Cover Control Systems Engineer (CSE)

Control Systems Engineer

Control Systems Engineering

Exam Reference Manual:
A Practical Study Guide
Third Edition
For the NCEES Professional Engineering
(PE) Licensing Examination

Bryon Lewis, PE, CMfgE, CCNA

i
Control Systems Engineering
Exam Reference Manual:
A Practical Study Guide
Third Edition – A New Plant Design Approach
For the NCEES Professional Engineering
(PE) Licensing Examination
Bryon Lewis, PE, CMfgE, CCNA

Controls engineering encompasses a broad range of industries: power, paper and pulp, pharmaceuticals,
manufacturing and chemical plants. Although this third edition has been expanded to further include the
many different applications used by all of the above, the book will focus on petrochemical applications.

The Professional Engineer – Control Systems Engineer (CSE) examination tends to be concentrated
toward the application of chemical and pharmaceutical plant design applications of code and control
systems. I have tried to introduce the new upcoming engineer to the depth of knowledge they will need to
acquire in order to tackle very large projects that may present themselves in the future of their career.

I have tried to present a firsthand view of what a large plant looks like and how to break it down into small
parts that are easily engineered and designed, while combining these many small parts into a large and
complex working system that will run safe and smoothly.

Video Viewing Note:

To view the animations and video in the manual, please use Adobe Reader or Acrobat Reader. The
video will require the Adobe stand-alone Flash Video Player. You can download the “Plugin” from:

https://helpx.adobe.com/acrobat/using/flash-player-needed-acrobat-reader.html
http://learncontrolsystems.com/install_flash_player.exe

Printing Note:

The style of this book has a layout for reading on a computer. To maintain this easily read format when
printing the book, use skip blank pages in your printer setup or use the print pages option as 1, 3-677.

Cover Concept and Design by Bryon Lewis, PE, CMfgE, CCNA Copyright © 2016

ii
Notice from the Publisher

The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader. Because neither
the author nor editor nor the publisher has any control over the use of the information by the reader, both
the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is
expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in a
particular application.

Additionally, neither the author nor editor nor the publisher have investigated or considered the effect of
any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The reader
is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information
presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author nor the
publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade names referenced
belong to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor editor nor the publisher
makes any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product at any time.
The manufacturer's instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at all times, even if in
conflict with the information in this publication.

Copyright © 2016 by ISA

67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

All Rights Reserved

ISBN: 978-1-941546-56-7

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

iii
This Reference Manual Covers All Subject Content for the PE/CSE Examination

This book thoroughly covers all subject content currently listed in the NCEES PE/CSE examination
specifications for the Professional Engineer in the discipline of Control Systems Engineering as of 2016.
This review reference manual encompasses 18 of the most important subjects that may be encountered
in control systems engineering for the NCEES PE/CSE examination.

I have compiled numerous college text book subjects into this one comprehensive guide. ISA offers
books on most of these subjects that covers this information in extensive detail. The text book subjects
covered in this manual are:

Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Process Analyzers
Control Valves
Pressure Relief Valves
Process Control Theory
Digital Fundamentals
Motor Controls
Industrial Electronics
Electrical System Design for Industrial Plants
Fluid Power Systems
Conveying Technology
Fundamentals of Industrial Networking
Process Technology
ISA Documentation Standards
Safety Instrumented Systems
State and Federal Codes for Process Plant Installations
Control Systems Design for Process and Manufacturing Plants

Plan Your Study Time

If your only job is engineering and designing control systems, then you should be able to adequately
prepare for the PE/CSE exam in 4 weeks.

If you are very familiar with control systems, then you should be able to adequately prepare for the
PE/CSE exam in 8 weeks.

If you are new to control systems engineering and only have 4 years of experience, most of these
subjects are not taught or covered in college. You should plan to spend a period of 12 to 18 weeks
studying this review material to be thoroughly prepared for the PE/CSE examination.

You should try to complete at least one module a week. This manual has 28 study modules. You may
want to combine some of the smaller modules and study them at the same time, such as instrumentation
subjects. With important subject modules like Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) and documentation, you
should plan on dedicating a significate amount of time to the subject. These subjects encompass a
significate percentage of the time spent on questions when taking the CSE examination.

iv
 Table of Contents

Cover Control Systems Engineer (CSE) ................................................................................................ i

Notice from the Publisher .................................................................................................................... iii
This Reference Manual Covers All Subject Content for the PE/CSE Examination ............................... iv
Plan Your Study Time ........................................................................................................................... iv

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction to This Study Guide ........................................................................................................ 19

About the Author ................................................................................................................................ 19
People who have contributed to the previous editions of this manual ............................................. 20

Tips on How to Use This Study Guide ................................................................................................ 21

Using Thumbnails to Navigate ............................................................................................................ 22
Using Bookmarks to Navigate ............................................................................................................. 23
Important File Attachments - Open by clicking on the paper clip! ..................................................... 24
How to Print this Manual .................................................................................................................... 24

Welcome to Control Systems Engineering ........................................................................................ 25

Licensing as Professional Engineer / Control Systems Engineer (CSE)................................................ 25
Why Become a Professional Engineer?............................................................................................... 28
This is the third edition of this study manual...................................................................................... 30
The new and expanded sections include: ........................................................................................... 30

Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE ............................................................................... 31

Overview of Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE ............................................................ 32

Examination General Information........................................................................................................ 33

State Licensing Requirements ............................................................................................................. 33
Eligibility .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Exam schedule..................................................................................................................................... 33
Description of Examination ................................................................................................................. 34
Exam content ...................................................................................................................................... 34
I. Measurement ............................................................................................................................ 34
II. Signals, Transmission, and Networking..................................................................................... 35
III. Final Control Elements .............................................................................................................. 35
IV. Control Systems ........................................................................................................................ 36
V. Safety Systems .......................................................................................................................... 37
VI. Codes, Standards, Regulations ................................................................................................. 37
Exam Scoring ....................................................................................................................................... 37

Reference Materials for the Exam ....................................................................................................... 39

Recommended Books and Materials to Take to the Exam ................................................................. 39
Books and Materials for Testing ......................................................................................................... 40
Books for Additional Study ................................................................................................................. 40
Courses for Additional Study .............................................................................................................. 41
ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) PE Review .................................................................................. 41
Industrial Network Training ................................................................................................................ 41
Control Systems Engineer (CSE) Supplement Course ......................................................................... 42
Online Process Plant @ Learn Control Systems.com .......................................................................... 42
1
Process Measurement Standards and Terminology ......................................................................... 43
Overview of process measurement, control and calibration ............................................................. 43
Process Signal and Calibration Terminology ....................................................................................... 44
Definition of the Range of an Instrument ........................................................................................... 44
Definition of the Span of an Instrument ............................................................................................. 45
Definition of the use of Zero in Instrumentation ................................................................................ 45
Live-Zero ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Elevated-Zero ................................................................................................................................. 45
Suppressed-Zero ............................................................................................................................ 45
Illustrations of range and span terminology ....................................................................................... 46
Illustrations of measured variable, measured signal, range and span ............................................... 47

Applications of Fluid Mechanics in Process Control ........................................................................ 49

Relationship of pressure and flow ...................................................................................................... 49
Applications of the formulas ............................................................................................................... 52
Summary of fluid mechanics for process control ............................................................................... 56

Temperature Measurement and Calibration ....................................................................................... 57

Temperature measurement devices and calibration.......................................................................... 57
Thermocouple - worked examples (how to read the thermocouple tables) ...................................... 59
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) ............................................................................................ 60
Installing RTDs and Thermocouples into a process stream ................................................................ 63
Typical RTD and thermocouple applications....................................................................................... 64

Pressure Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................. 65

Pressure measurement and head pressure ........................................................................................ 65
Applying pressure measurement and signals - worked examples ...................................................... 66
Differential pressure and meter calibration ....................................................................................... 66
Pressure change in a pipe for a given flow rate .................................................................................. 67
Pressure change across the flow element for a given flow rate ......................................................... 67
Pressure calibration of transmitter ..................................................................................................... 68

Level Measurement and Calibration.................................................................................................... 69

Applying level measurement and calibration - Worked examples ..................................................... 69
Level displacer (Buoyancy) .................................................................................................................. 72
Bubbler level measurement ................................................................................................................ 74
Density measurement ......................................................................................................................... 75
Interface level measurement .............................................................................................................. 76
Radar and Ultrasonic level measurement ........................................................................................... 78
Time of flight technology ............................................................................................................... 78
Ultrasonic level measurement ....................................................................................................... 78
Radar (non-contact) ....................................................................................................................... 78
Guided Wave Radar (GWR)............................................................................................................ 79
Capacitance level measurement ........................................................................................................ 79
Radiometric (gamma) level measurement ......................................................................................... 80
Level gauging system in a tank farm .................................................................................................. 80
Calculating the volume in tanks .......................................................................................................... 81

Flow Measurement and Calibration..................................................................................................... 83

Applying flow measurement devices .................................................................................................. 83
Turndown ratio in a flow meter .......................................................................................................... 83
ISA standard flow meter symbols ....................................................................................................... 83
Flow meter applications chart ............................................................................................................ 84

2
 Pressure tappings (Impulse Line Taps) ................................................................................................ 84
Orifice tap dimensions and impulse line connections ........................................................................ 85
Various Types of Flow Meters ............................................................................................................. 88
Applying the Bernoulli principle for flow control................................................................................ 89
Types of Head Pressure based meters ................................................................................................ 90
Venturi meter................................................................................................................................. 90
ISO 5167 Orifice Plate and Orifice plate ......................................................................................... 90
Dall tube ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Pitot-Static tube ............................................................................................................................. 90
Multi-hole pressure probe ............................................................................................................. 90
Cone meters ................................................................................................................................... 90
Annubar meters (also reference averaging pitot tubes) ............................................................... 91
Differential head meter calculations................................................................................................... 91
Classic fluid mechanics model............................................................................................................. 91
“K” value flow coefficients ............................................................................................................. 92
The beta ratio ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Pipe Size Is Important - Remember! .............................................................................................. 96
Standard Flow Measurement Equations............................................................................................. 97
Spink - Flow Measurement Equation .................................................................................................. 97
The basic Spink equation derived .................................................................................................. 98
The basic Spink equation for liquid ................................................................................................ 99
The basic Spink equation for gas and vapor .................................................................................. 99
The basic Spink equation for steam ............................................................................................... 99
Applications of the Beta and Spink factors ............................................................................... 100
Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S) ........................................................................................................... 101
ISO 5167 - Flow Measurement Equation .......................................................................................... 102
The expansibility factor ................................................................................................................ 102
The discharge coefficient ............................................................................................................. 103
The ISO 5167 equation explained ................................................................................................ 103
Solve for the Reynolds number ‘Re’ ............................................................................................ 104
Solve for the coefficient ‘C’ .......................................................................................................... 104
Solve for mass flow rate: ............................................................................................................. 105
Solve for volumetric flow rate ..................................................................................................... 105
Equation Comparison Summary .................................................................................................. 106
Sizing orifice type devices for flow measurement - worked examples............................................. 106
Mass flow measurement and control ............................................................................................... 109
Applying mass flow measurement with an orifice - worked example .............................................. 112
Turbine meter applications ............................................................................................................... 113
Turbine flow meter - worked example ........................................................................................ 116

