 is an example ofa typical scop>go. square-oul. automation loop that services a conventional
moving line One might ask. why stop-go over a continuously moving line*' True, the robot can track
a moving target and perform an operation it has been taught while in a stationary position However,
this method of processing the system and programming the robots is truly a three-dimensional chess
game that requires many hours of planning time to accomplish * Fundamentally, it is much easier to
plunk the workpiece in front of the robot and design the workstation accordingly Also, once the
transfer systems have been redesigned m this way. the system will continue to serve what robots do
best, whereas the line-tracking systems require painstaking process planning every time

34J,7, Location of the Robot to the Workpiece

The Gnd Approach

When positioning the robots ma multiple system, it is advisable to place them on a gnd (Figure
34 22) When reviewing a 30-robot system that has robots placed on some kind of a prefixed gnd, it

Fig 34.21. Off-line quarter window glass operation feeding an on-line station
 1

PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 701

TYPICAL STOP-GO, SQUARE OUT, AUTOMATION LOOP, SERVICING

A CONVENTIONAL CONTINUOUSLY MOVING MAIN LINE
r I I I

MAINTENANCE
STATION

TOTAL average
CARLINE STYLE
SPOTS
1

SPOTS MAIN LINE

!

CHEV-PONT 27 416 \( CONTINUOUS)

// 3S 482
438
'

5
// 69 476 1

MAIN LINE RUNS AT 62 J.P.H.

u 77 442 1

58.06 SECOND STATION

0= INDICATES SHOT PIN
• = INDICATES QUEUE 8.00 SECOND SHUTTLE TIME
• = INDICATES DUAt GUNS 50.06 SECOND ACTUAL STATION TIME
I = INDICATES PILLARS
5.00 SECOND MARGIN
P.M.= INDICATES PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
45.06 SECOND AVAILABLE FOR WELDING

Fig. 34.18. System layout: overall advance planning information.

running in automatic may not be communicating with a manual or shut-down mode, and this situation
could cause a serious collision. The point is, it is difficult, if not impossible, to cover all contingencies
on interference zones. There is always a tendency to pack robots in. Ideally, they should be spread
out, without any overlapping of work envelopes.

34,2.5. System Layout

The proposed system can take various forms. For instance. Figure 34.21 is a perspective view of a
proposed glass installation operation. It is an illustration of both an on-line and off-line feeder operation
working together in one station. The robot first picks a rear quarter window glass out of a rack ^an —
operation called depalletizing. (A highly underutilized feature of robotics in this country. For further
explanations see Reference 2, pp. 260-261.) Then the robot tracks linearly, places the glass on a
fixture, where an adhesive is applied to it. The robot gripper, disengaging from that particular piece
of glass, then rotates, slides linearly again, and installs the glass that had been previously worked on.

SYSTEM PLANNING LAYOUT

SENSOR— ASSEMBLY STATION
INSPECTION/GAUGING r- MACHINING STATION
EQUIPMENT-y TOOL COMPENSATING UNIT
VIBRATORY FEEDER
OUTFEED CONVEYOR- ri
ASSEMBLED PARTS-y
INFEED PARTS
r CONVEYOR

SUBCOMPONENT END OF ARM

ASSEMBLY STATION ,

TOOLING
ROBOT INSPECTION
SPARE PARTS
STORAGE I
—r~^1^ ^AUXILIARY
MACHINING
/ STATION
L CONTROLLER
POTENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A ROBOT SYSTEM

Fig. 34.19. System planning layout: detail station information.

 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

This number must be determined by the process engineer »nd/or be negotiated with plant engineers
for their particular requirements
Snapping robotic for manual operations on A one-for-one basts is generally only marginally cosl-
effeetive It is necessary to start tbmUng about robots as devices in their own right Put another
way, M,hai can this device do to increase productivity that a manual operation cannot do^

34,3.2, Operation Times

The nett step in planning is to determine the lime that is available for an operation When setting
up a basic station time the engineer must determine what the maximum line speed or piece-per-hour
rate might be in the example shown (Figure 34 24) If the line moves at 75 jobs per hour (JPH)
there is a 4S'sec total station time Generally, the stop-go shuttle movement, over 12-24 ft (4-S m).

would require about 8 sec, leaving a total available lime for the operation of 40 sec in this case This
leaves a total of 36 sec available for processing the operation
The reason for taking 10^ off is that it is difficult lo plan so close to the correct station time
There arc too many contingencies to consider As the process engineer gels sharper at it, obviously
he IS going to be able to cut into that time a little But a 4>sec station margin is not very much and
can be justifiably earned in the longer station limes On the other hand, there are 36 sec that can be
filledwith the operations necessary to process the product
In the same manner, the system’s efficiency rating should be developed as previously discussed
Generally, off-line automatic operations are set to run at least l&-159o faster than the mam line they

SETTING UP YOUR BASIC STATION TIME

DETERMINING AVAILABLE OPERATION TIME

IF LINE MOVES AT 7S jPH, THERE ARE:

48 sec Total Station Time
- 8 sec Shuttle Movement
40 sec Total Time Available
For Operation

- 4 sec Margin
36 sec Time Available For
Processing Operation

Fig. 34,24. Operation

planning robotic production systems 703

RECOMMENDED FISHER STANDARD

ROBOT POSITIONS

130 in CM
120 in UN

operation DISCRIPTIONS:
1A TIE BAR 3A WHEELHOUSE INNER TO UNDERBODY
IB MOTOR COMPARTMENT 3B WHEELHOUSE TO QUARTER
1C MOTOR COMPARTMENT SIDE 3C SAIL AND ROOF DRIP
2A FRONT HEADERS 4A REAR END
2B ROCKER PANELS 4B FILLER, REAR END AND BACK BODY OPENING
2C HINGE PILLARS 4C QUARTER FILLER

Fig. 34.22. Grid approach to robotic positioning.

helps immensely when one needs to hopscotch operations, robots, and/or periphery equipment around.
For instance, if the plant reports that there is a support column running through that particular
robot position on the system layout, and the engineer is about three-quarters of the way through his
timing and program planning, robots on a grid can be moved around easily on paper. This information
can be communicated easily back and forth by telephone with an engineering job shop, the plant
and the robot manufacturer.
Then, too, still more problems arise when one
takes a big system and attempts to install it in the
plant. Other equipment may be found
be interfering with the planned operation, or one robot will
to
not want to work with another robot in the same station. For example: The rocker welder robot
does not work with the quarter window welder because the weld gun hoses drag over one another.
If they have been laid out on a grid, the guns, the entire operation, and the operation tapes can be

moved to another robot, say, in position 2B, and still maintain the original intent because the system
was not developed with a number of odd, dedicated positions. Normally, it does not make much
difference, plus or minus a few inches, where the robots are placed. Generally, the end-effector bracket
design can take up this differential. On multiple installations the engineer should not waste time splitting
hairs over exact position because he must realize that he cannot depend on all equipment being installed
in precise locations.

34.2.8. Process Capability

In most robotic station operations there is a need for accuracy. The reason for this is that the robot
itself is only repeatable to within a certain tolerance — ^say, plus or minus a millimeter. The product
ISno different: it has its own tolerance problems, and there can be as much as a 2-mm variation at
any one point from a fixed gage point on the cart. The cart repeatability to the robot’s position provides
another half-millimeter variation. Therefore, in Figure 34.23, from tool center point to workpiece,
there is a possible 2-3 mill tolerance stack-up. It may be necessary to overcome this through some
means (i.e., precision guides, vision, tactile sensing, etc.). The point is, it is not easy on a moving
lineor a stop-go line to get the robot to do what it is programmed to do accurately!
This has nothing to do with the quality of the product. It has to do with the inaccuracies resulting
from the individual stack-up of all these tolerances.

34.3. PRODUCTION OPERATIONS ANALYSIS

34.3.1. Productivity Assessment

The productivity figure is the figure that must be produced consistently per production hour. Another
way of saying this
is, this is the “pay” rate. This figure may be, and usually is, higher than the
production rate of the plant where it is to be used for the following reasons:

!• It must be able to produce the “peak” rate of a particular style or combination of styles.

3- It may have to “make up” assemblies, due to breakdown or equipment lag.

3- It may have to feed a “bank.”
706 APPLICATION PLANNING- INTEGRATION

CALCULATING OPERATIONS TIMES

ACCdtIATION AND OICEIEIATION RftATtONSHIP
o
4
y>
r/
'x
1 r Second ^ IIMf * isecond |l

—j MOST aOBOTIC Kovea

Fig. 34 J6 Acceleration and deceleration rebtionships and their respective control over robotic moves

longer because of the addition of Acc and Dec However, it is possible to change the program speed
slightly when programming Consequently, the program speed can be increased up to 12 in /sec (30
cm/sec) for a lO-in (25<m) move and still come pretty close to covenng the additional Acc and
—
Dec time and get back to a 1-sec move
The object here is to avoid getting mio a lot of detailed mathematics and decimal places on basic
moves The important point to consider for longer moves is to make the program speed synonymous
with distance That is, if the robot is moving 20 in (51 cm), consider 20 in /sec (51 cm/sec) If it is
moving 30 in (76 cm) consider 30 in /sec (76 cm/sec), and then it is back to l-sec packages This
approach is not touted because it is convenient Long moves are easy to speed up whereas short
moves never reach high terminal veloaty because they are governed by the threshold of Acc and
Dec

34.3.5, Compartmentalize Times

Next, isolate end-effector weld times, gnp time, or flow rales so that they can also be plugged m as
a single package If we are going to move and weld as pan of an operation, then the time required
to place a spot weld is a combination of the time the robot lakes to gel to the spot-weld location,
plus (he tune it takes to make a weld Let us assume we are moving under 3-4 in (1 9 cm) and it
takes approximately 0 5 sec. and the time to make a particular weld also takes approximately 0 5
sec average time to move and weld is known, it is possible to generalize atout how long it
If die
lakes to perform several welds Then the moves in and out can be added to this figure to establish
total operation time

34.3.6. Straight-Line and Attitude Mores

Figure 34 27 shows an example of typical straight-line (on the left) and altitude or roll (on the nghl)
moves First let us discuss straight-line moves If the distance in Figure 34 28 from point 1 to 2 is

Fig 34.27. Basic straight-line and attitude moves

 —
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 705

AUTOMATED BODY SIDE INNER ASSEMBLY

LOAD: PANEL-BODY SIDE INNER

OVERHEAD PICK-UP HOIST

SHIPPING RACKS

FINISH WELDING TACKWELD

ACCUMULATOR
SHOCK-TOWER &
FOLDING-SEAT SUPPORT LOAD: PANEL-WHEELHOUSE OUTER
A PANEL-WHEELHOUSE PANEL-WHEELHOUSE OUTER
INNER-^ ”1—1
SHOCK-TOWER -TACKWELD
LOAD & TACK PANEL ASSEMBLY -LOAD: PANEL-WHEELHOUSE INNER
WHEELHOUSE-
-SHIPPING STRAP SHEAR
FINISH WELDING OF PANEL-
WHEELHOUSE INNER & -LOAD: PANEL-BODY SIDE INNER
PANEL-WHEELHOUSE OUTER- -OVERHEAD PICK-UP HOIST
I
2 DR I

2 DrI -SHIPPING RACKS

;

FINISH WELDING SHOCK TOWER A

BT TACKWELD
LOAD: PANEL-WHEELHOUSE OUTER
FOLDING-SEAT SUPPORT
PANEL-WHEELHOUSE OUTER
PANEL-WHEELHOUSE INNER^^'~*
SHOCK-TOWER ,\\ V-TACKWELD
\_i.oAD: PANEL-WHEELHOUSE INNER
SHIPPING STRAP SHEAR A

Fig. 34.25. Accumulation provisions.

feed. This extra capacity is sometimes fed into a bank or accumulator (Figure 34.25) to cover downtime
possibilities.

34.3.3. The Effect of Acceleration and Deceleration

Why worry about acceleration (Acc) and deceleration (Dec) of the robot? First, it takes approximately
j sec for most robots to reach terminal velocity [5 in./sec to 30 in./sec (13 cm/sec to 76 cm/sec)]
and another j sec to stop. This is because the laws of physics are such that a given mass, such as
the robot arm, can only be accelerated within a certain time, given a reasonable power system (Reference
2, p. 36). The astounding part is that most busy robotic moves, when tightly processed, never reach
terminal velocity —
not even a terminal velocity of 5 in. per second (13 cm/sec). The robot may have
the capability of moving 60-120 in./sec (152-350 cm/sec), but if it is being used for anything other
than certain “pick” and “put” operations, this velocity is never reached totally. When working within
a 40-1004-/560 operation time, it is certainly not necessary to be roaring around at 60 in. per second
(152 cm/sec) on individual moves. Generally, the chart of Figure 34.26 reflects what a move curve
winds up looking like for Acc and Dec times for what is estimated to be 90-95% of all robotic
moves. For general purposes then, moves under 4 in. (10 cm) take roughly j sec. Armed with that,
it is possible to start to visualize individual move times.*

34.3.4. General Move Times

If the robot is move a longer distance, like 10 in. (25 cm), it can be programmed at 10 in./
going to
sec (25 cm/sec), and Acc and Dec time can be discarded. The robot arm is moving far enough so
that it is no longer necessary to consider the detail implications of Acc and Dec. Moves of longer
distances (10 in. and up, above 25 cm) can be considered quite simply as distance divided by the
program speed to get the appropriate time. Ten inches at 10 in./sec (25 cm at 25 cm/sec) equals
appoximately 1 sec. Now, if anybody wants to challenge this, we will admit that it is really insignificantly

*Readers should be aware that time estimations considered here are rough and may be suitable only
forrough estimates. For more accurate time-analysis, methods, such as described in Chap. 30, Robot
Ergonomics: Optimizing Robot Work, should be applied.
708 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

MOVEMENT ALONG AN ARC

WHEN WELDING ALONG AN ARC THE VELOCITY
WILL BE IN degrees/seconds

The Distance Moved can be Oirectty Compared to the

Linear Distance (or Timing Purposes

Fig. Timing aditudc moves

34.3.7. Attitude Moves

Now let us UVe some attitude moves that are someiimes difficult to understand and
a look at timing
visualize atuiude moves. Tor the purposes of this discussion, are defined as all maneuvers that
First,
are nonLnear simplest of these is the movement along an arc
The
According to the “book," “when the tool center point is moving along an arc the velocity will be
in degrees per second “ True enough, but perhaps a more understandable approach is to simply convert
radial movement to linear terms Then the distance moved eon be directly compared to linear distance
for timing purposes
Figure 34 29 shows a typical rear quarter wheelhouse opening that would require radical (attitude)
movement What ts developing in this type of operation is that the robot's roll axis is pirouetting
with almost no linear movement at all The engineer must determine how much torque this axis can
tolerate, how far away the tool center point is from the centerdine of roll, and radially how much

MASS CONSIDERATIONS

KICKLESS CABLE MOUNTED

Fig. 3430
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 707

GENERAL TIMING GUIDE FOR ALL ROBOTIC OPERATIONS

FROM A MOVE FROM START CYCLE THROUGH THE
OPERATION AND BACK TO START CYCLE

IF THIS DISTANCE IS: 5" USE S/SECOND

10" USE 10/SECOND
USE 20/SECOND
•
USE 2 1/4" AS A GENERAl
SAFE DISTANCE FROM FLANGE GENERALLY, MOVES OUTSIDE THE BODY
FOR MOVE ON AND WELD THAT EXCEED 20" SHOULD CONSIDER A
PROGRAM SPEED OF 20"/SECOND MAXIMUM

NOTE: DOUBLE THE TIME FOR PROGRAMS

THAT NEED A DELICATE TOUCH

‘only if this time to RETURN TO START CYCLE

IS LESS THAN THE MACHINE INDEX OR SHUTTLE TIME
Fig. 34.28. Timing guide for straight-line moves.

only 5 in. would select a program speed of 5 in./sec (13 cm/sec) and consider it a
(13 cm), then one
1-sec move. A cm) move would be programmed at 10 in./sec (25 cm/sec) and so on. In
10-in. (25
the event it became necessary to program 20 in./sec (51 cm/sec), it would be because the end of the
robot was 20 in. (51 cm) away from the workpiece and could not get any closer. Perhaps when the
shuttle indexed the body or part, the tool end effector was kept at that distance for clearance purposes.
The object should be to stay as close as possible to the work area at the start cycle. In fact, it
may be preferable to drop the weld gun or robot end-effector into the part and reverse-program it to
get the most efficient program. Then, reverse the process again and have the robot go forward, program-
ming the same points over the top of each other, and then erase the first points. Utilizing this technique,
a very efficient move into the work area has been effected.
Moreover, Figure 34.28 indicates that a move of less than 20 in. (51 cm) from 1 to 2 can be
accomplished in 1 sec. A modem robot can move under 4 in. (10 cm) in 0.5 sec, and a typical spot
weld can be accomplished in approximately another 0.5 sec. So, it is possible to move in (1 sec),
drop down on flange and make a weld (1 sec), and then keep on moving and welding. Each one of
these moves and welds takes 1 sec. The rough edges have been knocked off, but we really did not
lose anything, and we came up with an operation that is sound.
Since 10%
has been taken off the top for a safe margin, there should be enough margin to cover
extraneous moves. Extraneous moves might be wrinkles in the flange, jumping around gage slots,
and the like, and slight attitude shifts that were not entirely visualized up front.
710
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

EFFECTIVE LOAD S (0*0^) X TOTAL WEIGHT

ANSWER IS IN FT-LBS OR Nm INEWTON-METERS)

DtSTANCE (0|)

Fig. 34.32

34.3.10. Downtime Considerations

It IS necessary to look forsome place to accumulate rfow/iume It is, therefore, recommended that m
most robotic operations allowance be made for some small accumulation If there is a pair of robots
It IS one thing, but if there are 30 robots in a row, like the massive installations in some auto plants,

the downtime factonal must be considered For instance, even if all robots ran at 98-99% uptime
but are all interdependent (in a factonal nature), we probably would never run as a dedicated line
system or very seldom have all robots running So consideration must be given to the implications
of slight downtime for each robot

34.3.11. Banking Provisions

Studies indicate that 97-98% of most downtime is less than 5 mm, so a small bank of only three to

four jobs IS all that is required to take care of most of these downtime problems (refer to Figure

34 18) How this IS accomplished depends on the sue and type of the system A small system of
only 10 to 15 pairs of robot can accumulate at the end of the line Large systems must utilise the

"rubber band" effect in that small accumulation areas should be planned m

between large automated
islands

34.3.12. Operation Verification

Along with establishing operation times, end-effector weights, and so on. it is necessary to venfy the
program’s physical nature Methods for vcnfying robot programs are graphic, the three-dimensional
drafting layout, and scale modeling The robot itself can be used at times, but more often than not
this proves to be time-consuming and cumbersome

Computer Graphics and Robot Process Planning

Generally a computer graphic system offers the speediest and most flexible system of all Computer
graphics is a very promising system, and it looks to be the most important advancement upcoming
in robotic process planning for the future Unfortunately, system compatibility and propnetary
nghts

to manufacturers’ algonthm formulas are hampenng development of a truly flexible system

To use this system, start by positioning a robot near the job area, as in Figure 34 34, on an area
as
gnd This quickly establishes in and out, fore and aft, and op and down positions On something
of
tncky as a wheelhouse opening weld, the engineer must also determine the beginning and ending
34 3
the operation limits The half-moon pictures on the computer graphics illustration in Figure
individua
represent the limits of each axis It can easily be determined how close the robot is to the
limit of an axis
moving
Computer graphics offers the of independently moving the robot around,
light-pen capability
me
the part or body around, and simultaneously moving the end effector If the engineer can cot
aft three of these capabilities, he truly has a medium that can be used to plan effectively a 30-ro
system in an afternoon — an accomplishment that now takes weeks to complete
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 709

mass is being moved. This can be calculated and compared to what that particular robot axis can
handle in degrees per second.
However, few ratings of this nature exist, and even when they do, they are not easily understood.
What the robot really wants to do is to not move the mass any faster than it would if it were making
a straight-line move. Therefore, take a tape and measure the wheelhouse periphery as in Figure 34.29.
Stretch the tape out and figure this as a linear distance. In this situation it is possible to develop the
move in the same way that the robot makes a straight-line move, and time it accordingly. This may
sound simplistic, but it in fact gets us closer to the truth than following other, more complicated
calculations.

34.3.8. Torque/Mass Considerations

Torque/mass considerations can be roughed out just as easily. Figure 34.30 shows a typical weld
gun dressing and all its accompanying hardware, the weight of which must be factored out and compared
to the weight-carrying capabilities of the particular robot. Next, we need to establish the overall center
of gravity, as in Figure 34.31 plus or minus a couple of inches. Finally, the ‘‘effective load” can be
developed as in Figure 34.32. Normally, this calculation would be determined in hypotenuselike resul-
tants. However, this shortcuts the challenging demands placed on the robot’s actual kinematics. Conse-

quently, it is highly advisable to add in any offset mass directly times the weight.

34.3.9. Establishing an Accumulative Total Station Time

Once the basic timing packages are developed, they can be plugged into the computer to get an accurate
total time, an example of which is shown in Figure 34.33. This is particularly helpful in marginal
operations. For example, if there is a wheelhouse operation that the process engineer would like to
do in one station with a single robot, and it looks like he does not have the time to make two of the
—
weld spots, he must look for some other way of combining the operations since he obviously cannot
introduce another robot for just two spots. One suggestion, if it cannot be done with a single weld
gun, is to cautiously move into a double gun. Although the double gun is slightly slower, it can
make two spots at a time, resulting in about a 50% improvement in overall operation efficiency; and
it solves the timing problem.
The next step is to total the times to perform each of the operations that have been discussed.
Once we compartmentalize all these times, a computer program will allow an engineer to plug in the
move sequence, metal combination, metal thickness, weld gun stroke, gripper close function, sealant
flow rate, and other pertinent information to develop a printout of the detailed station-by-station prece-
dence.

TORQUE & WEIGHT CALCULATIONS

Fig, 34.31
712 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

DETERMINING ROBOT POSITION

34.4. END-EFFECTOR AND AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

34.4.1. End-Eff«tor Attitude

TTiere t$ still another challenge. The robot has been positioned, and the limits of geometry hsve been
tested Nowthe planning engineer must set both the altitude and position of the end-effector bracket
(Figure 34 36) and that distance to the end*effectof tool center point (TCP) The tool center point
dimension (Figure 34 37) is the distance from the end of the robot face plate to a point in front of
the end-effector «here the uork will be performed It should be located, whenever possible, along
the roll tats for ease of programming On high-tech robots that distance can be plugged into the
robot's computer, and the computer will help in touching up attitude moves Setting the attitude of
the bracket on something like (he backheader of a car body is sometimes very tncky The engineer
must utilixe every means at his disposal
WTicn lajing out a sjatem, it may not be desirable lostop with computer graphics Difficult operations
may require scale modeling At Fisher Body, where engineets have access to scale-model bodies, usually
I or } in 0 9 to 1 3 cm scale or scale-model robots made by robot manufacturers are utilized
With
these tools it is very easy to take weld guns, sealing guns, and brackets, reduce them accordingly,
and place them on card stock to test and adjust the end-cffector support bracket designs

Fig, 34JS. Computer graphic limit determinates

PROGRAM

SAMPLE

program.

timing

station

total

Accumulative

34.33.

Fig.

711
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 713

This is especially helpful when processing operations utilizing a moving target or line tracking.

When planning line tracking or moving-target operations, time and distance must be correlated. The
robot stands in a fixed position, working on the product as it enters the station and keeps on working
until it leaves the station. Accurate planning and timing of a proposed station is a three-dimensional
chess game at best, and modeling has proven to be a great asset for review of detailed work in window
correlation, as in Figure 34.38.
Another method for verifying a robot program is the traditional three-view layout (Figure 34.39)
that allows the engineer to see most of the processing parameters in plan view. Much of the time
this method is adequate for dispatching simple operations. However, difficult brackets that are attached

to the end-effector may require delicate attitude positioning and force the engineer back to actual
modeling of the operation.

34.4.2. End-Effectors and Associated Equipment

We turn to end-effectors and some associated equipment utilized with robots. An end-effector is the
device attached to the end of the robot arm. Obviously, this includes many kinds of grippers and
devices other than weld guns as in Figure 34.40.

Antishock Clutch

When a weld gun is attached on the end of the robot arm, there is more than just the weld gun.
There may also be a clutch (Figure 34.41) and mounting bracket. A clutch is utilized because it is

possible to get the wrong body of the robot. The robot charges out and crashes into
style in front
the body. Robots deal with the force of tons in certain attitudes, in spite of the fact that some of the
biggest ones in use can only lift 250 lb (113 kg). They can pot a 1-ton blow on the part or body. If

END EFFECTOR CENTER POINT

CENTER POINT DISTANCE

PROGRAMMING

Fig. 34.37. Tool center point.

116 APPUCATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

TRIPLE WELD GUN

FOR ROBOT
SPOTWELDING

FSg. J4.42. Specialized inple-*eld gun

plant position and order the right equipment for a system He may want to mount the transformer
on the robot arm or, m the case of pick-and-put operations, give consideration to unique types of
gnppers and prepositioning devices Also, he must consider input and output signal requirements
that wih make this equipment function properly The weight of each device must be known and
carefully considered We call attention to other factors and other pieces of equipment because they
must be considered when planning a station

Associated Equipment

Figure 34 44 shows an example of a piece of associated equipment that is mounted off'lme but in-
stationThis device is a fixture that cleans and dresses welding tips, but it is a necessary part of the
station and provisions for its placement must be laid out
It must be remembered that when dealing with flexible automated robotic systems of this kind,
the engineer must reexamine all the penpheral support equipment

34.5. SYSTEM INSTALLATION

In the installation phase it is recommended that the robot location be carefully dimensioned as in

Figure 34 45 and accurately positioned The station most be laid out m detail For multiple robotic

Fig. 34.43. Typical auxiliary equipment considerations

PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 715

Fig. 34.40. Typical end-effector designs.

The gun welds only lower rocker flanges,and that type of weld is pretty straightforward and
does not require challenging attitude moves. Since the moves were not difficult and it was possible to
cable each weld gun separately, the gun worked well and negated the need for four more robots.

Auxiliary Equipment

Many engineers are not familiar with the other pieces of auxiliary equipment that make up a station,
so there isa tendency to overlook them when station planning. In spot welding, for instance (Figure
34.43), there are items like kickless cables, counter balancers, transformers, jumpers, densification
packages,and so on.
The engineer must be familiar with these pieces of equipment because it is necessary to help the

ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT

Fig. 34.41. Antishock clutch.

718 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTFGRATION

ESTaBUSH PROJECT RESP ONSIDlLmCS

“Tornlej" Vendor
Design and install can shuttle s>stem
Design and install body transfer (on and off carl) and controls
Install robots and relatedequipment to specifications
Design and construct pedestals for can pallet from engmeenng locations Program all robots to
manufaetunng processing
Engineering Responsibilities
Proside all \ke!d studies and operation description sheets
—
Process vrclding operations sender to verify
Design and construct weld guns, brackets, and antishock clutches
Joint Vendor and Engineering Responsibilities
Establish location of robots and heighi of body off pallet relative to 1(X) mm line

Engineering to establish — vendor to verify

Assembly Plant Responsibilities

Install transformers and welder controls
Install weld guns per engmeenng assignments

¥ii. 46

IS the project manager's business, and he should keep that responsibility even on major outside vendor

-tumVey'' projects

34.5J1. Project Tracking Sheets

Dunng the installation phase, we

suggest the creation of “project tracking sheets." where it is possible
to state problems, indicate (he man’s name that must respond, put down the date when i speedy
resolution is list comments beside the problem Figure 34 49
required, and. also, to create a place to
shows a design of a suggested fomut (hat allows the project manager to move around efiicienily by
the trtsiJi— without lengthy letters among the dcffereitf vendors, suppliers, divisions, and activ/ties—
cooperating together on a major project and still getting answers quickly For example, it is possible
to be in the plant and yet deal with the general office, the robot supplier, and perhaps the conveyor
people, all at the same time, on a given problem
Whether this sample project tracking sheet is used or not. a method of tracking the program
most be developed and uiitired to bring together the various combinations of input expertise from
the different sources

PROJECT STATUS REVIEW

PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 717

OFF
LINE
FIXTURE

AUTOMATIC TIP
DRESSING AND
CLEANING

Fig. 34.44. Typical associated equipment.

operation, the plant generally will be more than happy to let the application engineering department
do this because the layout must show the complete system.

34.5.1, Project Responsibilities

After a system is it is important to establish project responsibilities as in Figure 34.46. This

laid out,
includes the work be completed by the vendors as well as the local plant.
to
After the planning stages are roughed out and project status has been granted, the project leader
should meet with all those concerned at least once a month and go through the entire system (Figure
34.47).
Schedules are important (Figure 34.48). It is strongly recommended that the system planning engineer
get involved early with the project and, most important, project timing. When to order the equipment,
when application engineering is to write the assignments, and when the manufacturer is supposed to
come in and do their programming are all items that must be scheduled. Frequent checks must be
made to be sure every bit of that planning happens on time. Setting up a systematic schedule obviously

INSTALLATION LAYOUT FOR INDIVIDUAL STATION

HOLES ARE USED FOR
ESTABLISHING WORK
LINES #1 AND #2
1.500-16 N THREAD THRU
AND 2.50DIAMETER SURFACE
4 HOLES IN ROBOT
TAPPING PLATE
SEE SECTION A-A

TAPPING PLATE (Ref) SET UPGROUTING PLATES

TO THE NEAREST .5 INCH
USE WORK LINES #1 AND
#2 AS DATUM LINES

^ — n^xx-xxxx LEVELING AND ANCHOR

U. BOLT (6) HOLES (Ref)

Fig. 34.45. Installation layout with dimension.

720
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

ROBOTIC PROCESS PLANNING

TOGETHER

PROPER TRAINING IS IMPORTANT

Fig. 34 50 Quality circles

conversion period it loses some of us people and expertise In addition, not only is a new product
being introduced, but also an entirely different means of production is being implemented The result
IS that the expertise planned for is not always there at the time

In the past there have been gross underestimates of what it lakes to run these systems A planning
engineer should not hestitaie to tell a plant that, if they have 20 or more new robots in a system, it
will require the assistance of an engineering person to manage that system for at least the first six

months After that transitional penod, the maintenance people will become familiar enough with the
new process and equipment to be successful at running the system on their own
At first, however, the plant needs somebody who knows what cycles-per-second means, what circular
mills on a kickless cable are all about, and what a TR66 transformer can and cannot do It needs
someone who understands the proper use of cupal weld caps and is willing to set weld schedules up
—
properly knowing that extra cycles to each new schedule within a station can cause the operation
to run beyond the station lime allotted

34.5.4. Installation and Start*Up

In piloting a new an engineer should not attempt to put that robot system on line
robotic system,
and bring it up toof production readiness without some appropnate tryout and debugging tune
start
allowed A couple of weeks may be all that is necessary on a small system Multiple systems, however,
may require three months to make sure the system is at least functionally operational and properly
to
programmed ahead, of actual start-up The thing a plant needs is to program robots or try
sweeten the tuning as progress begins through start-up of an initial acceleration
The average robotic operation is generally programmed in less than 4 hr, but there may be **
much as 20 hr worth of touch-up work still required on marginal or difficult operations There are a
lot of things that cannot be seen until the plant reaches for that last five jobs per hour
Dunng installation and start-up it is necessary to spend some time on quality circles, or value
management teams, or whatever your organization wants to call them It pays to sit down
e
hour a day after work with the production workers and the plant management and go over iroub
spots It really will make things go a lot easier (Figure 34 SO)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the help of Fisher Body’s Tom Murphy, who helped pull much
of the
graphi
together Fisher Body’s fantastic Illustration Dqtartinent deserves credit for the excellent
provided through the entire chapter Also, I would like to acknowledge Jack Saunders of OMF
Robotics,
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 719

MASTER TIMING SCHEDULE

1982 "I" BODY TIMING SCHEDULE RESPOT LINE SOUTHGATE

1982 1983

Fig. 34.48. Typical timing schedule.

34.5.3. Proper Training

After installation, italways necessary to go over the system and make some adjustments. It is
is

essential to make is provided for those who will operate and maintain the
sure that proper training
station. Therefore proper training is an absolute must!
Some serious mistakes have been made on this issue, from an engineering, programming, and
maintenance Standpoint. Often planners overlook the fact that when a plant stays idle during an extended

Fig. 34.49
 CHAPTER 35
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS:
RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE,
AND SAFETY
GEORGE E, MUNSON
Robot Syitems, tnc
Norcross, Georgia

35.1. INTRODUCTION
Reliabiliiy, mamtainabiluy, and safety in operation are essential to achieving high productivity and
utilization factors from industrial eiquipment And. as »e demonsirale. these issues are inextricably
bound together
Obviously, each piece of equipment on the factory floor reptesents a means to an end— the end
being the manufacture of goods of high quality, in sufficient quantities, in a timely fashion, and at
competitive costs Whether the equipment isamachineioohapress. material-handling devices, inspection
—
or test gages or an tndustnaJ robot— it must have a high availability factor, it must be easily maintained,
and It must operate safely m
its environment And the integration of all ihese elements must be
executed ma manner that takes into consideration each of these factors for each piece of equipment
To do otherwise carries the nsk of installing a handsomely engineered system that fails to meet the
stated objectives
These ingredients particularly apply to the industnal robot

35.1.1. Reliability

In the vast majonty of instances the robot represents a link in the manufactunng process wherein it
services high-cost capital equipment In this role it governs the degree to which this equipment is
utilized Of necessity, then, the robot must be mherenlly reliable and must be designed to yield a
very high availability factor, that is, be easily and quickly repaired Fortunately, as later shown,
an
availability factor for the robot in excess of 91*7^ is typical

35.1.2. Maintenance

Maintenance and maintainability take on new meaning in the age of automation The complexities of
stateof-the-art compuler -controlledmachmery, and the removal from the workplace of human operators
with all of their sensory and judgmental capabilities, require ngidly enforced programs for proper
and regular equipment maintenance The “lix-it-when-it-brcaks” philosophy is no longer acceptable
and was probably bad economics anyway Certainly it is today
Just as unacceptable is equipment that is not easily maintained, trouble shot, and repaired Availabil-
\Vj, or uptime, vs a fuwAion not only of the mherent equipment rehahility but also of the ease
and

speed of repair when a downtime incident occurs Even if a machine has a mean time between failure
of 2000 hr. Its design is questionable if it takes a week to diagnose and repair the problem, and the
lost production at that time would be intolerable

35.1.3. Safety

operators
Safe operation of equipment must be viewed fiom several angles First and foremost, human
must ^adequately protected from hazardous oindicions in all modes of operation of the
equipmen

This chapter was wntten when the author was Vice President of Marketing, Unimation, Inc

722
PLANNING ROBOTIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 721

who graciously agreed to edit the rough draft of this material and put it into meaningful form. Finally,
I would like to thank Shelly Moss for patience in typing and processing the final drafts.

REFERENCES

1. Friedrich, O., Economy and Business, Time, December 8, 1980.

2. Engelberger, J. F., Robotics in Practice, American Management Association, 1980.

3. Tanner, W. R., Ed., Industrial Robots, Vol. 1, Fundamentals, 2nd ed.. Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, 1981.

4. Robots for Body Spot Welding, Proceedings of the

DiPietro, F. A., Line Tracking 9th International
Symposium on Industrial Robots, March 1979.
5. Tanner, W. R., Ed., Industrial Robots. Vol. 2, Applications, 2nd ed.. Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, 1981.

6. Proceedings of Robots VI, Robotics International of SME, 1982.

7. Dawson, B. L., Moving Line Applications with a Computer Controlled Robot, in Tanner, W. R.,
Ed., Industrial Robots, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1981.
Fis. 35J. Robot holdi in\c^tmcnt cabling mold
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 723

during setup, when maintenance is being performed, and during normal running. Second, the equipment
must be protected from itself. Precautions should be taken that a malfunction will not, in turn, result
in damage or breakage. And, third, the equipment should be so integrated that damage to other
machinery and devices does not result from a malfunction.
The prolific author Isaac Asimov* whimsically formulated “the three laws of robotics” in the
early 19^s. Whimsically, because as he stated in his foreword to J. F. Engelberger’s book. Robotics
in Practice,^ “I did not at that time seriously believe that I would live to see robots in action and
robotics becoming a booming industry. .” Interestingly, the three laws are quite validly applied
. .

to this booming industry, and the robot designer and user will do well to take heed:

1. A robot must never harm a human being or through inaction allow a human being to come
to harm.
2. A robot must always obey a human being unless this is in conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must not allow itself to come to harm unless this is in conflict with either the first

or second laws of robotics.

A final thought on the RMS (reliability, maintenance, and safety) of robotics; The technology is
advancing at a fast pace. With it are pressures from the marketplace for new products and ever-
increasing sophistication. We must be cautious that the RMS not be overlooked in the exuberance of
meeting these pressures.