Weight Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................... 119

Weight measurement devices and calibration ................................................................................. 119
Load cells ........................................................................................................................................... 119
Load cells for (flow, level, force) applications in process ................................................................. 120

Process Analyzers .............................................................................................................................. 121

Electrical conductivity and pH correction ......................................................................................... 121
How are pH and electrical conductivity measured? ......................................................................... 121
Control of pH values in processes ..................................................................................................... 121
Typical pH correction control scheme ......................................................................................... 122
Control of conductivity...................................................................................................................... 123
Instrument specifications and operating parameters ................................................................. 123

3
 Common Plant Analyzers .................................................................................................................. 123
Boiling Point Analyzers................................................................................................................. 123
Vacuum Distillation Analyzer ....................................................................................................... 123
Flash Point Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 124
Cloud Point Analyzer .................................................................................................................... 124
Freeze Point Analyzer .................................................................................................................. 124
Pour Point Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 124
Color Analyzer .............................................................................................................................. 124
Combustion and Analyzers................................................................................................................ 124
Combustion furnace and air-fuel ratio control ............................................................................ 125
Air-Fuel ratio control utilizing CO and O2 concentrations ........................................................... 125
BMS - Burner Management Safety .............................................................................................. 125
OSHA Requirements .................................................................................................................... 125
Carbon dioxide (CO2) reading ...................................................................................................... 126
Examples of Process Analyzers ......................................................................................................... 126
Select the appropriate analyzer and configuration .......................................................................... 127
Typical Analyzer Piping and Control Schematic ................................................................................ 128

Process Control Valves and Actuators ............................................................................................. 129

Process control valves ....................................................................................................................... 129
Considerations when sizing a control valve ...................................................................................... 130
Flow Coefficient Cv ...................................................................................................................... 130
Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................................ 130
Operating Conditions ................................................................................................................... 130
ISA standard valve symbols ............................................................................................................... 131
ISA standard pressure regulating valve symbols............................................................................... 131
Valve actuators.................................................................................................................................. 132
ISA standard actuator symbols .................................................................................................... 132
Limit switches on a valve - ISA standard symbol .............................................................................. 133
Calculating the size of the actuator ............................................................................................. 133
Example actuator sizing ............................................................................................................... 134
Split ranging control valves ............................................................................................................... 135
Valve positioner applications ............................................................................................................ 137
ISA standard valve positioner symbols ........................................................................................ 137
Summary of positioners ............................................................................................................... 138
When should a positioner be used? ............................................................................................ 138
Electrical positioners .................................................................................................................... 138
Control valve application comparison chart ..................................................................................... 139
Understanding flow with valve characteristics ................................................................................. 140
What is the ΔP for valve sizing? ................................................................................................... 140
System piping ΔP pressure drops................................................................................................. 140
Control valve ΔP pressure drop ................................................................................................... 141
Graph of the Inherent valve characteristics (off the shelf).......................................................... 142
Which valve characteristic trim to use?....................................................................................... 142
Characteristic distortion in valves................................................................................................ 143
Gain and Rangeability (turndown ratio in valves) ....................................................................... 145
Proper control valve sizing ............................................................................................................ 146
Oversized valves present problems ............................................................................................. 147
Experiment and understand Installed valve characteristics ........................................................ 149
Summary of control valve characteristics .................................................................................... 150
Control Valve Sizing ........................................................................................................................... 151
The Valve Sizing Equations.......................................................................................................... 151

4
 The Basic equation for liquid flow ............................................................................................... 151
The basic equation for gas flow ................................................................................................... 151
The basic equation for steam flow .............................................................................................. 151
Sizing valves for liquid - worked example ......................................................................................... 153
Sizing valves for gas - worked example ............................................................................................. 155
Sizing valves for vapor and steam - worked example ....................................................................... 158
Sizing valves for two phase flow - worked example ......................................................................... 161
Two Phase Flow Worked Example ............................................................................................... 163
ΔP Valve Limitations - Very Important!............................................................................................ 165
Flowing Quantity (the turndown ratio of a valve) ....................................................................... 165
Flashing ........................................................................................................................................ 166
Joule-Thomson Effect (J-T) – auto refrigeration in valves ........................................................... 166
Choked Flow................................................................................................................................. 166
Maximum ΔP and Maximum Flow (qmax) in Valves Applications ...................................................... 167
Determining qmax (Maximum Flow Rate) ..................................................................................... 167
Determining ΔPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop) ............................................................ 168
Cavitation in valves ...................................................................................................................... 169
Check for cavitation and choked flow in a control valves - worked examples ................................. 170
Fluid Velocities through Control Valves ............................................................................................ 174
Viscosity Correction for Sizing Valves ............................................................................................... 175

Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks ....................................................................................... 177

Pressure Relief Valves (PRV) and Pressure Safety Valves (PSV) ........................................................ 177
Important Note: (Do Not Throttle Pressure Relief Valves) .......................................................... 177
EPA regulations ............................................................................................................................ 178
Regulation details ........................................................................................................................ 178
PRD bypass ................................................................................................................................... 179
Pilot operated safety valve .......................................................................................................... 180
Bellow or balanced bellow and diaphragm ................................................................................. 181
Weight loaded PRV operation ..................................................................................................... 181
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ................................................................... 183
API Standards for pressure relieving systems ................................................................................... 186
CFR Standards for pressure relief required by federal law ............................................................... 187
API Standard 2000 – Venting atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks .............................. 187
API Standard 2003 – Protection against ignitions from static, lightning, and stray currents ...... 188
API Standard 2350 – Overfill protection for storage tanks in petroleum facilities...................... 188
API Standard 2510 – Design and construction of LPG installations ............................................. 189
NFPA 30 – Flammable and combustible liquids code .................................................................. 190
Important excerpts from NFPA 30 code: .................................................................................. 190
Chapter 4: Tanks Storage .......................................................................................................... 190
Chapter 5: Piping Systems ......................................................................................................... 191
Chapter 6: Container and Portable Storage Tanks .................................................................... 191
Chapter 7: Operations ............................................................................................................... 192
ASME VIII code for sizing relief valves and rupture disks ............................................................ 193
Introduction to ASME VIII.......................................................................................................... 195
Overview Section VIII - Pressure Vessels................................................................................... 195
ASME VIII – Pressure relief requirements ................................................................................. 195
ASME VIII - Pressure limits in sizing........................................................................................... 196
Table 5 - ASME standard nozzle orifice data..................................................................................... 196
ISA pressure relief valve and rupture disc symbols .......................................................................... 197
Sizing equations for relief valves and rupture disks ......................................................................... 198
ASME VIII code equations USCS units .......................................................................................... 198
5
 A Note about sonic or choked flow ............................................................................................. 199
Variables for PRV and PSV sizing equations................................................................................. 199
Sizing rupture disks - worked examples ............................................................................................ 201
Sizing pressure relief valves - worked examples ............................................................................... 203

Review of Feedback Control Fundamentals .................................................................................... 209

Compare Open Loop Control to Closed Loop Control ...................................................................... 209
Open Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis ............................................................................... 209
Closed Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis ............................................................................. 211
The Transfer Function for the Automobile ....................................................................................... 213

Review of Frequency Response Fundamentals .............................................................................. 215

Electrical Application – A First Order System .................................................................................... 215
Bode Plot of First Order System ........................................................................................................ 216
Calculate the data for the Bode Plot ................................................................................................. 217
Creating a Bode Plot – First Order System using Frequency ............................................................ 220
Hydraulic Application – A First Order System ................................................................................... 221

Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning ............................................................................... 223

Degrees of Freedom in Process Control Systems ............................................................................. 223
Controllers and control strategies (models-modes) ......................................................................... 225
Process Loop Gain (Gp) ..................................................................................................................... 227
Process Signal Linearization .............................................................................................................. 228
Signal Filtering in Process Control ..................................................................................................... 230
Appling Signal Filters .................................................................................................................... 230
Filter Time Constant and Sample Time ........................................................................................ 231
Example of Filter Time Selection ................................................................................................. 232
DCS/PLC Sample and Scan Time Consideration ................................................................................ 233
Sampling time .............................................................................................................................. 233
Time per scan cycle ...................................................................................................................... 233
Tuning of Process Controllers ........................................................................................................... 234
Closed Loop Tuning of the Controller .......................................................................................... 234
Example: Tune Using Ultimate Gain (continuous cycling) ........................................................ 235
Open Loop Tuning of the Controller ............................................................................................ 236
Example: Tuning using Process Reaction Curve (Step Response) ............................................. 238
Advanced Tuning Methods for Controllers ....................................................................................... 239
The Integral Criteria Method ....................................................................................................... 239
Lambda Tuning Concepts ............................................................................................................. 239
Example Reactor Ratio Timing ..................................................................................................... 242
IMC Tuning Method ..................................................................................................................... 243
PID Controller Models.................................................................................................................. 244
Trial and Error Tuning Method .................................................................................................... 244
Dead Time and PID Control.......................................................................................................... 244
PID Tuning Video - Parameters in Action .......................................................................................... 244
Process Characteristics from the transfer function .......................................................................... 245
Poles, Zeros, and Dampening from the Transfer Function ............................................................... 245
Find the Poles from the Function ................................................................................................ 246
Find the Damping from the Function........................................................................................... 246
Find the Time Constant ................................................................................................................ 247
Find the Period ............................................................................................................................. 247
Find the Time Constant from the Period ..................................................................................... 247
Find Overshoot and Peak Value ................................................................................................... 247
Block Diagram Algebra ...................................................................................................................... 248
6
 Example of Block Diagram Algebra Reduction .................................................................................. 249
Nyquist Stability Criterion ................................................................................................................. 250
Routh Stability Criterion .................................................................................................................... 251
Check for Stability using Routh (Example) ........................................................................................ 254

Communications and Industrial Control Networks ......................................................................... 257