35.1.4. The Environment

Equipment reliability starts with design. However, the environment in which the machine is to operate
must be thoroughly known and understood. This is particularly challenging in the field of robotics
because the robot is expected to be comfortable in an ever-broadening range of environments from
metalcutting to meat processing. These environments include extremes of temperature, humidity, atmos-
pheric contaminants and precipitants, radiant heat, shock and vibration, electrical noise, and so on.
In addition, liquid sprays, often corrosive, are encountered along with abrasive particles, explosive
atmospheres, and a variety of chemicals. Figure 35.1 lists some of these environmental factors.^
Foundries of all types pose rather adverse conditions. Figure 35.2 shows a robot servicing a die
casting machine. Of necessity it is positioned right at the parting lines of the dies where molten metal
(zinc, aluminum, magnesium) often spurts directly at the robot. Heat is radiated from the melt pot.
And, in most instances, the robot must dip the casting into a corrosive liquid to cool it. In investment
casting, the robot and all of its parts are exposed to slurries and sand mixes in an atmosphere that is
ladened with highly abrasive silica dust. Figure 35.3 shows such an application. It is common in
such instances to slightly pressurize various parts of the robot to avoid ingress of the contaminants
and to pipe clean air to the heat exchanger inlet. Where necessary the electronic control cabinet is
sealed and air-conditioned or, as shown in Figure 35.4, the cabinet is located remotely and outside
of the processing room.
Forging and heat-treating operations pose other threats. Extremely high shock is encountered in
forge shops. The robot must not only be anchored securely, but also often with isolating pads beneath
it. In addition, it is not unusual for the robot to hold onto the billet while it is being hammered. A

rugged gripper (end-of-arm tooling) is essential as a built-in compliance. Radiant heat abounds in
handling red hot billets in heat-treating applications. Radiant shields, strategicajly located on the robot’s
arm or between the robot and the source, are often employed. Sometimes the robot is taught to periodi-
cally dip its gripper into cooling water. Figure 35.5 shows the kind of heat exposure that can be
encountered. Obviously, in such instances, it is undesirable, if not totally impractical, to have electrical/
electronic devices or hydraulic fluids located at the robot’s arm extremity or wrist.

1. Ambient temperature: up to 120'’F without cooling air.

2. Radiant heating: source temperature up to 2000°F.

3. Shock: excursions up to /! in., repetitions to 2 per second.

4. Electrical noise: line drop-outs, motor starting transients; RF heating.

5. Liquid sprays: water and other coolants, often corrosive.

6. Fumes and vapors: process chemicals, steam cleaning.
7. Particulate matter: sand, metallic dust, hot slag.
8. Fire and explosion risk: open flame, explosive gas and vapor mixtures.

Fig. 35.1. Hazards in the INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT.

Fig. 35.5. Billets of 2000®F (1100*Q are handled by a robot Note the end-of-arm tooling quench
tank below the robot arm (Photo courtesy of Unimation. Inc

The hazards commonly an abundance of chips and of coolants Figure 35 6 is

in metalcutting are
Note the protective covers on the robot's arm
quite illustratise.
As new do new challenges For example, robots are now being used m meal
applications anse, so
processing, a job where duly drenching with water and steam is part of the routine They are also
being asked to handle frozen food packages in giant freezers at — lO^F (—23*C) There seems to be
no end to the roboticist’s challenges in desigrung for high reliability Spot welding, arc welding, glass
forming— all present their own set of environmental hazards to be dealt with
Not only must the robot Lve and work in adverse environments, it must also be designed so that
Itdoes not contaminate the environment When we talk about the reliability of the robot m
doing its
job, we are addressing getting the job done right Therefore it must not generate contaminants or
other environmental hazards to the manufactunng process For example, many delicate and precision
devices must be assembled m
clean rooms where it would be disastrous if beanng-wear-generaled
minute particles of lubncants were to leak or dnp into the environment Similar restraints are imposed
m food industry applications or in handling fabnes and the like.
Adesign for reliability, then, must take into consideration not only the integnty of each and
every part but also how, individually and collectively, the parts will perform m
the vanety of environ-
ments imposed upon them

35.1.5. The System

In addressing the issue of reliability,it is important to recognae that the robot is not a stand-alone
machine. It is a tool and, as such, is always integrated into some kind of system that employs a few
or many other machines and devices At the very least it is intimately associated with some kind of
end-of-arm tooling, probably some convcyois, parts feeders, and onentmg devices, and, of course,
the workpiece itself In addition, there may be machine tools, tnm presses, coolmg or processing
tanks, other robots or automation, inspection devKes. and a central or master control or computer
How and how well the robot interfaces and interacts with all of this equipment, both in terms of
manipulative actions and control interlocks, will determine the overall reliability of the installation
Although It is not our mtent to discuss the ramifications or reliability of all of this equipment individually
or collectively, it is important to recognize that all of these elements impinge on the design
of a

reliable, serviceable, safe operating system.

A vivid example is the spot welding of automobile bodies by a battery of robots as shown
in

Figure 35 7. The drama and excitement of this system tn action results from the visual impact of
all
 cabinets are located remotely.
(Pho
avoid atmospheric
contamination Robot control
I,

Fig. 35.4. To
courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)
728 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

35.2. RELIABILITY
been published on the theoretical or actual level of reliability achieved by robots However,
Little has
after the accumulation of millions of hours of on-line operation and 10 man-years or more of work
by individual machines, their availability (uptime) factor is known, as well as attendant maintenance
costs The results are impressive and. m
fact, overshadow histoncal expenence with most industrial
equipment In almost all documented cases the robot has been available for production work at least
97% of the time Instances have been reported where 99 5%
has been realiz^
These results are a tribute not only to the quality level of design and manufacture of the robot
but also to an understanding by the manufacturer that the robot must be capable of such performance
Otherwise its viability, acceptability, and economic advantages are nonexistent

35.2.1. Definition of Terms

So far in this discourse several terms have been used that are closely related to one another reliability,
availability, maintainabilily. and uptime (or downtime for those of a negative bent of mind) Lest
the reader become confused, we would «io well to give these terms definition
The reliability of a product is generally defined as the probability that the product will give satisfactory
performance for a speafied period of time when used under specified conditions ’ As a general rule,
a simple relationship exists between the reliabibty of an equipment and its mean time between failure
(MTBF) This relationship is the exponential case, which holds when the failure of the equipment is
constant during its service life, shown by the equation

R (for r hour5) = e'*'*'*^*^

R = reliability lactor

Because of this relationship, reliability may be expressed in terms of an allowable MTBF. Rgure
35 11 illustrates this function ,

reliability whic
There are other refinements For example, there is the concept of operational
 —

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 111

of the robots feverishly placing welds over the car body before the next in line comes into position.
all

Close inspection reveals a bit just robots at work. There is the conveyor that transports
more than
the bodies from station to station past the robots. The precision with which it positions the bodies is
essential to putting each of, perhaps, 3000 welds in the right place (or in any place at all). Every car
body must be identified automatically as to style and this information passed from station to station
so that the central control, the master choreographer, can tell each robot which of its programs is
presently required (Figure 35.8). Interlocks must provide every workstation with knowledge of whether
the conveyor is moving or in location for welding. Each robot must tell the central control whether
done with its work and in a safe position before the conveyor can be indexed. The weld gun on
it is

each robot must have a proper flow of cooling water; the tips must not stick to the metal (periodic
maintenance, manual or automatic); the weld gun controller must generate the proper current and
dwell times; and the robot must signal the gun controller when to close the tips, and even with what
pressure. And, yes, the robotmust position the gun tips accurately. There is more. But the point is
made. Acceptable quality car bodies will not come off the end of the line unless everything works
reliably.Downtime costs are measured in thousands of dollars per minute.
In many instances, means to assure continuous throughput are provided in anticipation of malfunc-
tions or failures. In some cases, manual (human) backup is employed. In the case cited, backup robots
are provided down the line to pick up the work of down stations. This is detected and the necessary
information dispatched by the central control, including alarms, to draw the attention of the human
overseers. A well-founded system will include diagnostics and telltale indicators to pinpoint the problem
area for quick reaction time and repairs.
In other cases buffer techniques are applied to maintain throughput. Figure 35.9 shows a four-
work-cell machining system where buffer storage is employed between cells. Should one work cell
require maintenance or go down and require repair, parts coming from upstream cells can continue
to function by taking parts out of storage. Figure 35.10 shows one of the work cells with pallet type
buffer storage. Through the central control, seen in the background, robot subroutines are called up
to put parts into storage or take them out as needed.
These examples are given to emphasize the need to assess achievable reliability and availability in
terms of the work cell (island of automation) or a multiplicity of linked work cells. We show later
how this assessment must also include maintenance and safety considerations.
 )

730
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Fig 35.9. Schematic Four robots integrate machinery operations in a flexible system (Photo courtesy
of Umtnation, Inc

35.2.2. Reliability Targets

In one knowncase, a robot manufacturer embarked on a comprehensive reliability program to achieve

a target availability factor of 98% or better* This study
was exhaustive, and the theoretical eoninbution
of every component toward a total system failure rate was taken into account The methods used
were those developed by US government agencies to aid m
the prediction of reliability of
space

vehicle systems
The first step was to conduct a ngorous reliability feasibility study of all electronic and mechanical
parts and ‘’nonparts " The nonpart failure rate relates to cost constraints, tolerance buildup, user
abuse, environmental problems, and so on The study results are shown m Figure 35 13 and indicate
a theoretical MTDF of 508 hr
This, then, set the objective and earned with it the requirement that a mean time to restore of
not more than 10 2 hr be achievable The manufacturer set up a management system designed to
bang individual components up to standard and assure statistically that the system, as shipped, would
and
meet the goal Figure 35 14 shows the reliability control points m the equipment’s life cycle
includes field cxpenence feedback
The MTBF was eventually brought to 415 hr Average MTTR turned out to be in the range of
4 8 hr This yielded an availability factor of 98 8

35.2.3. Future Outlook

Robot sophistication and complexity is increasing, suggesting reduced reliability in future generations
However, increasing expenence in their manufacture along with evcr-increasing reliability of
(soIid'State) electronics will, quite likely, result in an improvement in robot reliability
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 729

Fig. 35.8. Programmable controller coordinates al) elements of a robotic spot welding line. (Photo
courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

takes into consideration not only the inherent reliability of the product as determined by the design
and development programs, manufacturing process, and test procedures, but also a reliability degradation
factor attributable to shipping, handling, storage, installation, operation, maintenance, and the like.
However, it is not within the scope of the discussion to delve into such refinements.
Availability is the probability that, at any point in time, the equipment will be ready to operate
at a specified level of performance.^ It is a measure of how often the equipment is ready when needed.

Refinement of this factor takes into consideration both intrinsic availability achieved in design (including
maintainability) and a degradation factor relating to such things as sufficiency of spare parts provisioning,
qualificationof maintenance personnel, and adequacy of test and repair facilities. For our purposes
and uptime (percent) can be considered synonomous.
availability
By definition, availability depends on both MTBF and the mean time to restore (repair). This is
commonly expressed as MTTR. The relationship is expressed by the following equation:

MTBF
~ MTBF + MTTR ~ + MTTR/MTBF
1

A = availability factor

If the ratio MTTR/MTBF is known, equipment availability can be derived from Figure 35.12.
Accordingly, if equipment is required to have a certain availability factor and its MTBF is known,
then the required restoration or repair time can be determined. This can be a valuable tool in evaluating
the equipment’s viability. In production circumstances, equipment having an MTBF
of 500 hr and a
restoration time of 4 hr may be much more acceptable than equipment having a 5000-hr MTBF but
a 40-hr MTTR.
Mean time to restore is, then, a measure of overall maintainability. The restoration time will
depend onhow quickly, easily, and accurately a malfunction can be diagnosed and corrected.
732
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Fig. 35 12.AvaiUbiUty as a function of mean lime between failures (Photo courtesy of NAVWEPS,
Naval Weapons Center 00-65-502 )

35.3. maintenance:
perhaps no other single cost factor ma manufacturing operation has been as neglected, misunderstood,
and mismanaged as maintenance It has been estimated that more than S200 billion is spent annually
in American industry and at least S60 billion has been wasted * More than that, poorly maintained
equipment results tn poor quality products, disrupted production schedules, delayed delivenes, and
lost customers In almost all cases these results can be altnbuted to the “fixuUwhen-it breaks" philosophy
As already noted, the operational reliability of equipment is a function of US intrinsic reliability
and a degradation factor related to, among other things, usage Degradation can only be minimized
by proper usage and preventive maintenance A sound, well-planned and well-managed maintenance
program yields cost benefits in a number of ways The mere fact that a program exists and is properly
administered enforces disciplines that can have profound cost impacts For example, most maintenance
operations do not have any spare parts inventory control In the case of one large plant, it was reported
that of 570 million worth of spare parts only 535 million could be accounted for * The rest was
—
apparently just lying around somewhere
The case for preventive maintenance is pervasive

Failure classification Failure rate (x 10 MTBF (hours)

Part failures only

Electronic/Electncal 1800
Mechanical/Hydraulic 673 !
1485
Non-part failures
I

Electronic/Electncal 3745
Mechanical/Hydraulic 475 2100
System failures
Parts only 815
Non tolerance 742 1350

Combined 508
1970 1

1
X '

Estimated reliability feasibility,

Unimate 2000 MTBF = 500 Hours'

Fig 35.13. Unimate system reliability estimate (Photo courtesy of Unimation, Inc)
731
734
APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

System Complexity. The trend toward increased complexity of automation and automatic in-
process functions mandates preventive mamtenance Dependence on human operators to intervene
and keep things going is no longer an option Automatic systems are unforgiving
Availability Enhancement Performance degradation is avoided or forestalled and wear-out or
burn-out avoided The domino effect is prevented
Enforced Discipline. Execution of a planned maintenance program requires scheduling coordina-
tion between the mamtenance department, production, and engmeenng Spare parts must be invento-
ried and readily available as well as diagnostic equipment and documentation Trained personnel
must be available The emphasis must be on keeping the equipment going, not fixing it
Adequate Skills. Mamtenance personnel must be properly trained Traditional lines of responsibility
and crafts must be evaluated so that ineffiaencies are not budt lo (c g electncian versus millwrights,
.

etc ) A well-managed program will insure that personnel skills are maintained through refresher
courses and the like
Investment Protection. Capital equipment cames a high pnee tag, and the planned-for return
on investment is predicted on continuous high performance Lack of proper maintenance can destroy
profits

Quality Attitudes. attitudes will determine the quality of performance in any department
Worker
m the plant The good mamtenance programs will signifi-
perceived attitude of management toward
cantly influence the resultsand permeate the workplace Espnt de corps can be a real force in
achieving high quality of work and high productivity
High Throughput. Unscheduled downtime wreaks havoc on the production floor and disrupts
timely deliveries The best —
the only— way to minimize these occurrences is through a disciplined
preventive mamtenance program

The cost of maintenance can be high The cost of no maintenance will be higher It has been
estimated that a well-run program can cost as much as 10% of sales * This strongly suggests that

the manager must be a businessperson (surrounded by technically competent people) who understands
how to run a business For. indeed, maintenance is a business

35,3.1. Robot Maintenance

Most robots require relatively little maintenance, but what is specified is essential to their continued
performance and longevity An installed robot can be looked upon as being made up of three elements
The manipulator is, of course, the functional structure that physically performs the task It is a
jointed mechanical device most often powered by hydraulic motors or actuators (sometimes pneumatic)
or electric motors More complete descnptions of the various robot designs are contained m Chapter
5, Mechanical Design of the Robot System In one form or another the arm joints and power transmission
mechanisms are made up of linkages and gears, dnvc bells or chains, sliding or rotary bearings, and
various types of seals, and so forth
Although most of the component parts and subassemblies arc quite familiar to maintenance personnel,
their design and application pose some interesting, and sometimes challenging, aspects For example,
gear trains must be designed for absolute minimum backlash since the repeatability of positioning at
the wnst extremity is dependent on the amount of backlash and faction (or binding) in the system
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators must have very low breakaway and sliding faction for similar
reasons In addition, they must have viTtiially zero tnlemal and external leakage The dynamic perfor-
mance of the machine and its ability lo hold a position without dafting from it is adversely affected
by leakage Hence seal design and matenal, together with accurate mounting alignment of the actuator,
are cntical
In most cases, preventive maintenance procedures for these components and subassemblies involve
peaodic visual and/or operational checks to sec if any adjustments are needed or signs of undue
wear apparent Most manufacturers will provide a checklist and corrective instructions based on observed
performance In the long term, part replacement recommendations will be indicated Figure 35 15 is
one page of an eight-page preventive maintenance checklist intended to be performed at 1000-hr intervals
Figure 35 16 shows a recommended parts replacement list, extending to 20,000 hr of operation
Servoed hydraulic robots employ servo valves which arc quite sophisticated Their reliability is

MTBF measured in (fiousands of hours However, they are very susceptible

generally very high, with their
to contaminants in the fluid media Therefore extreme care must be taken to avoid contamination If
spare fluid is purchased from the robot manufacturer, he/she usually recommends that transference
of the fluid to the robot’s hydraulic reservoir be directly from the container in which the fluid is
specifica-
supplied If the user procures his/her own fluid, it must conform lo the robot manufacturer's
tions and will probably have to be specially filtered before use This is a must since the fluid is usual y
contaminated by the container U was shipped in And this ts especially true if fluid is delivered m
bulk
Fig. 35.14. Reliability control points in the UNIMATE life cycle. (Photo courtesy of Unimation,
Inc.)

733
D
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REPI

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of
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ARC
(Courleay

PARTS

schedule

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AT

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INTF-RVALS

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I'll.
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS; RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 735

Step Description Checked Corrective Action

Power Distribution and Interlock;

6. Check remote STOP function if used, by
opening NC switch between A9 and B9
on customer access panel.
7. Check remote HOLD if used, by opening
NC switch between A8 and B5 on customer
access panel.

8. Check door interlock switch(es) if installed.

9. Check servo power relay by removing 4CR

from relay bank. Unimate will be in
HOLD.
ELECTRONIC (Power ON)
1. 918 W Board Lights.
(a) Check that the encoder lamp monitor
is functioning with Cycle Start out
and Mode switch in REPEAT by
pulling an encoder bulb.
(b) Parity Error light should remain OFF
in REPEAT with CYCLE START
ON.
(c) Check ITa light is ON at all times
except when in REPEAT, AUTO
with CYCLE START ON, and not
in HOLD.
(d) Check DC Indicator light is ON as
long as AC power is being supplied
to the power supply.
2. 918 TBoard Light
(a) Check Total Position Coincidence
light will light when all motions reach
TOTAL (position) Coincidence.

3. 918 D/C Board Light

(a) Check True Total Coincidence light.
(And so on.)

Fig. 35.15. Sample page. Preventive maintenance check list. (Photo courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

Typically the filtration system in the robot includes a main filter, often a return-line filter, and
individual filters ineach of the servo valves. The overall filtration level is in the order of 35 p. absolute.
One manufacturer offers a preventive maintenance service of analyzing fluid samples drawn from the
machine to be sure contamination is not incipient. He even provides a convenient tap to draw the
fluid from and clean sample bottles for that purpose. Obviously, great care must be taken when hydraulic
lines are opened for any reason to avoid introducing contaminants into the system.

Pneumatically powered robots have similar requirements for media cleanliness. In addition, adequate
means for water separation is quite important. Plant compressed air supplies are notorious for the
amount of condensate (water) in them. Water separators should be of a self-purging type but should
be checked at frequent intervals. They should be located directly at the inlet to the machine. Undoubtedly,
there would be additional filters internal to the machine that would require servicing.
Usually there are a few lubrication points in the manipulator that require infrequent but regular
attention. In some cases a lubricant must be applied to bearing surfaces, but generally there are reservoirs
to be filled such as oil bowls or grease to be injected through appropriate fittings.

Most robot systems are and have air filters at the inlet. These require fairly frequent
air cooled
servicing to avoid overheating of the machine and the damaging effects that can result. Although the
manufacturer will provide recommended servicing intervals, the requirements will vary considerably
depending on the environment. Very dusty or oil-ladened atmospheres can clog filters in short order.
Care must be taken that the inlet air temperature does not exceed the manufacturer’s ratings of the
machine and, where necessary, cool (but not necessarily air-conditioned) clean air may have to be
piped into the robot.
The second element of the robot is its control section, which may be integrated into the manipulator
or a separate, free-standing console, suitably connected to the manipulator. The controls are either
FIs. 35.17. End.of-arm tooling Design complexity w application dependent, (o) Dus! gnppeC
gnppf^
Outer diamefer/lnner diameter gnpper, (c) Simple vacuum gnppcr, (d) Inflatable bladders
for outer diameter (Photo courtesy of Ummalion. Inc )

738
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 737

electrical, electronic, or pneumatic.They are either air-cooled or air-conditioned and in either case
will have preventive maintenance care. In the case of pneumatic logic controls,
air filters requiring

filters for the pressurized air will require regular attention.

In general, maintenance of the control
will involve functional checks and electrical/electronic adjust-
ments, also observations of themounting security of components, potential fraying of wires and cables,
and the condition of connections and connectors.
Functional checks involve operating all manual controls and switches in a prescribed manner as
well as checking power supply voltages and the like. Recognizing that many of the manual controls
are left untouched during production running, it is important to check their function periodically so

that they are available for use when needed. Proper voltage levels and control settings are essential
to maintaining peak performance and productivity.
Especially critical are the servo control settings that control acceleration, deceleration, and velocity
parameters. Improper settings can adversely affect machine cycle times or induce wear and breakage,
or both. In association with these settings is proper nulling of servo valves (in the case of hydraulically

powered robots). If valves are not properly nulled, proper control settings cannot be made and “ragged”
motions will result.
Obviously, the required maintenance procedures for the robot’s control and memory will vary
widely depending on the particular design and complexity. It cannot be stressed enough that such
procedures should be preventive in nature and should determine the availability of all machine functions.
The degree to which the manufacturer gives this attention in his manuals, training courses, and mainte-
nance checklists will be indicative of the quality of the product in terms of performance and maintainabil-
ity.

The
third element of the robot is its end-of-arm tooling. Because it is just that tooling and — —
varies from application to application, it is usually not included in discussions of robot reliability
and maintainability. Yet the perceived reliability and performance of the robot hinges on its dependabil-
ity. Robot tooling can also be one of the most challenging aspects of robotic application to the work

place. Chapter 37, End-of-Arm Tooling, describes the analysis and design of end effectors. Additional
discussion is included here from the aspects of reliability and maintenance.
End-of-arm tooling takes the form of gripping devices of all sorts or process tools such as paint
spray heads, welding torches or guns, riveters, drills, and grinding wheels.
Grippers usually provide a clamping action to grip the work through a pneumatically actuated
mechanism. The simplest form involves handling round or cylindrical parts, one at a time. Dual grippers
capable of handling two parts at a time are common, especially in machine tool load/unload operations.
More complex configurations are required for irregular-shaped parts or for applications where the
workpiece changes shape through progressive operations. Sometimes two or even three independently
actuated actions must be built into the gripper. Figure 35.17 shows a variety of designs.
Vacuum grippers are quite common. Magnetic methods are also employed but to a lesser degree.
Also, highly sophisticated or “intelligent” grippers are being developed that provide tactile capabilities
such as force feedback and/or programmable characteristics to accommodate a variety of workpiece
sizes.

The design criteria for robot grippers is rather demanding.

They must be strong and durable. They are susceptible to damage or distortion due to robot program-
ming errors, stuck parts, “crashes.”
They must be as, light as possible (not very compatible with the first requirement). Every pound
of gripper weight is a pound less of payload (workpiece) that can be handled by the robot.
They must have dimensional stability and be able to hold the workpiece orientation under high g
forces (acceleration and deceleration of the robot). The inherent repeatability of the robot is meaning-
less if positional accuracy is lost in the gripper.

They must often have some built-in compliance or automatic alignment capability to accommodate
positioning tolerances.
They must be fast acting. Clamping and unclamping motions are almost always additive to the
work cycle and directly affect production rate.
And, finally, they must be maintainable. Gripping surfaces wear. Sliding bearing surfaces are subject
to foreign material buildup and damage. Linkages loosen up. In the case of vacuum cups their
edges wear and begin to leak.

A well-designed gripper will but normal wear and tear can be expected. Therefore
meet these criteria,
preventive maintenance is Regular lubrication may be required.
essential but usually quite simple.
Worn parts should be replaced. This is particularly true of the gripping surfaces, whether they be
composition pads, hardened inserts, or whatever. (They should be designed for easy replacement.)
Vacuum cups should be inspected for damage and replaced. If venturis are used, air supply pressure
must be checked and adjusted for peak performance. In all cases the design should provide for quick
740 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

and eas> replacemeni (preferably) »ithoal requiring leprogramming of the robot as a result of mainte-

nance measures
Most of the same demands are placed on process tools, which can often be more prone to causing
downtime or producing poor quality work than arc gnppers Hence, regular maintenance is critical,
the nature of which will depend on the particular tool In fact, it may
be necessary or desirable to
build into the robot's program maintenance measures For example, spot
weld gun tips must be penodi-
cally dressed to produce high-strength welds and to avoid sticking to the workpiece Special dressing
wheels can be so located that the robot can pass the Ups over the wheels A similar situation exists
with arc-welding torches, which tend to clog Means for cleaning them automatically are easily devised
And so It IS also for paint spray heads
From this it should be clear that the end-of-arm tooling is a cntical element in the reliability

chain and must be included in a comprehensive maintenance program

35.3 J. Planning for Maintenance and Repair

Prerequisite to any well-planned and executed preventive maintenance program is the availability of
skilled personnel,and this implies trained personnel personnel trained not only to maintain, trouble-
shoot and repair, but also trained in how the machine operates and how to operate it The more
familiar the maintenance personnel is with what the robot can do and what is expected of it, the
more proficient they will be in tending to its needs
Also, as one can readily understand from our discussion of availability and MTTRi it is essential
Any reliable robot manufacturer will have a field service organization
that these skills reside in-house
of highly trained technicians capable of supporting the customer in every way But the user will be
well counseled to become virtually self-supporting and defer to outside resources only when confronted
with unusual problems Otherwise, the time to restore equipment to a running condition following a
failure will, in most cases, be intolerably long The most timely use of the manufacturer’s technician
IS during the mstaJUtion and start-up phases of the system Even then, it should be a team efort
dunng which the customer personnel receive on-ihe-job training to reinforce their ’’basic*' training

Selection of the personnel to be trained isan important pan of planning the whole job In unioniz^
organizations it is even more critical because it may be necessary to negotiate which craftspersons

and tradespersons will be assigned to what tasks This is sometimes a controversial issue and deserves
some discussion
As we have is made up of a vanety of mechanical components and also a
already seen, the robot
vanety of eleclncaiyelectronic control devices, all of which are mexincably entwined to produce a
working machine, not m
the least unlike NC and CNC
machine tools and other high-technology
production equipment It is argued that to service such equipment with several diQ'erent classes of
skilled people — electncians, millwnghts, electronic technicians, hydraulic tradespersons— having sepa-
rate and — —
divided responsibilities is like the proverbial camel built by a committee Others will argue
the merits of maintaining these different disaplines as the only way to insure a team of experts and
not a group of jack$-of-all-trades There are menis m
both arguments, and the solution most often
willbe determined on the basis of what works best for the individual, plant, or company It has
worked both ways with varying degrees of success However, for the benefit of efficiency, proficiency,
and fast response time, the trend is toward integrated skills and responsibilities

35.3.3. Trainiog for Maintenance and Repair

Training starts with management More precisely, it starts with an understanding by management of
the need and a commitment to meeting that need Furthermore, it should be fostered in an atmosphere
of defined objectives and mutual goals Thus good communications between all departments and at
This may sound tnfc, but time and again projects have failed, or have been less
all levels is essential

than the success they might have been, because of poor communication and lack of a weIl-concei*ed
plan This is especially true when introducing new Icchnolt^ies into the workplace
—
Training, then, starts (or should) with an understanding of the project what it is and why it
u—by all concerned Lack of understanding createsa Ihreatemng atmosphere, and this is counterproduc-
tive {Figure 35 18) The threats are in the eyes of the beholder For upper or top management, it is

the threat of a bad investment, for manufactunng engineenng it ts the threat of technological complexity,
for production managers it is the threat of interrupted schedules and delayed shipments, for line supervi-
sors It IS the threat of change, for production workers it is the threat of lost sccunty. and for
the

maintenance department it is the threat of unmerciful demands m an atmosphere of confusion

—
These threats can be substantially eliminated by good communication starting off with a meetmi
«
of those who will be directly involved to describe and discuss what is being planned and why it
o
needed Such a meeting can easily be supported by audio/visual presentations (often with the help
®
the selected suppliers) that graphically illustrate the equipment and Kbw it will be used This
‘

kick-off, to be followed by a senes of ’*working" meetings through which detailed plans are
developed-

concerns expressed, potential problems aired, and plans of action laid By involving personnel, at
742 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

L*'llATF* In^lustrial Robots

M'JATF 'Serios 1010/20 }n/4030
TRAI'JtNf; CnORSF "A-I
npFOATIO"', PROORAMMING, anil MAIHTFMAVCF

A 4-1 '2 ciai course .icsirjned Cor custotBors neeilinij instruction in the areas of
operation, vroqranninq, naintenance, service, an-1 ad;] ustmen t of the 1030, 2030,
or 4030 Series unitlATE Industrial Robots.

We roconnonii Chat at least one or more of the followinq individuals, on each

shift, conpleco this course-

1. Operator 'Proqranner/Set-up Person

2. Electrical/Blectronic Maintenance Technician
3. Hydraulic/Mechanical Maintenance Technician
4. Equipment Maintenance Foreman/Supervisor
5. Production Forenan/Supervisor

Additional classifications that can benefit from the course are Systens, Pro-
;)ect. Application, Process Engineers, and other individuals involved in the
inplenentation of the robots. These 30 b titles and their responsibilities will
vary from firn to firm. Therefore, please contact the Technical Training/
Publications Departnent if there is a question regarding who should attend.

Program Includes :

1. Installation and safety procedures

2. Familiarization of standard control panel, teach control, auxiliary
functions, and options as applicable
3. Faniliarization of the hydromechanical and electrical systens and their
interaction
4. Sasic troubleshooting of typical problems using block diagrams, status
indicators, and a troubleshooting chart
5. Programming procedures, including exercises to understandi
a. advantages of a written program
b. use of accuracies
c. use of auxiliary functions as applicable
6. Electrical and nechanical adjustments to enable the student to:
a. zero encoders
b. null servo valves
c. adjust servo powsr amplifier board
d. adjuat geartrain backlash
7. Preventive maintenance procedures using the lOOO-hour checklist
8. Use of Tester, Cassette Recorder, and Editor in:
a. programming
b. troubleshooting
c. maintenance

NOTE
Maximum benefit will result when completion of the course is
just prior to receipt of the UNIMATE Industrial Robot.

21 Oct 1982

Fig. 35 19. Outline of typical robot training course (Courtesy of Unimalion, Inc

a history, should there be a chronic problem requiring his or her assistance In large operations the
computer is employed to collate and correlate the data Even modest-sized operations can benefit
from Its use
The value of this information, compulenzed or not, simply cannot be underestimated Unespected
interruptions in production cause chaos, create l osses, and can be tumultuous What is worse is being
unable to pinpoint and track the problem and ultimately eliminate it The historical record is an
invaluable fool to solving problems or, better yet, avoiding them
Next m
developing the maintenance plan is to provision for special tools, diagnostic equipment,
service kits,and spare parts Once again, the mamtcnance manager should enlist help and guidance
from the vendor In fact, the equipment manufacturer should have delivered this information as pad
of the documentation package
Ordmanly, the investment m special tools will be minimal, but the cost without them can be
measured in tens of thousands of dollars As the old adage goes time is money The most common
— adap-
“special" tools are circuit card pullers, torque wrenches, seal compressors, accumulator charging
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 741

°
HAfttGEMENI; FEAR OF A BAD INVESWSrr
°
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING: FEAR OF cof'PLEXlTY
°
PRCCUCTION; FEAR OF LOST PRQDUCTlOf)

“
LINE SUPERVISION; FEAR OF change
°
WORKERS; FEAR OF j® insecurity

° MAINTENANCE; fear of added pressure

Fig. 35.18. Fear of the unknown. Good communications lead to success.

levels, surprises can be minimized and dedication to success is generated. In such a cooperative working
environment, the often-neglected maintenance department will become an integral part of the team,
ready and able to fulfill its function when and as needed.
Once the maintenance manager has his or her charter he or she can begin to plan for the necessary
training of his or her personnel. Early on he or she will have to determine what skills are needed,
what skills are lacking, who will be assigned what tasks, and how they will be trained. reliable A
equipment manufacturer will offer appropriate training courses and will work closely with his or her
customer in meeting training needs. One such course is outlined in Figure 35.19. Note that it includes
recommendations for the type of people to be trained. In some cases more specific requirements must
be met, in which case tailor-made recommendations are available. Figure 35.20 is one such example
for automobile spot welding applications.
Sending the selected personnel to the vendor’s school (or arranging for him or her to conduct
beginning in the training program. The wise manager will
training in the user’s facility) is just the
look beyond this initial step to how he
or she will train and upgrade personnel on a continuing basis
to sharpen skills and to provide for personnel turnover. Thus “continuing education” programs within

the plant are most important. Here again, the vendor can help through his or her regular schools
and in many cases through “learner paced” courses of instruction that he or she may offer, much
like the familiar home study courses (see Figure 35.21). These refresher courses are an invaluable

means to maintain skills. Repair proficiency is inversely proportional to equipment reliability simply
because the required skills are used infrequently.
In addition to attending training schoolsand in-plant training programs, the selected personnel
should become involved with the installation of the equipment. In this way they will not only gain
additional knowledge but will become thoroughly familiar with its operation in the specific application.
Inevitably there are nuances to be learned, and these should be documented for the benefit of all on
a continuing basis.
All of this assumes that adequate instruction manuals and related documentation are available
from the equipment manufacturer and that they are readily available to those who will need them. It
is amazing, indeed, ludicrous, how often these all-important references are nowhere to be found or
in a location distant from where they are needed most.

35.3.4. Maintenance Program

Well in advance of the installation and start-up of the equipment, the maintenance manager will
want to establish a program of preventive maintenance, coordinate it with the production manager,
and provision for its support. This should be looked upon as a dynamic document that is adjusted
to experience.

Coordination with production is essential, as is a mutual understanding of the needs and purposes.
The best maintenance program in the world will be meaningless if production refuses to allot time
for its execution. If a one-shift operation is involved, scheduling should be no problem. If it is a

three-shift operation, then either weekend maintenance must be planned for or downtime scheduled
on one of the shifts. This must be negotiated, and the plan must be adhered to.
Initially, what work is to be performed and at what intervals will be best suggested by the vendor,

especially where the equipment is the first of its kind in the plant (see Figure 35.15). The maintenance
manager should consult with the supplier and take full advantage of his or her experience. Thereafter,
the list of items to be done and the schedule can be adjusted to the perceived need. As noted earlier,
replacement or cleaning of air filters may have to be done more often in some environments than
suggested by the vendor. Time may show that other items may be looked after at less frequent intervals
than recommended, but only after sufficient running time and performance results have been accumu-
lated.

This suggests another absolutely essential ingredient in an effective preventive maintenance and
repair —
program document all work. In the short term this is invaluable information for people working
on different shifts. In the long term it provides a data base for establishing trends and fine-tuning the
program (a management tool). Just as important is that it provides the equipment manufacturer with
 )

744 APPLICATION PLANNING INTEGRATION

Rg. 35.21 Maintenance of skills through 'Icamer paced” audio/visual courses of instruction (Photo
courtesy of Unimation. Inc )

be 12% of the robot cost when only one or two are purchased This can drop to 5% or even less for
a large ( 10 or more) number of robots Hence control of this inventory is an important part of maintenance
operations
examples were cited of large dollar values of spare parts inventory being
Earlier in this chapter,
scattered about and This is an expensive waste and is unconscionable Spare
virtually inaccessible
and stocked in an organized manner under some inventory control
parts must be in a secure area
system that not only makes them readily available but will also /iog a reorder point This need is
often overlooked with the resultant unavailability and excessive downtime — in spite of having thousands
of dollars of inventory on the shelves
Although the initial cost of spare parts is an unavoidable investment, there are ways to minimize
operating costs and avoid ballooning of this expense Control of the inventory is most important, as
already cited A second way is to expedite return of the replaced part to the vendor for repair or
replacement and rapid return This will avoid or minimize the tendency for the total inventory to
escalate

Item Descnption

Torque Wrench 0 to SOO Inch-pounds

Torque Wrench 30 to 250 Foot-pounds
Pin Extraction Tool Cfnimation, 106AH1
Multimeter Simpson, Model 260 or equivalent
Feeler Gage
[•Inch Micrometer __
Tester Ummation, Model 502A2/A3
Standard Hand Tools _
Grade C Loctile Unimation, 101D2
Down Support Tool Ummation, I06BG2
Bladder Insertion Tool Unimation, 106V2
Rotary Seal Compressor Ummation. 106AS1
Rotary Piston Spanner Unimation, 106BY1
Out-In Servo Valve Nulling Tcwl Ummation, 106BAI

Inc
Fig. 35.22. A typical list of special tools for nuintenance and repair (Courtesy of Unimation.
 . :

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 743

Considerations when organizing the

Operation-Maintenance Department of
an "Automated" Factory

people assigned to the above department will not be responsible for plant
maintenance. The Plant Maintenance Department would be responsible for the
physical building and i-ts systems, such as electrical, water, heat, air-condi-
tioning, pneumatic, gas, sewers, etc. The responsibility for these systems
as applicable would end at the point where it is attached to a disconnect/shut
off device at the automated unit.

From this disconnect/shut off device, thru and to the working end of the auto-
mated unit would be the responsibility of the "Automated Machine, Operation/
Maintenance Department." Personnel in this department would have one or more
of the following "categories" of responsibilities:

POSITION CATEGORY OF RESPONSIBILITY (Relative to company organization. Union

Contracts, etc.):
Category A - Overall Responsibility for:

"Welding machine" (an industrial robot, its attached weld gun, and
1.
weld controller).
2. The ancillary equipment.
Category B - Specific responsibility for one system (e.g. hydraulic, pneu-
matic, electrical, electronic, etc., for the welding machine and ancillary
equipment)
Category C - Specific responsibility for completing scheduled preventive
maintenance checks. The need for this type of position is normally relative to
the installation size (the larger, the greater the need) and can include one or
both of the following:
1. Servicing of "fluids, filters, and lube" only, or include
2. Minor adjustments and repairs.
If "1" is selected then "2" would be the responsibility of Category A or Cate-
gory B above.

POSITION LEVELS OF RESPONSIBILITY (Relative to education, training, and

experience)
Level 1 is for persons with limited responsibility for a single system or
function of the "unit." They should be able to operate and/or program the unit
and complete the "Daily Start Up Checkout" and "Operator Maintenance" as re-
quired. Additionally, recognition of typical fault symptoms for description
to Level 2 and/or 3 people is also required except for Category "C,l" people.
Level 2 is for persons who have nearly full responsibility for all systems
and functions of the "unit." They have the same responsibilities as Level 1
people, and additionally perform maintenance, adjustment, and removal/replace-
ment of certain specified components that do not require the expertise of
Level 3. They will also complete the "300 hour/raonthly Preventive Maintenance
Check List."
Level 3 is for people who have full responsibility for all systems and
functions relative to the "unit" including Levels 1 and 2 above. Because of
their broader and greater experience and/or training, they will be certified to
perform the more complex or technical maintenance adjustments and removal/
replacement procedures.

Fig. 35.20. Example of skill selection recommendations for training. (Courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

|ers,alignment fixtures, and the like. The list, perforce, will be peculiar to the specific equipment
involved. Figure 35.22 is
an illustration of such lists.
In addition to special tools, the department must be equipped with proper diagnostic equipment.
In some cases this will only involve multimeters, gages, and similar devices probably already available
in the department. In
other cases special diagnostic tools (see Figure 35.23) must be purchased.
Another item that should be stocked by the maintenance department is preventive maintenance
kits, usually available from the equipment manufacturer. When supplied and stocked as kits, a long

listof items need not be pulled from inventory before going to the job site. The kit can be obtained
with the security that everything needed will be supplied without repeated trips to the stock room.
Figure 35.24 lists such a kit of parts. Note that it even includes paper towels and a copy of the
manufacturer’s suggested PM (preventive maintenance) checklist.
an adequate selection of spare parts must be readily available. As was stressed earlier,
Finally,

availability is short mean time to restore. And that can only be achieved by having
the secret to high
replacement parts on hand. The most highly skilled technician will be “dead in the water” without
this inventory.
Most manufacturers will recommend what this inventory should be for the model of
machine purchased and what quantities, based on the number of machines in the installation or plant
and the statistical
(MTBF) likelihood of the need. The total acquisition cost of this inventory may
746 APPUCATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION
’*
A perfectly running robot rendered useless without a working “hand
is Not only must the gnpper
or tool be properly mamumed, but also replacement parts must be m
inventory In particularly critical
or hazardous operations an entire spare assembly may be most judicious
Figure 3S 2S IS a plan for maintenance checklist that summarizes this discussion It is intended
to emphasize the need for a well-founded plan and means for execution Maintenance is a business
and should be run like a business It's been estimated that automated systems carry an annual mainte-
nance cost of 10% of their acquisition cost Available data indicate that this figure is about 11% for
industnal robots
Furthermore, preventive maintenance is becoming a major contributor to profit and productivity-
increasing strategies For example, the jusl-in-lime methodology for reducing manufacturing inventories
to their lowest possible level mandates that every smgle machine in the manufactunng process function
perfectly all the time Under these conditions, poor mamtoiance programs will surface rapidly

35.4. SAFETY
The industnal robot is a very effective safely problem solver At the same time it poses some safety

issues that must be given close attention when designing a robotic work cell

35.4.1. A Safety Solution

By very (anthropomorphic) nature, the robot is able to assume dangerous tasks heretofore assigned
Its

to human operators and to live comfortably in atmospheres that are debilitating to humans Indeed,
a large number of jobs U was given in its early stages of development were selected solely to reduce
human exposure to hazardous and hfe-lhrcatenmg conditions, for example, power press loading, die
casting, and injection molding machine tending Added impetuous was provided by the OSHAct of
1971 which, in seeking ways to minimize risk to the worker, imposed costly safety standards for
protection (and rightly so) The robot solution to safely not only alleviates nsk to life and limb, but
also, unlike most safety measures, yields useful work * Thus the robot can be a more cost-effective
means for making the workplace safe This aspect should not be overlooked when evaluating the
economics of robotic applications

35.4.2. A Safety Problem

Throughout this chapter we have placed emphasis on viewing a robotic installation as a system made
up of component pans rather than taking a narrow view and considenng the robot only
several
This pamcularly important when addressing the issue of safety and acadent prevention
IS

Typically, the robot and its end-of-arm tooling interfaces with other machinery, conveyors, fixtures,
load/unload stations, and often with a central control or computer In some instances it also interfaces
with human operators For example, the operator may penodically load parts into a magazine feeding
the robot, or he/she may load and unload an arc welding fixture. Figure 3S 26
Obviously, then, a safety evaluation must consider aJI of these aspects, not only as it relates to
life and limb but also to the protection of expensive equipment Further, nsk assessment must take

—
vanous modes of operation of the system normal working, programming, mainte-
into consideration the
—
nance, and so on since varying safety related conditions will prevail
Safety conscious managements, incited by the OSHAct. have developed accident prevention guide-

n/ get IKVCB.VED WITH THE PROJECT AT THE START

y/ PLAN FOR TRAINING

y/ IDENTIFY REQUIRED SKILLS

EXECUTE TRAINING PLAN

y/ INVOLVE PERSONNEL AT INSTALLATION

DEVELOP AND COORDINATE KAIHTENWJCE PLAN

y/ PROVISION FOR SPARE PARTS. TOOLS, DIAGNOSTICS

^ DEVELOP WORK DOCUMDJTATIOH PLAN

rWINTENANCE IS A BUSINESS — RUN IT LIKE ONE

Fig. 35J5. A plan for maintenance check list

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 745

Fig. 35.23. Robot diagnostic tool for maintenance and repair. (Photo courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

many cases the manufacturer

Third, take full advantage of the vendor’s repair-or-replace policy. In
will repaira failed part to a like-new condition at a fraction (less than one-third) of the new part
pnce. In some cases he or she will, in an emergency downtime situation, immediately dispatch a
replacement part at the same (repair) cost, providing he/she receives the defective part in return.
What often defeats this cost-saving opportunity is failure of the maintenance department to see that
the bad part is —
returned to the vendor. Once again discipline and control.
One final point on the subject of spare parts provisioning; Do not forget the end-of-arm tooling.

Item Unimation
Number Description Part Number
1 Preventive Maintenance Kit, 4000B 403BD1
a. Air Filter, Oil Cooler 318E6
b. Air Filter, Electronic Cabinet 318AF1
c. Hydraulic Oil Filter Kit, 4000B 403CY1
d. 3-Ounce Jar Lubriplate, 130-AA 99H1
e. 1-Pound Can “Gearshield X” 99J1
f. Lintless Paper Towel Package —
g- 28-Ounce Spray Bottle “Fantastic” Cleaner —
h. Oil Sample Bottle 720Z1
i. Oil Sampling Procedure 402 ALl
j- Preventive Maintenance Check List 402H1
k. 1 -Quart Can Extension Rod Lubricant 99AA1
2 UNIMATE Hydraulic Fluid, 99S2
1 -Gallon Container (4 each)
3 Transfer Block Seal, Air 12IH3

Fig. 35.24. Typical preventive maintenance parts kit. (Courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)
 )

748 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

35.4.4. Robot Safety Features

A well-engineered robot will include, to the greatest extent possible, practical safety features that
take into account all modes of operation— normal working, programming, and maintenance* Some
features are common to all robots, others arc peculiar to the type of robot, particularly with regard
to Its motive power
In the normal working mode (assuming proper safeguards against human intrusion into the work
area) most safety features are for the protection of the equipment Typically, these will include electneal
interlocks between the robot and the machmeiy with which it works, signifying safe or "ready” conditions
and the like Interrogation of these signals will be part of the robot's program and placed strategically
m the proper sequence Thus the robot will not reach into a press unless a signal indicates the press
IS open Similarly, the press is actuated by the robot only when its arm is clear Or, the robot will

pick up a workpiece from an oneniing fixture only if a sensor signifies part presence and in proper
position
In some cases optical or infrared sensors are used, as in sensing that a part has been removed
and, indeed, in the robot’s gnpper before cycling a die casting machine, lest damage be done to costly
dies In other cases redundancy is used independent of the robot's program For example, before an
automobile spot welding line conveyor can shuttle, all robots on the line must signal (by limit switch
sensing) that they are clear and the arm is retracted Without this safety provision car bodies have
been destroyed along with robot arms
All of this may sound mundane, but one does well to play the "what if" game when designing
an interlock system to avoid costly equipment damage and downtime More than one robot arm has
been crushed by a press that double-stroked and tools have been broken by improperly seated parts
Obviously, too, the sensing units used must be highly reliable (and maintained) and selected to fail
to a safe condition
Also, the entire system should be analyzed in process interrupt, emergency shutdown, and power
failure modes in an attempt to avoid damaging results For example, most robots can be put ^y an
operator or automatically) into "HOLD" condition, which essentially stops all motion instantaneously,
or into a “STEP” mode in which it will complete the command currently being executed, but not
proceed further These are desirable operational features But. once again, care must be taken in the
interlock design that the consequences of such action will not cause "crashes” between equipment
because of cycling that has already been initiated
Similar analyses should be made in the event of an emergency shutdown or power failure. This is
not easy because of the randomness of such occurrences and because of transient actions (e g transient ,

relay cycling) which may take place One manifesialion of this is power interruption due to a safety
system response to human intrusion into the work area While personnel safety is of pnme importance,
methods (even procedural m nature) should be devised to minimize consequential equipment damage
A well-designed robot will include other safety features, relaied to the equipment eompletity and
sophistication, to minimize the effects of malfunctions such as, m the case of computer-controlled
machines, parity checks, checksums, cyclic redundancy, error detecting, and the like Also, they will
include "software” stops, electrical stops, and “hard" stops, adjustable to the work cell layout
The robot setup and programming mode presents an additional set of conditions that is directly
related to human safety In most instances, personnel will have to work within the robot’s sphere of
infiuence to teach it its task In the case of computer-controlled robots, the program sequence can be
developed through a keyboard terminal However, spatial locations requinng precise positioning
off-line
are done with some form of teach pendant and usually require the operator to be close to the manipulator
arm extremity Since most robots m
this class are either eleclncally or hydraulically driven, the following
discussion concentrates on large machmes of these types
Since these machmes are capable of carrying payloads of 300 lb or more at velocities on the order
of 60 in /see, tt IS obvious (hat severe injury could be mflicted upon anyone in its path Therefore,
safety features in the programming or teach mode are essential to good robot design
and foremost, the speed and power that the control system is able to deliver in the teach
First
mode must be limited It should be reduced to a point where an operator can get out of the arm s
way fast enough if it should move unexpectedly, and if he is entrapp^, that its force not cause injury
In normal (teach) operation, speed is usually limited to less than one-tenth of full speed, but this is
usually accomplished through electrical means A failure can still result m full power being applied
One technique used to eliminate this potential in hydraulic machines is to restnet ihe fluid flow m a
fail-safe manner and, as an added precaution, to mcorporate a hydraulic “fuse” which will rapidly
sense excess flow and shut the machine down Such systems have been demonstrated to limit arm
travel m
a catastrophic failure mode to 0 5 m
In the case of electrically powered machmes, this has

been accomplishedbyswitching to alow powersourcem Ihe teach condition (Regarding our discussions
on maintenance, testing of these featuies should be part of the PM
checklist if at all possible
Such design approaches attempt to reduce to the absolute minimum the number of components
whose failure could cause injury To illustrate, take Ihe case of a servo-controlled hydraulically powered
robot It IS likely that even TEACH it is still under servo control Therefore component failure
m
 —

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 747

Fig. 35.26. Robot/operator interface. Operator loads parts fixture while robot welds assembly. (Photo
courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

lines and techniques for most equipment found on the factory floor, giving due consideration to the
potential for human entanglement, shearing actions, trapping and pinch points, molten metal ejection,
electrical shock, high heat, and the like. All of these precautions are applicable to robotic work cells
and to the robot itself. However, there are unique characteristics of the robot and robotic interfaces
that demand special attention.

35.4.3. The Robot

The Robot Industries Association (and other associations around the world) defines a robot as a
position-controlled "reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts,
tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety
of tasks.”
From a safety standpoint, the three words in italics are key reprogrammable, multifunctional,
variable — because they define a variable mission machine with the implication of “planned unpredictabil-
ity.”For example, one might watch an operating robot for half an hour doing the same thing over
and over. Suddenly it takes a different path because it has received a part-reject signal and has been
instructed to remove the piece from the production flow.
Also, in many applications, the task does not require the robot to reach the extremities of which
It is capable. Its repetitive operation can lull one into erroneously believing what he sees are the
extremities.
At the onset, then, these basic characteristics must be guarded against:

Space intrusion by the robot into unsecured areas.

The “hypnotic” syndrome of repetitive operation.
The unseen communication links (interlocks/interfaces) calling for alternate actions and subroutines.
 )

750 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Pig. 35.28. A robot TEACH pendant (Photo courtesy ol Unimation, Inc

up by the user maintenance department, must be observed Figure 35 29 sets the tone in one manufactur-
er'smanual FoUoumg these guidelines are several pages of general “Do's and Do Net's," and throughout
the manual WARNINGS and CAUTIONS arc highlighted They are particularly prevalent in the
troubleshooting and pans replacement sections of the manual, in the interest of human safety
Maintenance safety features built into the robot will depend on the type of motive power In all
cases, however, it is assumed that the equipment has been designed to applicable electncal, hydraulic,
and/or pneumatic standards
Some other features designed into the robot specifically to facilitate maintenance are manual or
automatic hydraulic or pneumatic pressure dumping, locking brakes on electnc dnve motors, and
control system POWER-ON only (i e , no manipulator power) In at least one case of a servoed robot,
the manufacturer provides a manual control pendant (Figure 35 30) which permits moving of the
mampulator articulations by an operator without power to the robot’s control system In addition to
these built-io features, most robot manufacturers offer maintenance aids (tools and fixture) to facilitate
maintenance safety

35.4.5. Work Oil Safeguards

Accident prevention requires an appraisal of the potential or actual hazards in the workplace, and
therefore depends on the equipment and processes involved Therefore an m-depth assessment of the
nsks must be made with at least three objectives

To identify the hazards

To protect against the hazards

To avoid costly, unnecessary complexity

For these reasons nsk assessment has become rather sophisticated, and there are a number of publications
that treat it in depth

In the case of the robotic work cell, the first thing to evaluate is whether or not the robot
is

capable of causing injury Most of our discussion has been with large robots mmd, but there are
m
many small machines that pose little or no danger to life and limb Obviously, they would not require
assessment o
elaborate safety measures Likewise, some operations are not very complex, and nsk
interlocks and interfaces and the consequences of their failure is a simple matter
In complex systems involving large robots and heavy machinery, nsk assessment becomes
and requires a methodical approach —and a large dose of common sense The Machine Tool Tra
 —

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 749

could yield unexpected motion. If at the same time, electrical/electronic circuits failed that normally
limit speed (and power), injury could result. Or if a servo valve failed internally to a “hard-over”
condition, maximum fluid flow would occur. Obviously, there are a number of events in the safety
chain, any one of which could cause an accident. By using an absolute flow restrictor and sensor to
turn the machine off, much of this chain is bypassed.
This is not to say that redundancy should not be employed. To the contrary, this is good design
practice as long as redundancy in design does not reduce the overall reliability of the safety net.
Other robot safety features include “dead-man” switches on the teach pendant, remote emergency
and so forth, in addition to those already mentioned. Figure 35.27 summarizes the most
stop buttons,
common robot safety provisions. Figure 35.28 shows a typical teach pendant.
In addition to safety design features of the robot, there are some other issues related to setup and
teaching that should be briefly mentioned here, in keeping with our holistic approach to the robotic
work cell.

First, recognize that the very nature of end-of-arm tooling requires great operator care because of
pinch points, and so forth. Also, through operator error or equipment failure there is risk of dropping
a workpiece. Unless the operator can stand completely clear of these risks, safety precautions are
almost entirely procedural and
with the knowledge and training of the operator.
rest
Second, other machinery in thework cell should be disarmed when programming the robot, and
interlocking, whether directly through the robot’s control or a central control, must be appropriately
designed so that inadvertent or unexpected cycling of this machinery cannot occur.
Third, program tryout should only be done under the same safety precautions as for “NORMAL
RUNNING.” Even though checkout may be done at reduced speeds and in step-at-a-time modes,
and so on, undoubtedly the most important safety features prevailing in TEACH will be disarmed in
playback.
programming it is simply good practice to have two people involved one doing
Fourth, during —
the programming and the other observing and standing by an emergency stop button.
We have discussed robot safety features in the normal working and programming modes. A third
—
mode remains maintenance. Maintenance work, and particularly troubleshooting and repair, must
be performed under rigid safety precautions. Once again, these will be highly procedural, and strict
adherence to the robot manufacturer’s instructions in his equipment manuals, as well as to those set

FEATURE

POWER DISCONNECT SWITCH Removes all power ac machine junction box

LINE INDICAfOR Indicates incoming power is connected at junction box

POWER ON BUTTON Energizes all machine power

CONTROL POWER ONLY BUTTON Applies power to control section only

ARM POWER ONLY BUTTON Applies power to manipulator only

STOP BUTTON, LATCHING Removes manipulator and control power

hold/run button Stops arm motion, leaves power on

TEACH PENDANT TRIGGER Must be held in by operator for arm power in TEACH

STEP BUTTON Permits program execution one step-at-a-time

SLOW SPEED CONTROL Permits program execution ac reduced speeds

TEACH/PLAYBACK MODE SELECTOR Provides operator with control over operating mode

PROGRAM RESET Drops system out of playback mode

CONDITION INDICATORS AND MESSAGES Provides visual indication by lights or display screens
of system condition

PARITY CHECKS, ERROR DETECTING ETC. Computer techniques for self checking a variety of functions

SERVO MOTOR BRAKE Maintains arm position at stand-still

hydraulic "FUSE" Protects against high speed motion/force in TEACH

SOFTWARE STOPS Computer controlled travel limit

hardware stops Absolute travel limit control

hanual/auiomatic dump Provides means to relieve hydraulic/pneumatic pressure

remote connections Permits remoting of essential nachine/safety functions

Fig. 35.27. Some robot safety features.

 )

752 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Mushroom
head switch

Fig. 35.30. A manual control pendant to dnvc manipulator joints without servo control power (Cour-
tesy of Unimation, Inc

8. Determine whether a fixed guard can be used

If fixed guards cannot be used, then consider the use of interlocked guards Determine
the
9
type of interlocking system appropriate to the circumstances The interlocking system should
give a reasonable level of integnty appropnate to the nsk in question and should enable
regular effeciivc maintenance checks to be made Any "monitoring’* system should be carefully
examined to assess its effectiveness
of
10 When analyzing the system under “abetrant" behavior, a similar process of examination
the hazards and then a nsk assessment is earned out The hazards may be more difficult to
a
determine because they may only exist on railure of part of the machine system such a$
control system malfunction on the robot An alternative to guarding m
such circumstance
might be to improve the safety miegnty of the control system m question, retaining the inferloc
mg safeguards proposed for "designed” behavior
will
After particular measures have been taken, a reassessment of the system integnty
II,
necessary If the hazards are minimized/prevented, reassessment of nsks will also be
necessary ^
In most cases and particularly where the nsks are high, it is preferable to
assume
case” when designing the safeguarding system and work on the premise that specific
ma un
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 751

SAFETY SUMMARY

I. The following is mandatory reading for all personnel who find themselves in or
around the area that the UNIMATE can reach. (See Figure 2-2.)
Personnel cannot be expected to knowledgeably and safely apply, operate, or
maintain a UNIMATE by just making the appropriate equipment manual
available; no more than a man can knowledgeably and safely fly an airplane,
operate a lathe, or repair a complex transfer device by reading a "How To "

manual.

This equipment manual is written under the assumption the user has attended
the UNIMATE Training Course conducted by the Unimation Inc. Department of
Training and has a basic working knowledge of the UNIMATE.

This equipment manual is NOT to be considered a self-teaching vehicle.

Failure to comply with the above and subsequent warnings can result in serious
injury to personnel and/or major damage to the UNIMATE.

II. There are three levels of special notation used in this equipment manual. In
descending order of importance, they are:

WARNING
Used to signify that when the statement is not complied
with, serious injuries will occur to personnel and/or major
damage will be inflicted on the UNIMATE.

CAUTION
Used to signify that when the statement is not complied
with, the UNIMATE may be inflicted with minor to near
major damage.

Note

Used to give supplementary information or to emphasize a

point, procedure, functional check, etc.

Fig. 35.29. Safety is highlighted in the equipment manual. (Courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

Association in the United Kingdom has published an excellent guide entitled Safeguarding Industrial
Robots’’ and in it is outlined a framework for risk assessment as follows;

1. Determine the mode of operation, that is, normal working, programming, maintenance.
2. Carry out a hazard analysis to determine potential areas of doing harm.
3. Determine whether “designed” or “aberrant” behavior is to be considered.
4. Determine if hazards are liable to lead to injury.

5. If so, then consider whether there are any recognized methods of guarding the particular
machine concerned. At present, such standards may well be available for the associated machin-
ery but probably not for the robot.
6. Consider whether such standards are appropriate, particularly in the context of machines
being used in conjunction with robots. For example, the risk assessment could be different
for a machine with a human operator than for one that is associated with a robot. One
factor that will affect this risk is whether or not the human operator will take over from the
robot during, for example, robot failure.
7. If no standard is available, consider what the logical steps should be to establish a reasonable
standard for the particular application.
7S4 APPLICATION PLANNING- INTEGRATION

Input

Fig 35.32 Safety enclosure fonned, in part, by work cell machines (Photo courtesy Machine Tool
Trades Association

are strategically —
and conveniently located especially start-slop controls Provide for access

into the area as required for Cool/setup changes, arnval and removal of pallets of workpieces,
manual load/unload stations, and so on, and maintenance activities

3. Evaluate whether restncted motion (bard stops) of the robot will facilitate or improve safety

precautions or will conserve floor space Adjust the layout accordingly

4. Design the interlock/interface system between all elements of the work cell as required, including
gates
safety interlocks between the equipment and between the equipment and bamer-access
Evaluate the need for pnmary and secondary or redundant safety interlocks (eg, m
addition
sensors
to interlocked safety gates designed to stop operations, tnp devices such as optical
 —

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 753

Fig. 35.31. Typical safety fence work cell enclosure. (Photo courtesy of Machine Tool Trades Associa-
tion.)

tions will occur. It is not prudent to rely solely on the digital programmable electronic system
of, say, the robot for allsafeguarding features unless a very detailed assessment has been
carried out, which may be beyond the competence of the average user.
12. After the analysis has been carried out for normal working, programming, and maintenance
any safeguarding interlocks considered necessary for any one of these modes must be compatible
with the requirements of the other from both a functional and a safety integrity point of
—
view consideration should also be given to emergency stop controls and whether adequate
integrity is achieved.
13. The need cannot be overemphasized for documentation concerned with the analysis, decisions,
and systems of work, and so on relating to hazards analysis, risk assessment, safety integrity
assessments, maintenance requirements, and so on.

35.4.6. Design for Safety

Safeguards should be considered an integral part of the work cell(s) design and provided for at the
planning stages. To do otherwise could incur extra expense later on and might compromise safety
effectiveness. A generalized approach is outlined:

1. Develop an installation layout showing all equipment. Plan and elevation views will usually
be required.
2. Lay out a safety enclosure (fencing) around the work cell to preclude human and machinery
(e.g., forklift trucks) intrusion. Utilize nonmoving work cell machinery as part of the barrier

where possible. Reappraise the layout to see that electrical and control panels and consoles
756 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

There are other precautions that good management will give attention to, such as adequate lighting
where and when ne^ed, safety stnpes, warning signs, fire protection, most of which enhance accident
prevention at nominal cost One user is known to have painted similar equipment different colors,
including their associated control cabinets, simply to reduce potential confusion and operator mistakes
You will note that the user of safety barriers or fencing is a foregone conclusion Regardless of
any other accident prevention measures, fencing is almost always a must There are several reasons
for this

Their very existence (painted appropriately) is a warning even to someone unfamiliar with what
they enclose and to the casual oteerver Remember the “hypnotic” syndrome
Safety bamers preclude matenal-handhng equipment and other vehicles in the plant from being
inadvertently moved into a danger zone
Properly interlocked bamer gates tend to enforce procedural discipline when authorized personnel
need to gain access to the work area Tampenng with the equipment when not operating is mmimtzed
Properly designed, bamers will eliminate or at least reduce the potential hazard of objects (work-
pieces) rolling or even flying out of the work area

Sometimes there are other types of bamers or safety screens required that are unique to the applica-
tion Most common is the need for eye protection for woikets and passersby tn robotic arc welding
This will usually take the form of curtains of an approved composition that can easily be drawn
around the welding area Painting applications require simibf precautions Since some kind of spray
booth and exhaust system is prerequisite to the job, at least part of the safety issue will automatically
be satisfied
New situations will constantly anse as robotic applications expand For example,
robots are beginning
to be applied in laser beam welding and culling In each case nsk assessment is necessary and accident
preventing measures devised As before, good engineering and common sense will yield the solutions
Figures 35 31 and 35 32 show typical safely fence guard arrangements’ Note in Figure 35 32
that the die castingand extrusion machines form part of the bamer Obviously, it is essential that
the fencing abut the machinery so that a person cannot squeeze through Similar precautions must

Fig. 35,34. A fenced robotic work cell designed by Massey Ferguson

 Fig. 35.33. Safety fencing in an A. O. Smith Press line. (Top: without fencing.)

electromagnetic shields). Also consider key locks on gates to limit access to authorized personnel
only.

5. Review the design to be sure safety provisions are fail-safe.

6. Consider the use of visuals (signs, flashing lights) and audio devices to indicate condition of
the operation and to sound alarms.
7. Review all aspects of the final design with sign-offs by manufacturing engineering, production,
maintenance, safety officers, and any others deemed appropriate.

This is a suggested approach. Others can be developed with equal or better effectiveness. The
important point is that a systematic process be followed, working with a checklist of items to be
given attention and a constructive “what if” attitude from all departments involved.
758 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Safet}'

ICAM Robotics Application Guide, Technical Report AFWAL-TR-804W2, Vol 2, Wnghl Pattenon
Air Force Base. Ohio, Apnl 1980
Worn, H , Safety Equipment for Industnal Robots, Robots IV Conference, 1979
Robot Safely In a State of Plus and a Jungle, Robot Kew International, December 1982
Hasegavra, Y, Industnal robot application modd design for labor saving and safety promotion m
press operations. Proceedings of the 4lh ISIR. 1974
Hascgawa, Y A summary
, report on FOLS (Foundry Labor Saving and Safety Promotion) Research
Project (in Japanese), Robot. No 13, 1976
Hasegawa, Y and Sugimoto, N, Industnal safety and robots. Proceedings of the I2ih ISIR, 19S2,
pp 9-20
. —
McKinnon. R Robots arc they automatically safc't Protection. Vol 17, No 5. 1980
Worn, H Sicherheitssysleme bei industnerobotern, Sicherheitstechnik
, (in German), No 5, 1981
 — —

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS: RELIABILITY, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY 757

be observed in determining the height of the fencing and the gap at floor level. Figure 35.33 shows
the safety fencing in place in part of a robotic press transfer line. Figure 35.34 illustrates a typical
metalcutting work cell. Note the control panel just outside the fenced area. These controls allow an
operator to systematically shut down the machines before entering the work area, thereby protecting
the equipment from itself as well as providing human safety.
In the final analysis, a safety engineered system will only be as safe as people permit it to be.
Part of the commissioning of the installation should include a safety check of all of the built-in features
of the robot, of the related machinery, of the control and safety interlock system, and of the barrier
access gates and alarms. This should be a supervised evaluation that follows procedural documentation
that is to be posted and always followed. Thereafter, the safety system should be periodically tested
for functionality and to be sure that no aspect has been aborted, intentionally or unintentionally,

with the passage of time.

35.5. SUMMARY
At the outset we “RMS” of robotics reliability, maintenance, and safety are, collec-
stated that the —
tively, essential producing high-quality goods in a timely, cost-effective manner. If this were not
to
obvious then, hopefully it is now.
Reliability must be inherent in the robot design. Reliability is measured in terms of mean time
between failure and serviceability and maintainability.
A preventive maintenance program, backed up by management commitment, trained personnel,
and spare parts, is the only way to assure a high availability factor of reliable equipment.
Safety must be designed into the equipment and into the system to the greatest extent humanly
possible. A safe system is a productive system.

REFERENCES

1. Asimov, I., I, Robot, Doubleday, New York, 1950.

2. Engelberger, J. F., Robotics In Practice, AMACOM, New York, 1980.
3. Kapur, K. C., and Lamberson, L. R., Reliability in Engineering Design, Wiley, 1977.
4. The High Cost of Bad Maintenance, Dun’s Review, August 1979, pp. 51-52.
5. Willson, R. D., How Robots Save Lives, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, MS82-130, 1982.
6. Barrett, R. J., Bell, R., Hudson, P. H., Planning for Robot Installation and Maintenance: A
Safety Framework, Proceedings of the 4th British Robot Association Annual Conference, Brighton,
U.K., May 18-21, 1981.
7. Safeguarding Industrial Robots, Part I, Basic Principles, The Machine Tool Trades Association,
63 Bayswater Road, London 3PH, 1982. W2

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reliability

Pollard, B. W., “RAM” for Robots (Reliability, Availability, Maintainability), Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, MS80-692, 1980.
Engelberger, Industrial Robots: Reliability and Serviceability, presented at a conference on robots
J. F.,

Munich, Germany, November 1972.

in

Engelberger, J. F., Designing Robots for Industrial Environment, Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
MR76-600, 1976.
Kapur, K. C, Reliability and Maintainability, in Salvendy, G., Ed., Handbook of Industrial Engineering,
Wiley. 1982, Ch. 8.5.

Maintenance

The Race to the Automatic Factory, Fortune, February 21, 1983, pp. 52-64.
Macri, F. C., Analysis of First UTD (Universal Transfer Device) Installation Failures, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, MS77-735, 1977.
Howard, John M., Human Factors Issues in the Factory Integration of Robotics, Society of Manufactur-
ing Engineers, MS528-127, 1982.
Industry’s Man in the Middle, Iron Age, January, 21, 1983, pp. 36-38.
Preventive Maintenance; An Essential Tool for Profit, Production, July 1979, pp. 83-87.
 Modules
(swing).

travel

trolley

—
radial

T —

link, RT

rolling,

stationary

RC

SL

motion,

robot

modular

double-turning

a
of

Z>T—

Configurations

rotation,

^
36.1.

lift-

rig.
 CHAPTER 36
MODULAR ROBOTS
IMPLEMENTATION
MARIO SCIAKY
Sciaky S. A.,

Vitry-Sur-Seine, France

36.1. THE CONCEPT OF ROBOT MODULARITY

Modular robots are built of standard independent building blocks and are controlled by one general
control system. Each modular mechanism has its own drive unit, power, and communication links.
Different modules can be combined by standard interface to provide a variety of kinematic structures
designed to best solve a given application requirement. A simple example: When only two degrees of
freedom in movement are needed, there is no need to purchase a universal robot with 5 or 6 DF.
There are strong motivations to use modular robots by both users and manufacturers of robots.
For robot users the reasons are as follows:

1. Efficient application — robot is built to do what is required and is not universal.

2. High utilization of all robot capabilities —no redundancy robot because
in the it is not overde-
signed.

3. Capital investment is in what is required —

again,no overdesign.
4. Standardization in training —standard modules become familiar.

5. Standardization in maintenance —standard modules become familiar, and standard replacement

parts can be used.

6. Expandability or revision of robot structure is possible with additional modules when new
requirements warrant it.

The robot manufacturer is motivated by the following:

1. The ability to satisfy customer needs per preceding list.

2. Advantages inproduction and inventory control by using standard modules and by using off-

the-shelf modules.
3. Advantages in training and maintenance.
4. Advantages in marketing.

36.2. DESIGN OF MODULAR ROBOTS

Esch module of a modular robot system is a self-contained autonomous mechanism that is designed
to combine quickly
and with minimal adjustment to several other modules to provide a specific robot
requirement. The modularity should mean that individual modules are designed to be simpler than a
full, universal
robot and, therefore, are more reliable. Figure 36.1 illustrates how seven basic modules
can be combined in
different possible arrangements into 39 different kinematic structures.
On the critical side, the major difficulties in modular robot design are found in the (1) efficient
transmission of power and communication, and (2) effective design of a generalized control system.

759
Fig. 36.2. Five variations of a modularized, electric robot, (a)
Basic structure.
ee ers,
W Twoe i e.
to

automate screw drivers, soldering machines, spot welders, sealing material

of roimd parts
Two axes + Z motion by pneumatic cylinder: simple pick-and-place or 'nserdon
attach tools such as nut runners, (d) Four axes: for complicated
assembly, (e) Two axes + Z motion
direction of the workpieces yane^ (f)
by pneumatic cylinder + wrist axis: applications where the
Three axes with programmable Z axis for applications where variations m height must be made. (Cour-

tesy; Hirata.)

761
 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Fig. 36 4. Pneumatic or hydraulic modules for operation under programmable controller (Courtesy
Fibro Manta

At present, there are in the market several families of modular robots with pneumatic, hydraulic,

and electric actuation

36.2.1. Electric Actuation

Electncally actuated modules are preferred for smooth motions with relatively low payload and torque,
as typically found in assembly Figure 36 2 shows a family of five robot versions built of modularized
components that are dnven basically by DC motors
The arm structure is such that a high degree of
maintained in honzontal motions, and at the same time vertical ngidity is maintained
flexibility IS
The robots in Figure 36 2 are specified to reach speeds of up to 1 4 m/sec The basic structure with
2 can handle parts weighing up to 7 kg But this payload is reduced significantly when more
DF
modules are combined, with 4 DF
the payload is reduced about one-third The controller is a microcom-
puter, and repeatability is specified as ±005 mm

36.2.2. Hydraulic Actuation

module
Figure 36 3 shows hydraulic, modular components and how they can be combined This type of
suitable for high torque, heavy payload operations In the next section implementation
examp «
is
typiea y
of these modular components are discussed The speed of robots built of such modules ranges
between 0 5 and 0 8 m/sec, with a payload of about 50 kg and repeatability of ±1 mm
763
 —

modular robots implementation 765

36.2.3.
Pneumatic Actuation

Modular components for pneumatic actuation exist too, as exemplified in Figure 36.4. Typical combina-
tion are 1-4 DF, with load capacities reaching about 10 kg (with pneumatic actuation). Repeatability

is usually very high,

36.3.
±0.005 mm by external mechanical stops.

IMPLEMENTATIONS OF MODULAR ROBOTS

Modular robots have been applied in a large variety of applications, mainly point-to-point. In Figure
36.5 three examples of pneumatic/hydraulic implementations are described. In each case components
are chosen for the specific task at hand, and without any excess capability.

36.3.1. Modular Robots in Assembly

Great interest has been shown in the potential role of robots in programmable assembly. This is
clearly indicatedby the chapters on assembly (Part 1 1). Applications of modular robots in assembly
are described in DrexeF and Romeo and Camera'* and illustrated in Figure 36.6. On the other hand,
progress has also been made in the field called modular assembly (e.g., Riley®). The approach here is
to develop standard, modular assembly machines capable of performing a broad spectrum of assembly

tasks. Such systems could be cost justified for volumes of 500,000 to 1 million units per year. According

to Riley,® a modular system should be evaluated by considering four key areas:

1. Has modularity been achieved at the price of durability?

2. Does the modularity in the proposed machine allow adaptation to ongoing product changes
without major disruptions to regular production schedules?
3. When major product changes do occur, to what degree will the system be reusable?
4. Can the modular machine be successfully maintained by less skilled labor?

These operating considerations will assist users in evaluating the modular approach before implemen-
tation.

36.3.2. Modular Robots in Spot Welding

Typically, a universal robot has 5 or 6 DF, or six programmable axes, to be able to reach virtually
any assigned point. In practice, however, there are applications where six axes are not necessary and
others where six axes are not sufficient. In fact, it may be necessary to use —
and thus to program
only one or two axes if the geometry of the part and the required target point distribution permit;
the unused axes are superfluous. It is often advantageous to dissociate the various robot movements
from one another and to keep only those that are indispensable for the job. This can be seen, for
example, in all phases of sheet metal spot welding: subassembly preparation shops, geometry conforma-
tion and tack welding stations, and final assembly lines. A
modular approach to welding gun movement
offers numerous advantages by reducing the bulk and complexity of the equipment, maintenance burden,
floor space, and investment while increasing adaptability and flexibility with reuseable modular elements.