Overview of Corporate and Plant Networks ..................................................................................... 257
Open System Interconnect (OSI) and TCP/IP network layer model.................................................. 259
7 Layers of networking in the OSI model ..................................................................................... 259
Physical (Layer 1) ....................................................................................................................... 259
Data Link (Layer 2) ..................................................................................................................... 259
Network (Layer 3) ...................................................................................................................... 259
Transport (Layer 4) .................................................................................................................... 259
Session (Layer 5) ........................................................................................................................ 260
Presentation (Layer 6) ............................................................................................................... 260
Application (Layer 7) ................................................................................................................. 260
Cisco Network Certification – IIOT (Industrial Internet of Things) for IT and OT ..............................260
The typical network model .......................................................................................................... 261
The Network Essentials ................................................................................................................ 263
Overview of Industrial Networks ...................................................................................................... 264
The most popular industrial networks and their applications are below.................................... 264
HART Networks ............................................................................................................................ 265
Traditional HART Network......................................................................................................... 265
A Wired HART Network ............................................................................................................. 266
A Wireless HART Network ......................................................................................................... 266
PROFIBUS and AS-i Networks ...................................................................................................... 267
Reasons for choosing PROFIBUS ............................................................................................... 267
PROFIBUS DP ............................................................................................................................. 267
PROFIBUS PA ............................................................................................................................. 268
PROFINET................................................................................................................................... 268
AS-i ............................................................................................................................................ 268
PROFIBUS Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS) ..................................................................... 269
PROFIBUS................................................................................................................................... 269
PROFIsafe .................................................................................................................................. 269
PROFIdrive................................................................................................................................. 269
Use of the OSI Networking Layers ............................................................................................. 269
PROFIBUS/AS-i/PROFINET Certifications: ................................................................................. 269
FOUNDATION Fieldbus . ...................................................................................................................... 270
Reasons for choosing FOUNDATION Fieldbus . ................................................................................ 270
H2 or HSE (High Speed Ethernet) .............................................................................................. 270
FOUNDATION H1 ......................................................................................................................... 270
Typical FOUNDATION Segments ................................................................................................. 271
Use of the OSI Networking Layers ............................................................................................. 271
Rockwell and ODVA (CIP) Networks ............................................................................................ 272
ControlNet ............................................................................................................................. 272
DeviceNet .............................................................................................................................. 273
EtherNet/IP............................................................................................................................ 274
CompoNet ............................................................................................................................. 274
DH485, DH+, RIO ................................................................................................................... 274
Modbus Networks........................................................................................................................ 275
Traditional Modbus Networks................................................................................................... 275
Communication and Devices ..................................................................................................... 275

7
 Protocols.................................................................................................................................... 275
EtherCAT ...................................................................................................................................... 276
SERCOS ......................................................................................................................................... 276
Summary - Automation and Process Control Networks ............................................................. 277
Plant Facility Monitoring and Control System (FMCS) ................................................................ 277
BACnet ......................................................................................................................................... 278
LonWorks ..................................................................................................................................... 278
Typical Building Automation Network ......................................................................................... 278
Networked intelligent and smart devices .................................................................................... 279
PID control in intelligent networked devices ............................................................................... 279
PROFIBUS Control Blocks ............................................................................................................. 280
The Rosemount 333 Tri-Loop to split multiple variable signals................................................... 280

The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems ...................................................................... 281

Overview of Digital Logic................................................................................................................... 281
Digital Logic Gate Symbols ................................................................................................................ 281
Digital Logic Gate Truth Tables ......................................................................................................... 282
ISA Binary Logic ................................................................................................................................. 283
Relay Ladder Logic............................................................................................................................. 284
Standard RLL Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 285
Sealing Circuits .................................................................................................................................. 285
Control System Architectures ........................................................................................................... 286
DCS Plant Wide Control System Architecture - Networked......................................................... 286
PLC Control System Architecture ................................................................................................. 288
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) vs PAC (Process Automation Controller) ......................... 288
Controller Application Function Comparison Chart..................................................................... 289
SCADA Control System Architecture ............................................................................................ 289
PLC Programming Languages ....................................................................................................... 290
PLC Programming (LD) ladder diagram or (RLL) relay ladder logic ........................................... 291
PLC Programming (ST) structured text ...................................................................................... 291
PLC Programming (FBD) functional block diagram ................................................................... 292
PLC Programming (SFC) sequential function chart ................................................................... 292
Writing a Program and Developing a HMI for a Small Systems ................................................... 293
RSLogix 5000, ControlLogix PIDE (PID Enhanced) Function Block Diagram ................................. 294

Motor Control and Logic Functions .................................................................................................. 297

Plant Electrical System ...................................................................................................................... 297
Motor Control Center (MCC)............................................................................................................. 297
Typical MCC Design ........................................................................................................................... 298
Typical Motor Controller.............................................................................................................. 298
How to Control a Motor .................................................................................................................... 299
Starter Auxiliary Contacts ............................................................................................................ 299
Overload and Fault....................................................................................................................... 299
The basic NEMA stop-start station ................................................................................................... 300
Typical Motor Control Schematic ................................................................................................ 300
NEMA and IEC Terminal Designations .............................................................................................. 301
NEMA Standards Publication ICS 19-2002 (R2007) ................................................................... 301
Relays and Contacts .................................................................................................................. 301
Coil Lettering and Relay Socket Numbers (NEMA and IEC Numbers) ......................................... 301
Standard Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 303
Standard Symbols (Continued) .................................................................................................... 304
NEMA and IEC Comparisons ........................................................................................................ 305

8
 Stop-Start Station Control Circuit Schematic ............................................................................... 306
Starter Control Circuit Schematic ................................................................................................ 306
Relay Ladder Logic (RLL) and Function Blocks................................................................................... 307
RLL and Their Boolean Functions ................................................................................................. 307
Putting Ladder Logic into the PLC ................................................................................................ 308
Example of a Safety System in a PLC............................................................................................ 309
Safety Logic in the PLC ................................................................................................................. 310
Alarming on Sensor Input Failure .............................................................................................. 310
The PLC Logic for Valve and Alarm Monitoring ........................................................................... 311
Schematic to Programming Languages ..................................................................................... 311

The Application of Analog Circuits in Control Systems ................................................................. 313

Overview of Analog Signals ............................................................................................................... 313
Typical Analog Loop Wiring Diagram ........................................................................................... 313
Simplified signal transmitters that maintain constant flow rate for measurement variable ...... 314
Constant Current Loops and Ohm’s Law ..................................................................................... 315
Current Loop Fundamentals ........................................................................................................ 315
The 4-20 mA Current Loop........................................................................................................... 315
Using Current to Transmit Transducer Data ................................................................................ 316
Current Loop Components ........................................................................................................ 316
Current Loop System ................................................................................................................. 316
Designing a Current Loop System ................................................................................................ 317
Choosing a Power Supply .......................................................................................................... 317
Adding More Transducers and Instruments ................................................................................ 318
Devices in Series ........................................................................................................................ 319
A typical Current Loop Repeater.................................................................................................. 320
Active and Passive Current Loops ................................................................................................ 321
Sinking and Sourcing Devices ....................................................................................................... 322
What is the difference between PNP and NPN? ....................................................................... 322
PNP Sensor verses NPN Sensor ................................................................................................. 323

Overview of Motion Controller Applications .................................................................................... 325

Motion Control Systems.................................................................................................................... 325
The basic architecture of a motion control system contains: ..................................................... 325
Stepper Motor ............................................................................................................................. 325
Closed-Loop Stepper Motor ...................................................................................................... 325
Stepper motor advantages .......................................................................................................... 326
Linear motion control................................................................................................................ 326
Series vs. parallel connection .................................................................................................... 326
Servo motor systems ................................................................................................................... 327
Advanced motion controls ........................................................................................................ 327
Position plus velocity system .................................................................................................... 327
Electro-hydraulic Servo System ................................................................................................... 328
Position and pressure/force control ......................................................................................... 328
Position transducers .................................................................................................................. 328
Fieldbus interfaces .................................................................................................................... 329
Applications of servo systems...................................................................................................... 329
Soft Starter Applications ................................................................................................................... 329
How does a soft starter work? ..................................................................................................... 329
Benefits of choosing a soft starter ............................................................................................... 330
Variable Frequency Drive .................................................................................................................. 330
How does a variable frequency drive work? ............................................................................... 330

9
 Conversion from AC to DC to AC PWM ........................................................................................ 331
Volts to Hertz Relationship .......................................................................................................... 334
Important Note about Low Frequency in VFDs ........................................................................... 335
VFDs put Noise into the Electrical System ................................................................................... 335
PID Control with VFD or DC Drive ................................................................................................ 336
Closed loop control with drive electronics................................................................................ 336
Block diagram of PID control with feedback operation available on some VFDs ..................... 336
Drive with built-in PID tension control of web or winding reel operation................................ 336

Electrical Systems and Power Quality .............................................................................................. 337

Filtering Power and Harmonics ......................................................................................................... 337
Harmonic Neutralizing Transformers........................................................................................... 337
Filtering of a Harmonics in Power Systems.................................................................................. 338
Passive Filter ................................................................................................................................ 338
Active Filter .................................................................................................................................. 339
Proper Grounding Procedures .......................................................................................................... 341

Emergency Standby Systems ............................................................................................................ 343

Article 700 – Emergency Systems ..................................................................................................... 343
Article 701 – Legally Required Standby Systems .............................................................................. 343
Article 702 – Optional Standby Systems ........................................................................................... 343
UPS (uninterruptible power supply) ............................................................................................ 343
UPS and Battery Bank Sizing ........................................................................................................ 344
Load Profile Calculation............................................................................................................. 347
Battery Sizing Calculation .......................................................................................................... 348
Worked Example – Sizing the Battery Bank .............................................................................. 349
Backup Generator ........................................................................................................................ 351
BMCS Implementation (Building Monitoring and Controls System) ................................................ 352

Hydraulics and Pneumatics ............................................................................................................... 353

Fluid Power Systems ......................................................................................................................... 353
Hydraulic Systems ........................................................................................................................ 353
Pneumatic Systems ...................................................................................................................... 355
Typical Pneumatic System (this type may be found in a manufacturing or chemical plant) ...... 355
Mechanical Flow Diagram of a Large Compressor .................................................................... 355
Instrumentation Air Header (Fluid Distribution Header or Manifold) ...................................... 355
Pneumatic Schematic of Valve Controller ................................................................................. 356
I/P Current to Pneumatic Positioner ......................................................................................... 356
Instrument Air Cost - Engineering Economics ............................................................................. 357
Assumption .................................................................................................................................. 357
Peak air demand .......................................................................................................................... 357
Vendor data ................................................................................................................................. 357
Include Total Demand .................................................................................................................. 358
Instrument Air Piping and Cost .................................................................................................... 358
Pipe sizing is just like sizing electrical lines ....................................................................................... 359
Caution Using Charts and Graphs ................................................................................................ 359
Interconnects and headers .......................................................................................................... 359
The Target Objectives .................................................................................................................. 359
Eliminate the pressure drop ........................................................................................................ 360
Air Velocity ................................................................................................................................... 360
Crunching the Numbers ............................................................................................................... 361
Recover Wasted Heat to Save Money ......................................................................................... 362