Part program creation and introduction is simplified.

A modular axis system may consist of linear and rotary base modules, a combination of intermediate
arm modules, and wrist modules each having one to three rotations. Figure 36.7 shows how universal
six-axis
36.3.3.
robots can be assembled from the basic modules shown before in Figure 36.3. Figure 36.8
some of the possible combinations having fewer than six axes, useful in spot welding stations.
illustrates

Frequently, only one linear axis is needed to position the welding gun when making a line of
spot welds. A
programmable carriage (Figure 36.9) can be used to carry either the welding gun or
the part along a
horizontal, vertical, or inclined trajectory. A wrist module with the required number
of axes for the The carriage must, however, have the
part geometry is fitted to the sliding table.
same load-handling capacities as a multiaxis robot.

Selection of Modular Robot Configuration

In addition to
previous considerations, geometrical requirements and performance conditions dictate
the
the selection
of a kinematic configuration. If the modular approach is taken, the best combination of
modules can be selected and
configured. The following are examples of such requirements:

Tack Welding Station. Spot welds are required throughout the car body, that is, on both sides,
front, and rear
(trunk). Normally, six robots are necessary, two working on each side and one on
 ) '

Fig. 6. Example configurations with the modular assembly robot Allegro (Courtesy General Elec*
tnc

each end (see Figure 36 10) An ideal choice for the lateral robots (see details in Chapter 48,
Robots in Spot Welding) would be nongantry Cartesian coordinate robots The two end robots,
since they must be suspended from above, should preferably be hydraulic, articulated robots, these
will be able to reach even (he bottom of the trunk

Body Side or Floor Frame Spot welding can be done by lateral or center access through large
openings Here Cartesian coordinate robots are the preferred choice, as shown in the section of
linear modules in Figure 36 It

Underbody Operations The main requirement is to perform all welding from the outside, using
heavy welding guns with a deep throat Cartesian coordinate modular robots are selected, as shown
m Figure 36 12, since they can be installed using a short kinematic chain that increases load capacity
and accuracy A gantry structure, as shown in Figure 36 13, has the advantage of welding spots
on both sides of the line symmetncally Robots can also be mounted on a gantry with pivoting
arms, for increased flexibility, as depicted in Figure 36 14
Uelding along Vertical-Plane Trajectories. In this case, illustrated in Figure 36 15, gantry robots
arc difficult to use because of the need to access around and under the car body Side-mounted
In the imptemenialion depicted in Figure 36 15, a linear, vertical module
structures are preferred
positioned on a honzontal track ts combined with a horizontal sweep module, for a total of 3
DF, to accomplish the necessary task

36.4. SUMMARY
36 h
Currently, only about 5^ of all robot models are modular However, as explained in Section

there is and implement robots using the modular approach Wiih increa
strong motivation to design
cxpenencc and confidence in robot applications, and with improved performance of modular
nisms, It IS expected that many more modular robot families will be developed and successfully
app
 Press loading.
Fig. 36.5. Implementation examples of pneumatic/hydraulic modular components, (a)
A multimotion actuator equipped with a cylinder-operated gripper loading an
automatic trim press.
After the gripper closes on the sprue, the actuator rod extends upward and then
rotates to locate

part over the trim die. The rod then retracts, lowering part into the die. The
gripper is opened, and
(Illustrations
the actuator extends, rotates, and retracts to be in position to pick up the next part.
conjunction with air and hydraulic cylinders.
omit external piston rod supports as normally used in
created by
External stops for rotary motion must also be considered, depending on internal forces
working loads.) (b) Parts Turn Around: Eliminates the need for operator to remove and
relocate

parts before machining a surface that cannot be reached in the initial part’s
position. Top and one

end of pipe tees are tapped. Tees must then be turned 180° before drilling and tapping other
end. A
multimotion actuator extends to part. Cylinder-operated fingers grab the part which has been undamped
from the fixture. The actuator then retracts and rotates 180°—extends and locates part m fixture

again. After a part has been clamped in fixture, fingers release grip, and the actuator
retracts and

rotates to be ready for the next part, (c) Spraying: An actuator spray painting a container
interna ly

with its lid in open position. Operation sequence: Linear section extends while applying
paint to i

and one side. At end of linear motion actuator rotates applying paint on three remaining sides
and
container.
bottom. Paint is shut off, actuator retracts and rotates simultaneously to be ready for next
(Courtesy: PHD, Inc.)
 ROBOT

COORDINATE

INDRICAL

MODULE

WRIST

3-AX»S

769
774 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Fig 36.14. Pivoting ganiry-mounled robots for underbody work

Fig. 36 15. Vertical plane welding with penetration perpendicular lo assembly line flow

REFERENCES
1. Summ, B N
, Design features of modular type robots, Machines and Tooling, Vol 49, No 7,
1978, pp 13-16
2. Drexel, P ,
Modular, flexible assembly system “FMS” from Rosch, Proceedings of the 3rd Assembly
Automation Conference, Stuttgart, West Germany, May 1982, pp 104-154
3. Riley, F T The , use of modular, flexible assembly systems as a half-way path between
West
design and robots, Proceedings of the 3rd Assembly Automation Conference, Stuttgart.
many. May 1982, pp 445-452
Fall 1980
4. Romeo, G , and Camera, A , Robots for flexible assembly systems, Robotics Today.
5. Stauffer, R N The ,
Fibro/Manca part handling system. Robotics Today. Fall 1979
Fig. 36.12. Two-axis Cartesian coordinate robot with two-axis wrist module for underbody assembly.

773
T76 APPUCATIOS* PLANNING: ISTF.GRATION

The L>!K"*ing dcUih ihc liming of cnd-of-arm

»)-Memj!ii: tprirciach cooling development and rchiM
ieleccion m Ihc swtem development, av »ho«n in Figure 37 I

Sequential Steps in Developing a Robot System, Including Timing

of End-of-Arm Tooling Analysis

NTKI* 1: Undentand ihe proem thoroughly Consider what modifications must be nude to the
process to automate it with any gcnenc robot LooV for nays of improving the efficiency
and productiviij of the process by alienng the present method of manual operation A
more detailed discussion of productivity considerations is presented later m this chapter
STEP 2: Analyre the production e^uipmenr used in the process Consider vshal modifications must
be made to the equipment to automate it with any genenc robot For example, proviviom
may have to be made for automaiK clamping, sensors for malfunctions, removal of protective
guards, interfaces to controls for automatic siarT/stop. changeover, relocation, and
clearances

STEP 3: Analyse the sentora and penpHeral equipment that are required to produce an automatic
system Sensors in iheir various forms provide the paths of communication between all
elements of the system, including the endof-arm tooling Define all the various conditions
that must be sensed m
the system and male provisions for them Penphcral equipment
such as pans prcseniaiton devices, holding fixtures, conveyors, and inspection stations
can be provided to assist the robot in performing the task Divide up the tasks and do
not make do cveoihing Use penphcral equipment to simplify the design of
the robot
and overlap actions to opttmiie cycle time consideralioni As the
the end-of-arm tooling
tasks are divided between robotand penphcral equipment and sensor requirements are
determined the performantt refluiremenis of the endof-ann looting can be defined
STEP 4, Conceptualire the end-of-arm tooUng At this point, the robot male or model has not
been select ol The considerattons involved in the preliminary concept of end-of-arrn loolmg
are prevented Uier in this chapter
STEP 5: Arutyge the mtmoty rvpe and eapaeny required for the system In addition to Ihe robwl
conifoltera programmable controller is normally used to control penphcral equipment
and sequence exierrul events Considerations should be made concerning baich run sires,
number of steps per program, number of programs, changeovets. and so on. and an
appfopnate system controller should be selected
STEP 6: Analyse Ihe robot type and options best suited for the application The selection of a
male or model should be made based on the following technical cnleni
particular robot

I. Type of robot (nonservo poani-io*poini. servo-controlled point to-point. servo-controlled

continuous path!

PROCESS MODIFICATIONS
EQUIPMENT MODIFICATIONS
SENSORS AND PERIPHERAL EQUIPMENT
CONCEPT ENO OF ARM TOOLING~
fJEMORY
I

I ROBOTTYPE \

DESIGN END OF -ARM

TOOLING

Syvlemafic appreukh devcliiping enJof-arm Ifvding

lit 37.1. If*
 CHAPTER 37
END-OF-ARM TOOLING
RONALD D. POTTER
Robot Systems, Inc.
Norcross, Georgia

37.1. INTRODUCTION
End-of-arm tools, also called “end-effectors,” give robots the ability to pick up and transfer parts
and/or handle a multitude of differing tools to perform work on parts. Robots have been fitted with
grippers to load and unload parts from a variety of machines and processes, such as forging presses,

injection molding machines, and die casting machines. They have also been fitted with tools to perform

work on parts, such as spot welding guns, drills, routers, grinding and cutting tools, and other types
of tools to help fabricate and form parts, such as arc welding torches and ladles for pouring molten
metal. Tools for assembling parts, such as automatic screwdrivers and nutrunners, have also been

attached to robots, as well as tools for performing finishing operations such as paint spray guns and
special inspection devices, such as linear variable, differential transformers (LVDTs) and laser gages,

to perform quality control functions. There are very few limitations on the type of hand or tool that

can be attached to the end of a robot’s arm. Unlike the human hand, which is fairly standard with
five fingers and a relatively uniform size,
a robot’s hand can be anything and is normally a unique,
one-of-a-kind device designed for a specific application.
End-of-arm tooling is a critical part of an industrial robot system, as it is the part of the system
that actually links the robot to the workpiece. The success or failure of an application is very dependent

on how well theend-of-arm tooling is conceived, designed, and implemented. In most industrial robot
applications, the end-of-arm tooling must be custom designed to match the process requirements.
Defined by the part and process, end-of-arm tooling cannot be viewed separately from the other system
elements. Throughout the design stages, the interrelationship of all system components with the part
and process must be considered. Since the possibilities for end-of-arm tooling are even more diverse
than the number of different
types of manufacturing processes and machines that exist, it is very
difficult to generalize
or attempt to restrict the imagination in developing end-of-arm tooling, as infinite
as the possibilities
are. However, this development should follow a systematic approach to ensure
that none of the
critical factors in designing tooling is overlooked and that the optimum robot system
results.

37.2. SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO DEVELOPING END-OF-ARM TOOLING

Development of end-of-arm tooling for a particular application should occur at a specific time as one
of the sequential
steps in the development of the entire robot system. These sequential steps ensure
productivity and efficiency are achieved in the system. Two general rules should be
that optimum

cpt in mind when developing a robot system and end-of-arm tooling:

1. Do not attempt to mimic human operations. A human operator, when performing an industrial
•ask,cannot be realistically compared to a robot. Although a human has much more sophisticated
sensory
capabilities than a robot (i.e., sight, hearing, tactile senses, etc.), a robot does not possess the
inherent physical
limitations human in other areas.
of a A robot, not equipped with a relatively small
ve-fingered hand,
has muchgreater capabilities in handling heavier weights for longer periods of
•'me in harsher
environments than a human. Thus, do not limit the capabilities of the robot system
i simply trying
to duplicate human capabilities.
Do not select the robot first and then try to fit it with an end-of-arm tool and put it to
work; select
the most appropriate robot for the application as another of the sequential steps in overall
system development.

775
778 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

for the gnppers or tools and automattcally connect the power when it picks up the tooling Figures
37 3, 37 4, and 37 5 illustrate this power connection tool change application An alternative to this
approach is for each tool to have its own power hne permanently connected, and the robot simply
pick up the vanous tools mounted to adapter plates with common lock-in points

Power

hydraulic power is used where greater forces are required in the tooling motions However, contamination
of parts due to leakage of hydraulic fluid oflen restrKts its application as a power source for tooling
Although It IS quieter, electncal power is used less frequently for tooling power, especially in part-

handling applications, because of its lower applied force Several light payload assembly robots utilize
electncal tooling power because of its control capability In matching a robot to end-of-arm tooling,

Fig 37,3. Pickup hand for tool change Power for tool actuation is ported through the fingers for
connection to the vanous tools to be picked up

Fig. 37.4. Tool m rack ready to be picked up by rdx>t Note cone-shaped power connection ports

m tool mounting block

end-of-arm tooling 777

2. Work envelope.

3. Load capacity (including end-of-arm tooling weight).

4. Cycle time.
5. Repeatability.

6. Drive system (pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric).

7. Unique hardware or software capabilities. In addition, other nontechnical considerations

such as cost, reliability, and service should be considered in selecting a robot for a
particular application.

STEP 7: Final concept and preliminary design of end-of-arm tooling to match the selected robot,
peripheral equipment, and other system elements. At this point the preliminary concept
of the end-of-arm tooling should be analyzed in relation to the robot tool mounting plate
and work envelope and modified accordingly.

This preceding sequence of events allows the end-of-arm tooling to be conceptualized and designed
has been given to required modifications in the process and manufacturing
only after proper consideration
equipment, analysis of sensor and peripheral equipment needs, and robot selection.

37.3. DEFINITION OF END-OF-ARM TOOLING

End-of-arm tooling isdefined as the subsystem of an industrial robot system that links the mechanical
portion of the robot (manipulator) to the part being handled or worked on. An industrial robot is
essentially a mechanical arm with a flat tool mounting plate at its end that can be moved to any

spatial point within its reach. End-of-arm tooling in the form of specialized devices to pick up parts

or hold tools to work on parts is physically attached to the robot's tool mounting plate to link the
robot to the workpiece.

37.4. ELEMENTS OF END-OF-ARM TOOLING

End-of-arm tooling is commonly made up of four distinct elements, as shown in Figure 37.2, which
provide for (1) attachment of the hand or tool to the robot tool mounting plate, (2) power for actuation
of tooling motions,
(3) mechanical linkages, and (4) sensors integrated into the tooling.

Mounting Plate

The means of attaching the end-of-arm tooling to an industrial robot is provided by a tool mounting
plate located at the end of the last axis of motion on the robot. This tool mounting plate contains

either threaded or clearance holes arranged in a pattern for attaching tooling. For a fixed mounting
of a gripper or tool, an adapter plate with a hole pattern matching the robot tool mounting plate
can be provided. The remainder of the adapter plate provides a mounting surface for the gripper or
tool at the proper distance
and orientation from the robot tool mounting plate. If the task of the
robot requires it to automatically interchange hands or tools, a coupling device can be provided. An
adapter plate is thus attached to each of the grippers or tools to be used, with a common lock-in
position for pickup by the coupling device. The coupling device may also contain the power source

PART BEING
HANDLED

Fig. 37.2. Elements of end-of-arm tooling.

780 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

the cjcle time is relatively long In this case, the part is manually secured and removed from the
robot tool mounting plate for part retention

37.5.2. Support and Containment Oerices

process

37.5.3. Pneumatic Pickup Devices

The most common example of this type of tooling is a vacuum cup (Figure 37 7) which attaches to
parts to be transferred by a suction or vacuum pressure created by a ventun transducer or a vacuum
pump Typically used parts with a smooth surface finish, vacuum cups are available in a wide
on
range of and materials Parts with nonsmooth surface finishes can siill be picked up by
sizes, shapes,
a vacuum system nng of closed'ccii foam rubber is bonded to the surface of the vacuum cup,
if a
which conforms to the surface of the part and creates the seal required for vacuum transfer Ventun
vacuum transducers are relatively inexpensive and arc used for handling small, lightweight parts where
a low vacuum flow is required Vacuum pumps, quieter and more expensive, generate greater vacuum
flow rates and can be used to handle heavier parts With any vacuum system, the quality of the
surface finish of the part being handled is important If parts are oily or wet, they will tend to slide
on the vacuum cups Therefore some type of containment structure should be used, in addition to
the vacuum cups, to enclose the part and prevent it from sliding on the cups In some applications a
vacuum cup with no power source can be utilued By pressing the cup onto the part and evacuating
the air between the cup and part, a suction is created capable of lifting the part However, a stripping
device or valve is required to separate the pan froin the cup dunng pan release When a ventun or

vacuum pump is used, a positive air blow'OlT may be used to separate the part from the vacuum
cup Vacuum cups have temperature limitations and cannot be used to pick up relatively hot pans
Another example of a pneumatic pickup device is a pressunred bladder These devices are generally
specially designed to conform to the shape of the part A vacuum system is used to evacuate air
from the inside of the bladder so that it forms a thin profile for clearance in entenng the tooling
into a cavity or around the outside surface of a pan U^en the tooling is in place inside or around
the part, pressunxed air causes the bladder to expand, contact the pan, and conform to the surface
of the part with equal pressure exened on all points of the contacted surface Pneumatic bladders
are pamcularly useful where irregular or inconsistent pans must be handled by the tooling
Pressunzed fingers, shown in Figure 37 8. are another example of pneumatic pickup devices Similar
to a bladder, pneumatic fingers are more ngidly structured They contain one straight half, which
contacts the part to be handled, one nbbed half, and a cavity for pressunzed air between the two
halves Air pressure filling the cavity causes the nbbed half to expand and "wrap” the straight side
around a pan With two fingers per gnpper, a part can thus be gnpped by the two fingen wrapping
around the outside of the part These devices also can conform to vanous shape parts, and do not
require a vacuum source to return to their unpressunzed position

Fie. 37.6. Sunoort and cnnfaini Fit. .37.7. Vacuum cun nickup device
end-of-arm tooling 779

Fig. 37.5. Another tool with power connection block ready for robot pickup.

consideration should be given to the power source provided with the robot. Some robots have provisions
for tooling power, especially in part-handling robots, and
it is an easy task to tap into this source for

actuation of tooling functions. As previously mentioned, many of the robots are provided with a
pneumatic power source for tooling actuation and control.

Mechanics

Tooling for robots may be designed with a direct coupling between the actuator and workpiece, as in
the case moves a drill through a workpiece, or use indirect couplings or linkages
of an air cylinder that
to gain mechanical advantage, as in the case of a pivot-type gripping device. A
gripper-type hand
may also have provisions for mounting interchangeable fingers to conform to various part sizes and
configurations. In turn, fingers attached to grippers may have provisions for interchangeable inserts
to conform to various part configurations.

Sensors

Sensors are incorporated in tooling to detect various conditions. For safety considerations sensors are
normally designed into tooling to detect workpiece or tool retention by the robot during the robot
operation. Sensors are also built into tooling to monitor the condition of the workpiece or tool during
an operation, as in the case of a torque sensor mounted on a drill to detect when a drill bit is dull
or broken. Sensors are also
used in tooling to verify that a process is completed satisfactorily, such
as wire-feed detectors in arc welding torches and flow meters in dispensing heads. More recently,
robots specially designed for assembly tasks contain force sensors (strain gages) and dimensional gaging
sensors in the end-of-arm tooling.

37.5. TYPES OF END-OF-ARM TOOLING

There are two functional
classifications of end-of-arm tooling for robots: grippers for
handling parts
2nd tools for doing
work on parts. In general, there is more effort required in developing grippers
for handling
parts for machine loading, assembly, and parts transfer operations than for
handling
tools. It is
generally more difficult to design special-purpose grippers for part handling than it is to
attach a tool to
the end of a robot’s arm.
The following sections describe the five basic types of end-of-arm tooling, including grippers and
tools.

37.5.1. Attachment Devices

These devices
are simply mounting plates with brackets for securing tools to the robot tool
mounting
plate. In some
cases attachment devices may also be designed to secure a workpiece to
the robot
tool mounting
plate, as in the case of a robot manipulating a part against a
stationary tool where
m APPLICATION PLANNING: liVTECRArrON

Where parts are tightly hxtured in ihc picLup or release position, a “double'action" hand can be
utilized This hand contains two moving fingers that close simultaneously to hold a part The motion
of the fingers can be cither pivoting or parallel Pivoting fingers, as shown in Figure 37 10, have
greater iim)tations, as they must be designed to match the part shape at the contact points at a specific
angular orientation of the fingers Since parallel motion double-action hands (Figure 37 II) move in
a straighi-lme motion in closing on a part, they do not have Ihc angular onentaiion consideration to
meet Thus they can also handle a wide range of part sues automatically By placing V-block locators
tn the fingen as inserts, the double-action band can center the parts not consistently oriented at the
pickup station if they have provisions for movement On tightly fixiured parts, such as in the unloading
of a lathe, both fingers have clearance around the part in the open position and simultaneously close
to center on the part
Some mechanical gnp devices contain three moving fingers that simultaneously close to grasp a
part or tool These hands are particularly useful in handling cyhndncal-shaped parts, as the fh^e^
point contact centers round parts of varying diameterson the centerline of the hand Machine loading
operations, where round pans are loaded into chucks or over mandrels, are best suited for use of a
three^fingered centenng gnpper Still other mechanical gnppers contain four moving fingers that close
simultaneously to center a square or reclangular'shaped part on the centerline of the hand
With most of the hands desenbed, the position of the fingers can be reversed to allow gripping of
(he internal surfaces of pans, if required

37.6 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR END OF-ARM TOOLING

Although robot end-of-arm tooling vanes widely in function, complexity, and application area, there
are cenain design criteria that pertain to almost all robot tooling These general guidelines follow
and are expand^ later m chapter
this
First, end-of-arm tooling should be as lightweight as possible This pnmanly affects the performance
of the robot The rated load-cariyjng capacity of the robot, or the amount of weight that can be
attached to the robot tool mounting plate, includes the weight of the end-of-arm tooling and that of
the part being earned The load that the robot is carrying also affects the speed of its motions Robots
can move at faster rates carrying lighter loads Therefore, for cycle time considerations, the lighter
the tool, the faster the robot is capable of moving The use of lightweight materials such as aluminum
or magnesium for hand components and lightening holes, whenever possible, are common solutions
for weight reduction Figure 37 12 shows a double-action pickup hand with lightening holes
Second, end-of-arm tooling should be as small in physical size as possible Minimizing the dimensions
of the tool helps to minimize the weight also Mimroizing the size of the tooling provides for better
clearances m workstations in the system In relationship to the robot, most load-carrying capacities
of robots are based on moment of inenia calculations of the last axis of motion, that is, a given load
capacity at a given distance from the fool mounting plate surface Therefore, by minimizing the size
of the tooling and the distance from the tool mounting plate to the center of gravity of the tooling,
robot performance is enhanced
At the same time, it is desirable to handle the widest range of parts with the robot tooling This
the
minimizes changeover requirements and reduces costs for multiple tools Although minimizing
size of the tooling somewhat limits the range of parts that can handled, there are techniques for
be
accomplishing both goals Adjustable motions may be designed into (he tooling so that it can
inserts
quickly and easily manually changed to aceonunodate different-sized parts Interchangeable
The ro^t mav
may be put mfooling to change the hand from one size or shape part to another
also automatically interchange hands or tools to work on a range of parts, with
each set of too ing
END-OF-ARM TOOLING 781

37.5A. Magnetic Pickup Devices

These devices comprise the fourth type of end-of-arm tooling and can be considered when the part
to be handled is of ferrous content. Either permanent or electromagnets are used, with permanent
magnets requiring a stripping device to separate the part from the magnet during part release. Magnets
normally contain a flat part-contact surface but can be adapted with a plate to fit a specific part
contour. A recent innovation in magnetic pickup devices uses an electromagnet fitted with a flexible
bladder containing iron filings, which conforms
an irregular surface on a part to be picked up.
to
Like vacuum pickup may cause the part to slide on the magnet
devices, oily or wet part surfaces
during transfer. Therefore containment structures should be used in addition to the magnet to enclose
the part and prevent it from slipping. Three other concerns arise in handling parts with magnets. If
a metal-removal process is involved in the application, metal chips may also be picked up by the
magnet. Provisions must be made to wipe the surface of the magnet in this event. Also, residual
magnetism may be imparted to the workpiece during pickup and transfer by the magnetic tooling. A
demagnetizing operation may be required after transfer if this is detrimental to the finished part. If
an electromagnet is used, a power failure will cause the part to be dropped immediately, which may
produce an unsafe condition. Although electromagnets provide easier control and faster pickup and
release of parts, permanent magnets can be used in hazardous environments requiring explosion-proof
electrical equipment. Normal magnets can handle temperatures up to 60°C (140°F), but magnets
can also be designed for service in temperatures up to ISO^C (300°F).

37.5.5, Mechanical Grip Devices

Mechanical grip devices, the fifth category, are the most widely used type of tooling in parts-handling

applications. Either pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators are used to generate a holding force
which is transferred to the part by linkages and fingers. The most commonly used power source for
finger closure actuation is a pneumatic cylinder whose bore and stroke is selected in relation to the
available operating air pressure to provide an optimum amount of holding force on the part. The
grip force of the fingersmay be varied by regulating the pressure entering the tooling actuators. The
grip force may
be further reduced by mounting soft conforming inserts in the fingers at the point of
contact with the part to be handled. Some recent innovations in standard commercially available
grippers contain sensors and features for controlling the amount of grip force exerted on the part, in
addition to dimensional gaging capabilities incorporated in the gripper. In these hands, the fingers
can close on parts of various sizes until a predetermined force is attained and stop at that point. Still
other standard grippers are equipped with strain gages in the fingers to detect the position of parts
within the gripper and adjust the robot arm accordingly to center the fingers around the part.
The motions of the fingers in a mechanical grip device vary, and an appropriate finger motion
can be selected to best suit the part shape and its constraints at the pickup and release station. The
simplest finger motion involves a gripper with one stationary or fixed finger and one moving finger,
commonly referred to as a “single-action” hand (see Figure 37.9). This hand functions by having the
robot move the open hand to a position around the part and the moving finger close on the part,
clamping it against the stationary finger. This hand requires that the part be free to move during the
pickup process to allow for clearance of the stationary finger around the part. If a part is fixtured
tightly during pickup or release, this hand is not the most appropriate choice. By placing a V-block
insert in either of the fingers, this single-action hand can center the part during the grip process and
locate it accurately.
784 APPUCATION PLANNING; INTEGRATION

Fig. 37,13, Standard tooling for parts-handimg applications, with such features as parallel motion
fingers, dual part'handling capability, and compliance in hand

deceleration forces also result when the robot moves from one point to another The effect of these
forces acting on the part makes it entreat to design in an applied holding force with a safety factor
great enough to ensure that the part is safely retained in the hand dunng transfer and not thrown as
a projectile with the potential of causing injury or death to personnel in the area or damage to penphery
equipment On the other hand, the applied holding force should not be so great that it actually causes
damage to a more fragile part being handled Another important consideration in parts transfer relating
to applied holding force is the onentatton of the pan in the hand dunng transfer If the pan is
transferred with the hand axis parallel to the floor, the pan. retained only by the fnciional force
between the fingers and pan. may have a tendency to slip m
the hand, especially at programmed
stop points By turning the hand axis perpendicular to the floor dunng pan transfer, the required
holding force may be decreased, and the robot may be able to move at higher speed because the
hand itself acts as a physical stop for (he pan
Mainlenance and changeover considerations should be designed into the tooling Penshable or
wear details should be designed to be easily accessible for quick change Change details such as inserts
or fingers should also be easily and quickly interchangeable The same type of fastener should be
used wherever possible in the hand assembly, thereby minimizing the maintenance tools required

37.7. ESTABLISHING DESIGN CRITERIA FOR END-OF-ARM TOOUNG

As previously mentioned, the development of end-of-arm tooling concept and design should proceed
only after analysis of the part to be handled or worked on and the process itself has been thoroughly
completed This analysis can be divided into two phases a preengineenng, data collection phase and
a design phase The preengineenng phase involves analysis of the workpiece and process with emphasis
on productivity considerations, whereas the second phase involves the actual design of the tooling to
best meet the cniena developed dunng the first phaW

37,7.1. Preengineering and Data Collection

iVorkpiece Analysis

The part being transferred or worked on must be analyzed to determine cntical parameters to be
designed mio the end-of-arm fooling The dimensions and tolerances of the workpiece must be analyzed
to determine their effect on tooling design The dimensions of the workpiece will determine the size
and weight of the tooling required to handle the part It will also determine whether one tool can
automatically handle the range of part dimensions required, whether interchangeable fingers or
inserts
the
are required, or whether tool change is required The tolerances of the workpieces will determine
need for compliance in the tooling Compliance allows for mechanical "float*’ in the tooling in relation
end-of-arai tooling 783

Fig. 37.10. Double-action pickup hand Fig. 37.11. Double-action pickup hand with
with pivoting finger motions. parallel finger motions.

designed to handle a certain portion of the entire range of parts. This addresses weight and size
considerations and reduces the total number of tools required. Figure 37.13 shows a standard dual
part-handling tool for gripping parts varying within a certain size range.
Maximizing rigidity is another criterion that should be designed into tooling. Again, this relates
to the task performance of the robot. Robots have specified repeatabilities and accuracies in handling
a part. If the tooling is not ripd, this positioning accuracy will not be as good and, depending on
part clearances and tolerances, may cause problems in the application. E.xcessive vibrations may also
be produced by attaching a noarigid or ffimsy tool on the tool mounting plate. Since robots can
move the tooling at verj' high rates of speed, this vibration may cause breakage or damage to the
tool. Providing rigid tooling eliminates these vibrations.
The maximum applied holding force should be designed into the tooling. This is especially important
for safety reasons. Robots are dynamic machines that can move parts at high velocities at the end of
the arm, with only the clamp force and frictional force holding it in the hand. Because robots tj^iically
rotate the part about a fixed robot base centerline, centrifugal forces are produced. Acceleration and

po'^ble-action pickup hand showing interchangeable fingers with lightening holes and
V-block locating features.
7S6 application PLANNING: INTEGRATION

involve adjusting the tool to handle a different range of parts, or interchanging fingers, inserts, or
tools on a common hand To reduce the manual changeover lime, quick disconnect capabilities and
positive alignment features such as dov-el pins or locating holes should be provided For automatic
toolchange applications, mechanical registration provurons, such as tapered pins and bushings, ensure
proper alignment of toob Venfication sensors should also be incorporated in automatic tool change
applications
and disposition of the workpiece within the robot system affects the design of end-of-
Presentation
arm tooling The position and onentation of the workpiece at cither the pickup or release stations
will determine the possible contact points on the part, the dimensional clearances required in the
tooling to avoid interferences, the manipulative rcqiiircoients of the tooling, the forces and moments
of the tooling and part relation to the robot tool mounting plate, the need for sensors m the tooling
m
to detect part position or orientation, and the compleuly of the tooling
The sequence of events and cycle lime nquiremeitis of the process have a direct beanng on tooling
design complexity Establishing the cycle tunc for the operation will determine how many tools (or
hands) are needed to meet the requirements Multiple parts-handling tools often allow the robot to
increase the productivity of the operation by handling more parts per cycle than can be achieved
manually The sequence of events may also dictate the use of multifunctional tooling that must perform
several operations during the robot cycle An example of thu is in machine unloading, where the
tooling not only grasps the part, but also sprays a lubneant on the molds or dies of the machine
Similarly, robot tooling could also handle a pan and perform work on it at the same time, such as

automatic gaging and dnlling a hole

rhe sequence of events in going from one operation to another may cause the design of the tooling
to include some extra motions not available in the robot by adding extra axes of motion m the tooling
to accommodate the sequence of operations between various system elements
In-pmeeu inspection requirements will affect the design of end-of-arm tooling The manipulative
requirements of the tooling, the design of sensors or gaging into the tooling, and the contact position
of the tool on the part are all impacted by the part-mspection requirements The precision in positioning
the workpiece u another consideration for meeting inspection requirements
The conditional processing of the part will deiemune the need for sensors integrated into ibe tooling,
as well as the need for independent action by multiple-handed gnppers
The environment must be considered in designing end-of-arm tooling The effects of temperature,
moisture, airborne contaminants, corrosive or caustic ntatenals, and vibration and shock must be
evaluated, as will the matenal selection, power selection, sensors, mechanics, and the provision for
protective devices in the tooling

37.8. SUMMARV
37.8.1. Design Tips for End-of-Arm-Tooliog

The following list presents some tips that are useful in designing end-of-arm tooling (EOAT)

1. Design for quick removal or interchange of tooling by requmng a small number of toob
(wrenches, screwdrivers, etc ) to be used Use the same fasteners wherever possible
2. Provide locating dowels, key slots, or senbe lines for quick interchange, accuracy registration,

and alignment
3. Break all sharp comers to protect hoses and lines from rubbing and cutting and maintenance
personnel from possible injury
4 Allow for full flexure of lines and hoses to extremes of axes of motion
5. Use lightweight matenah wherever possible, or put lightening holes where appropnate to

reduce weight
6. Hardcoat lightweight materials for wear considerations, and put hardened, threaded inserts

in soft materials

7. Conceptualize and evaluate several alternatives m EOAT

8. Do not be "penny-wise and pound-foolish" in EOAT, make sure enough effort and cost is

spent to produce production-worthy, reliable EOAT and not a prototype

9. Design in extra motions m the EOAT to assist the robot in its task

10. Design m sensors to detect part presence dunng transfer (limit switch, proximity, air jet,

etc.)

For safety m part-handling applications, consider what effect a loss of power to EOAT
will
11.
have Use toggle lock gnpper or detented valve to promote safety
downtime
12. Put shear pins or areas in EOAT to protect more expensive components and reduce

13. When handling tools with robot, build in tool inspection capabilities, either
in EOAT or

peripheral equipment
END-OF-ARM TOOLING 785

to the robot tool mounting plate to correct misalignment errors encountered when parts are mated
during assembly operations or loaded into tight-fitting fixtures or periphery equipment. If the part
tolerances vary so that the fit of the part in fixture is less than the repeatability of the robot, a compliance
device may have to be designed into the tooling. Passive compliance devices such as springs may be
incorporated into the tooling to allow it to float to accommodate very tight tolerances. This reduces
the rigidity of the tooling.Other passive compliance devices such as remote center compliance (RCC)
units are commercially available. These are mounted between the robot tool mounting plate and the
end-of-arm tooling to provide a multiaxis float. RCC devices, primarily designed for assembly tasks,
allow robots to assemble parts with mating fits much
tighter than the repeatability that the robot
can achieve. Active compliance devices with sensory feedback can also be used to accommodate tolerance
requirements.
The material and physical properties of the workpiece must be analyzed to determine their effect
on tooling design. The best method of handling the part, by vacuum, magnetic, or mechanical-grip
pickup, can be determined. The maximum permissible grip forces and contact points on the part can
be determined, as well as the number of contact points to ensure part retention during transfer. Based
on the physical properties of the material, the need for controlling the applied force through sensors
can also be resolved.
The weight and balance (center of gravity) of the workpiece should be analyzed to determine the
number and location of grip contact points to ensure proper part transfer. This will also resolve the
need for counterbalance or support points on the part in addition to the grip contact points. The
static and dynamic loads and moments of inertia of the part and tooling about the robot tool mounting
plate can be analyzed to verify that they are within the safe operating parameters of the robot.
The surface finish and contour (shape) of the workpiece should be studied to determine the method
and location of part pickup (i.e., vacuum on smooth, flat surfaces, mechanical grippers on round
parts, etc.). If the contour of the part is such that two or more independent pickup means must be
applied, this can be accomplished by mounting separate pickup devices at difierent locations on the
tool, each gripping or attaching to a different section of the part. This may be a combination of

vacuum cups, magnets, and/or mechanical grippers. Special linkages may also be used to tie together
two different pickup devices powered by one common actuator.
Part modifications should be analyzed to determine if minor part changes that do not affect the
functions of the part can be made to reduce the cost and complexity of the end-of-arm tooling. Often,
simple part changes, such as holes or tabs in parts, can significantly reduce the tooling design and
build effort in the design of new component parts for automation and assembly by robots.
Part inconsistencies should be analyzed to determine the need for provision of out-of-tolerance
sensors or compensating tooling to accommodate these conditions.
In tool-handling rather than part-handling applications, the workpiece should be analyzed to deter-
mine the characteristics of the tool required. This is especially true for the incorporation of protective
sensors in the tooling to deal with part inconsistencies.

Process Analysis

In addition to a thorough analysis of the workpiece, the manufacturing process should be analyzed
to determine the optimum parameters for the end-of-arm tooling.
The process method itself should be analyzed, especially in terms of manual versus robot operation.
In many cases physical limitations dictate that a person perform a task in a certain manner where a
robot without these constraints may perform the task in a more efficient but different manner. An
example of of picking up a tool and doing work on a part or instead
this involves the alternative
picking up the part and taking it to the tool. In many cases the size and weight-carrying capability
of a person is limited and forces him to handle the smaller and lighter weight of the part or the
tool. A robot, with its greater size and payload capabilities, does not have this restriction. Therefore
it may be used to take a large part to a stationary tool or to take multiple tools to perform work on

a part. This may increase the efficiency of the operation by reducing cycle time, improving quality,
and increasing productivity. Therefore, in process analysis, consider the alternative of having the robot
take a part to a tool or a tool to a part, and decide which approach is most efficient. When a robot
is handling a part, rather than a tool, there is less concern about power-line connections to the tool,

which experience less flexure and are less prone to problems when stationary than moving.
Because of its increased payload capability, a robot may also be equipped with multifunctional
end-of-arm tooling. This tooling can simultaneously or sequentially perform work on a part that previ-
ously required a person to pick up one tool at a time to perform the operation, resulting in lower
productivity. For example, the tooling in a die casting machine unloading application may not only
unload the part, but also spray a die lubricant on the face of the dies.
The range and quantity ofparts or tools in the manufacturing process should be analyzed to determine
the performance requirements for the tooling. This will dictate the number of grippers or tools that
are required. The tooling must be designed to accommodate the range of part sizes either automatically
in the tool, through automatic tool change, or through manual changeover. Manual changeover could
 —

CHAPTER 38
STRATEGY FOR ROBOT
APPLICATIONS
FRED A. CIAMPA
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, Michigan

38.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the evolution of robotics m a heavy manufactunng industry It begins with
the universal transfer device (UTD) in (he early 1960s thru the early 1970s, when the first automobile
assembly plant was automated with robot applications The late 1970$, with the new competitive
challenge from olFshore companies and the strategy changes needed by the Ford Motor Company to
make substantial gams in both quality and productivity, are also discussed
The chapter outlines in detail the strategy for the Ford Robotic Application Center to expand
the robot knowledge and understanding in a decentralized company and to keep the engineer m tune
with the fast<hanging high-technology area of robotics The Center also provides the facilities for
the line engineer to develop a complete robotic system, that is, robot, end-of-arm tooling, sensors,
conveying devices, and the like This strategy will correct the major problem expenenc^ on the
production floor with a robotic system
Where the company plans to go by the 1990s, and what the needs are from the robot suppliers
to minimize the problems for application development, ease of use, and general maintenance are defined
for the matunng robotic industry in this chapter

38.2. HISTORY
The history of robotics at Ford Motor Company really began with the installation of a Venatran
robot for press loading at the Canton Forge Plant in August 1961 This installation was Ford's tint,
and one of the earliest in the Amencan automotive industry At this time. Ford referred to these
mechanisms as universal transfer devices or UTDs This terminology was used to circumvent industnal
relations implications related to the unwillingness of some workers to accept robots as technological
tools rather than as mechanical devices intended to displace people
By the end of 1973 the Ford Motor Company had 66 robots installed worldwide with 33 in the
Kansas City. Missoun, Assembly Plant for spotwelding on the Mavenck and Comet automobiles
This assembly plant was one of the leaders m the use of robots until the end of the decade Most of
these robots were the Unimate 4000 Senes and Versatrans Some of these applications are shown m
Figures 38 1-38 3 At that time most robotic appbcations were used for spot welding and press loading
and unloading (Figures 38 4-38 5)
In March 1973 Unimation Inc and the Ford Motor Company launched a program to jointly
develop a programmable automation system This concept, the forerunner of the present state of the
art for robots, was faster, smaller, and far more precise than the then current robots for repeatability
0010 in (0 0025 mm) instead of 0 050 in (00127 mm) Hie concept incorporated two robots (Figure
38 6A and 6B) for small assembly, and major changeover would require only a program change and
new tooling details The assembly feasibility of small components requinng multiple robots and wnst
motions at previously unheard of accuracies was proven and used m
subsequent applications even
though this program never got beyond a demonstration unit
Over the years, U became apparent from seminars and news publications that the terms robot or
industrial robot were being accepted by the industry and the public The Ford Motor Company
also
or
discontinued using the phrase universal transfer deuce (UTD), and referred to them as robots

788
END-OF-ARM TOOLING 787

14. Design multiple functions into BOAT.

15. Provide accessibility for maintenance in BOAT design, and quick change of wear parts.

16. Use sealed bearings for BOAT.

17. Provide interchangeable inserts or fingers for part changeover.
18. When handling hot parts, provide heat sink or shield to protect BOAT and robot.
19. Mount actuators and valves for BOAT on robot forearm.
20. Build in compliance in BOAT or fixture where required.
21. Design action sensors in BOAT to detect open/close or other motion conditions.
22. Analyze inertia requirements, center of gravity of payload, centrifugal force, and other dynamic
considerations in designing BOAT.
23. Look at motion requirements for gripper in picking up parts (single-action hand must be
able to move part during pickup; double-action hand centers part in one direction; three or
four fingers center part in more than one direction).

24. When using electromagnetic pickup hand, consider residual magnetism on part and possible
chip pickup.
25. When using vacuum cup pickup on oily parts, a positive blow-off must also be used.
26. Look at insertion forces of robot in using BOAT in assembly tasks.
27. Maintain orientation of part in BOAT by force and coefficient of friction or locating features.

37.8.2. Future Considerations

To date, most of the applications of industrial robots have involved a specially designed hand or
gripper. Current research is ongoing to develop more flexible general-purpose grippers that can adapt
to a variety of sizes and shapes of parts. The state-of-the-art is nowhere near duplicating the complexity
of the human hand. However, with increased sensory feedback integrated into robot tooling, more
sophisticated tasks are being completed by the robot. This trend will continue in years to come.

REFERENCES
1. Lundstrom, G., Glennie, B., and Rooks, B. W., Industrial Robots Gripper Review, IBS Publications,
Bedford, England, 1977.
2. Okada, T. and Tsuchiya, S., On a versatile finger system. Proceedings of the 7th International
Symposium on Industrial Robots, Tokyo, Japan, October 1977, pp. 345-352.
3. Mori, K. and Sugiyama, K., Material handling device for irregularly shaped heavy works. Proceed-
ings of the 8th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Stuttgart, West Germany, May
1978, pp. 504-513.
4. Van der Loos, H., Design of three-fingered robot gripper. Industrial Robot, Vol. 5, No. 4, December
1978, pp. 179-182.
5. Chelponov, I. B. and Kolpashnikov, S. N., Mechanical features of gripper in industrial robots.
Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Chicago, Illinois, April
1983, pp. 18.77-90.
 APPLICATION PLANNING. INTEGRATION

Fig 38.2. Four robots on each side of an automobvle body weid line at the Kansas City, Missoun
assembly line in 1973

industrial robots m 1980 By 1983 the Ford Motor Company worldwide operations had 1100 robots
in use Their use extended l^yond spot welding to include the following

Arc welding
Palletizing and depalletizing
Machine loading and unloading
Debumng
Performing assembly operations
Paint spraying
Applying sealers and adhesives
Laser bar code reading

Examples of • c ,

included the I

' •
onentation '

further stndi
make additic
up-front ease

38.3. STRATEGY
The Ford Motor Company is in the midst of a new era for automobile manufacturers, one that
offers

both tough challenges and exciting opportunities More than ever, competition is keener and the custom-
ers are discerning when they shop for an auComc^le To ensure sucre*;'! -c

. ww AV...C.V.U iiiaioiii-diiy. incorporation ot the latest tcdinology has been a significant contributor
0 productivity improvements It is expected that automation and robotic systems, m particular, will
Fig. 38.1. (a) A sideview of a robot spot welding an automobile cross member
at the Kansas Citv
Missouri Assembly Plant in 1971. (b) A front view of the same robot application.

789
792 APPLICATION PLANNING. INTEGRATION

Fig 38.4. (o) Robo( loading a stamping press at the frame plant at the Rouge complex m Dearborn.
Michigan m 1971 (b) The same robot unloading the press

In December 19S2 the Robotics and Autonution Applications Consulting Center was established
as a means for accomplishing the task of organizing for robotics This cenler is comprised of the
following functions

Manufacturing technology applications

Computer-aided manufactunng systems
Training
Application development
Qualification and performance testing

38.3.1. Manufacturing Technology Applications

optimizing
The increased momentum to implement robotics and other programmable automation,
program-
robot selection and design of the peripheral process systems, end-effector tooling, and software
 -

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aTi? r.'trm’.Tj'V x'nxaix anaffanranrcE xmi TXjoarxir rmi-.K': a.Tixxcfiatr} -virro
Tff.aiiiix: xinnri
794 APPLICATION PLANNING- INTEGRATION

38.3.2. Computer-Aided Manufacturing Systems

To complement the MTAs, the computcr-aided-maoufactunng systems activity that already existed
within the company was realigned to form another part of the new organization This group provides
the engineenng base for the development and refinemeftt of advanced computer programming, editing
techniques, and diagnostic software for troubleshooting robotic systems
Fig. 38.5. (a) Robot unloading a cluster of parts from a die cast machine at the Rawsonville, Michigan
Plant in 1971. (6) The same robot loading the parts cluster on a water spray conveyor.

ming —
all were placed on the line manufacturing engineers. In general, these engineers have knowledge
of robotics and computer technology but collectively have a difficult time keeping up with the latest
state of the art.
This prompted the establishment of a new organizational group within the Robotic Center, referred
to asManufacturing Technology Applications Consultants (MTAs). This group is composed of people
from the manufacturing and assembly operations having in-depth experience in engineering and produc-
tion operations. Their primary mission is to identify new technologies and potential opportunities for
appropriate use in manufacturing operations, as well as to assist the line manufacturing engineers in
the planning and implementation of the manufacturing systems.
Fig 38.8. (a) A robot unloading a transmission case from a floor conveyor m the Livonia. Michigan
Transmission Plant in 1979 (b) The same robot loading the transmission case on a moving overhead
conveyor
STRATEGY FOR ROBOT APPLICATIONS 15

Fig. 38.7. A robot spot welding at the Broadmeadows Assembly Plant (Ford of Australia) in 1979.

38.3.3. Training and Worker Acceptance

The training activity provides necessary education and training for company hourly, salary, and manage-
ment employees. Involving the hourly worker in the training programs prior to a robotic application
in his or her area breaks down the barrier caused by the fear of the unknown, A Robot. This has
virtually eliminated any worker acceptance problems, which was confined to a minimal number of
employees. The training acquaints them with the application, programming, operating, and maintenance
of robots and ancillary equipment. The familiarity of the robots obtained by the employees during
the training classes promotes the acceptance of the robotic applications by the affected employees.
Video tapes, slides, films, and hands-on experience on a variety of robots are used in the presentation
of the courses. In addition, commercially available audiovisual training programs are available for
the robot users.

38.3.4. Application Development

This activity provides laboratory facilities at the Robotic Center for the line engineers from the manufac-
turing and assembly plants within the Ford Motor Company (Figure 38.14). This activity will spearhead
the strategy for developing the robotic system for particular hard-to-do applications with each manufac-
turing, assembly, or material-handling engineer. The center and activity support the engineers in the
development of specific robot system applications under simulated production conditions. Thus the
engineer will be able to refine his or her original robotic system concept to a more simplified, problem-
free,workable system, as well as determining cycle time and the robot with the best working envelope
before purchasing the equipment for the production application. The development and tryout includes
peripheral equipment such as conveyors, end-of-arm tooling and grippers, fixturing and sensing devices,
and parts-handling/feeding mechanisms for specific process applications as shown in Figures 38.15
and 38.16.
The development of a robotic application permits the engineer to revise and simplify the original
concept to a more problem-free workable system. This precludes the engineer from “wishing I could
do it over” when the previous development is done at the robot vendor’s floor or in the plant after
all of the equipment has been purchased. The engineer can determine the actual cycle time and simplify

the robot end-of-arm tooling and the automation’s presentation and removal of the workpiece to and
from the robot before it is purchased. This reduces the major problems experienced in a manufacturing
798
APPUCATION PLANNING:
INTEGRATION

, Michigan Assem-

the infomiation*^ "lanufaclunng and assembly engineers

isfln^h^ ?/ thrS'
Sre;rs^s9"^^
e envelope of vanance of .he
robot tool point position with
repeated cycir Even though the
STRATEGY FOR ROBOT APPLICATIONS 797

Fig. 38.9. A robot applying a coating on the body underside at the Genk, Belgium Assembly Plant
in 1979. The plasticwrapping protects the robot from the coating material overspray.

plant with a robotic application. The problems experienced in production operations at the manufacturing
and assembly plants with a robotic system are mainly associated with the end-of-arm tooling and
peripheral equipment. The problems are, typically, poor repeatability and reliability of providing work-
pieces to the robot; poor repeatability and reliability of the end-of-arm tooling in assembling workpieces;
poor reliability of a machine fixture for machine loading. Such problems are caused by cycle time
constraints of the application, and by the need for unique one-time design of tooling and peripheral
equipment required for each application. The application development activity allows line engineers
to develop a total system fully by actual cycling of the system to examine performance and durability

characteristics. Unsatisfactory performance or durability characteristics that are revealed during the
cycle testing can be corrected and reevaluated. This permits developing a system fully prior to installation
on the factory where timing constraints preclude optimizing the system.
floor,
Approximately 20 applications have been developed at the center in the first eight months of its
operation. The line engineers associated with these development applications have exhibited great enthu-
siasm for the opportunity to work and develop their concepts prior to finalizing the applications.
However, the relatively short period that the center has been in operation has not yet allowed for
any of the applications to be “tried and proven” in the production environment.

38.3.5. Qualification and Performance Testing

A function of the center is assessing the capabilities of new entries into the robotics market. Additionally,
performance testing and measurements, similar to those described in Chapter 10, Performance Testing,
are made on products that are currently in use within the Company to provide data relative to specific
applications. Examples include coordinate accuracy, repeatability, and power consumption, as well as
indicated reliability problems under varying payloads, speeds, and reach.
The testing is necessary to substantiate performance claims on a common baseline and to develop
 L -ill
'
i

Fig. 38.11. A robot removing burrs on the edge of an oil hole on a crankshaft at the Cleveland
Ohio Engine Plant in 1982.
802 APPUCATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

Fig. 38 17. Computer $ta(i$tically analyzing the repeatability of a robot

combining prenonnal and normalized operating conditions (Prenormalized assumes the robot manufac-
turer’s narm-up cycle is not conducted )
Repeatability is categorized into (»o parameter groups of testing The t»o groups are maximum
and median (50%) payload conditions (as rated by the robot manufacturers) The two parameters
are tested with t«o variables —
reach and speed Fable 38 t is a matrix descnption of the lest parameters
and variables

Fig. 38.18. Noncontact three-plane gaging block for measuring the robot performance
Fig. 38.15. A robotic application for loading and unloading moving overhead conveyor being developed
at the Robotic Center.
804 APPLICATION PLANNING: INTEGRATION

products, but vanety in itseJf carnes a dilemma to users m many ways Proliferating the factory
floor with unlike devices raises a major concern in the eyes of the robot users m the techniques of
programming, characteristic differences in operating one product or another, and vanation in components
used in the design of the robot systems
There is a need to rethink market strategies by producers to participate jointly in sUndardizmg
systems designs to accommodate major issues confronling users Standardizing teach methods and
symbols and the mounting configuration for the end-of-ann tooling or gnppers would not mfnnge
on the robot manufacturer’s competitive edge From the eyes of the user, such unique features as
those just desenbed may even prevent the purchase of any robot The user is first of all interested m
whether or not the system application will operate satisfactonly Second, can the system be economically
justified or affordable’ And third, are the basic skills for operating and maintaining the system considered
within the level of skills availablem the plant’

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to everyone at the Ford Motor Company Robotics and Automation
Applications Consulting Center for providing me the background for wnimg this chapter through
our close association with our vanous application programs My
special gratitude goes to Jim Dillon,
me the opportunity of being involved with the latest technology
the Director of the Center, for providing
encountered at the Center Also, Tom Helzerrnao, Norbcrl Michalowicz, Bob Richards, and Gary
Suzman, deserve special acknowledgment since they helped provide the photographs and material used
for this chapter John DiPonio deserves special thanks for providing the opportunity for the people
at the Center to contnbute to this handbook
STRATEGY FOR ROBOT APPLICATIONS 803

Fig. 38.19. A robot tool block simulating the tool point approaching the gage block during a test
cycle.

The results of the test data are compiled and reported in terms of:

Mean of the repeatability envelope, or X.

Range of the repeatability envelope, or R.

Upper and lower 3 sigma capability.

38.4. FUTURE OF ROBOTICS IN THE FORD MOTOR COMPANY

As previously discussed, it is estimated that about 2500 robots will be in use in the Ford Motor
Company by the end of 1985, an increase of more than 125% from 1983. The 2500 robots are forecasted
to double to 5000 by 1990. As more robots are installed and the engineers gain familiarity with robotic
technology, these projections will probably be changed to reflect even higher rates of usage — up to
7500 by 1990. Robotic technology is also expected to proliferate to areas such as nonreprogrammable
automation and flexible machining cells. This will further improve productivity and quality to meet
the Company’s goal of making the best automobile at the lowest price. The Ford workers are depending
on the industrial robot suppliers and academia for further product innovation to complement this
internal development and training effort.

38.5, WHAT DOES INDUSTRY REQUIRE IN ROBOTICS?

Lack of uniformity in construction, product design, and the operating nature of the robots from the
commercially available suppliers requires serious attention. The industry offers a wide variety of good

TABLE 38.1

Variables

Payload Reach Speed

Robot Max Max

Manufacturer’s 50% Max
Maximum 50% 50%
Rating Max 50%
Robot Max Max
Manufacturer’s 50% Max
Median (50%) 50% 50%
Rating Max 50%
PART 8
FABRIC ATIOX
processing
808 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

to be stored, machined, assembled, or packaged In these transport operations, the physical characteristics
of the object remain unchanged
The robot’s ability to acquire an object, move it through space, and release it makes it an ideal
candidate for transport operations Simple matenal'handimg tasks, such as part transfer from one
conveyor to another, may only require one- or two-dimensional movements These types of operations
are often performed by nonservo robots Other parts-handling operations may be more complicated
and require varying degrees of manipulative capability m
addition to transport capability. Examples
of these more complex tasks include machine loading and unloading, palletizing, part sorting, and
packaging These operations are typically performed by servo-controlled point-to-point robots

Manipulation

In addition to material handling, another basic operation performed on an object as u is transformed

from raw matenal to a finished product is processing, whichgenerally requires some type of manipulation
That is, workpieces are inserted, onented, or twisted to be in the proper position for machining,

assembly, or some other operation In many cases, it is the tool that is manipulated rather than the
object being processed
A and tooling makes it very suitable for processing
robot’s capability to manipulate both parts
applications Examples m this regard include robot-assisted machining, spot and arc welding, and
spray painting More complex operations, such as assembly, also rely on the robot’s manipulation
capabilities In many cases the mampuiaiions required in these processing and assembly operations
are quite involved, and therefore either a continuous-path or point-to-point robot with a large data
storage capacity is required

Sensing

In addition to transport and manipulation, a robot’s ability to react to its environment by means of
sensory feedback is also important, particubriy in sophisticated applications like assembly and inspection
These sensory inputs may come from a variety of sensor types, including proximity switches, force
sensors, and machine vuion systems
have relatively limited sensing capabilities This is due pnmanly to the diffi-
State-of-the-art robots
culty with which today's robots can be effectively inlerfa^ with sensors and. to a lesser extent, to
the availability of suitable /ow<os( sensing devices As control capabilities continue to improve and
sensor costs decline, the use of sensory feedback in robotics applications will grow dramatically
In each applicaiion one or more of the robot’s capabilities of transport, manipulation, or sensing
IS employed These capabilities, along with the robot’s inherent reliability and endurance, make it
ideal for many applications now performed manually, as well as in some applications now performed
by traditional automated means

39.1,3. Types of Applications

By the end of 1983 there were approximately 8000 robots installed in the United States These installa-
tions are usually grouped into the seven application categones shown in Figure 39 1 ' This figure
also shows the major robot capabilities used in each application and the type of benefits obtained A
more detailed list of application examples by type is contained m Figure 39 2 A brief description
• of
each application category is contained in the following paragraphs

Material Handling

In addition to tending die casting macbmes, early robots were also used for other material-handling
applications These applications make use of the robot’s basic capability to transport objects, with
manipulative skills being of less importance Typically, motion takes place in two or three dimensions,
with the robot mounted either stationary on the floor or on slides or rails that enable it to move
from one workstation to another Occasionally, the robot may be mounted overhead, but this is rare
Robots used in purely matenal-handling operations arc typically nonservo, or pick-and-place, robots
Examples of matenai-handhng applications include transferring parts from one conveyor to another,
transfemni pans from a processing line to a conveyor, palletizing parts, and loading bins and fixtures
for subsequent processing A robot unloading glass tubes from a conveyor and placing them on a
pallet IS depicted in Figure 39 3
The pnmary benefits using robots for tnatenal handling are to reduce direct labor costs and
m
remove humans from tasks that may be hazardous, tedious, or exhausting. Also, the use of robots
typically results in less damage to parts during handling, a major reason for using robots for
moving
fragile objects In many matenal-handling apphcatKHis, however, other forms of automation
may be
more suitable if production volumes arc large and no workpiece manipulation is required
 CHAPTER 39
AN OVERVIEW OF
FABRICATION AND
PROCESSING APPLICATIONS
JOHN D. MEYER
Tech Tran Corporation
Naperville, Illinois

39.1. OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS

39.1.1. Reasons for Using Robots

The commercial application of an industrial robot took place in 1961, when a robot was installed
first

to load and unload a die casting machine. This was a particularly unpleasant task for human operators.
In fact, many early robot applications took place in areas where a high degree of hazard or discomfort
to humans existed, such as in welding, painting, and foundry operations. Even though these early
robots did not necessarily perform their tasks more economically than humans, the elimination of
hazardous and unpleasant manual operations was sufficient justification for their use.
In recent years robots have also been used in many applications where they offer clear economic
advantage over human workers. Although human labor rates have continued to escalate, the hourly
operating and depreciation costs for robots have remained relatively constant. Thus, in many instances,
robots can perform tasks considerably less expensively than humans. Savings of 50-75% in direct
labor costs are not uncommon.
Another closely related reason for using industrial robots is increased productivity. Robots are
not only less expensive than manual labor, but they also frequently have higher rates of output. Some
of this increased productivity is due to the robot’s slightly faster work pace, but much is the result
of the robot’s ability to work almost continually, without lunch breaks and rest periods.
In addition to their economy and their ability to eliminate dangerous tasks and increase productivity,
robots are also used in many applications where repeatability is important. Although today’s robots
do not possess the judgmental capability, flexibility, or dexterity of humans, they do have a distinct
advantage of being able to perform repetitive tasks with a high degree of consistency, which in turn
leads to improved product quality. This improvement in consistency is important when justifying
robots for applications such as spray painting, welding, and inspection.
—
These four benefits reduced costs, improved productivity, better quality, and elimination of hazard-
ous tasks —represent the primary reasons for using industrial robots in today’s factories. In the future
an additional benefit, greater flexibility, is major role in robot justification.
also expected to play a
As flexible manufacturing systems and the totally automated factory become realities in the future,
the robot’s ability to adapt to product design changes and variations in product mix will become an
increasingly important factor in their use.

39.1.2. Robot Capabilities

In general, robots possess three important capabilities which make them useful in manufacturing opera-
tions: transport, manipulation, and sensing.

Transport

pne of the basic operations performed on an object as it passes through the manufacturing process
is material handling or physical displacement. The object is transported from one location to another

807
MANUFACTURING OPERATION SAMPLE ROBOT APPLICATIONS

MATERIAL HANDLING • MOV ng Palis la jni ivsiehouse lo machines

• wheel sp ndleS mio conveyors

• riansporhngetplnsivecievices
« PanSagng toaster ovens
• SHcKngprhianep.nrIs
• rranslaar <4 aiyia-. par Is from rnschine to overhead

• Iiansfer oMurhuie parts Irom one conveyor

loanrrlher
• LoBdnglra 'smssion rases Irom roller conveyor
to mcioorail
• Tf»is(eioll«iished auto engines (rom assembly to

• Processing Ollnermor inters

• 8o(Vloai)i>g
• riar'slerofglassfromracktoculingline
• Corehandimg

MACHINE LOADING/UNLOADING • L0Jdngai4i]pail< k>i g'indng

• (oadmgaiitocomponents into lest machnes
• LoiKtoggearsonto CMC lathes
• OnenI ngloadng transmission parts onto transfer
inrtU«r»*s
• LoaaJngholforin presses
• tCoidang lf»fismissinn rmg gea'S onto vertical lathes
• Lnad'>90teti>clronbeamweicler
• Loadngryimtler heads onto Iransler machines
• Loedmgaptytchpress
• LoarJrigdecast machine

SPRAY PAINTING • Pa ni ng ol a»ei aft pans pn automated line

• Parntmooliruckbed
• Pasairngol under Side o> agncuttural
equ'ement
• ApplicaliO'tolp'imecOBl to truck cabs
• Appicaionottheimaimaieriailoroeliels
• Panlirrgnlapp arvceconiponents

WELDING • Spot vve<d ng pi auto bodies

• WeWmghoni end ioMer buckets
• Arc weidmghiT ge assemblies on sgricuttursl equpment
• eiaiesoerngolaircrsfl seams
• All. wetdmgot tractor front weight supports
• Arrwetdmgolnitoaiiles

MACHINING • Orlfnqslumnunipsitelsoriaircrsti
' Mplat flash removal from cast ngs
• Sartdngpissiewings

ASSEMBLY • AssenWvolancrallparls (used with auto rivet equpmenl)

• Rivekng smak sssemblies
• Ot«ngar«Jlasteninomelalpanels
• Assembfcng ance switches
• Insrslingandfaslenngscrews

OTHER • Aoptcalonuttwo part urethane gasket

toaulo part
• Applralionofadhnsive
• lnd.>.*>Or>hat<]erung
V Inspecting dimensicns on parts
• hspeclonolhole diameter and wall in ckness

Fig. 39.2. Examples obot applications

810
AN OVERVIEW OF FABRICATION AND PROCESSING APPLICATIONS 809

T^OBijT CAPABIIJTIES PRIMARY BENEFITS

JUSTIFYING USE OF USING ROBOTS
T'" -r --T I

! §!
o/M (

!§§
'
V o QO
APPLICATION q: O UjZ o/

MATERIAL HANDLING PARTS HANDLING

PALLETIZING
TRANSPORTING
HEAT TREATING

MACHINE LOADING DIE CAST MACHINES

AUTOMATIC PRESSES
NC MILLING MACHINES

INSPECTION POSITION CONTROL

TOLERANCE

Fig. 39.1. Major categories of robot applications and rationale for use.

Machine Loading and Unloading

In addition to unloading die casting machines, robots are also used extensively for other machine
loading and unloading applications. Machine loading and unloading is generally considered to be a
more sophisticated robot application than simple material handling. Robots can be used to grasp a
workpiece from a conveyor belt, lift it to a machine, orient it correctly, and then insert or place it
on the machine. After processing, the robot unloads the workpiece and transfers it to another machine
or conveyor. The greatest efficiency is usually achieved when a single robot is used to service several

machines. Also, a single robot may be used to perform other operations while the machines are perform-
ing their primary functions.
Other examples of machine loading and unloading applications include: loading and unloading of
hot billets into forging presses; loading and unloading machine tools, such as lathes and machining
centers; stamping press loading and unloading; and tending plastic injection molding machines.
8*2 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Maehwwg
in machinini applicaiioni, the robot typically hoMs a powered spindle and performs dnllin|, grinding
routing, or other similir operationson the w-orkpiece An example of a robot debumng parts is shown
m Figure 39 6 In machining operations the workpiece can be placed in a fixture by a human, by
another robot, or by a second arm of the same robot performing the machining In some operations
the robot moves the vvorkpiece to a stationary powrered spindle and tool, such as a buffing wheel
Robot applications in machining are imiited at present because of accuracy requirements, expensive
tool designs, and lack of appropriate sensory feedback capabilities Machining is likely to remain a
somewhat limited application until both improved sensing capabilities and better positioning accuracy
arc achieved

A^iembt}

One of the areas of greatest interest today is the development of effective, reasonably priced robots
for assembly Currently available robots can be used to a limited extent for simple assembly operations,
such as mating two parts together However, for more complex assembly operations, robots are subject
to thesame limitations as in machining cpcraiions, namely, difficulties m achieving the required position
ing accuracy and sensory feedbacL
Examples of current robot assembly t^rations include the insertion of light bulbs into instrument
panels, the assembly of typewriter nbbon carlndgcs. the insertion of components into printed winng
boards, and the automated assembly of small electric motors
However, more complex assembly tasks typically cannot be performed by currently available robots
A number of companies are conducting research in sensory feedback, improved positional accuracy,
and better programming languages that will permit more advanced assembly applications in the future

Insptciion

A number of robot applications is in the area of inspection In these ippl'va-

small but rapidly growing
tions, robots arcused in conjunction with sensors, such as a television camera, laser, or ultrasonic
of rccognirc parts for sorting Such robots have
detector, to check part locations, identify defects,
been used to inspect valve cover assemblies for automotive engines, sort metal castings, and inspect
the dimensional accuracy of openings m
automotive bodies
AN OVERVIEW OF FABRICATION AND PROCE^SSING APPLICATIONS 811

Fig. 39.3. Robot unloading glass tubes from conveyor and placing them on pallets.

Although adverse temperatures or atmospheres can make robots advantageous for machine loading
and unloading, the primary motivation for their use is to reduce direct labor costs. Overall productivity
is also likely to increase because of the longer amount of time the robot can work compared to humans.

In machine loading and unloading, it is both the manipulative and transport capabilities that make
use of robots feasible.

Spraying

In spraying applications, the robot manipulates a spray gun which is used to apply some material,
such as paint, stain, or plastic powder, to either a stationary or moving part. These coatings are
applied to a wide variety of parts, including automotive body panels, appliances, and furniture. In
those cases where the part being sprayed is on a moving conveyor line, the robot’s sequence of spraying
motions iscoordinated with the motion of the conveyor. A
spray-painting robot is shown in Figure
39.4. Relatively new applications for spraying robots include the application of resin and chopped
glass fiber to molds for producing glass-reinforced plastic parts and spraying epoxy resin between
layers of graphite broadgoods advanced composites.
in the production of
The manipulative of prime importance in spraying applications. A major
capability of the robot is

benefit of their use is higher product quality through more uniform application of material. Another
benefit is reduced costs by eliminating human labor and reducing waste coating material. Another
major benefit is the reduced exposure of humans to toxic materials.

Welding

The largest single application for robots at present is for spot welding automotive bodies. Spot welding
isnormally performed by a point-to-point servo robot holding a welding gun. Arc welding can also
be performed by robots, as shown in Figure 39.5. However, seam tracking can be a problem in some
arc welding applications. A
number of companies are developing noncontact seam trackers, which
would greatly increase the usage of robots for arc welding.
Robots are used in welding applications to reduce costs by eliminating human labor and to improve
product quality through better welds. In addition, since arc welding is extremely hazardous, the use
of robots can minimize human exposure to harsh environments.
814 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Fig. 39,6. Robot debornng welal parts

not covered in later handbook chapters As used here, fabncation and processing include the t>pes
of applications described in the following sections In some instances, these applications reflect the
use of robots for speciflc manufactunng functions, such as machining or heat treating, whereas in
other cases they involve the use of robots in specific industnes. such as plastics processing and glassmak-
mg In these latter cases, there will be some obvious duplication with information presented in subsequent
chapters

39.2.2. Die Casting*'^

As mentioned previously, die casting has historically been one of the major application areas for
industrial robots In fact, in 1961 the first commercul robot installation took place, which involved
tending a die casting machine Today, die casting is the second largest category of robot applications
in the United States
In retrospect, die casting was an ideal area for the initial use of robots, since this application
possesses anumber of important charactenstics that make it amenable to robotization Die cast parts
it is also important to keep the time required for equipment
are produced in relatively large volumes, but
changeover to a minimum The parts are precisely oriented when they are removed from the die
casting machine, which makes them suitable for robot handling with standard or slightly modified
grippers Because of the matunty of the die casting process, there are few equipment or product
design changes that would necessitate retooling Furthermore, die casting operations are notonously
hot, dirty, and hazardous, making it a particularly unpleasant environment for human workers
And
an overview of fabrication and processing applications 813

Fig. 39.5. Arc welding robot.

As in assembly and machining operations, a high degree of accuracy and extensive sensory capabilities
are required for inspection applications. In the future this is expected to be one of the high-growth

application areas as low-cost sensors and improved positioning accuracy evolve.

39.1.4. User Industries

A breakdown of current robot by applications and industry is given in Table 39.1.‘ Not
installations
surprisingly, the industry with the most robots installed is the auto industry, with about 40% of the
total U.S. robot population. Within the auto industry, welding is the most common robot application,
with about 70% of all robots in that industry used for welding.
Although robots are used in almost every industry and type of application, the majority of installa-
tions are concentrated in a relatively few plants and types of applications. For example, it is estimated
that just 10 plants contain nearly one-third of all robots installations and that the three categories of
welding, material handling, and machine loading account for approximately 80% of all current applica-
tions. At the same time, it must be remembered that the market penetration of robots has been relatively
limited in even the most common applications.
As robot technology begins to diffuse within industry it will affect almost every manufacturer,
from furniture producers to pharmaceutical firms. And as robot capabilities continue to improve,
new applications will undoubtedly be uncovered.

39.2. ROBOTS IN FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

39.2.1. Definition of Fabrication and Processing

The previous section provided an overview of all major types of industrial applications. However,
most of these application types are discussed in detail in subsequent handbook chapters on welding;
material handling and machine loading; assembly; inspection, quality control, and repair; and finishing,
coating, and painting.
As a matter of convenience, for this chapter, we deRnc fabrication and processing as those applications
816 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

able number of robots have been effectively employed in foundnes, and additional installations are
expected in the future
Foundry applications of have ranged from ladling of molten metal into molds to
industrial robots
final cleaning of castings Robots have been particularly useful in mold preparation, where they have

been used for core handling and for spraying and baking of refractory washes on copes and drags
Robots have also been used for traditional matenal'handling operations, such as removing castings
from shakeout conveyors
Another major use of robots is beginning to emerge in casting cleaning operations When the
casting IS first removed from the mold it is still attached to gates and nsers and is likely to have a
considerable amount of flash which needs removing Traditionally, removal of these unwanted append-
ages has been done manually and is an extremely unpleasant and costly task Robots have met with
some success m gnndmg flash and chipping and cutting away gates and nsers
Another well-established robot application in foundnes is mold making for investment casting
operations In this application, wax pattern treex are repeatedly coated with a ceramic slurry and
stucco sand to build up the mold shell As many as 12 coats may be required before the mold has
" " . • » . i - .i .
reached its desired sue . ,
_

so that the wax patterns

mold IS destroyed when t

automated through the use of industnal robots

The pnmary reasons for using robots in foundry operations are cost reduction and elimination of
unpleasant or hazardous tasks for human workers Also, improvements in product quality which come
about through the consistency of robot operations are also a significant benefit in foundries This
latter benefit is particularly true in investment casting where more uniform molds translate into much
higher yields of good castings
The use of robots m
foundnes also presents a number of challenges, particularly with respect to
the operating environment and interfacing the robot with other equipment The abrasive dust encountered
m foundnes may require the use of protective covers to prevent damage to the robot In mold-making
operations for investment casting, interfacing the robot with slurry mixtures, fluidized beds, conveyors,
and drying ovens is usually a complex task because of the variation in processing requirements that
may be reflected in typical product mixes And last, implementation of casting cleaning operations
may be diflicult because of the sensory feedback normally required to deflash castings

Forging* * «
39,2.4.

Since 1974 a number of robots have been used in forging operations These applications have ranged
from loading and unloading of forging presses to the movement of workpieces from one die station
to another By far, the largest category of applications in forging is material handling Robots have
been used to load furnaces, move heated billets between furnaces and drop hammers or forging presses,
and move forged workpieces from presses to drawing benches, tnm presses, conveyors, or pallets
Robots have also been used to apply lubricant to both workpieces and dies
Robots have been used pnmanly in closed die forging and heading operations, since these are
relatively precise processes To a lesser extent, they have also been used in drop forging; upset forging,
roll forging, and swaging, processes which have a relatively large degree of variability between work-

pieces
Because of the harsh environment encountered in forging operations, the primary motivation for
using robots is to eliminate unpleasant tasks for human workers, which also reduces direct labor

costs Another major reason for using robots m

forging is to improve product quality, which can be
accomplished through ihe robot's consistent operation Furthermore, increases in throughput of up
to 30% have been reported because of the robot's ability to work almost continuously
Forging applications present unique challenges for robots Handling of the hot billets may require
w'ater-cooled gnppers or Ihe periodic cooling of tooling by immersion in water baths Similarly, the
heavy shock loads produced by forging may necessitate the use of special gnppers for isolation from
these forces Additional problems are created by lime-varying changes m
the process resulting from
warpage and die wear. And last, it must be remembered that forging is still a relatively hazardous
process characterued by extremely high forces and frequent abnormalities, such as workpieces not
ejecting properly from dies To overcome these difficulties, robots used m
forging operations typically
require a high level of interlocking with other equipment and sensory inputs to insure proper functioning
of the process

*
39.2.5. Heat Treatment*

As m applications such as die casting, foundry operations, and forging, the use of robots heat m
treating pnmanly involves matenal handling and machine loading and unloading tasks Robots typically
are used to load and unload heat-treating furnaces, salt baths, and washing and drying stations
AN OVERVIEW OF FABRICATION AND PROCESSING APPLICATIONS 815

TABLE 39.1. U.S. ROBOT POPULATION BY APPLICATION AND INDUSTRY (1982)

(NUMBERS SHOW RANK ORDER OF APPLICATION BY INDUSTRY)
U.S. INDUSTRY

ELECTRICAL HEAVY
LIGHT ELEC FOUIP- AERO-
APPLICATION AUTO FOUNDRY MFG TRONICS MENT SPACE TOTAL

WELDING 1 1 2200 35 %)
(

MATERIAL HANDLING J 1 1 1550 (25%)

MACHING LOADING ? 2 2 1250 (20%)

SPRAY PAINTING FINISHING 3 2 3 .3 1 600 (lO^'o)

ASSEMBLY 2 2 200 (3%)

MACHINING 100 (2%)

OTHER 300 (5%)

TOTAL 2500 1250 1050 700 600 100 6200 (100%)

(40%) (20'*«) (17%) (11%) (10%) (2%)

last,die casting is a relatively competitive industry which benefits from both the cost reduction provided
by robots and improved product quality resulting from their consistent performance.
Robots can be used to perform a number of functions in die casting. In simple installations, the
robot is used to remove the part from the die and place it on a conveyor. In more sophisticated
applications, the robot may perform a number of tasks, including part removal, quenching, trim press
loading and unloading, and periodic die maintenance. The robot may also be used for insert placement
and, in the case of aluminum die casting, loading the cold-shot chamber. In some cases, a single
robot can service two die casting machines. The specific functions performed depend on a number of
factors, including casting cycle times, physical layout, and robot speed and type.
Although robots have been installed in a number of die casting plants, a number of important
points must be considered in planning applications. Overall layout of the installation must be carefully
thought out in those cases where the robot performs more than just part unloading or when the
robot services more than one die casting machine. Similarly, the interfacing requirements between
the robot and other equipment may become complex. Also, additional sensory inputs may be required
to insure that all parts have been removed from the die and that the robot maintains its grip on the
sprue.
Optimizing the cost-effectiveness of the installation may also be challenging. Although maximizing
throughput of the die casting machine is clearly of primary importance, deciding which type of robot
should be used and which functions should be performed by the robot is not so obvious. In some
installations it is more appropriate to use other automated techniques for such functions as die lubrication
and metal ladling. This would permit the use of a less costly, nonservo robot. In other cases, however,
the use of continuous-path, servo robots to perform these functions may more than justify the increased
cost.