10
 Fluid Power Schematic Symbols ....................................................................................................... 363

Overview of Conveying Technologies .............................................................................................. 371

Some common types of conveying systems are as follows: ............................................................. 371
Heavy Duty Roller Conveyors....................................................................................................... 371
Flexible Conveyors ....................................................................................................................... 371
Vertical Conveyors and Spiral Conveyors .................................................................................... 372
Spiral Conveyors .......................................................................................................................... 372
Vertical conveyor with forks ........................................................................................................ 372
Vibrating Conveyors ..................................................................................................................... 372
Pneumatic and Vacuum Conveyors .................................................................................................. 373
Pneumatic Tube Conveyor Systems............................................................................................. 373
Large Complex Pneumatic Conveying Systems............................................................................ 374
Typical Plant Pneumatic Conveying System .............................................................................. 374
HMI for Pneumatic Conveying System ...................................................................................... 374
Dilute Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 375
Dense Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 375
Conveying Phase Diagram ......................................................................................................... 376
Pressure Distance Relationships ............................................................................................... 377
Vacuum Conveying ...................................................................................................................... 377
A typical vacuum product transportation system ..................................................................... 378
Vacuum conveying systems and HMI display ........................................................................... 378
Vacuum conveying system HMI display .................................................................................... 378
Blower operating cost of pneumatic systems.............................................................................. 379
Screw conveying systems............................................................................................................. 379
Screw conveyor instruments ..................................................................................................... 380
Mass or bulk flow measurement ................................................................................................. 380
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 380
Load cell measurement for mass flow rate ............................................................................... 380
Mass flow control of conveying system ....................................................................................... 381
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 381
Load Cell (Strain Gauge) measurement for mass flow rate ...................................................... 381
Typical scale systems used on manufacturing lines and in plants ............................................ 382

Chemical Process Technology and Equipment ............................................................................... 383

Process Technologies ........................................................................................................................ 383
Separation Processes ........................................................................................................................ 384
A Typical Horizontal 3-Phase Separator....................................................................................... 384
Industrial Distillation ......................................................................................................................... 384
A Typical Industrial Distillation Process ....................................................................................... 385
A Typical Distillation Unit ............................................................................................................. 385
Industrial Furnaces (Fired Heaters) ................................................................................................... 386
Industrial Furnaces....................................................................................................................... 386
Fired Heater Control Scheme....................................................................................................... 387
Expansion Tanks and Heat Transfer Fluid ......................................................................................... 387
Vapor Pressure, Boiling and Cavitation in Equipment ...................................................................... 389
Vaporization in Equipment .......................................................................................................... 389
Control Valve Applications ........................................................................................................... 389
Pumping Applications .................................................................................................................. 389
Video of Vaporization and Cavitation Phenomenon ................................................................... 390
Heat Exchangers ................................................................................................................................ 391
Flow Arrangement ....................................................................................................................... 391
Shell and Tube Heat exchanger ................................................................................................... 392
11
 Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger................................................................................. 392
Phase-change heat exchangers ................................................................................................. 392
Reboiler as seen on a distillation column.................................................................................. 392
Heat Exchanger BTU Calculation and Control.............................................................................. 393
Example of how to control the heat exchanger: ......................................................................... 393
Condenser (heat transfer) ................................................................................................................. 394
Evaporation Processes ...................................................................................................................... 395
What is evaporation? ................................................................................................................... 395
What is latent heat?..................................................................................................................... 395
What is the boiling point? ............................................................................................................ 395
Various Types of Evaporators and Their Working Principles............................................................ 395
Vertical Falling Film Evaporator ................................................................................................... 395
Horizontal Film Evaporator.......................................................................................................... 396
Low Temperature Vacuum Evaporator........................................................................................ 397
Using the Psychrometric Chart ......................................................................................................... 399
Cooling Towers .................................................................................................................................. 401
Cooling Tower Calculations .......................................................................................................... 401
Cooling tower water loss and make-up ....................................................................................... 402
Cooling tower control scheme and operating cost .......................................................................... 404
Typical pH correction system ....................................................................................................... 405
Chemical Reactors and Control ......................................................................................................... 406
What is a Reactor? .................................................................................................................... 406
Types of Reactors ...................................................................................................................... 406
Basic Control Scheme for a Reactor ............................................................................................ 407
CSTR (Constant Stirred Tank Reactor) ....................................................................................... 407
Hydrocracking Reactor Controls .................................................................................................. 407
Chemical Scrubbers ........................................................................................................................... 408
Wet exhaust gas cleaning ............................................................................................................ 408
Wet gas scrubber ......................................................................................................................... 409
Dry scrubbing ............................................................................................................................... 410
Scrubber waste products ............................................................................................................. 410
Bacteria spread ............................................................................................................................ 410
Dehydration Processes...................................................................................................................... 411
Absorption ................................................................................................................................... 411
Joule-Thompson effect...................................................................................................................... 413
Crystallization Technology ................................................................................................................ 414
Static Crystallization ..................................................................................................................... 414
Falling Film Crystallization ........................................................................................................... 416
Suspension Crystallization ........................................................................................................... 416
Process flow diagram suspension crystallization ......................................................................... 417
Freeze Concentration................................................................................................................... 417
Overview of a small crystallization plant to control .................................................................... 418
Flare and Vent Disposal Systems ...................................................................................................... 418
Types of flares .............................................................................................................................. 418
Flare Control Systems .................................................................................................................. 419
Quality Control Standards for Production of Products ..................................................................... 419

ISA Standards for Documentation..................................................................................................... 421

ISA Instrument or Function Symbol .................................................................................................. 421
ISA Line Type Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 422
Standard Line Types .......................................................................................................................... 422
ISA Identification Letters ................................................................................................................... 423

12
 ISA P&ID Identification (Controllers and Readouts) .......................................................................... 424
ISA P&ID Identification (Transmitters, Switches and Alarms) .......................................................... 425
ISA P&ID Identification (Compute, Relay and Elements) ................................................................. 426
Piping and Equipment Symbols......................................................................................................... 427
Standard P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram) ..................................................................... 428
P&ID Sample 1 (Functions) .......................................................................................................... 428
P&ID Sample 2 (Alarms) ............................................................................................................... 429
P&ID Sample 3 (Separator) .......................................................................................................... 429
EM (Equipment Modules) as in the ISA-88 Standard ................................................................... 430
Cross Limiting Control of Furnace ................................................................................................ 430
Simplified P&ID Sample 1 ............................................................................................................ 431
Simplified P&ID Sample 2 ............................................................................................................ 431
ISA Standard PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) or MFD (Mechanical Flow Diagram) ................................ 432
PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 1 ........................................................................................... 432
BFD (Block Flow Diagram) ................................................................................................................. 434
BFD Sample 1 ............................................................................................................................... 434
BFD Sample 2 ............................................................................................................................... 434
ISA Standard Loop Diagram .............................................................................................................. 435
Instrument Location and Elevation Plan Drawing ............................................................................ 437
Instrument Index Sheet..................................................................................................................... 438
DCS or PLC I/O List (A List of Inputs and Outputs with Tags and Calibration Data) .......................... 439
ISA Standard (HMI) Graphical Display Symbols and Designations ................................................... 440
HMI Sample 1 ............................................................................................................................... 440
HMI Sample 2 ............................................................................................................................... 441
NFPA 79 Colors for Graphical Displays (Industrial Machinery) ......................................................... 441
Battery Limits of the Plant ................................................................................................................ 442

Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems ...................................................................................... 443

Overview of process safety and shutdown ....................................................................................... 443
SIS (Safety Instrumented Systems) .............................................................................................. 443
Complying with IEC 61511 / ISA-84 .............................................................................................. 443
Other codes related to SIS systems ............................................................................................. 444
ISA and OSHA letter defining the requirements of the implementation of SIS systems .................. 444
Initiating Events of Safety Instrumented Systems ....................................................................... 445
Initiating Event ............................................................................................................................. 445
Examples ...................................................................................................................................... 445
External Events ............................................................................................................................ 445
Equipment Failures ...................................................................................................................... 445
Human Failures ............................................................................................................................ 445
The difference between BPCS and SIS systems ................................................................................ 446
IEC 61508 mandatory and guidelines .......................................................................................... 447
SIF and SIL.......................................................................................................................................... 448
Risk analysis and protection layers .............................................................................................. 448
Designing a SIS System ...................................................................................................................... 449
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) – Unit for Functional Safety .............................................................. 449
SFF – Safe Failure Fraction ........................................................................................................... 450
Probability of Failures on Demand (PFD) ..................................................................................... 451
Probability of Failures per Hour (PFH) ......................................................................................... 451
SIL Capability and Safety System ................................................................................................. 452
SIF (Safety Instrumented Function) ............................................................................................. 453
A typical P&ID of the (SIF) Instrumentation................................................................................. 453
Voting or (Polling of the System) ................................................................................................. 454

13
 A typical voting system and its instrumentation for the above P&ID ....................................... 454
Types of Voting (X out of X) ....................................................................................................... 454
Voting Probabilities ...................................................................................................................... 455
The SIS calculations ........................................................................................................................... 455
Quantification of Reliability in almost absolute terms ................................................................ 455
Failure Models – The Bathtub Curve ........................................................................................... 456
Reliability Laws............................................................................................................................. 457
Improving the reliability of a measurement system ................................................................. 457
Safety Integrity Level (SIL) and Availability .................................................................................. 458
Sample of SIL Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 458
Acronyms................................................................................................................................... 458
Metrics used in the reliability engineering field involving SIS .......................................................... 459
2. MTTR = Mean Time to Repair ............................................................................................ 459
3. MTBF – Mean Time Between Failures ............................................................................... 459
4. Availability A(t) and Unavailability U(t) ............................................................................. 460
5. Probability of Failure on Demand (PFDavg) and Periodic Test and Inspection ................. 460
SIS Calculations - worked example .............................................................................................. 462
Calculating PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand) ............................................................. 463
Calculating MTTF (Mean Time to Failure) Based on Failure Rates…......................................463
Calculating MTBF based on failures ...................................................................................... 463
SIS and SIL – worked examples .......................................................................................................... 464
Example 1: Pump Failure Rate (FR) ....................................................................................... 464
Example 2: MTBF over 10 years ............................................................................................ 464
Example 3: PFD and Test Interval .......................................................................................... 465
Recommended SIS Study Material .................................................................................................... 466
Excerpts from Process Safebook 1 – Rockwell Automation ............................................................. 466