The benefits to be obtained by using robots in die casting have been well established. It is not
uncommon to replace as many as two workers on a shift by one robot, and direct labor cost reductions
of as much as 80% have been reported. Also, 20% increases in throughput are possible because of
consistent cycle times and the elimination of rest periods and lunch breaks required by humans. Signifi-
cant increases in product quality have also been obtained. This is primarily due to consistent cycle
times and constant die temperatures which result in better-quality parts and less scrap. Net yield
increases of 15% have been achieved. Other benefits of using robots in die casting include increased
die life, reduced floor space for material handling and storage operations, and a significant decrease
in the cost of safety equipment since human operators are not required. The added benefit of removing

humans from tedious and unpleasant tasks associated with die casting should not be overlooked.

39.2.3. Foundry Operations^"’

Although foundries represent one of the most difficult operating environments for human workers in
industry today, the use of robots in this area has been relatively slow in materializing. This is probably
primarily due to the diversity of castings typically encountered in most foundries and the relatively
low-technology approach usually undertaken in such facilities. These factors notwithstanding, a consider-
 1992)

and

(1982

appitcation

by

usage

robot

S
U
projected

and

Current

39.7.

Fig.

818
AN OVERVIEW OF FABRICATION AND PROCESSING APPLICATIONS 817

The motivations for using robots in heat treating include elimination of unpleasant and hazardous
tasks, cost reduction, improved product quality, and increased productivity. Generally, medium- and
low-technology robots can be employed, and few unusual difficulties are encountered beyond protecting
the robot from the high temperatures normally encountered in heat treating.

39.2.6. Forming and Stamping^-

Press work, such as stamping, forming, and trimming, is another area where robots were applied

early in their development. Such applications have ranged from feeding presses for stamping small
parts to loading and unloading large presses for forming automotive body panels. Again, the applications
are primarily machine loading and unloading and typically involve the use of medium- or low-technology
pick-and-place robots.
Robots are usually used in press work applications for two reasons. First, press loading is considered
to be a very dangerous task, and robots are used primarily for safety and to minimize hazard to
human workers. The second benefit is cost reduction through both the elimination of human labor
and increased productivity.
Although robots have been successfully applied in press working, there are a number of cases
when their use is not appropriate. Many stamping and forming operations are highly automated,
particularly for long production runs, and robots have difficulty competing on an economic basis
under these circumstances. Similarly, many press work applications are relatively high-speed operations,
and robots are simply incapable of achieving the necessary operating speeds. These factors tend to
limit robot applications to those situations where production quantities are moderate and manual
techniques predominate, or where low-technology robots and special-purpose robot designs, such as
two-armed robots, are appropriate.

39.2.7. Machining2'‘.6-a

As mentioned previously, machining applications for robots are somewhat limited at present. However,
robots have been used to perform such tasks as drilling, routing, reaming, cutting, countersinking,
broaching, and deburring. Many of these applications have been in the aerospace industry, with the
exception of deburring, which has seen more widespread use. Since many machining applications tax
the capabilities of today’s most sophisticated robots, it is likely to be some time before robots are
widely used for this function.
The major difficulty in using robots for machining operations is positioning accuracy. Present
robots simply have difficulty achieving the necessary precision and repeatability needed to locate tooling
accurately. Because of this, most robot machining operations rely on the extensive use of jigs and
fixtures,which quickly erases any advantages the robot provides in terms of flexibility and low cost.
Considerable research and development is being conducted in an attempt to improve positioning accuracy
by means of sensory feedback. Although some progress has been made in this regard, the use of
such sensors is rare, and improved solutions to the problem are still being sought.
In some machining operations additional difficulties arise. For example, the robot’s operating speed
may not be high enough when compared to other automated and manual techniques. Similarly, in
tasks such as deburring programming becomes a major problem because of the number of complex
motions that must be executed by the robot.

39.2.8. Plastics Processing^-

In plastics processing the most common application of robots by far has been for unloading injection
molding machines. Other applications have included unloading transfer molding presses and structural
foam molding machines, handling large compression-molded parts, and loading inserts into molds,
Robots have also been used for spray painting and applying a variety of resins, as well as performing
many secondary operations such as trimming, drilling, buffing, packaging, and palletizing of finished
plastic products.
Estimates indicate that nearly5% of all injection molding machines are now tended by robots,
and in Japan one of the most common robot applications. The robot may be mounted on
this is
either the top or bottom of the molding machine, or it may be a stand-alone unit servicing more
than one machine. Increasingly, special-purpose, low-cost robots are being employed for this function,
The major reason for using robots in plastics processing is to achieve cost savings through both
the reduction of human labor and increases in throughput. Additionally, product quality may increase
significantly because of more uniform processing cycles and consistent handling of delicate workpieces,
The use of robots in plastics processing is no more difficult than other types of robot applications.
The same level of interfacing with other equipment, such as conveyors and trim presses, is still required,
and overall equipment layout is important. Gripper design may be a problem, however, because ol
workpiece size, quantity, and limpness.
820 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

5. Tanner, W R , Industrial Robots from A to Z A Practical Guide to Successful Robot Applications,

The MGI Management Institute, Larchmont, New York, 1983
6. Tanner,W R Ed Industrial Robots.Vok 1 and2,SoaetyofManufactunngEngineers, Dearborn.
, ,

Michigan, 1981
7. Wamecke, H and Schraft,
J R D ,
Industrial Robots Application Experience, IFS (Publications),
Bedford, England 1982
8. Molander, T
Routing and Dnlling with an Industrial Robot, Proceedings of the I3th International
,

Svmposium on Industrial Robots and Robot 7, April 1983, Chicago, Illinois, Society of Manufactur-
ing Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, 1983

9. Meyer, J D , Industnal Robots m —

Plastics Manufactunng ^Today and in the Future. Proceedings
of the Regional Technical Conference on Automation. Tooling, and Thermosets, March 1983, Missis-
sauga. Ontano, Society of Plastics Engineers, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1983
AN OVERVIEW OF FABRICATION AND PROCESSING APPLICATIONS 819

39.2.9. Other Areas

Robots are being used or considered for use in almost every conceivable industry. A brief sampling
of some additional applications which might be considered as part of fabrication and processing is as
follows:

1. Electronics Processing. is starting to emerge as one of the important user industries

Electronics
for robotics. Applications include machine loading and unloading for parts fabrication and
presses, component placement for hybrid microcircuit assembly, component insertion for printed
circuit board assembly, cable harness fabrication, and robot-assisted test and inspection.

2. Glassmaking. Robots are used in glassmaking because of their ability to withstand high tem-
peratures and handle fragile workpieces, which eliminates unpleasant and hazardous tasks for
humans and reduces overall costs. Robots have been used for charging molds with molten
glass and for handling both sheet and contoured glass products.
3. Primary Metals. Robots are beginning to be used in the production of primary metals such
as steel and aluminum. In addition to traditional material-handling applications, robots have
been used for such tasks as charging furnaces with ingots and furnace tapping.
4. Textiles and Clothing. The use of robots in textile and clothing manufacturing presents unique
problems because of the limp nature of the workpieces. However, robots are being used for
such applications as material-handling in spinning mills and for automatic placement and sewing
of clothing items.
5. Food Processing. In addition to material-handling and packaging applications in food process-
ing, robots have also been used for such tasks as decorating chocolates and actual food prepara-
tion.

6. Chemical Processing. The chemical processing industry, which is normally thought of as a

continuous-flow operation, is starting to use robots for a variety of applications, including
material-handling and maintenance activities, such as cleanup of chemical reactors.

39.3. FUTURE TRENDS IN FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

There is almost universal agreement that the use of industrial robots will increase dramatically during
the next decade. Anticipated growth, in terms of annual sales increases, is on the order of 40%. At

that rate, the U.S.-installed base of industrial robots should reach 100,000 units somewhere in the
early 1990s. If each robot displaces two workers, then about 200,000 jobs could be directly affected
by robots. However, many new jobs would also be created for such positions as robot programmers,
troubleshooters, and maintenance personnel.
Along with this rapid growth in robot sales, a number of important technological and product
developments are expected to take place. These include the development of smaller and lighter-weight
robots, an increase in payload capacity relative to the weight of the robot, and dramatically improved
grippers. In the sensor area, major improvements are expected in machine vision systems, tactile sensing,
and low-cost force sensors. Major developments are also anticipated in robot control and programming
capabilities, including the use of hierarchical control concepts and olf-line programming. At the same
time, robot prices are expected to decline as production rates increase.
These trends and anticipated developments can only help to accelerate the use of robots for fabrication
and processing applications. Improved capabilities, particularly in control and sensory technology,
coupled with declining costs should make many currently difficult applications cost-effective realities
in the future.
As some shift in applications is anticipated. Current and projected
robot sales continue to grow,
robot use by type of application shown in Figure 39.7.' It is anticipated that traditional robot
is

applications such as spot welding, material handling, and painting will decline somewhat in terms of
their respective market shares, while other emerging applications, such as assembly and machining,
will increase significantly. Since machining, assembly, and similar uses of robots generally require
more sophisticated equipment and interfacing, their relative impact on future manufacturing operations
will be even more significant.

REFERENCES
1. Industrial Robots: A Summary and Forecast, Tech Tran Corporation, Naperville, Illinois, 1983.
2. Engelberger, J. F., Robotics in Practice, AMACOM, New York, 1980.
3. Hunt, V. D., Industrial Robotics Handbook, Industrial Press, New York, 1983.
4. Hartley, Robots at Work:
J., A Practical Guide for Engineers and Managers, IFS (Publications),
Bedford, England, 1983.
 )

*22 FA0RICAnON AND PROCESSING

rationale for the application and an equally clear rationale in the specification and ultimate selection
of a particular robot

Experience gamed m the implementation of robot systems has led to the development of guidelines
that provide useful references (eg, see Tealc*) See also the list of applications rules at the end of
this chapter

40.2.2. In the Automobile Industry

The theme of rationale brings us to the needs of the automobile industry, which require explonng in
a little more detail is obviously a major robot user, recent
This industry figures indicate that more
than a third of all work in automobile manufacture (see Figure 40
robots 1) Several factors prompt
the introduction of robots and robotic systems

Hostile Operator Equipment

Within the automobile industry there are certain environments that must be considered as hostile,
and socially there is an obligation to remove operators from them These, perhaps, are the pnonty
areas for implementing robotics Such processes as welding, paint spraying, underseal application,
sealing/adhesive bonding, fettling, and handling hot components fall into this category

Quality

Robots both demand and achieve quality Also they can be used to assist in the measunng of quality
Consistent panel fit-up is of extreme importance in, for example, fusion welding To achieve this there

IS a need for more accurate panels, jigs, and fixings, which in turn will produce in the finished vehicle

an improved form as typifi^ by door, trunk (boot), and hood (bonnet) fits, and by the integnty of
styling lines and features
Automated processes will produce improved and consistent quality paint will be evenly applied,
underseal will be directed to the specified areas, adhesive wi|| be continuously applied, arc welds will
be of improved quality, resistance welds mil be made at specified pitch and location, consistent joint
sealing to contain water leaks and seam corrosion will be achieved Robotics can be used to achieve
quality in terms of body preparation for subsequent painting operations, for example, wash-down or
blow-down processes
As an aid to automated inspection, robots also have a role Examples of this are body scanning
and component inspection pnor to automatic assembly (See chapters on inspection in Section 12

Productivity

There are clear productivity and economic attractions in using robots as part of an automated system
Equally, the onen-stated advantages of mobiliiy and working tirelessly for the whole shift without
needing breaks or relief are valid

Fig, 40,1. Total and automotive world robot populations in 1932

 CHAPTER 40
ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE
INDUSTRY
M. P. KELLY
BL Technology
Cowley, England

MICHAEL E. DUNCAN
Cambridge University
Cambridge, England

40.1. INTRODUCTION
The automobile industry has some well-established needs; productivity, consistency, reliable and untiring
operators who are prepared to work at times in hostile environments. These needs can be catered by
automation, and, since its inception, the automobile industry has been at the forefront in both developing
and implementing automated systems and processes.
There is, however, a further key need, flexibility, that is, the ability to handle product (and production)
variants and to react quickly, and with the minimum of investment to facelifts and new models. The
robot, because of its programmability, becomes therefore an essential tool in achieving flexible, automated
manufacture.
This chapter investigates robotics in the automobile industry by examining certain specific applica-
tions, both in terms of positive achievements and of the problems that must be understood and overcome.

40.2. ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

40.2.1. General Observations

Some general remarks are appropriate as an introduction:

Typically, robots are not purpose-built for specific applications; therefore in the majority of cases,
existingand readily available robots must be “engineered into” the particular application, which
can impose severe constraints. These constraints tend to work against a prime rule for implementing
—
robots “keep it simple." There may be an evolution into purpose-built programmable equipment.
Currently available robots may be criticized for a low level of self-diagnostics, a lack of perception
capability, and widely differing programming systems.
It is difficult to retrofit a robot because it must be interfaced with other facilities. All facility
changes, installations, or improvements should be considered as offering an opportunity to install
robots in appropriate operations.
Given the state of current robot technology, rules of thumb relevant to robotics applications include:
(1) robots prefer working on stationary objects, consequently there is pressure to engineer indexing
production lines; (2) avoid destroying component orientation; (3) minimize the number of locations,
fixings, and parts; (4) go for commonality and modularity.

Experience has shown that the personnel developing and implementing a process robot need to
be supported by an in-depth knowledge of that process (e.g., fusion welding, paint spraying, etc.)
The implementation of robotics for its own sake should be discouraged. There should be a clear

821
824 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Ffg. 40.2. Resistance welding line for the DL Metro

both Nimak and KUKA robots in lines of 26 machines * To date. si>ot welding offers the best examples
of multirobot systems in the automotive industry
Anticipated developments in machine specifications include higher wnsi load and torque capabilities,
increased use of combined transformer/gun units, and a reduction m
ihe cable clutter on the arm
Software development will lead to Ihe solution of such production problems as guns sticking to the
avnpofxnl, s&'lomsltc rfecTftxfe chsaiftg, snd ttnprovd {sdspfdblc) process control techniques The
requirements of a spot welding robot are summarized in Table 40 1

40.2.4. Arc Welding

Arc. or fusion, welding is considered a major growth area for the application of robotics The process

IS very hostile to the operator, generating noise, fumes, and intense light (flash), automation produces
high-qualily welds with greater consistency and at a faster rate The robot equipment is typically a
five-axis electric powered machine with continuous path and linear interpolation capability Accuracy
of ±0 2 mm is required
The process involves feeding a consumable wire through a torch which provides a protective envelope
of shielding gas (CO2) The wire arcs onto the workpiece and melts into a "weld'’ pool The process
IS applied to automobile subassemblies mainly for reasons of strength, low distortion, no slag, high
speed, applications where one-sided access only is required, and sealing
The very operator-dependent, and the robot provides a substitute for the
quality of this process is

increasingly scarce manual arc welding skills However, a major problem in robot application relates
to panel accuracy and fit-up This has slimulated considerable research and development work in
joint recognition and process adaptive control An example of such work 1$ the system developed
by BL, the Oxford University, and others* which uses a solid-state camera to track down the
jointly
seam which is illuminated by laser The system is shown m Figure 40 3
There ts some discussion as to whether the complex systems that would evolve from such sophisticated
technology might not be out of place in an industrial environment Meanwhile, there can be no reduction
and consistent panel lit by designers and tool makers The requirements
in the efforts to achieve accurate
of an arc welding robot are summarized in Table 40 2
ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 823

Flexibility

This is the prime attraction. As stated previously, the programmable nature of a robot enables it to
handle a variety of tasks, which is important in the automobile industry when body variants, or even
different models, must be handled on the same line.
Furthermore, once the particular model’s life is ended, the robot’s life is not. It can be reprogrammed
for the next model or relocated to another task. This is a particularly important point to note when
preparing an economic justification for robotics.

Management of Automation

Several conclusions may be drawn from experience to date of the successful introduction of robotic
systems in the automotive industry. The fundamental lesson already learned in robotic implementation
is the need for in-depth experience of the processes and materials to be applied, for example, welding,

sealing, bonding. The automotive process engineers have this in abundance. This knowledge, when
allied with a relatively short exposure to robotics, creates first-rate applications engineers. These skills

must be encouraged and exploited if a positive contribution in robotics implementation is to be achieved.

Equally, management must be made aware of, and sympathetic to, the need for flexible automation.
This is not always the case, particularly at middle management levels where robotics can be seen as
providing a political platform. Equally, the upper-management stance of legislating robots into produc-
tion must be avoided. It is clear that robotics must not be looked upon as a discrete technology;
some would argue that robotics is not a technology but simply a tool in the application of flexible
automation systems. The future of robotics is multidisciplined, involving all aspects of engineering,
including the design engineer. Automation in general, and robotics in particular, will become increasingly
dependent on the product designer to achieve access, reach, correct materials, accuracy, and so on.
To date, the robot applications engineer has managed to live with conventional design criteria, but
the inevitable move into assembly willdepend upon the designer to the extent that final assembly by
robot is "almost impossible to envisage without a fundamental rethinking of product design.
While mentioning a multidisciplined approach to robotics, it is worth stressing the essential role
of systems engineers in creating totally interfaced systems that are optimized, intercommunicate, and
are supported by process control technology, diagnostics, line output data, and the range of software
and sensing systems expected in a modem manufacturing unit.
Corporations are realizing that robotics should not be viewed simply against conventional one- or
two-year payback periods. Whole-life costing is appropriate, as is consideration of space savings, im-
proved quality, and adaptability. Equally important is the role that robotics will play in protecting
the future of the automotive industry. Increasing interest is being shown by many industries in the
strategic implications of the implementation of robot and automated systems.^’ “ Put simply, the future
relies upon efficient use of resources —
materials, space, plant, people, inventories, money —
and robotics
has a major contribution to make in meeting the challenges this implies.
Complementing this is the increasing support being made available from governments. This is
typified in Japan by support for leasing and loan arrangements, and in the United Kingdom by the
Dol robot initiative.^ In the future, apart from continuing govenment support, there will be an increase
in private enterprise support for leasing. There are already signs of this happening in the United
States.
The rest of Section 40.2 discusses specific automotive processes in which robots play an important
role. Additional details about these applications can be found in the respective chapters of the handbook.

40.2,3. Resistance Welding

Spot, or resistance, welding is the most widespread application of robotics in the automobile industry.
The principle requirements are accuracy (±1.0 mm) and a good weight-handling capability. Both
electric and hydraulic powered robots are used, although the majority are hydraulic, and they can
be either floor or gantry mounted.
The spot welding process involves squeezing the parts to be joined between two electrodes which
produce a 6-mm-diameter “spot” joint. It is a fast, reliable process capable of manual or automated
operation. However, the welding gun is heavy and cumbersome, and there are often access problems.
The process itself is unpleasant, being noisy and potentially dangerous. Automation not only relieves
the operator of a difficult job but also achieves reliable spot spacing and a faster work rate. On the
other hand, automation requires accurate panels, subassemblies, and locations.
The trend is toward systems that incorporate a matched set of different robots ranging from three-
to six-axis machines. One example of such a system, shown in Figure 40.2, is employed in the assembly
of the British Leyland Metro. In the United Kingdom, both Ford and British Leyland (BL) have
robot lines for spot welding. While BL uses Unimation equipment in this application. Ford combines
826 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

TABLE 40.2. FEATURES OF FIKION WELDING SYSTEMS

Mechanical and dynamic Accuracy (±0 2 mm)
charactenstics
Programmability and control Simple editing and programming
Ability to weave, to alter
the weave pattern and plane
Continuous-path capability
Tool center point interpolation
Interface capability with
welding control parameters
and ability to select various
programs
System characteristics Automatic nozzle cleaning
Sensing dcviccs/fecdback
covering wire feed, gas flow,
and water flow
System requirements Good panel fits (essential)
Full system approach
Good housekeeping

compliant nozzles, jomt-following capability, programmable matcnal-flow control, and interchangeable

or multifunction heads It will also be necessary to impose sinct matenal quality control to contain
blockages The requirements of a robot for the application of adhesives are shown in Table 40 3

40.2.6. Painting

The use of robots to paint panel sets is fairly well established, although further work is required to
integrate the robot within a system including color changes, body identification, matenal parameter
control, and so on Also pawt spraying of automotive bodies is already auiomaied to some extent by
the use of conventional roof- and side*coating machines However, such machines do not coat inside
the hood and trunk or internal shut areas A fully automated spray booth will be achieved when
robots can be exploited to paint such internal areas Two approaches are possible, the use of an automatic
door opening device or to paint the body minus doors and other opening panels, these to be painted
separately and added to the body later Whichever i$ chosen, the fully automated spray booth is
inevitable with substantial benefits in improving quality, energy savings (booth extraction), the ability
to use paint with potentially harmful consliluenis, and so on Some imagination may be necessary m
the engineering of installations to achieve the required access as shown m Figure 40 S
The control of color changes is and initial developments may be better
a potential problem area,

Fig. 40.4 Adhesive application, extruded as spots

ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 825

TABLE 40.1. FEATURES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

SYSTEMS
Mechanical and dynamic Adequate weight handling
characteristics —
capacity high-load machines
Heavy-duty wrist assembly
Accuracy (±1.0 mm)
Fast travel for interweld
movements
Programmability and control Tool center point interpolation
Interface capability with
welding controls
Consistent attitude of welding
—
gun to workpiece less panel
damage
System characteristics Ability to handle awkward guns
Integration of robots with
conventional multiwelders
Integrated, compact welding guns
System requirements Good access to vehicle
interiors to allow gun and
robot arm

40,2.5. Adhesive Bonding

There are a number of instances where consistent application of adhesive is critical for quality reasons.
These include containment of leaks or corrosion from joints, achievement of an effective bond, and
the like. The use of robotics is fairly novel, but the increased use of adhesives in vehicle body assembly
has highlighted the need for automation.
Adhesives are used where, for instance, finish requirements, base materials, or lack of access prevents
welding, where there is a requirement for a combined join and seal, load distribution in the join,

increased torsional stiffness, sound deadening, or where assembly volumes are low. The adhesive is
extruded as a bead or as spots (see Figure 40.4). Typical applications include the build of items such
as hood and trunk lids, doors, and the like.
Automation offers consistent performance and releases the operator from a tedious job. Moreover,
the industry is moving toward the use of epoxy-based adhesives which carry a potential dermatitis
risk. Developments necessary to promote the use of robotics in the application of adhesives include

Fig. 40.3. Fusion welding using a torch with seam-tracking capability.

 TABLE 40.4. FEATURES OF PAINT-SPRAYING SYSTEMS
Mechanical and dynamic MuKiaxis manipulator, 6-7
charactenstics a^is —preferably flexiarm
for dexterity
Hydraulic or pneumatic motive
—
power safety requirements
Accuracy/repeatabiliiy to
better than ±3 0 mm
Small physical size with a
large working envelope

Programmability and control Numencal control (NC) off-

line programming capability
Program editing
Diagnostic capability
Interface with associated
equipment and supervisory
controls
System charactenstics Gun control capability flow
sensors
Line synchronization capability
plus a negative response to
track the conveyor when
reversed
Rail system—seventh axis to —
allow robot to complete the
work cycle if the conveyor
stops
System requirement Consistent conveyor speeds
with no irregular movement
Accurate presentation of the
body
Ideniiflcaiion system to
enable processing of several
models

828 Fig. 40.6. Underseal application

ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 827

TABLE 40.3. FEATURES OF ADHESIVE APPLICATION

SYSTEMS
Mechanical and dynamic Accuracy
characteristics Good wrist articulation
Fast action
Comparatively low weight
capacity (of spot welding)
Adequate reach without the
need for long wrist extensions
Programmability and control Continuous path capability
when applying continuous beads
Tool center point interpolation
Control of applicator attitude
to panel
Interface with associated
equipment
System characteristics Adhesive flow control
Sensing devices/feedback on
adhesive flow
System requirements Accurate parts and accurate
parts location

made in a single color area, for example, undercoats. However, technology is becoming available to
monitor and control paint parameters automatically. Full exploitation of this will enable adaptive
control of the automatic spray booth to match changing circumstances. The requirements for a robotic
paint spraying system are summarized in Table 40.4.

40.2.7. Underseal

Correct application of underseal is important if it is to be effective against corrosion. However, the

working environment is extremely unpleasant, and consequently it represents an attractive robot applica-
tion.
Typically the requirement is for a five- or six-axis hydraulic robot capable of continuous-path
operation and accuracy of ±1.0 mm.
Apparently a straightforward implementation exercise (see Figure
40.6), experience has proved otherwise. Problems have arisen with accessibility line stoppages, material
blockages, body stability, and programming. Apart from protecting the operator from a hostile environ-
ment, the benefits include improved quality and material savings. Table 40.5 presents a summary of
the requirements of a robotic system for undersealing.

Inferior body spray-commercial vehicles

Fig. 40.5. Installation to spray paint inside van bodies. (After GEC, UK illustration).
830 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING
automotive design Isolated tasks may be achievable, but (he majority of final assembly tasks are
complex and extremely demanding of the operators’ manual dextenty m
reaching awkward areas,
handling a vanety of matenals and compcmenls, and progressively building up complicated assemblies
Door and fascia design are good examples of the requirement for large numbers of components that
must be assembled pnor to the complete assembly bang fixed to the car body In this application
the product designer and automation engineer must work together

40.2.10. Other

Reference has been made to the quality imphcalions of the tnlroduction of robots Going full circle,
robots themselves have been applied to quaiity-conirol tasks, including at BL, leak testing This applica*
lion,’ illustrated m Figure 40 7, involves the mjeclion of 0 5 liter of helium gas into the car body
under slight pressure Robots, programmed to follow a given path relative to the car body irrapectue
of the track speed, manipulate a "sniffer’' over some 60 m
of the car body Windows, doors, trunk
lid, and seams are covert, yielding 400 items of information on the location and intensity of leaks

—
An interesting application it was necessary to reengineer the track to achieve sufficiently accurate
location of the car body

40.3. THE FUTURE

The BL in 1932 and its distnbution is shown in Table 40 6 In the same year
robot population of
Ford (UK) employed some 220 of such machines The future will see a dramatic increase in the
number of robots used in the automotive industry, and an estimate of this growth for several major
companies ts shown in Figure 40 8 Well-established applications, such as resistance welding, will
continue to grow m the short term Longer term, the much wider use of structural adhesives will
supplant the resistance welding process with robots applying the adhesives
Practical perception systems will enhance robot performance in arc welding, grinding, fettling,
seam sealing, and assembly operations, leading again to robot growth as vital elements of truly flexible
manufaciunng systems (FMS) A major robotic impact will be made in automotive pamt shops, as
the need to conserve energy increases The development of alternative painting matenals offenng im-
proved performance will add further impetus
Robotics of the future will progressively move to a CAD/CAM
onentated data base, olfenng off-

Fig. 40.7. Robot sniffer searehing for leaks

ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 829

TABLE 40.5. FEATURES OF UNDERSEAL APPLICATION

SYSTEMS
Mechanical and dynamic Multiaxis manipulator,
characteristics 6-7 axis; preferably with
flexiarm for dexterity
Hydraulic or pneumatic motive
—
power safety requirement
Accuracy/repeatability better
than ±3.0 mm
Small physical size with large
working envelope
Programmability and control NC off-line programming
capability
Program editing
Diagnostic capability
System characteristics Gun control capability
Flow sensors
Line synchronization capability,
plus negative response to track
conveyor when reversed
Rail system to enable robot to
complete work cycle if line is
stopped
Tip blockage detection/correction
System requirements Consistent conveyor speeds
with no irregular movements
Accurate body presentation,
sway within ±5.0 mm
Static charge grounding of
body, grounding of robot and
gun
Controlled airflow in booth to
deflect overspray

40.2.8. Seam Sealing

Automotive design requires substantial seam sealing to prevent leaks and noise transmission. The
actual process of seam sealing is labor intensive, unpleasant, and an obvious quality-critical application.
It is clearly an ideal, if challenging, robot opportunity. It is safe to predict that considerable resources

will be devoted to this application over the immediate future.

The major problems will be accessing joints, particularly on moving conveyors. Subsidiary problems
remain to be overcome in terms of precise joint location, interference of cables and fluid lines in
restricted access areas, and perhaps, above all else, the application method. The method will need to
be selected from conventional spray, airless spray, extrusion, or some combination of these. To support
the application development, material development will be necessary to provide pumpability, gap filling,
and freedom from blockages.

40.2.9. Handling and Assembly

In parallel with arc welding, handling and assembly can be predicted as the major growth area for
automotive robotics. Handling activities will range from simple pick-and-place tasks utilizing low-
cost three-axis robots to more complex machine loading or transfer tasks. It is unlikely that this
level of technology will be particularly demanding in terms of part or component accuracy, gripper
design, or perception. The challenge is simply to identify the application, select the correct equipment,
and implement.
Component assembly is clearly much more demanding, but achievable by exploiting the application
engineers’ ingenuity.The final system will be engineered around a purpose-built robot-handling device
(possibly multiarmed), material feeders, assembly jigging, and component selection. The element of
component selection raises the fundamental point of component orientation; rather than developing
vision systems to compensate for lack of orientation, it is obviously more sensible not to destroy
orientation in the first place.
The introduction of robotics into the final assembly operation is unlikely in relation to current
8J2 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

3. A “protechnology’* corporate attitude is essential, including clear policies and programs.

4. An initial feasibilitystudy is important
(a) Is the appLcation suitable’
(b) Analyze product and process speafications
(c) Sy'stem proposal —layouts, costs, processes
(d) Robot selection
(e) Process and associated equipment
(f) Maintenance
Safety
(h) Systems
(i) Turnkey suppliers
5. Financial justification should include
(a) Conventional payback cntena.
(b) Whole-life robot costing
(c) Adaptability
(d) Space savings
(e) QuaLty improvements.
(f) Materials and work-in-progress savings
(g) Available grants
6. Provide training
7. —
Create interdisciplinary project teams including the recipient (make the recipient project
leader) “Recipient comrmtment is vital
8. Aim for user-fnendly systems

9. A knowledge of robots is not enough, m-depth knowledge of process application is needed

10. Full system approach is a must
11. Retrofit u difficult because of constraints of
(a) Product
(b) Facility
(c) Tooling
12. Understand the limits of robots
(a> Deaf
(b) Dumb
(c) No smell
(d) No feel
(e) No vision
Beware the misleading analogy with the human hand “Robots are dumb, the perfect machine
m an imperfect world "
13. Involve the product designer
14. The first lime be simple
15. Do not destroy order or orientation
16 . To install and commission count on six man-months per cell, approximately
17. Finally

COMMUNICATE
BE PATIENT
FAILURE IS A MANAGEMENT FAILURE
40.4.2. Things That Can Go Wrong
Some examples

Implementing technology for the wrong reasons.

Insufficient attention to detail

Cuts m budgets.
Technical specialists leave.
Product design changes dunng commissioning
Projects that end up as robot laboratones or zoos
Project targets change
ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 831

TABLE 40.6. ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN BL, 1982

Application Number Type
Resistance welding 36 Unimate
Fusion welding 18 ASEA
Adhesive bonding" 3 Unimate/ASEA
Paint spraying" 2 GEC
Underseal application" 4 Trallfa/GEC
Inspection" 2 Trallfa

“ Indicates rapid growth areas.

line programming capability, which, together with essential inspection elements, will provide the means
for totally automatic manufacture.
The possibility exists through the development of advanced high-level languages and the use of
of creating totally intelligent robots. These will be capable of self-teach, will have
artificial intelligence

an awareness of their surroundings, and the possibility of mobility. Equally, the future may see the
development of expert and supervisory robots, as described in Chapter 23, Expert Systems and Robotics.
Major growth can also be expected in handling and assembly tasks. This will range from simple
machine-loading tasks to complex assembly of components. Final assembly will continue to remain a
major challenge, and successful implementation will depend on a fundamental reappraisal of current
design and manufacturing practices.

40.4. APPENDICES
40.4.1. Implementation Rules

As a generalization, these rules apply to all aspects of technology transfer.

1. Do not implement on an ad hoc basis —have a plan and see each implementation as part of
that plan — this will avoid incompatible systems, a multitude of robot types and all that means
with regard to spares, training, programming, and so forth.
2, Involve from the start all levels of management and the labor force; do not label projects
“confidential.”

Fig. 40.8. Trends in automotive robot population to 1990.

 CHAPTER 41
ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN
AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING
WALLACE D. DREYFOOS
PAUL F. STREGEVSKY
Lockheed-Georgia Company
Maneeta. Georgia

41 . 1 . THE ROLE FOR ROBOTS IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING

Most of the shop-floor tasks in an aerospace factory are labor intensive To curb nsing labor costs,
the industry has turned to automation Fixed automation has been cost-efTective for high-tumout tasks
But many tasks remain in which the pans worked on are few or complex, but the task itself is compara-
tively simple For these tasks, fixed automation may not be feasible, available, or affordable Instead
they are Imng automated by programmable robots
Table 41 I identifies aerospace factory tasks that have been robotized, generally in production
runs For most tasks shown, companies not ated were likewise using or investigating robots The
chief psyolT is a cost saving, usually attained by robotizing a procedure that used large sums of labor,
for example, drilling, assembly, byup, deburnng. sanding, inspection, and wire-harness routing For
other tasks, the robot pares costs by reducing scrap and costly rework Machining and drilling benefit
accordingly, the more so because of the high cost of aerospace materials
Many of the applications are more task-spealic than aerospace-specilic. and accordingly are discussed
under their respective headings elsewhere in this handbook
The most extensive use for aerospace robots has been, and will likely continue to be, drilling and
riveting Each year, billions of holes are dnlled into sheet-metal parts for aircraft assembly Through
these holes /asleuers aee Jheo jmsialled Toleraorts are dtjraodmgiy close For example, holes u> juJer-
changeable panels may have to be round to within 40075 mm {40 003 in)/-0000 For standard
sheet-metjl assembly, nvet spacing and location must be rqjcatable to ±0 76 mm(±0030 in) or,
for some assemblies, closer
With few exceptions, meeting these tolerances has been the task of human hands and eyes, guided
only by hard or fixed tooling such as templates The job is tedious, and as a worker fatigues his/her
faculties weaken, fostering slowdown and faulty workmanship The demanding tolerances, awkward
quarters, and monotonous repetition of aerospace dniling and nveling make these chores ill-suited to
manual labor Indeed, it has been found that by using a robot to position the dnil to each location,
productivity is improved by as much as sixfold '
Composite layup, which combines features of matenals transfer and assembly, is a labor-intensive
task for which aerospace IS likewise turning to robots Northrop has demonstrated an order-of-magmtude
saving in cost and time by using a robot to vacoum-hft precut resm-impregnated graphite fabric plies,
lay them up into tapered honzontal-stabilizer spars, and transfer the stack of plies to a second work
table* The heavy layups sag during transfer, to maintain adequate vacuum against them, the robot
uses a compliant foam-faced end efi'ector measunng 09X ISm(3xSft)
Spray painting of large aircraft assemblies can be hazardous to painters who must work withm
cavities,such as wheel wells, where they may ingest airborne paint A versatile cost-saving alternative
has been developed by Fairchild-Rcpublic a mobile paint-spraying robot ’ The robot, made largely
of aluminum, ndcs on air beanngs along a 7 7-m (30-fl) rail, painting fuselage sections and other
large parts by following a programmed path The entire railed system can be moved from one spray
booth to another
Aerospace welding has not been extensively robotized One reason is that early industnal robots
lacked the actuator power needed to provide the high-speed head movement, high welding pressure.

834
ROBOTS IN THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY 833

Supplier’s equipment does not perform as expected/specified.

Insufficient development effort.

Layout/process shortfalls.
Software bugs.
Lack of continuity in project management.
Suppliers go bankrupt.
Lack of turnkey, total system approach.

REFERENCES
1. Teale, D., Considerations for Implementing Robots, Proceedings of the 4th British Robot Association
Annual Conference, 1981, pp. 171-178.
2. Stauffer, R. N., Equipment Acquisition for the Automatic Factory, Robotics Today. April 1983,
pp. 37-40.

3. Van Blois, J. P., Strategic Robot Justification; a Fresh Approach, Robotics Today, April 1983,
pp. 44, 45, and 48.
4. Government Support for Industrial Robots, Department of Industry, United Kingdom, 1982,
5. No End in Sight for Ford’s Growing Family of Robots, The Industrial Robot, December 1982,
pp. 222-227.

6. Clocksin,W. F., Davey, P. G., Morgan, C. G., and Vidler, A. R., Progress in Visual Feedback
forRobot Arc Welding of Thin Sheet Steel, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Robot Vision and Sensory Control, 1982, pp. 189-200.
7. Robots to Snuff Out Those Water Leaks, The Industrial Robot, September 1982, pp. 150-152.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following papers are considered to be relevant and useful follow-up reading;

Engelberger, J. F., Robots and automobiles; applications, economics and the future. Society of Automo-
tive Engineers, Paper No. 800377, March 1980.
Kelly, M. P., Robots for the Automotive Industry, Proceedings of Automan '81, 1981.

Kelly, M. P., The Future of Robots in the Automotive Industry, ISATA, Wolfsburg, September 1982.
Kelly, M. P., Robots in the Paint Shop, Proceedings of Automan '83, 1983.
TABLE 41.1. (continued)

Kind of Task Company End Product Description

Material
Manipulation

Composite layup Northrop Corp F-5 and Vacuum lifting and

F*18 stacking of precut
plies

Electronic circuit Westinghousc Avionics Installs microcircuits

board onto circuit

assembly boards, using two

TV cameras
Dipping Pratt & Whitney Gas turbine Dips wax patterns
Aircraft engines into ceramic
slurries for
investment
casting

Loading General Electric Gas turbine Titanium slugs

Company engines
Wife-harness (Several) Vanous Gantry-mounted
routing aircraft robots explored for
electncal cables

Applying Agents

Applying sealant Aveo Fuel ceils Mixes and dispenses,

Aerostnictufcs allowing quality
Div inspection at point
of use
Brazing General Electric Gas turbine Applies braze alloy
Co engines to turbine nozzle
supports

Flame spraying Garrett Turbine Gas turbine Metallic coatings

Engine Co engines
Plasma spraying Pratt & Whitney Gas turbine Ceramic and
Aircraft engines Zirconate
protective coatings

Spray painting Fairchild- A-IO Mobile, rail-mounted

Republic Co robot, paints
forward fuselage,

nacelles, landing-
gear tub. and other
assemblies

Other

Inspection General Electnc Gas turbine Uses GE-developed

Company engines light sensor to
inspect 500 blades
and vanes per
hour
Pratt & Whitney Gas turbine Positions turbine
Aircraft engines blades for
radiographic
inspection of
cooling passages

“ Companies not shown are also using or investigating these robotic applications

836
TABLE 41.1. REPRESENTATIVE ROBOTIZED TASKS IN AEROSPACE
MANUFACTURING"
Kind of Task Company End Product Description

Joining/Assembly

Installing small Boeing Aerospace Cruise missiles Fastener feeding;

parts Co. installing cover
fasteners
Welding General Electric Gas turbine Fan frame hubs
Company engines
Riveting Fairchild- A- 10 Horizontal
Republic Co. stabilizer

Lockheed-Georgia C-130 Bulkheads for floors

Company and wings.
Performed with
stationary drill/
riveter.

Martin Marietta Space shuttle Portable drill/riveter

is manipulated by
robot arm.

Metal Working

Chamfering Pratt & Whitney Gas turbine Vane slots in

Aircraft engines compressor
shrouds
Deburring Avco British Wing panels

Aerostructures Aerospace 146 Panels up to 18 X 3

Div. m (60 X 10 ft)
possible using
rail-mounted
robot.

Drilling General Dynamics, F-16 Pilot holes in

Ft. Worth Div. graphite/epoxy
skin panels

McDonnell F-18 Canopies and

Aircraft Co. windshield frames.
Uses vision and
five-axis DNC.
Grumman Aerospace F-14 and Fuselage panels.
Corp. EA-6B Rail-mounted
robot serves four
work stations and
needs no templates
to guide drill.

Machining Martin Marietta Space shuttle Removes 3.6 cm/sec

Aerospace (1.5 in./sec) from
external tank
ablator-covered
parts. Uses tactile
sensors to follow
aerodynamic
contours.
Routing Grumman Aerospace F-14 and Various sheet-metal
Corp. EA-6B parts. Rides along
6.1-m (20-ft) rails
to serve four work
stations.

Sanding Boeing Aerospace Cruise missiles Removes machine

Co. marks from wings.
Trimming Boeing Aerospace Cruise missiles Nose caps
Co.

835
W8 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING
These environmental shortcomings have largely been corrected As discussed in Chapter 17, Depth
Perception for Robots, three-dimensional vision has become a promising technology for robotic tasks
requiring depth perception Several approaches are under *ay lhat are impro\ing resolution, computing
speed, low-light capability, and cost
In 1982 the Air Force Matenals Laboratory began funding a program to develop a sensory-based,
computer-controlled three-dimensional vision module that would generate robot control commands
SIX times more preasc than those dnving robots previously * * The arm-mounted sensor would monitor
the location of a robot’s end-effector in relation to its target on a workpiece and issue corrective
commands to the robot’s controller The goal was a positioning accuracy of ±0 13 mm (±0005 in
and a calculation cycle of 100 msec Accuracy would no longer depend on a robot’s load, extension,
and arm pecuhanlics, or on the precise alignment of parts and machines

41.2.2. Lack of OfT>Line Programmability

Widespread aerospace use of robots has been further hampered by the difficulty in programming robots
from off-line data bases such as CAD/CAM Most robots have had to be walked through their paces
for each task This can take weeks, during which time the robot is unavailable for production and
workers are Idled For small aerospace lots, new software developed by leach-and-show becomes prohibi-
tively expensive Limited to its originally programmed task, a robot can be difficult to justify
Robots produced since 1982 have begun to incorporate features that will eventually allow easy
off-line programmability These machines will be especially useful m flexible batchwork centers, where
batches of different parts could be processed m turn by a single full-time robot
The prerequisite for effective off-line programming is a good CAD/CAM system and the means
to tic It into the robots CAD/CAM can thus integrate robots and vision systems into the total manufac-
turing process Special graphic-display systems can greatly case software development by letting the
programmer visualize the steps he/she is commanding With the development of better software pro-
grams. graphic simulation is becoming ever more sophisticated and affordable
Off-line programming will become easier and universal once the aerospace industry selects a standard
robotic programming language expressly for use with CAD/CAM One attempt at such a language,
named MCL or Manufactunng Control language, has been developed from APT by McDonnell Douglas
Corporation for the U S Air Force (See also Chapter Ig. Elements of Industrial Robot Software)
The computer code has been made available in written form or on tape from McDonnell Douglas
Automation Company However, MCL’s adoption by the industry in its ongmal form is uncertain
because it was not wniten to be compatible with all the robots and design information formats used
throughout aerospace
In 1982 the Air Force began funding development to deflne the manufactunng requirements for
off-line programming, compare these requirements to MCL. and enhance or rewnce MCL to better
meet these requirements* A parallel effort was funded to use the improved version to demonstrate
off-line programming and other advanced robotic technologies '*
In the absence of a standard language, aerospace has increasingly pressed robot manufacturers to
furnish the means to develop robotic software off-line Manufacturers have responded by developing
products that are compatible with aerospace computer programming Among these are interface modules
lhat link robots to particular computers and graphic simulators By 1983 one such module could
provide a direct interface with MCL, the Gerber Manufactunng machine tool code, and a number of
popular CAD systems Such versatility can be important because often the CAD
data points must
be translated into two separate languages—one for the robots and one for the numerically controlled
machines lhat they operate

41.2.3. Overcoming Cost Inefficiencies of Batch Production

In aerospace, complex metal parts generally are produced m

batch lots of 10-50 units " Spare-part
runs can be as small as five units Products made this way may cost anywhere from 10-30 times
more than they would ifmadem a continuous process, or mass production '*Dut given its low production
rates, aerospace cannot use high-volume production methods If a robot processes no more than one
or two different aerospace parts, it will likely be idle much of the time Without careful planning,
robotic batchwork can yield a poor return on investment
For their initial robot applications, many aerospace firms settle for a low return on investment to
gam production experience with robots Thorough planning, however, can ensure that any robotic
application will be as productive as possible
Several steps can be taken beforehand to assess whether a robot can perform cost-effectively in a
low- to medium-volume or batchwork environment Annual volume, batch size, and task complexiiy
must be considered, together with setup time, setup cost, and downtime ” Following this, a more
detailed layout of the programmable system should be developed and a new task sequence generated
If the application is still feasible technically and economically, the return on investment is ready to

be calculated by traditional methods “

ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING 837

and high forge pressure required when spot welding crack-sensitive aerospace alloys. A second reason
is that large aerospace parts often have complex curvatures that must be welded in six axes. Two

robots would be needed —

one for welding, the other for either welding or part rotation. Coordinating
them can be difficult.
In place of robot welders, an automated multiaxis welder has been developed at the Lockheed-
Georgia Company. The welder can provide cost-effective, high-speed joining of limited-quantity lots
of aircraft-alloy parts. An existing five-axis multihead turret welder has been united with a three-axis
positioner. The entire system is controlled and integrated by a microprocessor.

41.2. MAJOR ROADBLOCKS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

Despite their increasing role in automotive assembly lines, robots have been slow to make inroads in
aerospace manufacturing. Not until 1979 were production aircraft panels being drilled by robot; not
until 1982 were production drilling and riveting robotized as a combined operation. Three chief road-
blocks have retarded widespread acceptance: inadequate repeatability, lack of off-line programmability,
and cost inefficiencies when using robots to produce small lots.

41.2,1. Inadequate Repeatability

Until the early 1980s, most industrial robots lacked the close repeatability demanded by aerospace
tolerances. If a robot had a reach large enough to perform aerospace fabrication 1.2-2. 7 m (4-9 —
ft) — it could lose the rigidity essential for close-tolerance work. This is a serious drawback, because
many aerospace tasks require that the robot’s arm be fully extended, making it prone to rapid and
harsh vibration. Moreover, at long extensions the increased bending moment makes accurate program-
ming difficult, especially when large or heavy components must be handled.
For more precise repeatability, electric robots may be preferred for their servomotors. These motors
can be better suited for small translations, as in hole-to-hole drilling, because they are free of the
initial surge of many large hydraulic and pneumatic actuators. But until 1982, few large or heavy-

duty robots were electric; most were hydraulic.

A hydraulic robot may lose its nominal
accuracy when it performs intermittent batchwork common
to aerospace. Whenever the robot has been shut down for any length of time, a fast warmup exercise
should be run to stabilize the hydraulic components’ temperature to prevent program positioning
errors,^ Alternatively, these components can be kept heated when not in use.
For robotic drilling, the robot may be more rigid, and hence accurate, if it holds a lightweight
drill rather than a heavy part. One problem caused by lack of rigidity at the end of a robot’s arm is

the shape of the holes drilled by robots in some tough materials such as graphite/epoxy composite.
If an end effector fails to hold a drill steadily perpendicular to the material’s surface, the hole becomes
bulged or oblong.
In aerospace assembly, the industrial robot must satisfy conflicting demands: it must have powerful
actuators to move heavy parts, yet must move subtly from hole to hole. Several techniques on the
aerospace floor make large-payload assembly robots more precise and repeatable for close work. One
easy technique is to program the robot to pause briefly between movements, thereby allowing its arm
to settle.
Several robot manufacturers offer smaller hydraulic actuators that,by reducing speed, can double
repeatability.® lower speeds most of a drilling robot’s time
Performance remains high because even at
is occupied in the stationary task of drilling, not in translating from hole to hole.

Robots that must lift heavy loads held at long reaches must have extra rigidity built into them.
Repeatability of ±0.13 (±0.005 in.) is attainable from robots with a reach of 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and
mm
a payload of 68 Their rigidity comes from features like a cast-iron base, precision ball
kg (150 lb).
screws on all and ground, hardened spiral bevel gears in the wrist.
their axial drives,
Rigidity can likewise be enhanced in the aerospace factory itself. First, the end effector must be
designed to hold the workpiece or tool snugly. Second, brakes can be fitted to the wrist and base,
the least stiff axes. The brakes lock out these axes except when they are needed. Using this technique,
Grumman Aerospace Corp. eliminated the costly need for templates and bushings ordinarily required
to guide hand-held drills and routers.®
Third, a stiffer, moderate-sized robot mounted on rails or tracks can be used to vastly exceed the
reach of a larger robot. It can also be more productive by serving multiple work stations.® ® The
rails can be mounted overhead or on the floor.
A compliant
end-effector can be used with hard tooling to guide a robotically held drill. Accuracy
becomes sufficient for assembling interchangeable panels.* This technique eliminates the need for complex
feedback but adds costs in tooling and maintenance.
—
Feedback systems tactile or visual sensors, mounted on the end-effector can improve accuracy. —
Using a sensory feedback loop developed at one aerospace firm, a robot- with a quoted accuracy of
±1.3 mm
(±0.050 in.) has performed at ±0.13 mm
(±0.005 in.).^ Early two- and three-dimensional
vision systems often were not rugged enough to operate in high-vibration and dirty environments.
840 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Fig. 41 1. Aircraft underfloor struclure, showing robotically assembled bulkhead webs

fastener installation The robot would feed the workpiece through the machine with a precision and
speed that could not be maintained by a human
A laboratory work cell was set up that would verify all functions The robot would be the most
critical cell element, all operations and hardware would be designed to work within its limitations of
accuracy, programmabkhty, and teach
Rather than have the robot apply a portable drill, the massive dnil/nveting machine would be
used It represented a large investment of capital and could nvet as it drilled Moreover, it would
clamp the parts tightly together dunng dniling to prevent burrs and chips from working their way
between the panel and slifl'eners
The would weigh a hefty 27 kg (60 lb) and would be held cantilevered
long, fixtured workpieces
from the fully extended arm To minimize wobble and droop, an end-effector would have to be designed
that would weigh little and gnp the fixture reliably, firmly, and with high repeatability
The mechanical abilities of the robot would be complemented by the judgment and dexterity of
the operator He/she would preassemble the detail parts into the fixture, position the fixture onto the
pickup table, start and stop the robot, check inventones. and inspect finished work During the robotic
assembly hc/she would listen for skipped or misplaced nvets while fixtunng the next set of parts
Operation of the robot and dnll/nveter would be controlled and integrated by a robot controller
furnished by the robot manufacturer Sequences would be initiated and halted by the operator from
a remote console
was desired because of the high cost of repairing even a single misplaced
In-process inspection
fastener or deformed panel But artificial vision or tactile feedback were judged too ambitious for the
pilot cell — —
prednllmg, in-process, and postprocess would be conducted by
Instead, all inspection
the operator or a quality inspector Several inspection entena were chosen These included dnllmg
angle, hole roundness, hole size, hole spacing, countersink angle and diameter, and type of nvet In
addition, sheet metal would be checked by the operator to ensure that scratches were acceptably
few, shallow, and short
Off-line programming was not available, so the robot would be programmed by conventional teach
methods

41.3.3. Configuration of the Basic Robotic Riveting Cell

The original Basic Robotic Riveting Cell is shown in Figure 41 2 It consisted of a Cincinnati Milacron
six-axis T^ robot, a Lockheed-designed end-effector, a Gemcor G-400 Dnvmatic automatic dnll/nveter.
left- and nght-web workpiece fixtures, a preassembly and
pickup
a Cincinnati Milacron robot controller,
table, and an operator.
The T’ was selected because it combined a large work envelope with a high load capacity 1

from hole to hole within ±0 8 mm (±0 030 m ) The T’

surpas
would have to position the workpiece
ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING 839

Because aerospace parts are produced in modest quantities, it is rarely cost-effective to redesign
or retool the product for easier robotic assembly. Aerospace tooling and machinery are costly, and
each aerospace part requires an average of 3!4 tools, from fabrication through assembly. Therefore
existing tooling, machines, and product designs must be retained.
Amix of human, programmable robot, and fixed automation (such as parts loaders or automatic
drill/riveters) can improve the system cost-effectiveness. Strong emphasis must be devoted to the human/
machine interface. The manufacturing planner should have a clear understanding of which tasks are
to be the robot’s and which the human attendant’s. Tasks whose demands cause frequent human
error and costly scrappage are prime candidates for robots. Humans can best fulfill the tasks requiring
judgment, intelligence, or dexterity beyond the easy reach of current-day robots. These tasks may
include complex assembly, seeking and finding, performing certain stop/go decisions, and adapting
to new physical conditions. (See also Chapter 32, Human Factors in Planning Robotic Systems.)
Every effort should be made to keep the robot busy and productive. If a batchwork robot is employed
only part-time, idleness can easily neutralize its higher productivity. By processing two or more different
parts in batch series, a single robot may become cost-effective where it otherwise would not be. Program-
mable or universal fixtures and end-effectors are desirable to minimize changeover time and tooling
cost for different parts.
In planning which parts will be processed in the same robotic work cell, group technology should
be applied to ensure that different parts are of the same “part family.” For the multiapplication robot,
substantial savings accrue. By grouping similar parts into part families, based on either their geometric
shapes or operation processes, it is possible to reduce costs through the use of fewer robots, more

effective design data retrieval, and a reduction in tooling and setup times, in-process inventory, and
totalthroughput time.'®
Three-dimensional vision will go far to permit robots to cope with unstructured environments
such as multipurpose work cells. With three-dimensional depth perception, robots can avoid costly
assembly errors, search for out-of-place parts, distinguish between similar parts, and correct for position-
ing discrepancies. As three-dimensional technology matures, it promises to make robots easier to program
and use for small or serial batches, and even for mobile use around the factory. The Air Force has
promoted three-dimensional intelligent robots and has sponsored their development for the aerospace
'’
factory of the future.'®

41.3. ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY AT LOCKHEED

In 1982, the Lockheed-Georgia Company became the first aerospace manufacturer to robotize the
assembly of sheet-metal parts. The pilot cell was called the Basic Robotic Riveting Cell. It teamed a
robot and its and rivet webs for cargo
controller with a stationary automatic drill/riveter to drill
underfloor bulkheads of the C-130 Hercules transport. A measured 0.46 X 0.66 m
finished assembly
(1.5 X 2.2 ft) and typically contained seven detail parts and 88 rivets. All underfloor bulkhead web
assemblies, representing a variety of configurations, were built in the same two universal fixtures.
Larger assemblies, such as wing bulkheads, were later added.
The goal of Lockheed’s Basic Robotic Riveting Cell was to demonstrate the feasibility of robotic
assembly. A high return on investment was not required, but the pilot robotic application had to be
kept simple to reduce risks and improve the confidence of both staff and management. The shop cell
emerged from hundreds of industrial and mechanical engineering decisions, most of them aimed at
achieving reliability through simplicity.'® '®

41.3.1. Task Definition

For simplicity, the scope was limited to assembling conventional, moderate-sized assemblies. The bulk-
heads webs (Figure 41.1) were chosen as representative assemblies; they were constructed from aluminum
sheet with attached aluminum stiffeners and brackets.
The robot would operate with the existing automatic drill/riveter, which would be controlled and
monitored by the robot through the robot controller. After manual preassembly, the robot would
pick up the fixtured workpiece, position it in the drill/riveter, advance it to each fastener position,
and return the completed assembly to the pickup table. Its role would therefore be quite active and
its working envelope large. The operator would be retained, but instead of positioning the webs in
the drill/riveter by hand, he/she would load and unload the fixture and initiate and monitor the
robot.

41.3.2. Design Considerations

was a pilot robotic cell, the paramount guideline was to keep equipment and operation
Since this cell
simple.The robot would be a popular, proven, hydraulic model, with no vision system or other active
feedback device. The automatic drill/riveter, proven in 30 years of use, would perform the actual
842 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING
PREASSmBLY
ROBOT

to the next row This sequence continued until the web had been completely assembled, whereupon
the robot returned the finished assembly to the fixture table, its task complete

41.3.5. Evaluation of System Benefits and Limitations

The Basic Robotic Riveting Cell metits goal of demonstrating the production feasibility of robotic

assembly The robot reduced the cost of assembling bulkhead webs by 25% Larger assemblies were
later run, their programs were wntten omline while the robot was in-between jobs Given the steady
production of the Hercules airplane, the robot would have ample opportunity to lecover its purchase
cost Still to be overcome was the slowness and complexity of on-line programming But with the
production experience gained from this pilot cell, Lockheed had the confidence to use robots for more
sophisticated assembly duties

41.3.6. Future Developments in Robotic Assembly at Lockheed

In 1983 Lockhecd-Georgia’songmalrobot was relocated to become part ofa totally automated Advanced
Robotic Assembly Center (Figure 41 3) The new center would use two robots The lint, equipped
with a three-dimensional vision sensor, would bin-pick parts and arrange them into a Jig, the second
robot would pass the jig through a new dnll/nvclcr, possibly inspecting the workpiece dunng and
after assembly Programs and data would be transferred from off-line sources

REFERENCES
1. Hohn, R , Application Flexibility of a Computer-Controlled Industnal Robot, SME Paper MR76-
603, present^ at the First North American Industnal Robot Conference, October 1976, Industnal
Robots— Volume 1 Fundamentals. 2nd ed . Robotics International of SME," Dearborn, Michigan,
1981, pp 224-242
2. Stansbarger, D L andSchable, H G .Composite Manufacturing Operations Production Integration
(Flexible Composite Automation), final report by Northrop Corporation, Aircraft Division, for
Wnght-Pattcrson Air Force Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-78-C-5215. 1983
3. Barone, P. A
Robotic Paint Spraying at Faiichild-R^ublic Company, Robots VI Conference
,

Proceedings, Robotics International of SME, Dearborn, Michigan, 1982, pp 321-332

4. Lockett, J H , Small Batch Production of Aircraft Access Doors Using an Industnal Robot,
SME Paper MS79-783, presented at the Ri^iots II Conference, sponsored by the Society of
Manu-
factunng Engineers and the Robotic Institute of Amenca, Detroit, Michigan, 1977
5. Lowndes. J C. USAF Seeks Increased Robot Precision. Aviation Week <4 Space Technology.
March 1, 1982, pp 69-72.
ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING 841

Fig. 41.2. Lockheed’s Basic Robotic Riveting Cell. In the background are robot controller and auto-
matic drill/riveter.

this, using an improved-repeatability programming package developed by the manufacturer for aerospace
use.
The was a rigid aluminum box. On its face were three cone-shaped
specially designed end-effector
locators, spaced 120° apart, that extended into matching holes in the workpiece fixture. To tightly
grip the fixture, the two fingers of the end effector passed through a hole in the center of the three
locator holes, whereupon they spread open, locking the fixture between the fingers and the face of
the end-effector.
The drill/riveter clamped the parts together, drilled, applied sealant, inserted a rivet, and upset
the rivet, at the rate of 14 rivets a minute. A human averages 1 1 rivets a minute.
The robot
controller was electrically interfaced to the robot and riveter. It relayed signals between
the two machines to coordinate their operation. The signals from the robot prompted the riveter to
lower its ram and execute a cycle. The signals from the riveter verified that the ram had been lowered
and the cycle completed.

41.3.4. Cell Operation

During preassembly, the cell operator positioned the stiffeners onto the web panel using comer pilot
holes as guides and one of several retaining methods (clamps, temporary fasteners, or adhesive) to
hold the assembly together. Then he placed the fixture onto the pickup table, securing it over the
locating pegs. While the robot processed this workpiece, the operator preassembled the next workpiece
on the alternate universal fixture.
To initiate robotic assembly, the operator stationed himself/herself at the remote console, where
he/she set the end-of-cycle switch on. When the robot swung into place in front of the pickup table,
the operator pushed the “continue” button, causing the robot arm to move forward. The operator
then signaled the robot whether it was to pick up and assemble a left web or a right one.
Upon receiving a signal to start, the robot picked up the indicated fixture and rotated to the
automatic drill/riveter. It then signaled the drill/riveter to lower its ram, and positioned the workpiece
below the drill bit where the first fastener was required. Signaling through the controller, the robot
instructed the machine and install the rivet, and waited for a cycle completion signal.
to drill the hole
Upon advanced the fixture to the next fastener position. When a row of fasteners
receiving that signal, it
was thus completed, the robot controller opened the riveter’s ram, and the robot moved the fixture
 CHAPTER 42
ROBOTS IN CASTING,
MOLDING, AND FORGING
WILLIAM E. UHDE
UAS Automation Systems
Bnstol, Connecticut

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the application of robots in casting (Section 42 1), plastic
molding (Section 42 2), and forging (Section 42 3) These areas were the first to apply robots and
continue to be good candidates for robottzaiion Additional foundry applications are covered in Chapter
43. Robots in Foundnes

42.1. DIE CASTING

42.1.1. The Process

Most of the hi|h>pressure castings manufactured in the United States are cast in honzonial die casting
machines One die is moved against another by hydraulic force in the horizontal plane Dies are
positioned on plaitens which normally are moved along tie bars Molten metal is delivered under
pressure into the die cavity, thereby forming a casting The most common metals cast by this process
are aluminum and zinc, although magnesium and brass are sometimes used Experimental work has
been done with steel
Robots have been used in a vanety of ways to process parts from these machines A hot chamber
machine automatically delivers molten metal into the die to form the part A cold chamber machine
can have a vacuum or mechanical loading system added to it Occasionally a robot has been used to
actually perform the loading operations m cold chamber machines where automatic injection of metal
IS not available This is rare and not very cost-effective Robots are used to remove the parts from
the die area, process them through quench tanks (water baths), and deliver them to a Inm press
where they are separated from sprues, gates, and other scrap Robots can also be used to deliver
steel inserts into dies in which metal, aluminum, or zinc is formed around the steel In some cases

magnetic iron is used as an insert, usually where the resulting casting is used as part of a measunng
device or meter

42.1.2. Practical Die Casting Applications

Die casting applications of robots (see Figures 42 I and 42 2) include the following typical cases

1. Robots are used first of all to remove chilled castings from the dies The robot may be used
to process castings from either one or two machines in an alternating unload pattern A robot with
sufficient controls is necessary in order to take care of events that are abnormal m the work cell
such as a machine producing a faulty casting The robot must be able to exclude one machine and
continue to operate and remove parts from the other machine which is manufactunng castings of
acceptable quality. Air cooling may be required to further cool sensitive aluminum parts
2. The robot can also perform quenching operations by either using a curtain quench or dipping
parts into a quench tank The quench tank is usually filled with recirculating water to cool the castings
sufficiently so that the casting may stabilize and become ready for trimming
3. Robots have been employed to further process castings from the quench tank to the tnm
press Tnm presses can be either vertical or honzonlal in design When parts are separated
from the
storage
sprue and gates, the robot may have to retneve either the part or the scrap, and place ii in

844
ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING 843

6. Brown, S. F., Automated Sheet Metal Work Cell, American Metal Market/Metalworking News,
January 24, 1983, pp. 8-9.
7. Robotic Spraying Examined in External Tank Applications, Aviation Week & Space Technology,
August 2, 1982, pp. 52-53.

8. Advanced Robotic Systems Technology Applications, reports by Robotic Vision Systems, Inc.,
for Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, contract F33615-82-R-5136, 1983+.
9. Advanced Robotic Systems Technologies and Applications, reports by McDonnell Douglas Corpo-
ration for Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-82-R-5072, 1983-F.
10. Advanced Robotic Systems Technologies and Applications, reports by Fairchild-Republic Co.
for Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-82-C-5134, 1983-F.
11. Movich, R. C., Robotic Drilling and Riveting Using Computer Vision, presented at Robots V
Conference, October 1980; Industrial Robots —
Volume 2: Applications, 2nd ed.. Robotics Interna-
tional of SME, Dearborn, Michigan, 1981, pp. 362-381.

12. Cook, N. C., Computer-Managed Parts Manufacture, Scientific American, Vol. 232, No. 2, Febru-
ary 1975, pp. 22-29.
13. Abraham, R. G., Beres, J. H.,and Yaroshuk, N., Requirements Analysis and Justification of
Intelligent Robots, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Industrial Robots, Septem-
ber 1975.
14. Abraham, R. G. and Beres, J. H., Cost-Effective Programmable Assembly Systems, presented
at the First North American Industrial Robot Conference, October 1976; Industrial Robots —
Volume 2: Applications, 2nd ed.. Robotics International of SME, Dearborn, Michigan, 1981,
pp. 429-451.
15. Ham, I., Group Technology, in Salvendy, G., Ed., Handbook of Industrial Engineering, Wiley,
1982, pp. 7.8.1-7.8.19.
16. Intelligent Task Automation, technical reports by Martin Marietta for Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-82-C-5139, 1983-b.

17. Intelligent Task Automation, technical reports by Honeywell for Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-82-C-5092, 1983-1-.

18. Dreyfoos, W. D., Robotic System for Aerospace Batch Manufacturing, Task C Definition of —
Robot Assembly Capability, Technical Report AFML-TR-79-4202, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, December 1979.
19. Ooten, G. D. and Plumley, W. J., Assembly and Riveting by Robots, 1980 Design Engineering
Show/East and ASME Conference and Seminars, October 28-30, 1980, Paper 4.3.

FURTHER READING
Aerospace Factory of the Future, Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 2, 1982, p. 40.
Stansbarger, D. L., and Schable, H. G., Composite Manufacturing Operations Production Integration
(Flexible Composite Automation) (Final Report by Northrop Corporation, Aircraft Division),
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Contract F33615-78-C-5215, 1983.
846 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

are kept operating with a minimum investment in automatic handling, and both pieces of equipment
operate with relatively high efficiency
The tnm press, with its lower capital investment, is located in another area, and hand'tnmming
operations are employed mainly because tnmming operations are much faster than the casting operations
Therefore one trim operator can keep up with two or more die casting machines The penalty is
increased process storage between casting and tnmming, and the slower casting cycle governs between
two die casting machines
A die casting can be made every 8-60 sec depending on
material and size, so care is taken to
match casting machine tonnage and casting size Other factors involve the intricacy of the casting
being manufactured and the cooling capability of the die

42.1.3. Die Care and Part Inspection

Automatic lubncation of the die can be accomplished with a fixed gun and nozzle low-pressure spray
system attached to the die casting machine A dynamic system, with a reciprocating arm that moves
in between the die halves, can be employed to spray both die faces where fixed lubrication guns are
not adequate These systems can be attached to ihc top of the Axed plattcn
Sometimes the robot is used to augment the fixed lubrication guns or reciprocating guns with an
additional spray gun held in the robot's hand This is to assure that the areas difficult to reach (usually
deep cavities) are properly lubneated and ready for the next shot
Damage to the die can ensue if some piece of metal is IcR in the die cavity and another shot is
attempted Inspection devices should be employed to assure complete part removal The robot would
present the part for inspection afier removal from the die A
safety problem occurs when the dies do
not close properly, resulting m
metal escaping from between the die halves during the shot process
The robots can stand the trauma of flying molten metal better than manpower, but effective die care
IS the best solution

42.1.4. Electrical Interfacing

Naturally, the die casting machines (DCM) around the robot must be interfaced to the robot electrically
to assure that all the operations called for are actually performed (Table 42 I) For instance, the
lubncation cycle usually occurs every lime a shot is made in a machine, but it does not necessanly
have to The robot with a little bit of intelligence can assign lubneant to be applied at varying intervals,
depending on die needs

42.1.5. Robot Selection

The robot selected should be intelligent enough for the job at hand, and it should be reliable and
maintainable Memory length should be large enough to process parts through tnm operations and
flexible enough to unload two die casting machines Random program selection or some subroutine
capabilities are required to eliminate malfunctioning equipment from the work cycle automatically
The robot must be easily programmed so that it can be adapted to the wide range of parts to be
run in the die casting machine This is particularly true in the case of the contract shop which does
not know what it will be running six months from now It must be able to react to its environment
by stopping when conditions do not justify continuing the process Therefore if the part is removed
from the machine damaged, the robot would not deliver a signal for a new shot to be made, and
also It would ring an alarm for service while it continues to process what it has through the quenching
operation and deliver it for inspection by manpower for corrective action
When unloading two die casting machines alternatively, if a bad casting is made by one of the

TABLE 42.1. ELECTRICAL INTERFACING CIRCUITS

Robot Outgoing Signals Robot Incoming Signals

1 Start DCM cycle 1 Die cast machine service signal

2 Incomplete casting alarm 2 Casting complete

3 Start tnm operation 3 Quench temperature in range

4 Quench unit start 4 Tnm die open and available

5. Start die lubrication 5 Output conveyor clear

6 Start tnm die cleaning 6 Inserts available

7 Inserts contained in tool
8 Core available for pickup
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 845

Fig. 42.1. Robot unload of two die casting machines with quench.

4. Where insert loading is contemplated, there is an additional operation to add to the procedure.
It important to place the insert orientation equipment within the reach of the robot. The robot
is

must also have sufficient accuracy to get the inserts into the die.
5. Occasionally parts must be air cooled before trimming, and the robot can hang the part on
an outgoing conveyor which will bring the part into the next work area for trimming. This is usually
done with sensitive aluminum parts.

Application Considerations

Contract die casting shops (job shops) require maximum utilization from automation equipment. Casting
and trim dies may not be compatible for automation, or available at the same time. Lot runs are
usually short. The best plan is to assign the robot to two die casting machines and alternately unload
the two castings to secondary quenches or outgoing conveyorization. Therefore two die casting machines

Fig. 42.2, Robot unload, quench, and trimming operation with part removal to conveyor.
848 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

those guides to place the insert properly This is of particular value where the teaching methods
of
the robot can lead to variability in the robot's position over a penod of time dunng the placement
cycle Inserts can be onented on slides, magazines, or bow! feeders that can deliver product to
a
particular pickup location for the robot Sensors can be built into those end stops to make sure that
a part has been picked up from the nest and also that the product or parts are present so that the
robot can call a halt to the procedure if parts are missing
from the pickup nest prior to insertion
Another problem that must be addressed is the ability to remove flash, particularly very thm
flash,wheie it is formed This flash must be ronoved by air jets by the application of high-pressure
water over the surface of the die to insure that the proper matcnal is removed
It IS important to maintain the dies properly and to keep them in good working condition, otherwise

the automatic operation will not be successful An additional task the robot can perform is the manipula-
tion of floating cores into the die and retrieval from the tnnuning operation The processing is similar
42.2.
to that of transferring inserts, but the core is not to be retained in the part so it is removed for
reinsertion into the machine within the work cell

GRAVITY CASTING APPLICATIONS

42.2.1. More Popular Robot Uses

Robots have been employed for a long time in certain casting-related activities Greensand mold prepara-
tion, including mold spray of compounds to assure casting-surface quality, and the application of
flame over the surface of the mold to set the compounds and to force moisture from the mold surface
are popular Pounng of nonferrous metals »nlo permanent gravity molds has also proved successful
In investment casting the robot is employed to build the mold by processing it through slurry and
sanding operations
With improvment in the flexibility of robot controls, ether tasks such as the cutting of
the future
parts from their sprues and gates, the processing of cores, and the processing of shells through casting
operations will become more popular

42.2.2. Investment Casting

This industry has been one of the top five fastest growing m
the United States Although the process,
known as "lost wax" casting, dates as far back as man’s ability to keep bees, the process did not
have great popularity beyond the artistic community because of its cost, but with the advent of robots
and the fact that machining is getting expensive, this process has become popular for a vanety of
industrial products
First, a mold is made from a combination of waxes m
the shape of the final product Wax sprues
and gates are added The mold components are made m
a molding machine with metal dies m a
manner very similar to injection molding The components are joined by persons employing heated
irons, which melt the wax surface and allow joining Fremelted wax is used to build up and make
the joining easier Once a mold free, or assembly of parts, has been built, the product is sent to the
investing room for shell construction
The investing room (see Figure 42 3) has strict controls over temperature and humidity The mold
IS first etched A slurry is applied to the surface, followed by a fine sand Under manual application,
manipulation is to avoid bubbles on the surface of the mold The fine sands are employed
carefully done
firstto get a fine-quality surface on the finished casting so that machining is minimized The shell is
allowed to dry before the second application of slurry and sand The sands become coarser in repeated
applications to build thickness and strength From 7 to 12 coats are layered on the shell, which
finally becomes a hard ceramic shell able to withstand the forces of the casting process
The completed shell is next sent to the autoclave for removal of the wax mold by melting Vacuum
and steam are used to draw out the residual wax The wax is salvaged and recirculated to the wax
mold area The shell is then taken to the casting room After casting, gales and sprues are cut off,
and other secondary operations arc performed

42.2.3. The Robot Requirements

The robot has been first applied to the investing room where the shells are built An intelligent robot
isrequired in order to mix programs as required to provide the proper manipulations in the application
of slurry and sand Both fluidized beds and rain sanders aie employed to allow the grams of sand to
gradually contact the part with minimal pressure Although originally lighter-weight-capacity robots
were used to emulate manual methods, eventually larger robots were used to handle hundreds of
pounds at one time Each robot now can replace op to 16 workers over a three-shift day because of
this increased weight-carrying capacity
Because the process is not particularly time tolerant, high robot reliability is essential, and manual
backup must be provided where possible When handling weights beyond manual ability, a spare
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 847

machines, the robot should keep the other operational. If the robot does not have this capability, not
only is productivity lost, but also die temperatures would be lowered. This would result in bad castings
upon start-up. due to chill marks on the castings, until die temperatures move up into operating
range. In fact, a machine that is allowed to vary its die temperatures substantially may produce a
wide range of bad parts, as well as shortening the operating life of the die.