Overview of NEC / NFPA and Other Codes ...................................................................................... 469

CFR (Federal Government) Public Safety Standards of the United States........................................ 469
List of NFPA codes (be familiar with these codes) ............................................................................ 472
NFPA 70 – NEC (National Electrical Code)......................................................................................... 472
Voltage Drop Calculations............................................................................................................ 473
Substitute specific resistance (k) for resistance (R) of wire ...................................................... 473
Wire and cable sizing formulas for voltage drop ...................................................................... 473
Voltage drop calculations – worked examples ............................................................................ 474
NEC Article 500 Explosion Proof Installations .............................................................................. 476
Class I Hazardous Location NEC Article 501 ................................................................................. 476
Class I Location Definition ..................................................................................................... 476
Class I Division Definitions ..................................................................................................... 477
Class I Group Definitions ....................................................................................................... 477
Class I Temperature Definition .............................................................................................. 478
Class II Hazardous Location NEC Article 502 ................................................................................ 478
Class II Location Definition .................................................................................................... 478
Class II Division Definitions .................................................................................................... 478
Class II Group Definitions ...................................................................................................... 479
Class II Temperature Class ..................................................................................................... 479
Class III Hazardous Location NEC Article 503 ............................................................................... 479
Class III Location Definition ................................................................................................... 479
Class III Division Definitions ................................................................................................... 479
Class III Group Definitions ..................................................................................................... 480
Use of Zone Classifications........................................................................................................... 480
Classification Comparison (Zone/Division) for a Class I Location.............................................. 480

14
 Group Comparison (Zone/ Division) for a Class I Location ........................................................ 481
Protection Methods Comparison Class ..................................................................................... 481
Designation of NEC/CEC Classification......................................................................................... 482
Hazardous Location Classification ............................................................................................. 482
Summary the various hazardous (classified) locations. ............................................................... 483
Hazardous Location Wiring Methods .......................................................................................... 484
Purged and pressurized systems ................................................................................................. 485
Intrinsically safe systems ............................................................................................................. 485
Zener diode barrier (configurations) ......................................................................................... 485
Conventional passive IS Zener barriers ................................................................................. 485
Active (powered) IS isolation barriers ................................................................................... 485
NEC Article 409 and UL 508A ............................................................................................................ 486
What is NEC 409 and UL 508A? ................................................................................................... 486
SCCR (Short-circuit current rating) of industrial control panels .................................................. 486
Components in the power circuit ................................................................................................ 486
SCCR calculations – worked examples ......................................................................................... 487
NEC Articles for Remote Control and Signaling ................................................................................ 488
Article Categories ......................................................................................................................... 488
Cabling Installations and Applications (Types and Ratings) ......................................................... 489
Cables Selection for Installation per NEC Code ........................................................................... 489
Article 725 - Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, Remote-control Circuits .................................................... 491
Power sources .............................................................................................................................. 492
Class 1 methods and materials .................................................................................................... 492
Class 2 and Class 3 methods and materials ................................................................................. 492
Article 800 - Communications Circuits......................................................................................... 493
Examples of Article 725, 727 and 800 in instrumentation and controls ..................................... 494
NEMA Electrical Enclosures Types and Uses ..................................................................................... 496
Non-hazardous location NEMA enclosure types ......................................................................... 496
Table 10 – Indoor Nonhazardous Locations ................................................................................ 497
Table 11 - Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations .............................................................................. 498
Table 12 - Hazardous Locations ................................................................................................... 499
Temperature Rise Calculation ................................................................................................... 499
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety ........................................................................................... 500
What is NFPA 70E? ....................................................................................................................... 500
What is Arc Flash.......................................................................................................................... 500
Approach / Protection Boundaries .............................................................................................. 501
Arc Flash Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 501
Required Arc Flash Warning Label ............................................................................................... 501
NFPA 77 Static Electricity .................................................................................................................. 502
1.2 Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 502
8.1 General overview ................................................................................................................... 502
8.3.1 Charge generation .............................................................................................................. 503
G.1 Grounding diagrams .............................................................................................................. 504
NFPA 780 Lightning Protection (formerly NFPA 78) ......................................................................... 505
NFPA 780 and NFPA 70 (NEC) ...................................................................................................... 505
Strike-termination devices ........................................................................................................ 505
Connecting conductors to electrodes ....................................................................................... 505
Routing down conductors ......................................................................................................... 506
Conductor and electrode connection ....................................................................................... 506
Earth-grounding electrodes ...................................................................................................... 506
Summary of lightning protection components ............................................................................ 506
Air terminal height .................................................................................................................... 506
15
 Conductor bends ....................................................................................................................... 506
Conductor size and material ........................................................................................................ 507
Transient Protection from Lightning Strikes ................................................................................ 507
NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery........................................................................................................... 509
Conductor sizing........................................................................................................................... 509
Conductor colors .......................................................................................................................... 509
Pushbutton functions for color .................................................................................................... 509
Colors for Machine Indicator Lights and Icons Table 10.3.2 ........................................................ 509
NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems ...................................................................................... 510
Overview of the NFPA 496 articles .............................................................................................. 510
Factors to consider (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-3) ..................................................................................... 510
Location of the control room (NFPA 496, Secs. 5-3.1(c) and 5-3.2) ............................................ 510
Positive pressure air systems (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.1) .................................................................. 511
Type X equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.4) ................................................................................... 511
Type Y equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5) ................................................................................... 511
Type Z equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5) ................................................................................... 511
Examples of Purged and Pressurized Systems ............................................................................. 512
Basic design of purged enclosures ............................................................................................... 512
Basic design of purged buildings .................................................................................................. 513
40 CFR and EPA - LDAR ...................................................................................................................... 514
The Clean Air Act (CAA)................................................................................................................ 514
What the Law Requires ................................................................................................................ 514

Putting It All Together ......................................................................................................................... 515

Define the Scope of the Plant ........................................................................................................... 515
Define the Control Systems Architecture ......................................................................................... 516
Some Typical Large DCS Architectures .............................................................................................. 517
More on DCS Cabinets and I/O Distribution ..................................................................................... 518
Distributing the Power and Control .................................................................................................. 519
Routing the Cable Trays .................................................................................................................... 520
Choose the Wiring Method ............................................................................................................... 521
Field Distribution Systems................................................................................................................. 522
Class I, Division 2 Installations ..................................................................................................... 523
Class I, Division 1 Installations ..................................................................................................... 523
Modular Wiring Distribution Systems.......................................................................................... 524
Instrument Air Supply and Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................. 525
Instrument Air Consumption ....................................................................................................... 525
Compressor Types........................................................................................................................ 526
Piping System and Manifold ........................................................................................................ 526
Air Pipe Header ......................................................................................................................... 526
Pneumatic Tubing...................................................................................................................... 526
Air Distribution Manifold (Header) ........................................................................................... 527
Routing of Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................................... 527
Heat Tracing Systems ........................................................................................................................ 528
Electric Heat Tracing .................................................................................................................... 528
Steam Heat Tracing ...................................................................................................................... 529
Free Heat Tracing Software ......................................................................................................... 530
Determine Scope of Design ............................................................................................................... 530
Electrical Scope ............................................................................................................................ 531
Instrumentation and Mechanical Scope ...................................................................................... 531
Design of Electrical Plans ............................................................................................................. 532
Sample of a possible design for the control network and communications in plant .................. 533

16
 Sample of a possible plan for routing of cable tray and conduit in plant .................................... 534
Sample of a possible layout for a MCC building with medium voltage switchgear installed ...... 535
Sample of a possible one-line electrical diagram for the low voltage in the MCC building ....... 536
Sample of a possible ladder diagram for the control of an Allen Bradley frequency drive ......... 537
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram for the frequency drive ............................. 538
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram routing the analog instruments to DCS ..... 539
Locations of Instruments and Piping Design ..................................................................................... 541
Finding the location of an instrument in a plant ......................................................................... 547

Useful Equations for Pumping, Piping and Sizing Valves .............................................................. 549
Find pipe diameter with velocity of flow known .............................................................................. 549
Find flow velocity with pipe diameter known................................................................................... 549
Find pipe diameter with temperature and pressure correction ....................................................... 549
Find flow velocity with temperature and pressure correction ......................................................... 549
Find the Reynolds Number for the flow............................................................................................ 549
Calculate the Piping Head Losses to Size a Control Valve ................................................................. 550
Find the pump motor size (break horsepower) ................................................................................ 551
Calculating the Hydraulic Horsepower of pumps ........................................................................ 551
Calculating the Brake Horsepower of pumps .............................................................................. 552
Correct Pump Head and Flow Rate for Fluid Viscosity ................................................................ 553
Piping Absolute Roughness Values ................................................................................................... 556

Applications of Pumping Systems .................................................................................................... 557

Pump Basics ...................................................................................................................................... 557
Static Head ........................................................................................................................................ 557
Applying Variable Frequency Drives to Pumps to Realize Savings ................................................... 558
Pumps with Variable Frequency Drives (VFD).................................................................................. 558
When Can You Save with a VFD? ...................................................................................................... 559
Sizing a Pump Head with Specific Gravity of the Pumped Fluid ....................................................... 560
How a Piping System Works .............................................................................................................. 561

Calculating Volume in Tanks ............................................................................................................. 564

Cylindrical Tanks Upright .................................................................................................................. 565
Cylindrical Tanks on Side ................................................................................................................... 565
Spherical Tanks.................................................................................................................................. 566
Bullet Tanks ....................................................................................................................................... 566

Examination Sample Questions ........................................................................................................ 567

Sample Questions ............................................................................................................................. 567
Answers to Examination Sample Questions ..................................................................................... 574
Explanations and Proofs of Examination Sample Questions ............................................................ 575

Preparing this Guide for the Exam .................................................................................................... 587

An Avery tab template is included with this guide ........................................................................... 587
Suggested tabbing the guide............................................................................................................. 587

Guide to Using the Fisher Control Valve Handbook ....................................................................... 589

Important Sections to Review ........................................................................................................... 589
Important Pages to Tab ..................................................................................................................... 589
Valve and materials Selection ...................................................................................................... 589
Actuator Sizing Methods.............................................................................................................. 590
Valve Sizing Methods ................................................................................................................... 590
Electrical Apparatus ..................................................................................................................... 590

17
 Engineering Data .......................................................................................................................... 590
Piping System Applications .......................................................................................................... 590
Conversions and Equivalents ....................................................................................................... 591

Appendix and Data Tables ................................................................................................................. 593

Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) ........................................................................................... 594
Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) .......................................................................................... 596
Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E) .......................................................................................... 599
Table A4 - Thermocouple Table (Type T) .......................................................................................... 601
Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms ............................................................................. 602
Table A6 - Properties of Water Specific Gravity and LBs/HR to GPM ............................................... 603
Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density ........................................................... 604
Table A8 - Properties of Water Kinematic Viscosity centistokes ...................................................... 605
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam......................................................................................... 606
Table A10 - Valve Selection – Materials and Applications ................................................................ 611
Valve Terms.................................................................................................................................. 611
Selecting your Valve ..................................................................................................................... 611
Valve Types and Descriptions ...................................................................................................... 612
Valve Selection Overview - Service Application Chart ................................................................. 614
Valve Selection Detailed - Service Application Chart................................................................... 615
Valve Types - Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................................. 616
Standard Control Valve Body Materials ....................................................................................... 617
Valve Seat Leakage Bubbles per Minute...................................................................................... 619
Valve Trim Material Temperature Limits...................................................................................... 620
Valve Service Temperature Limits for Non-Metallic Materials.................................................... 621
Valve Stem Packing Friction Values (Typical)............................................................................... 622
Valve Stem Packing Temperature – Pressure .............................................................................. 622
Valve Seating Shutoff Pressure .................................................................................................... 623
Abbreviations and Terminology.................................................................................................... 624
Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher ED Globe Valves ................................. 625
Table A12 - Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher Rotary Valves...................................... 628
Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Control Valve Sizing Formulas ............................................... 629
Table A14 - Critical Pressure and Temperature of Elements ............................................................ 630
Table A15 - Pipe Standard Dimensions and Data.............................................................................. 631
Table A16 - NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16 .................................................................................. 633
Table A17 - NEC Conductor Properties and Impedance ................................................................... 634
Table A18 - NEC Full Load Motor Currents ....................................................................................... 637
Table A19 - NEC Grounding and Bonding Conductors ...................................................................... 638
Table A20 - Specific Gravity and Gas Constants for Some Common Gases ...................................... 639
Table A21 - Specific Gravity Common Fluids..................................................................................... 641
Table A22 - The kinematic viscosity common fluids ......................................................................... 644
Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids ......................................................................... 651
Table A24 - The absolute viscosity common gases ........................................................................... 653
Table A25 - Density of Elements in English and Metric Units ........................................................... 654
Table A26 - Metric Conversion Tables .............................................................................................. 655
Table A27 - Standard Conditions and Gas Laws ................................................................................ 657
Table A28 - Head Loss in Piping Systems .......................................................................................... 658
Table A29 - Maximal flow velocity in pipes....................................................................................... 659
Table A30 - Pressure Vapor Chart of Common Liquids ..................................................................... 660

References ........................................................................................................................................... 661

18
 Introduction to This Study Guide
This manual helps prepare the PE (Professional Engineer) candidate for the NCEES PE examination in
the PE discipline option of Control Systems Engineering (CSE). The CSE examination covers a broad
range of subjects, from the electrical, mechanical and chemical engineering disciplines. This examination
is not on systems theory, but on sound judgment of the application of process control systems and
applicable codes. Basic process control systems (BPCS) and safety instrumented systems (SIS) are
presented in detail. Experience in engineering or designing process control systems is almost a necessity
to pass this discipline of the NCEES P&P (principles and practices) examination.

Study of this reference manual should adequately prepare the experienced engineer or designer to take
the CSE examination. This manual presents many practical problems which may be presented on the
CSE examination, with explanations and worked solutions. State and federal codes needed for the
examination are reviewed and standard documentation and design practices are demonstrated for the
design of real world plant control systems.

Most state licensing boards in the United States recognize the Control System Engineering (CSE)
examination, however some states do not offer the CSE examination, check with your state licensing
board to see if they offer the CSE examination. If you live in one of these states that do not offer the CSE,
you may choose to pursue licensing in another discipline (such as electrical, mechanical, or chemical
engineering). You may also try to arrange to take the CSE exam in a neighboring state. More details
about the examination content, application process and also study materials are presented later in this
manual.

About the Author

Bryon Lewis, PE, CMfgE, CET, CCST III, CCENT

Professional Engineer (PE)
Certified Manufacturing Engineer (CMfgE)
Certified Journeyman Electronics Technician in Industrial electronics (CET)
Certified Control System Technician Level III (CCST)
Certified PROFIBUS Network Engineer
Certified Cisco – Industrial Specialist (CCENT)
State of Texas Master Electrician

mailto:bryon.lewis@learncontrolsystems.com
http://www.linkedin.com/in/bryonlewis

Bryon Lewis is a licensed as a PE in Control Systems Engineering (CSE). He is a Senior Member of ISA
and has held Senior Membership with SME. Mr. Lewis has over 30 years of experience in electrical,
mechanical, instrumentation, and control systems. He holds letters of recommendation from Belcan
Engineering, S & B Engineers and Constructors, Enron Corporation and Lee College. Bryon’s experience
in diversified engineering and competitive projects is as follows:

• 12 years of Engineering and Design experience using AutoCAD 9 through 2014.

• 16 years of Field experience including start-up and troubleshooting and calibration of instruments.
• Projects consist of compressor stations, petrochemical and food process plants.
• Turbine and compressor control systems, material handling systems and burner management systems.
• Development of P&IDs; MFDs; electrical power distribution systems and control diagrams.
• Engineering and implementation of Foxboro I/A and Honeywell DCS systems and security.
• Network support including: servers; workstations; routers; switches and cabling.
• Allen-Bradley automation and PLC programming for the Allen-Bradley family of processors.

Bryon has participated in projects for clients such as Shell Oil, Exxon, Diamond Shamrock, Eli Lilly
Pharmaceuticals, Proctor and Gamble (fault analysis), JVC America (solvent recovery project), Keebler
Corporation, Mission foods, Enron Transportation and Storage, and Comanche Peak Steam Nuclear
Station 1987. The power house addition and computer grounding at the Johnson Space Center in 1985. If
there are any questions, please contact Bryon Lewis at his email address.

19
People who have contributed to the previous editions of this manual

Chad Findlay, PE
Chad graciously reviewed this manual for errors and made numerous suggestions to
improve its content. Chad Findlay is a Lead Controls Engineer for General Electric
Company where he has worked for 7 years. He develops gas turbine control systems
applied to simple and combined cycle power plants. Chad holds a Master's degree in
mechanical engineering from the University of California, Davis.

Daniel Masso, PE
Daniel also contributed to the review of this manual for errors and made suggestions to
improve its content.

Daniel Masso has worked as a DCS engineer for Westinghouse and Emerson Electric for
20 years in sales, project and field/start-up engineering capacities in system, control logic
and graphic design and programming capacities. He earned a B.Ch.E. from Cleveland
State University and continued on a M.S. Ch.E. at Case Western Reserve University and is employed by
Emerson Process Management Power and Water Solutions.

Susan Colwell
I would like to thank Susan for her patience and help in the publication of this manual.
She was extremely helpful in the publication of the first edition. Susan Colwell is the
Publishing Director for ISA, International Society of Automation.

Susan holds a BA from Franklin Pierce University.

Richard Tunstall
I would like to thank Richard for giving me the opportunity to design the first draft of the
Lee College process pilot plant under the advisement of the DuPont training department
in Deer Park, Texas and the opportunity to study real processes and their associated
control systems in 1994. Richard has been a faculty member of the Instrumentation
Technology Program at Lee College - Baytown, Texas for since 1991.

Richard has earned the following:

BS in education from Baylor University
Don Thompson Award - 2010 from ISA (International Society of Automation)
Lee College Outstanding Faculty with over Ten Years of Experience – 2012

20
 Tips on How to Use This Study Guide

To make the most of this study guide, it may be of interest to use the features built into Adobe Reader.
The image below shows where to click, for the display of Page Thumbnails and Bookmarks in this guide.
The Bookmarks are a dynamic Table of Contents. See the following images below for illustrations of how
thumbnails and bookmarks work. (There is a formula sheet for the exam in the attachments)

21
Using Thumbnails to Navigate

The Page Thumbnail shows a preview of the pages in this guide. Just click on any thumbnail image to
instantly jump to the page in the preview.

The default viewing mode in Adobe Reader is one column. If you want to view two columns at the same
time as shown below, move your mouse over the divider between the thumbnails and the viewing page
and drag the column splitter till you show as many columns as you would like to view at once. I
recommend viewing only two columns.

22
Using Bookmarks to Navigate

The Bookmarks in this guide are the same as the Table of Contents collapsed. Quickly navigate to the
subject of interest and click on the “+” to expand the contents of the subject matter under the subject
heading. Click on the “-“ to collapse the subject topics.

The default viewing mode in Adobe Reader shows wrap around text in the bookmark column. If you
would like to read your bookmarks as shown below, move your mouse over the divider between the
bookmarks and the viewing page and drag the column splitter till you show as much text width as you
desire to view.

23
Important File Attachments - Open by clicking on the paper clip!

The instructions are on the next page.

Files attached to this PDF file:

Formula Sheet.pdf
Avery Tabs ready to print for this third edition manual for quick reference in the CSE examination
Flow Measurement - API & AGA - Emerson.pdf
Flow Measurement - ISO 5167.pdf
Managing Industrial Networks with Cisco Networking Technologies (200-401) IIOT Specialist
Managing Industrial Networks for Manufacturing with Cisco Technologies (200-601) CCNA
RCDD Certification - A Registered Communications Distribution Designer

Avery® Printable Self-Adhesive Tabs 16281, 96 Tabs, 1-1/4" x 1"

http://www.avery.com/

See the section in this book “Preparing this Guide for the Exam” for recommended pages to tab for quick
reference in the NCEES PE/CSE Examination.

How to Print this Manual

The style of this book has a layout for reading on a computer. To maintain this easily read format when
printing the book, use skip blank pages in your printer setup.

Most printers have an option to “skip blank pages” in the printer setup dialog box. If your printer does not
support this option, then just do not print the one blank page that immediately follows this book’s cover
page. All other pages are formatted and organized for the printing the information in this book.

Also you may choose to manually tell the printer which pages to print. Instead of print all pages, use the
print pages option as 1, 3-677. In the Adobe print dialog box, check the print both sides if this option is
available for your printer to get the best results as a readable book for the examination.

The front and back covers can be color laser printed on glossy card material at Staples, FedEx Kinko's,
and Office Depot for less than $5.00 for both.

FedEx Kinko's can print and coil spring bind the manual for around $68.00 laser printed black and white
or $350.00 laser printed color. They will also coil spring bind only your printed book for less than $10.00.

Many printer manufactures sell color inkjet printer for around $100.00 and cartridges for around $40.00,
you will need about: (4 each set of color) and (1 each set of black XL). You should be able to print it
yourself in color on 24lb paper for around $300.00 dollars and you will still have the printer and some ink
left over. I would recommend color printing for full understanding of the information in the graphs.

Black and white laser jet printers can be purchased for around $60.00 to $100.00. With 24lb paper you
should be able to print a quality document for around $100.00 to $140.00.

24
 Welcome to Control Systems Engineering

Licensing as Professional Engineer / Control Systems Engineer (CSE)

A Professional Engineering license must be obtained to perform engineering work for the public and
private sectors, in the United States and most countries in the world. In order to protect the health, safety,
and welfare of the public, the first engineering licensure law was enacted in 1907 in Wyoming. Now every
state regulates the practice of engineering to ensure public safety by granting only Professional
Engineers (PEs) the authority to sign and seal engineering plans and offer their services to the public.
The title of Engineer cannot be used to advertise for engineering work, without a PE license.

The CSE (Control Systems Engineer) takes on responsibilities beyond those of most other disciplines of
professional engineering. If the pump quits working, you just don’t have water. If the electrical panelboard
fails, you just replace the components. In plant control systems, a failure can mean absolute disaster.
Plants explode and many people can die. Even the failure of systems can mean the loss of hundreds of
thousands of dollars and up into the millions for loss of product and production. There may also be class
action and environmental lawsuits into the billions of dollars.

This is why I have taken a complete plant design approach to show the vastness of exposure and
experience needed to be a control systems engineer. Just like the saying in the Spiderman movie, “With
great power comes great responsibility.” The control systems engineer’s job cannot be taken lightly.
People’s lives depend on you knowing what you are doing and getting it right the first time. You cannot
guess at control systems engineering. You must know! Being a Professional Engineer is not just
answering a minimum of 54 questions on an 8-hour examination.

The CSE can’t just say the bottle is in place, now fill it. The CSE has to ask questions like:
1. Is the bottle in place 6. Did the bottle fill
2. Is the valve open 7. Did the valve close
3. Is there fluid available to fill the bottle in the tank 8. Did the fluid stop flowing
4. Is the pump running 9. Did the pump stop
5. Is the fluid flowing 10. Did something fail

The CSE must be ready to handle abnormal conditions and upsets at any time. This will be a major part
of the programming and a large part of the instrumentation, with increasing concern for safety today and
compliance with government regulations now requiring safety instrumented systems (SIS) installed.

Explosions can occur in petrochemical and other similar hazardous plants, even though the electrical and
process systems are designed explosion proof per NFPA, ANSI/ISA, API, OSHA, ISO, and other codes.

25
A highly modular plant with complex motion controls and industrial networks using advanced diagnostics.

In Singapore, ExxonMobil shown below, owns and operates a 592,000-barrel-per-day (bpd) refinery as
one of the largest in the world. Singapore employs almost 3,000 people and Exxon resides in 200
countries.

The typical petrochemical plant will require around 1000 workers to build and will take years to complete.
Most large petrochemical plants will have land coverage in the upward range of 2,000 to 7,500 acres.

26
27
Why Become a Professional Engineer?

Being licensed as a Professional Engineer is an important distinction and can enhance your career
options. Many engineering jobs require a PE license to work as an engineering consultant or senior
engineer, testify as an expert witness, conduct patent work, work in public safety, or advertise to provide
engineering services. Although you may never need to be registered for “legal” reasons, you may find that
you need to be a PE to be eligible for engineering management positions.

On the average, the PE makes significantly more money than unlicensed engineers. Even if your first job
does not require a PE license, you may need it later in your career. In today's economic environment, it
pays to be in a position to move to new jobs and compete with others who have a PE license or are on a
professional engineering track. It is also highly unlikely that a job requiring a PE license will be outsourced
overseas.

The following was taken from the NCEES website: What makes a PE different from an engineer?

 Only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings
to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.

 PEs shoulder the responsibility for not only their work, but also for the lives affected by that work
and must hold themselves to high ethical standards of practice.

 Licensure for a consulting engineer or a private practitioner is not something that is merely
desirable; it is a legal requirement for those who are in responsible charge of work, be they
principals or employees

 Licensure for engineers in government has become increasingly significant. In many federal,
state, and municipal agencies, certain governmental engineering positions, particularly those
considered higher level and responsible positions must be filled by licensed professional
engineers.

Many states require that individuals teaching engineering must also be licensed. Exemptions to state laws
are under attack, and in the future, those in education, as well as industry and government, may need to
be licensed to practice. Also, licensure helps educators prepare students for their future in engineering.

I-Foreign
Graduate
with foreign
degree
and The path to follow to be a licensed PE (Professional Engineer)
Satisfy any
course
deficiencies

II III IV V VI VII
4 years FE, intern Pass FE, 4 years PE, licensing Pass PE,
qualifying certificate become qualifying application receive
experience application certified EIT experience license

I-US II-No Degree V-No Degree V-No Degree

Graduate with no The state may with no
with ABET degree meet not require the degree meet
degree from your state’s FE / EIT with your state’s
the United FE / EIT many years of PE / CSE
States requirements experience requirements

28
29
This is the third edition of this study manual

This review reference manual has been greatly expanded at the request of the NCEES CSE (Control
Systems Engineer) PE examination committee chairman. It now includes new and expanded chapters on
numerous control systems subjects.

I have taken a complete systematic approach to understanding how to design a complete plantwide
control system, for multiple processes, as might be encountered throughout the control engineer’s career.

The new and expanded sections include:

 Updated NCEES PE (CSE) option examination content

 Expanded section on pressure measurement and calibration
 Expanded section on flow measurement and calibration
 Expanded section on weight and load cell applications
 New section on process analyzers
 Expanded section on process control valve sizing, applications and how to
size them for installed real world control of flowing process streams
 Expanded section on pressure relief and safety valves, their applications
and federal regulations and requirements for installation and monitoring per EPA
requirements issued September 2015
 Expanded section on process control theory and tuning
 Expanded section on the application of digital logic in control systems
(formerly overview of discrete control subjects)
 Expanded section on the application of analog circuits in control systems
(formerly overview of analog control subjects)
 New section on electrical systems and power quality
 New section on overview of conveying systems
 Expanded section on ISA standards for documentation
 Expanded section on SIS safety instrumented systems, explanation of OSHA
requirements, definitions and their application and calculations for installations
 New section on overview of networks and communications
 New section on hydraulics and pneumatics
 New section on overview of motion controller applications
 New section on motor controls and logic functions
 New section on chemical processes and equipment
 New section on applications of basic fluid mechanics in piping systems
 New section on pumping applications
 New “Putting It All Together” section on how real plants are built and the use
of ISA standard documentation and how plan drawings and details are generated
 Expanded appendix data tables to include most information needed for the CSE exam

Notes for Reading this Manual: When you see these types of boxes in the guide, the material or
example problems may be on the CSE exam. Major topics are in grey background as shown below.

Sample problem: The problem will be stated in this colored area with any parameters needed to
solve the problem.

The solution will be in this colored area.

Major topics of study will appear in highlighted text of this color. This color will break up the topic

Important information for the CSE examination will appear in highlighted text of this color.

30
 Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE
Study Group 1
Review Process Measurement
Standards and Terminology

Review Fluid Mechanics for

Process Control and Measurement

Study Group 2 Study Group 3 Study Group 4

Temperature Measurement Weight Measurement Review of Feedback
and Calibration and Calibration Control Fundamentals

Pressure Measurement Process Analyzers Review of Frequency

and Calibration Response Fundamentals

Level Measurement Process Control Valves Process Control Theory

and Calibration and Controller Tuning

Flow Measurement Pressure Relief Valves and Network Communications

and Calibration Rupture Disks and Industrial Control

Study Group 5 Study Group 6 Study Group 7

Applications of Digital Logic Overview Motion Controller Hydraulics and Pneumatics
in Control Systems Applications

Motor Controls and Logic Electrical Systems and Overview of Conveying

Functions Power Quality Systems

Applications of Analog Emergency Standby Chemical Processes

Circuits in Control Systems Systems and Equipment

Study Group 8
ISA Standards
for Documentation

Overview of Safety
Instrumented Systems

Overview of NEC / NFPA

and Other Codes

Putting it All Together

Study Group 9
Examination Sample Questions
and
The ISA CSE Study Guide
(4-hour practice Examination) Copyright © 2016 by ISA
31
 Overview of Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE

Note: Recommended flow of study with the manual Control Systems Engineering Exam Reference Manual - A
Practical Study from ISA by Bryon Lewis, PE/CSE, CMfgE, CET, CCST, CCNA http://www.isa.org/csereference

Study Group 1
Definitions of span, range, zero, suppressed zero, elevated zero, LRV and URV (lower and upper range values)
Pressure, Head and relationship between ΔP (pressure) and flow
Calculate differential pressure in pipes and head type flow elements
Pump head and work done by total energy in fluids

Study Group 2
Temperature of liquids, gases and vapors
Level of liquids
Density and interface level
Flow rates of liquids, gases and vapors
Mass rate of liquids, gases and vapors

Study Group 3
Level of solids and liquids
Mass rate of solids and liquids
Molecular Composition
Flow control of liquids, gases and vapors
Pressure control and regulation
ASME VIII and NFPA 30 codes for equipment and piping protection from overpressure

Study Group 4
Laplace transforms and block algebra reduction
Process control modes and loop applications
Process system response and tuning of controllers
Networks and communications
Process control through networking

Study Group 5
Digital functions and truth tables
Relay ladder logic and motor control applications with NEMA and IEC standards
Constant current and constant voltage control loop applications
Analog loop signals and impedance

Study Group 6
Stepper motor and servo systems (electric and hydraulic)
Speed control and VFD operations
Pules wave modulation
Harmonics and electrical noise
Power systems for critical loads

Study Group 7
Control with hydraulics and pneumatics
Bulk solids transportation
Heat exchanger control and BTU calculations
Cooling tower operation and control
Distillation and separation processes
Pollution control and fluid stream cleansing
Flare and vent disposal systems

Study Group 8
ISA standard P&ID, MFD, BFD, Loop sheets (electrical and pneumatic) and HMI
BPCS (basic process control system) and SIS (safety instrumented system)
Designing a safety instrumented system using SIL and SIF values
SIS calculations for the CSE examination
OSHA, NFPA, NEC, CFR and EPA codes

Study Group 9
ISA CSE Study Guide (4-hour sample test)
ISA PE/CSE examination review course
LearnControlSystems.com online and hands on supplement course (putting it all together review)

32
 Examination General Information

State Licensing Requirements

Licensing of engineers is intended to protect the public health, safety, and welfare. State licensing boards
have established requirements to be met by applicants for licenses which will, in their judgment, achieve
this objective.