42.1.6. Automatic Die Casting Versus Manual Operation

Through years of experience and many installations, it has been determined that a die cast machine
cycle is far more regular when it is automatically unloaded and parts are processed on a regular
time interval. This leads to higher part output and results in a lower part reject rate. There is also a
higher uptime for the machine, with less downtime for maintenance and adjustment. Overall, the
productivity of a particular die casting machine is substantially increased. In addition, if there is an
additional machine in the work cell (DCM or trim press), the labor savings is more than the one
person that is associated with one die cast machine. The environment in the die cast machine is
unpleasant. The dies are hot, and there is always the danger that the die may not completely close
and inturn spray metal around the environment when a shot is made through the partially opened
die. The die casting machine is not shut down for coffee breaks or lunch breaks. The machine produces
regularly throughout the day.

42.1.7. Automatic Die Casting Economics

Die casting machines are normally kept operating at least two shifts a day, and in many cases are
run around the clock. The labor savings become even more dramatic. One person can be used effectively
to monitor the activity of six different robots working with up to 12 different casting machines at a
time. If a $50,000 robot is used to operate over a three-shift period between two die casting machines,
it typically replaces five of the six persons originally required. Five persons replaced at approximately

$20,000 a year in direct and indirect costs would have a replacement value of approximately $100,000.
A $50,000 robot would need additional peripheral equipment and labor to get it into operation, including
a safety fence and electrical interface. A total of $70,000 worth of installed cost would result in a j-
year payback period. If the plant operates on two shifts, the $70,000 investment in robotics would
result in a payback of IJ years. The payback is adversely affected by the number of die changes put
and by maintenance requirements throughout the year. Users report good justification
into the machine,
ifa die can be kept operational for 16 hours at a time. These factors can reduce operating time to
75% over the two-shift period. This increases the payback period to 1.8 years. However, a conclusion
can be rapidly reached that existing hot chamber die casting machines should in all cases be automated,
where die quality allows it.

42.1.8. Part Gripping Techniques

End-of-arm tooling is required to manipulate the parts properly from one location to another. The
most convenient grip point is the stub, which is called the sprue or biscuit. This area, just as in
sand casting, connects to the parts themselves. In a pressure casting operation, the sprues or biscuits
are stable in diameter or cross section. They vary only according to their length. This length can be
controlled normally between 0.75 and 1 inch (1.9-2.5 cm) which is enough to utilize contact-point
tooling around the diameter or around the cross-sectional area of the sprue or biscuit. If a diamond
head is cast instead of a round area, accurate orientation of the part about the surface can be assured
for continuing finishing operations such as trimming. In cases where trimming is not to be considered,
the typical round biscuit or sprue can be utilized to process castings to the quench operation and
into an output conveyor. Hand tooling for the robot is inexpensive because it is simple in design and
easy to maintain.
Usually employed is a toggle action hand, which asserts a firm grip on the surface of the sprue.

The on the hands can have metal inserts, pins, or other devices that dig into the surface and
fingers
hold the castings securely for the removal from the die for inspection and quenching operations.
In some cases, the end user desires to actually grasp the part. If a part is to be trimmed and it is
to be recovered from the trim press die by the robot, it then is important for the robot to grasp the
part and manipulate the part through various operations leading to the trim operation. The hand
can then be designed to fit the part, and after the sprue and gates are cut off the part can be recaptured
from the trim press by the robot tooling and placed in a storage container.
When the robot is used to load inserts, the tooling becomes more complicated, and the work
environment becomes a little more complicated as well. The robot must be capable of processing
parts and at the same time be able to load inserts into a die. A double-pocket hand or a second
hand is required to process the inserts. The robot must be accurate enough to place inserts into the
die cavity.
Additional pins or guides may be required in the die so that the robot tooling can orient itself on
850 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

42.3. PLASTIC MOLDING

42.3.1. Injection Molding

This plastic molding process is typically used for thermoplastic materials (See Figure 42 4 ) The matenal
to be molded is supplied in a granule form and moved from a hopper to a cylinder from which a
plunger forces the granules through a heat chamber into the mold Then the mold halves open, and
the product is withdrawn Sometimes a three-piece mold is employed to produce product, particularly
where complex shapes are to be formed The plastic matenal is cooled down from as high as 6S0°F
(340'’C), and the product is formed through thousands of pounds per square inch pressure (millions
of N/m*)
Manyautomotive parts are injection molded today, as well as many parts utilized in household
appliances and home furnishings The robot ts typically employed to remove the part from the mold
either by grasping a sprue and runner assembly or, if the mold is of a sprueless-ninnerless typ>e, to
grasp the part and remove it and process it to vanous finishing operations As in die casting, two
machines can be alternately unloaded by the one robot Usually cycle times are between IS and 60
sec, and sometimes even longer This allows tunc for the robot to perform finishing operations m the
work area
The operators in the typical injection molding shop are employed to separate parts from sprues
and runners before allowing the product to continue to the unload station or to the boxing stations
Sometimes the operator in the local area performs the boxing operations on the product as well
A robot IS typically used at an injection molding machine work cell where parts must not be
dropped because of fragility or configuration, or where runs are so short that it is not economic to
build a totally automatic mold to drop the part through the bottom of the machine

42.3.2. Use of Automation Versus Manual Methods

m replacing operators at this task simply because of the operator’s flexibility

There has been resistance
m performing secondary operations right at the machine’s site, without the need for special machinery
The operator is most by a robot where secondary operations are not to be perform^
easily replaced
on the product If the mold design
is sprueless and runnerless and there are not other secondary

operations required, other than boxing for shipment, a r^>ot can be employed Another condition
for utilization of a robot is when a part must be carefully manipulated through the mold or the
product cannot be dropped in any way The manufacture oflenses and other optics is a classic example
of this condition
When secondary operations must be performed at the work site for economic reasons, the parts
must be run in large lots, and molds must not be removed oBen and replaced with different configurations
If they are, there may be more time involved in secondary fixtunng than in running the operation
A typical example is where a part that has a gate or runner requires machining operations in the
local work cell such as drilling and tapping holes to complete the part
The robot can then remove the part or parts from the die area and process them in a logical
order through mechanical trimming and the vanous machining operations by handling the part from

Fig. 42.4. Injection molding machine with a robot unloading parts and insert loading of die from

bowl feeders
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 849

Fig. 42.3. Single cell investment casting dip room layout with one robot performing all dipping opera-
tions.

robot is kept in the wings. This means that robots supplied to those facilities also must have established
datum points (zeroing abilities) in order to substitute for each other. At least five axes of motion are
required for even slurry distribution over the mold surface.

42.2.4, Robot Tooling

End-of-arm tooling consists of a hand which can grip and lift the handle or rod that is attached to
the mold at its top. The tooling may require several grip points to process several molds at one time.
The rod usually has a cross brace to maintain radial orientation of the mold by its axis of gyration.
The molds are individually rotated about those axes during slurry and sanding applications to assure
even distribution of material over the surface. Ten to well over 100 rpm are used to remove bubbles
from shell surfaces, depending on mold design and materials used. The robot then returns the product
to its original orientation for placement on a conveyor or rest stand.

42.2.5. System Design

Most often, a job shop requires one robot to process parts through all of the shell-building operations.
Different drying cycles require circulating conveyors of varying length for proper recirculation and
the robot must respond with the right program to the mold in hand. It turns off slurry tanks while
inserting product and activates fluidized beds and rain sanders for sanding operations. The robot also
controls the indexing of conveyors and other fluid tanks within the reach needed to get to all slurry
preparation tanks and sanding units required to make a complete shell. Auxiliary process controllers
may be required if the robot is performing batch processing under manual direction. Part identification
tags such as bar code readers can be usedwhere the process is run without any human intervention.
In a large system the tendency is to design a line where a robot processes a mold through a
slurry and sander and then passes the product to the next robot by conveyor. Such lines do exist,
but a better idea is to use this method only for the primary dips (first and second) and then to
divide the resultant product to multiple robots each performing backup dips utilizing a recirculating
conveyor. This can be done because backup slurries and sands are usually the same for subsequent
dips. Therefore, a series parallel system design evolves, which would
operate with higher reliability.
The larger lines utilize process controllers which store the various molds in order, monitor their progress,
and direct the robots as to programs to be employed. The resultant system can then run one-piece
lots if desired.
852 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Part-sensing equipment used in the local area to check that the part has been completed and that
is

IS IS being processed properly There is always the chance that the part may be on the wrong side of

the mold because of improper ejection There is a need for automatic mold lubrication with this
process, as well Since molding processes arc very similar to die casting, Section 42 1 should be referred
to for additional information

42.4. FORGING
Over employed in many different types of forging applications, some of
the years robots have been
them and some of them not Robots have been applied to hammer forge operations, upseiier
successful,
forming presses, and draw bench applications In some cases the robot
operations, roll forges, hat
acts as the forging machine operator In other cases it has acted m the role of the forge helper In
many cases teleoperators are used for forging applications, as described in Chapter 9, Teleoperator
Arm Design

42.4.1. Forge Hammers

The most popular forging machine in the United States is the forge hammer Although some hammers
are electrically dnven, most forging hammers are other hydraulic, steam hydraulic, or air driven
Smaller forge hammers may rely on gravity, and they are called board hammers But hammers are
falling more into disuse as other forging machines with more automatic productivity potential gradually
take over
One-half of the forming die is on the anvil, and the other half of the die is on a ram that moves
up and down, either under force by air, steam, or by gravity Under the control of an operator, the
hammer is allowed to stake the part that is lying between (he two dies a certain number of times,

depending on the observation of the forging operator The operator determines when to take a part
out of one die and move it into the next
Typically, a three-die operation consists of a buster die to preform the billet and clear it of most
of the scale The part i$ then moved to a blocker die. which roughly forms the outline of the part,
the part IS finally completed in the finish die More dies are used if the pan is of an unusually complicated
shape Anything from a few to a dozen strokes may be required to finish a part and process it from
the die area The resulting product is called a platter The part is formed within the platter, and
flash IS usually all around the penmeter of the part The flash must be tnmmed from the part It
can be tnmmed after the parts cool down, or ii may be removed while the part is hot The resulting
part may require coining, as well, to restore flatness, since the flash causes uneven cooling in the
platter, resulting in a warped or bent part
The function of a robot m
this application can be to act as a forge helper When working heavier
parts, the robot can be used to load and unload furnaces and process the billets to the forging bed,
where the operator can take over and process the parts through the vanous forming cycles The
robot then can maneuver the finished product to a trim operation, if hot tnm is desired, or it can
remove the finished product to a bucket or to a bin for cooling
The forge hammer cannot be automated successfully Programmable forge hammers have been
built These units can control and monitor the force and the number of blows imparted to the platter
In this case the robot can act as a manipulator processing the billets from die to die The billets may
be turned 90“ or turned over between dies, and they must be carefully lined up with the die impressions
to prevent forming a double impression in (be final or finish die This requires a highly accurate six-
axis robot
There is no time to perform a tnmming operation on (he prtxluct unless the hot tnm die is part
of the forging operation If tnmming is to be done on a separate press, the part is usually dropped
off the back of the forging machine, collected in a tote, allowed to cool, and taken to the tnmming
area for cold tnm and coming In some cases the product can be dropped off the back of the programmable
hammer into a conveyor direct to the hot
trunming operation
Under conditions robots have also been apphed to the Chambersburg honzontal impacter
test
This IS a forging machine which both die halves move against the billet or platter honzontally At
m
the end of the forging cycle the manipulator that moves (he product through the impactor delivers
the platter to the outstretched hands of the robot The robot then can process the parts through the
final hot tnmming operations In general, the forming machine and dies are far more expensive than
the tnmming equipment. Therefore it is usual not to allow the impactor to move to an unload position
pickup by a robot Usually the product is dropped through the bottom of the
to position parts for
forge machine and collected in a earner Therefore, in actual practice, robots have found limited
application with this type of forging machine
Where employed, the robot will take the product to the tnm press, place the platter m the tnm
face
area, allow the part to be pushed through by the tnm die, and then remove the scrap from the
of the die and place it into a cargotamer for removal from the area
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 851

station to station.The robot can also be employed to grasp the sprue or gates and insert the product
into a press die. The parts are stripped from the gates and runners by the action of the press, then
allowed to gather or run down a slide and accumulate in a box in an unoriented fashion. The robot
recirculates scrap by lifting it and placing it in a chopper in the work center. Small pins or tacks
can be manufactured by utilizing the robot to remove the sprue and the runner by grasping them
with the parts attached and then passing the parts through a cutting shear which allows the parts to
pop or strip off the runner assembly as the robot passes it through the knives. In this way the product
falls into the box and is gathered up in an unoriented fashion at the appropriate time.

Many parts, such as hubs of wheels, require inserts to provide bearing surfaces for high-speed
operations. The robot can be used to load inserts into the injection molding machine. These inserts
can be loaded in multiples if they are delivered at the proper centerline distances from each other in
the mold itself. Typically, the robot enters the mold area of the injection molding machine, re-
moves the sprue, runner, and previously molded parts, and reorients its hand, either by withdrawing
from the machine and reentering it in a different attitude or by turning the hand in the machine to
place the inserts into the proper cavity. The machine can assist in seating the inserts through vacuum
assist, which is part of the molding machines’ capabilities. Pins or other guides can be used to make

sure that the tooling accurately positions the inserts for loading in the mold area or cavity. The
inserts are brought into the work area either in magazines for feeding into the pickup locations or
through bowl feeders which deliver the inserts to pickup nests, ail of these situated at the proper
spacing for placement within the mold.

42.3.3. Robot Tooling

Mechanical grips of the toggle type can be employed when gripping the part by the sprue or the
runner. Parts that are rigid at the time of removal can be reliably removed still attached to the sprue.
Inspection is required outside of the mold area to determine that all of the parts are present before
closing the molds, and then the parts are processed to any secondary operation required.
Mechanical grips can also be used to contact the inserts, pick them up, and process them to the
mold area. Individual pancake type actuator cylinders can be used to contact, grip the inserts, and
process them. In certain cases it may be more advisable to grasp the surface of the part in a different
manner. Vacuum cups can be used where enough surface area is present to be contacted by a vacuum
cup and that surface is smooth. The surface of the part must be flat or of such contour that a vacuum
cup can make contact over a substantial enough area to remove it and process it. It must be remembered
that in certain cases vacuum cups can cosmetically change the appearance of the surface of the part
slightly. This must be taken into account when specifying vacuum cups for processing product. The
temperature of the part must be cool enough so that there is no material migration from the vacuum
cup to the surface of the product.
Specially shaped vacuum cups can be easily obtained from various sources throughout the country.
Robots can be used to process parts from injection molding machines where the parts are relatively
large and difficult for manpower to handle easily. Garbage cans and large appliance parts can be
easily removed by a robot and processed to the output conveyors for manual processing. The robot
has the advantage of being able to reorient large parts to manipulate them through the tie bars where
dropping the parts through the bottom of the injection molding machine is not practical or impossible.
The advantage of using a robot in an injection molding operation is that die care can be accomplished
automatically and under strict control. It can also be kept constant by time, volume, and location,
thereby avoiding any problems caused by irregular applications by operators. Irregular cycle periods
cause scrap to be produced because of the wanning up and cooling down of the mold in an unpredictable
fashion. The problem is not always seen in the very next shot after an irregular cycle has occurred,
but usually several pieces downstream.

42.3.4. Compression Molding

Another operation in which robots have been successfully employed is the processing of thermosetting
materials which require compression molding as a means of manufacture into usable products. Electrical
circuit and power components are a typical example of a thermoset product.
Thermoset material does not turn plastic when reheated, and a different molding process is used
from that used by thermoplastic materials. Thermoset material is usually delivered in extruded bars
that are cut into pellets. These pellets are typically fed into a heating chamber or to a delivery
point
where a robot can pick the product up and deliver it to a heating chamber that raises the temperature
of the product to plastic condition. It may take 60 sec or longer to heat the product enough for
further processing. The robot then delivers the product to a press mold and upon
removal activates
the press to start its cycle. Typically, the press is a vertical molding machine. The press
squeezes the
part into the shape of the product to be formed; and the product
is allowed to set in the mold,
usually for 60 s^ or longer. After this time, the robot picks the product out of the mold and
processes
it to any finishing operations that may be required, such as surface grinding, routing, or drilling.
854 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

The completed product can be two ways The bottom of the upsetter is open, which
dealt with in
allows the part to be dropped through the bottom of the unit to a quench tank or to a conveyor
that brings the product out the back end of the upsetter The other way is for the robot to move the
product up, withdraw, and put it down on a conveyor or in a tote next to the machine Die lubrication
and cooling is supplied by continuously faihng liquid from the top of the machine

42.4.3. Press Forging

The robot is placed m

front of the press much ui the same manner as one would arrange a cold
press stamping operation (see Figure 42 6) In this particular operation, the heating equipment can
be placed in the back of the press, and the part is brought forward into a pickup nest on one side of
the die area Usually the side picked is nearest the busting die The robot then progressively moves
the parts through the vanous die impressions, busting, blocking, and finishing, and at the end of the
cycle places the part in either an output conveyor for processing to the tnm operation or to a cargotamer
for delivery to a com and tnm area The press must be single stroked and must be equipped with
automatic die lubncation Lubncation can be provided by reciprocating guns coming from the back
of the press Occasionally the robot may be required to pick up a lubncatmg gun and work through
several die areas that may be difficult to clean Air should also be delivered to the die areas to clear
off any flash that may be deposited after each stroke
Occasionally the robot will not be used as the forging mechanism, particularly with regard to
parts that require twisting within the die about their own vertical centerline In this case, the robot
IS used as a foige helper to deliver billets from gas or electnc furnaces to the buster side of the die

This IS valuable when parts are very heavy and manpower cannot lift them easily The robot then

Fig. 42.6. A robot processing product through furnace and press forming operations
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 853

42.4.2. Upsetter Operations

The upsetter is also a common forging machine on the U.S. scene. It is used for the forming of
round, long slender parts that have a particular shape other than round or a large head at one end.
The machine works in the following manner. Two horizontal dies move in to grip the part along the
long side of the round area. Then a ram or header comes in from the back of the machine to form
one head.
The function of the horizontally moving dies is not only to hold the part. They also form the
part where offsets are required along the long dimension. Typically a crank or a wrench handle may
be offset along its length. These forging machines can have two to five dies laid out vertically in the
horizontal plane of the machine and can have a stroke from 60-80 cycles per minute. Many times
the die moving against the side of the part is not enough to keep the part from slipping backward
during the ram’s stroke. Therefore in many cases a backrest or backstop is used to restrain the part
from being shifted backward during the stroke of the ram.

Robot Utilization at an Upsetter

The robot (see Figure 42.5) can be positioned two ways in front of an upsetter. It can be placed on
the floor with its arm facing the ram of the upsetter, or it can be placed 90° to that position, which

allows the robot the ability to work sideways with regard to the dies in the upsetter.
has been found that when dealing with small upsetters of 1.5 in. up to 2.5 in. (3. 8-6.4 cm)
It

capacity the throat of the upsetter must be ground away to accommodate the hand of the robot.
This is particularly true since the robot wrist will be moving to the left and right of the throat area
to move parts from die to die.
It is best if induction heating is used in this particular work can be employed
area. Induction heating
to provide scale-free material in an oriented fashion for the robot to pick up. In the pocket or end of
the conveyor it is important to put heat-sensing equipment to make sure that the billet to be worked
is within the proper temperature range. Another switch indicates that the product is properly seated

for placement into the dies.

The robot will proceed by picking up the part, placing it in the first die, and exercising the upsetter
dies. The robot works the part into the die impression, exercises the dies of the machine, and waits
for the dies to reopen. As soon as they reopen, the robot takes the rod containing the partially formed
part and places it into the next die by moving to the left out of the die area and downward to the
next die area, and back into the next impression. The process is repeated until the product is complete.
The robot is fastest if it can rotate an offset hand by swivelling the rod downward to the next die
impression. It is important to remember that the part be twisted somewhat about its own long axes.
This will prevent a large flash buildup in one area of the shafting.
The in-out reference on the part is usually provided by the backstop in each impression location.
The upsetter must be single stroked. That means that the machine is only allowed to go through one
closing and opening cycle at a time, and the robot must signal the start for every closing. When a
press is set up for manual operation, it is usually operated by foot pedal by the operator, and by
holding the foot pedal down he makes a continuous rather than a single-stroke process out of the
operation. It may require a special kit from the manufacturer of the upsetter to provide the single-
stroke capability required.

Fig. 42.5. Robot processing tie rods through an upsetter forging machine.
 CHAPTER 43
ROBOTS IN FOUNDRIES
STEN LARSSON
ASEA AB
Vasteras, Sweden

Robots have been used m die casting (sec Chapter 42) much longer than in gray iron foundries Die
casters have been using them for more than 20 years to unload die casting machines because the
robots can easily handle hot castings whilehumans wait for the castings to cool In these operations
the robots are basically simple manipulators, and pneumatic rather than electronic robots are most
often used They remove the hot castings from the die casting machines and place them on a conveyor
or into a container
In 1979 in the United States alone. 29S robots of all kinds were m
use for foundry and die casting
work, according to the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (5ME) By 19S3 more than 600 robots
were in use in metal casting The SME projects that around 900 robots will be used in the United
States in metal-castmg applications by I9S5, a growth rate of 250% in five years
Recent developments provide new applications of ri^ts in foundries In this chapter the following
are descnbed

Fettling

Cutting grey-iron castings

Refractory bnck handling

43.1. FETTLING
Manual one of the most arduous and hazardous jobs in industry It
cleaning, fettling, of castings is
IS becoming increasingly personnel for this work, and the turnover of people in
difficult to recruit
cleaning departments of foundnes is substantially higher than in foundnes as a
whole
Increasing knowledge of the harmful effects of vibrating hand tools on blood vessels, nerve fibers,
and on bones in hands and arms has led to an increasing demand for automatic aids for cleaning
castings, all over the world Instead of lowering the harmful effects of vibration by reducing the size
of hand tools, and thereby their effiaency, it is now possible to use industrial robots in place of
people in foundry cleaning departments Additional robotic applications (often for the same robots)
are now being found in the same foundnes which are turning to robotics for the first time

43.1.1. Advantages of Robotic Fettling

Robotic cleaning of casting provides economic as well as environmental benefits to foundry managers
The robot operates nonstop and is screened off from the workers, who are thus protected from a job
that in the long term cames severe nsks of injuiy Instead, the manual workers concentrateon supervising
the robot, checking the quality of cleaned castings, and, when required, perform robot maintenance
ASEA’s Industrial Robot Division, Vasteras, Sweden, has developed a completely automated installa-
tion for cleaning gray and ductile iron castings The system is now being marketed worldwide The
foundry fettling installation went into operation m
late 1982 at Volvo Komponenter, Arvika, Sweden.
The works together with a handling and hopper system and uses four
robotic cleaning installation
separate types of tools, under adaptive computer control
all

No specialized computer knowledge ts needed for programming the ASEA IRB 60 robot used m
the system An operator familiar with cleanmg castings can manually set those points to be searched
by the robot, and then the operator enters the point in the computer program The robot automatically
compensates for tool wear. It searches for the condition of tool edges before it starts an operation

856
ROBOTS IN CASTING, MOLDING, AND FORGING 855

would be responsible for taking the finished product back out of the die and placing it in another
location for the finishing operation.
Another subset of this type of operation is high-energy-rate forming machines. These machines
are used occasionally to form a completed product in one die and in one die stroke. The robot is
used in the same manner as in a typical press operation except productivity is very high. Lubrication
and heat dissipation are very important.

42.4.4. Roll Forging

Roll forging a forming operation rolling against a hot billet, usually forming a compound shape
is

along the length. Two rolls, one situated above the other, turn at a rate of approximately 60 rpm
with the billet passing between them. There is an open area in one quadrant to allow for multiple
insertions of the billet. The billet goes through several die impressions until formed into the required
shape.
A robot is machine so that the billet may be inserted linearly into
usually placed in front of the
the die. The robot hand is member that accommodates any variations in speed
mounted to a sliding
between the two machines. Robots have been successfully applied where short lengths are to be worked.
Where long billet lengths are to be worked, too much activity is spent putting the robot back on its
base after an interface malfunction to make this application worthwhile.

REFERENCES
1. Engelberger, J. F., Robotics in Practice, AMACON, New York, 1981.
2. Various documents published by Unimation, Inc., 1976-1983.
3. Engelberger, J. F., Application of robots in die casting. Technical Paper No. 35, Society of Die
Casting Engineers, 1964.
4. Barker, A. J., A highly mechanized die casting operation. Machinery, Vol. 125, September 1974,
pp. 377-381.
5. Laurent, B. P., Use of a robot to obtain a high quality die cast turntable. Foundry Trade Journal,
Vol. 138, March 1975, pp. 425-428.
6. Canner, J. B., Two arms are better than one, SME Paper No. MS75-253, 1975.
7. Rhea, N., Robots improve a die casting shop. Tooling and Production, Vol. 43, No. 12, March
1978, pp. 74-75.
8. Oakland, M. R., Automated aluminum die casting, SME Paper No. MS78-675, 1978.
9. Harris, W. D., Robots in the middle, SME Paper No. MS79-406, 1979.
10. Kellock, B. C., Industrial robot for investment foundry. Machinery and Production Engineering,
Vol. 129, October 27, 1976, pp. 487-488.

11. Laux, E. G., Automated investment casting shelling process, SME Paper No. MS78-678, 1978.
12. Ostrowski, D., Robots automate investment casting. Modern Castings, Vol. 69, No. 6, June 1979,
pp. 58-59.
13. Gregory, B., Robot in plastic molding, SME Paper No. MS75-245, 1975.
14. Broderick, W., Part extractors keep injection machine humming. Plastics Engineering, Vol. 32,
March 1976, pp. 32-33.
15. Campbell, J., Close encounters of the fourth kind. Industrial Robot, Vol. 6, No. 3, September
1979, pp. 135-139.
16. Lindbom, T. H., Unimate as a forging hammer operator. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Symposium on Industrial Robots, Zurich, Switzerland, May 1973, pp. 155-161.
17. Rooks, B. W. et al.. Automatic handling in hot forging research. Proceedings of the 1st Conference
on Industrial Robot Technology, Nottingham, U.K., IFS Publications, March 1973, pp. R8 119-
128.

18. Konstantinov, M. and Zakov, Z., Multi-grippers hot purge manipulators. Industrial Robot, Vol.
2, No. 2, June 1975, pp. 47-55.
19. Franchetti, I. et al.. Automation of forging by means of robots. Industrial Robot, Vol. 5, No. 3,
September 1978, pp. 121-122.
20. Appleton, E. et al.. Open die forging with industrial robots. Industrial Robot, Vol. 6, No. 4,
December 1979, pp. 191-194.
21. Saladino. J., Upset forging with industrial robots, SME Paper No. MS80-704, 1980.
Fig. 43.1. ASEA IRB6 robot pulls die casting from mold and quenches it (a), grinds off flash (b),
drops part in straightener dies (c), removes part and performs five other operations before dropping
finished die castings on conveyor belt (d) Productivity is 500% higher for the die casting operation
using a robot than it is for manual operation
)TS IN FOUNDRIES 857

rogram also features adaptive control to sense the size and position of risers and external flash,

cates cavities for internal grinding.

tien a tool has become so worn that it must be changed, the robot does the job. The tool attachments
signed so that the new tool automatically takes up the same position as the old one. The cleaning
ation at Volvo has four tools, as explained later. The complete system is controlled by ASEA’s

ectronic robot controller which is based on two Motorola 68000 16-bit microprocessors and
disk program storage.

!. Reducing the Cleaning Cycle

if the problems initially faced in the Volvo foundry in Arvika was the weight of the gearbox
ig castings that had to be handled by the robot. Together with the risers, the gearbox housing
5 more than 60 kg (132 lb), which is the maximum handling capacity of the six-axis ASEA
lO robot.
le problem was solved by making the robot first use a hydraulically operated cutting tool to

e the risers as shown in Figure 43.1. This operation cuts the weight of the casting to a more
>eable 55 kg (121 lb).

istings are fed to the robot by a roller conveyor parts-handling and hopper system. The hopper
up to 96 parts at a time. Castings are automatically transferred to the robot and returned to
ipper after cleaning.
he robot and hopper system lets us operate the installation unmanned at night,” reports the
It Manager at Volvo Komponenter. “We load the hopper in the evening after the final shift,
,e robot works all night. By morning we have a supply of cleaned castings equal to the production

eight-hour shift.”
le robot at Volvo works with four tools: a cutting wheel, a grinding wheel, a chisel, and a
file.In the first step of the cleaning operation, risers are cut from the gearbox as the robot
s the hydraulic cutting wheel against the cast part.
iring the next three steps, the robot lifts the 55 kg (121 lb) gearbox and holds it up to the
lary tools. Outer edges of the gearbox are ground, and burrs inside are removed, partly with
lisel, and partly with the rotary file (see Figure 43. 1 b).
le —
computer program for cleaning each component lasts 7 min 3 min less than required for
j 1 cleaning. The reduction in cleaning time is 30%, and this represents a sizable cost saving,

hen a new type of casting is to be cleaned, the robot program is changed. A new program is
1 from a tape cassette into the robot controller, which takes 15 sec. At the same time the robot

!r module is changed to permit handling the new casting.

i. Consistent Cleaning Quality

ire going to work hard on automating our foundry,” declares the Volvo Project Manager. “Four
: robot lines for cleaning will be needed before the end of this decade to maintain production
3 keep us competitive. Manual cleaning requires six employees per line, and they aren’t able to
le the same consistent, high quality as the robot. Equally important, we have totally eliminated
inel hazards such as back injuries from lifting heavy castings, as well as getting our people out
I hot, dusty atmosphere of the cleaning room; and we have solved a high personnel turnover
bsentee problem in our foundry.”

PLASMA ARC CUTTING OF GREY IRON CASTINGS

speed plasma arc cutting has been applied by researchers at the University of Rhode Island to
ng gates, visors, and sprue from large gray iron engine block castings (see Figure 43.2). 20,000°F A
X)°C) plasma arc guided by a six-axis ASEA IRB 60 electric robot to cut sections of | to ^
is

.32 to 1.3 cm) thickness, at speeds between 30 and 70 in./min (1,3 and 3 cm/sec). Arc cutting
ly iron was not used until recently because it created a thick, hard layer of white iron carbide,
ich thinner layer that can be rapidly removed results, however, under controlled arc parameters.

ROBOTIC REFRACTORY BRICK HANDLING

her new area being explored by both foundries and steel mills is the robotic handling of refractory
5, since the same robots that clean castings are not busy when the primary melters are down
dining. European brick makers already have extensive experience with brick handling robots
ise manual handling of brick, like cleaning castings, is not a popular job. A man can wear
the
iree pairs of gloves in a single week handling brick in a brickyard.
i Sweden, the brickmaker Hoganas AB placed a robot on-line in 1980 to stack bricks on pallets,
robot handles 8000 bricks per 8-hr shift. When the job was done by human hands, maximum
lity per shift reached only 5000 bricks.
860 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING

Fig. 43.2. ASEA [RB60 «kctnc robot with gnpp«r-inoun(ed ptasma arc cutting torch removes gates,
nsers, and sprue from gray iron engine block casting

The bnck is handled by an ASEA IRB

60 rc^t with 4 capacity of 60 kg (132 lb) Programming
for brick handling takes just a few minutes, as the programs are usually quite simple Once the nght
moves are in the robot's memory,
performs them with near-perfect repeatability through thousands
it

of working cycles The unit stacks the bncks (o accuracies of a few thousandths of an inch—well
beyond the capability of unassisted human hand-eye coordination
Sensors enable the ASEA robot to detect problems When it ‘Sees” or “feels" a problem, the
robot slops what it is doing immediately and calls for help by an alarm system When the condition
is corrected, the robot resumes work where U left olT

Brick handled by the robot at Hoganas measures 250 X 130 X 130 mm

(10 X 5 X 5 in ) Each
bnck weighs about 9 kg (20 Jb) Conveyors carry the back directly to the palletizing station from a
tunnel kiln On the conveyor, they are slacked 300 mm
(12 in) high in five rows Approximately
250 mm (10 in ) of air space is left between each row of bricks
The robot’s gnpper handles five bncks at a time, using five movable suction cups When the bncks
are picked up. a vacuum sensor checks to see that they actually number five and are securely held
When the bncks are stacked on the pallet and released, an optical laser sensor venfies that all five
bricks have, in fact, found theirway to the proper location on the pallet
The bnck-handling robot is mounted on a I-m (3-ft) high pedestal, giving it the working height
needed to handle the top bncks in the stacks on both conveyor and pallet If there had been loo
little space for floor mounting, the robot could have been inverted and mounted overhead Robots

work just as hard upside down as (hey do nght-side up

REFERENCES
1. Shimogo, J , et al , A total system using industrial robots for electnc arc furnace operation,
Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium of Industrial Robots, Zurich, Switzerland. May
1973, pp 359-374
2. Synnelius, S, Industnal robots in foundries. Industrial Robot. Vol I, No 5, September 1974,
pp 210-212
3. Gray, W. E ,
Industnal manipulations in the foundry industry, SME Paper No MR76-604, 1976
4. Mon, M , et al ,
Applications of robot technology for tapping work of carbide electnc furnaces,
 CHAPTER 44
FLEXIBLE MACHINING CELL
WITH ROBOTS
RALPH L. MAIEITE
HAS Automation Systems
Bristol, Coimectioit

44.1. ROBOTS IN FLEXIBLE MACHINING OILS

The use of an industrial robot at the center of a fleuble machining cell goes far beyond the mere
utilization of that robot for simple pick-and-place operations. By combimng the capabilities of the
progrunmable manipulator «ith automatic controls provided by numerical control (NC), computer
numencal control (CNC). and direct oumencal control (DNQ machine tools, the system can provide
a high degree of Seubility and a great potential for productivity
A fiexibU machine tool cell (or machimog center) can be defined as a group of machine tools
arranged so that they can be tended by one or more industnal robots. Another kind of cell uses a
robot loader «iih a muluple-opetation, rotaty-table, landetn machine tool incorporating automatic
in-process pguig and tool-»ear compeosanon An etample of a flexible machining cell is depicted in
Figure 44 1.
Input and output comeyors complete the installation The eniue system dratvs from esublished
pruciples of group technology and computer-integrated manufactvnng Flexible machine tool cells
can effectively reduce m-process uiventoty, cut lead tunes, ininimue direct and indirect labor costs,
maxtmiie use of capital equipment, and increase the number and quality of parts made per shift
Tno factors must be considered in deadmg whether and bow to utilize a robot in a cell

1. Is tberea new process or inachiiung opcrslion being implemented'’ This would require installatioa
of new machine tools, gages, conveyors, and handling devins.
2. Is an existing layout, with existing machine took and c^her manually operated equipment, to
be rearranged and upgraded into a oelft

In either case, it is important to take into account (he capabilities of the robot being considered.
Robot manufacturers should be questioned as to the capaaty of the robot m terms of programmability,
control,w eight-handling capacity, speed of operation, accuracy and repeatability, arm reach, and degrees
of motion.
Another consideration is the number of robots to be employed. With a single machine tool ceU, a
smgle robot can be used But when the output of one cell is to be transferred to a second or even a
third cell, additional robots should be considered.
It IS important to have the robot(s) operating as much of the time as possible. When large metal

parts are bemg machined, for example, the workpieces spend a fairly long tune at the machine tool
If this time exceeds 20 sec, the robot should not stand idle but should be employed m
other activities
while the cutting proceeds.
Ample space should be provided to accommodate the reach and movements of the robot while it
IS operating. Robot tooling and the design of the arm or gnpper must also be considered dunng the

planning stage. Such factors as the quantity of parts to be handled simultaneously should also be
taken mto account.

44 J. PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE FLEXIBLE MACHINE TOOL CELL

In planning a flexible machine tool cell, a designer most consider a number of important functions
and capabilities*
ROBOTS IN FOUNDRIES 861

Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Industrial Robots. Tokyo, Japan, October
1977, pp. 293-300.
5. Munson, G., Foundries, robots and productivity, Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium
on Industrial Robots, Stuttgart, West Germany, May 1978, pp. 303-319.
6. Tomasch, M. B., Materials handling; key to foundry mechanization. Foundry Management and
Technology, Vol. 106, July 1978, pp. 26-27.

7. Kerr, J., Britain’s first robot fettling shows what can be done. Engineer, Vol. 248, March 22,
1979, p. 15.
10.
8. Hasegawa, Y., Analysis of complicated operations for robotization, SME Paper No. MS79-287,
1979.

9. Alves, A. I., Thoughts and observations on the application of industrial robots to the production
of hot P/M forgings. Robotics Today, Spring 1980, pp. 30-31.

Ferloni, A., ORDINATORE: A dedicated robot that orients objects in a predetermined direction.
Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Milan, Italy, March 1980,
pp. 655-658.
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