Licensing requirements vary somewhat from state to state but have some common features. In all states,
candidates with a 4-year engineering degree from an ABET/EAC accredited program and four years of
acceptable experience can be licensed if they pass the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam and the
Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exam in a specific discipline. References must be supplied to
document the duration and nature of the applicant’s work experience.

Eligibility

Some state licensing boards will accept candidates with engineering technology degrees, related-science
(such as physics or chemistry) degrees, or no degree, with indication of an increasing amount of work
experience. Some states will allow waivers of one or both of the exams for applicants with many years (6–
20) of experience. Additional procedures are available for special cases, such as applicants with degrees
or licenses from other countries. Most states have abandoned the no degree statute and will only accept
as minimal, an accredited associate degree.

Note: Recipients of waivers may encounter difficulty in becoming licensed by “reciprocity” or “comity” in
another state where waivers are not available. Therefore, applicants are advised to complete an ABET
accredited degree and to take and pass the FE/EIT exam. Some states require a minimum of four year
experiences after passing the FE/EIT exam, before allowing a candidate to sit for the PE (principles and
practices) exam. Some states will not allow experience incurred before the passing of the FE/EIT exam.

It is necessary to contact your licensing board for the up-to-date requirements of your state. Phone
numbers and addresses can be obtained by calling the information operator in your state capital, or by
checking the Internet at www.ncees.org or nspe.org.

Exam schedule

The CSE exam is offered once per year, on the last weekend in October, (typically on Friday). Application
deadlines vary from state to state, but typically are about three or four months ahead of the exam date.

Requirements and fees vary among state jurisdictions. Sufficient time must be allotted to complete the
application process and assemble required data. PE references may take a month or more to be
returned. The state board needs time to verify professional work history, references, and academic
transcripts or other verifications of the applicant's engineering education.

After accepting an applicant to take one of the exams, the state licensing board will notify him or her
where and when to appear for the exam. They will also describe any unique state requirements such as
allowed calculator models or limits on the number of reference books taken into the exam site.

33
Description of Examination

Exam format

The NCEES Principles-and-Practice of Engineering examination (commonly called the PE examination) in

Control Systems Engineering (CSE) is an eight-hour examination. The examination is administered in a
four hour morning session and a four hour afternoon session.

Each session contains forty (40) questions in a multiple-choice format.

Each question has a correct or “best” answer. Questions are independent, so an answer to one question
has no bearing on the following questions.

All of the questions are compulsory; applicants should try to answer all of the questions. Each correct
answer receives one point. If a question is omitted or the answer is incorrect, a score of zero will be given
for that question. There is no penalty for guessing.

Exam content

The subject areas of the CSE exam are described by the exam specification and are given in six areas.
ISA supports Control Systems Engineer (CSE) licensing and the examination for Professional
Engineering. ISA is responsible for the content and questions in the NCEES examination. Refer to the
ISA web site (http://www.isa.org) for the latest information concerning the CSE examination.

For a copy of the latest PE/CSE examination format and content, visit NCEES at: (http://www.ncees.org)

The following is an overview of what categories and content might be expected on the examination. The
NCEES website will have the latest specifications of what exactly will be the focus of the exam, as the
format and specifications change over the years.

I. Measurement

 Sensor technologies applicable to the desired type of measurement (e.g., flow, pressure, level,
temperature, analytical, counters, motion, vision)
 Sensor characteristics (e.g., rangeability, accuracy and precision, temperature effects, response
times, reliability, repeatability)
 Material compatibility
 Calculations involved in: pressure drop
 Calculations involved in: flow element sizing
 Calculations involved in: level, differential pressure
 Calculations involved in: unit conversions
 Calculations involved in: velocity
 Calculations involved in: linearization
 Installation details (e.g., process, pneumatic, electrical, location)

34
II. Signals, Transmission, and Networking

 Signals

 Pneumatic, electronic, optical, hydraulic, digital, analog, buses

 Transducers (e.g., analog/digital [A/D], digital/analog [D/A], current/pneumatic [I/P]
conversion)
 Intrinsically Safe (IS) barriers
 Grounding, shielding, segregation, AC coupling
 Basic signal circuit design (e.g., two-wire, four-wire, isolated outputs, loop powering,
buses)
 Circuit Calculations (voltage, current, impedance)
 Calculations: unit conversions

 Transmission

 Different communications systems architecture and protocols (e.g., fiber optics, coaxial
cable, wireless, paired conductors, buses, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol [TCP/IP], OLE Process Control [OPC])
 Distance considerations versus transmission medium (e.g., data rates, sample rates)

 Networking

 Networking (e.g., routers, bridges, switches, firewalls, gateways, network loading, error
checking, bandwidth, crosstalk, parity)

III. Final Control Elements

 Valves

 Types (e.g., globe, ball, butterfly)

 Characteristics (e.g., linear, low noise, equal percentage, shutoff class)
 Calculation (e.g., sizing, split range, noise, actuator, speed, pressure drop, air/gas
consumption)
 Selection of motive power (e.g., hydraulic, pneumatic, electric)
 Applications of fluid dynamics (e.g., cavitation, flashing, choked flow, Joule-Thompson
effects, two-phase)
 Material selection based on process characteristics (e.g., erosion, corrosion, plugged,
extreme pressure, temperature)
 Accessories (e.g., limit switches, solenoid valves, positioners, transducers, air regulators,
servo amp)
 Environmental constraints (e.g., fugitive emissions, packing, special sealing)
 Installation practices (e.g., vertical, horizontal, bypasses, location, troubleshooting)

 Pressure Relieving Devices

 Pressure Relieving Valve Types (e.g., conventional spring, balanced bellows, pilot
operated)
 Pressure Relieving Valve Characteristics (e.g., modulating, pop action)
 Pressure Relieving Valve Calculations (e.g., sizing considering inlet pressure drop, back
pressure, multiple valves)
 Pressure Relieving Device Material Selection based on process characteristics
 Pressure Relieving Valve Installation Practices (e.g., linking valves, sparing the valves,
accessibility for testing, car sealing inlet valves, piping installation)
 Rupture discs (e.g., types, characteristics, application, calculations)
35
  Motor Controls

 Types (e.g., motor starters, variable speed drives)

 Applications (e.g., speed control, soft starters, valve actuators)
 Calculations (e.g., sizing, tuning, location)
 Accessories (e.g., encoders, positioners, relays, limit switches)
 Troubleshooting (e.g., root cause failure analysis and correction)

 Other Final Control Elements

 Solenoid Valves (e.g., types, sizing)

 On-Off Devices/relays (e.g., types, applications)
 Self-Regulating Devices (e.g., types, sizing, pressure, temperature, level and flow
regulators)

IV. Control Systems

 Drawings

 Drawings (e.g., PFD-process flow diagrams, P&IDs–piping and instrumentation diagrams

[or drawings], loop diagrams, ladder diagrams, logic drawings, cause and effects
drawings, electrical drawings.)

 Theory

 Basic processes (e.g., compression, combustion, evaporation, distillation, hydraulics,

reaction, dehydration, heat exchangers, crystallization, filtration)
 Process dynamics (e.g., loop response, P-V-T pressure volume temperature
relationships, simulations)
 Basic control (e.g., regulatory control, feedback, feed forward, cascade, ratio, PID, split-
range)
 Discrete control (e.g., relay logic, Boolean algebra)
 Sequential control (e.g., batch, assembly, conveying, CNC)

 Implementation

 HMI (e.g., graphics, alarm management, trending, historical data)

 Configuration and Programming (e.g., PLC, DCS, hybrid systems, SQL, ladder logic,
sequential function chart, structured text, function block programming, data base
management, specialized controllers)
 Systems Comparisons and Capabilities (e.g., advantages and disadvantages, of
systems architecture, distributed architecture, remote I/O, buses)
 Installation Requirements (e.g., shielding, constructability, input/output termination,
environmental, heat load calculations, power load requirements, purging, lighting)
 Network Security (e.g., firewalls, routers, switches, protocols)
 System Testing (e.g., FAT-factory acceptance test, integrated systems test, site
acceptance test)
 Commissioning (e.g., performance tuning, loop checkout)
 Troubleshooting (e.g., root cause failure analysis, and correction)

36
V. Safety Systems

 Basic Documentation
 Basic documentation (e.g., safety requirements specification, logic diagrams, test
procedures, SIL selection report)
 Theory
 Reliability (e.g., bathtub curve, failure rates)
 SIL selection (e.g., risk matrix, risk graph, LOPA)
 Implementation
 Safety systems design (e.g., I/O assignments, redundancy, segregation, software
design)
 Safety integrity level (SIL) verification calculations
 Testing (e.g., methods, procedures, documentation)
 Management of changes (e.g., scope of change, impact of change)

VI. Codes, Standards, Regulations

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

 American Petroleum Institute (API)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 International Society of Automation (ISA)
 National Electrical Code (NEC)
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Exam Scoring

NCEES exams are scored independently. There are no pre-specified percentages of candidates that
must pass or fail.

Assisted by a testing consultant, a panel of licensed CSEs uses recognized psychometric procedures to
determine a passing score corresponding to the knowledge level needed for minimally-competent
practice in the discipline.

The passing score is expressed as the number of questions out of 80 that must be answered correctly.
The method used for pass-point determination assures that the passing score is adjusted for variations in
the level of exam difficulty and that the standard is consistent from year to year.

Starting in October 2005, candidates have received results expressed either as “Pass” or “Fail”; failing
candidates no longer receive a numerical score. Published passing rates are based on first-time takers
only, omitting the results for repeat takers.

37
38
 Reference Materials for the Exam

Recommended Books and Materials to Take to the Exam

I have included a review of all subject material that is in the NCEES PE/CSE examination specifications
and almost any data you may need to look up for questions on the examination.

The list of recommended books and materials for testing in this guide, have been listed to help you pass
the CSE examination. Use a book you are comfortable with. A substitution with the same material and
information may be used.

The list of recommended books and materials for additional study can be helpful in the review of subjects
and preparation for the examination. See http://www.isa.org for more books that may help give you
knowledge and deeper insight into various subjects in instrumentation and control systems.

Remember to keep the review simple. The test is not on control systems theory studies, but rather on
simple general functional design. Again keep your studies simple and practical; control systems theory
will only encompass about 3% of the examination.

National Council of
Examiners for
Engineering and Surveying
Non-profit organization

The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying is a national non-
profit organization composed of engineering and land surveying licensing boards
representing all U.S. states and territories.

Founded: 1920

NCEES on Wikipedia

NCEES on LinkedIn

Click on any link above to visit the site

39
Books and Materials for Testing

 NCEES APPROVED CALCULATOR (Have a spare with new batteries installed). I

recommend the TI-36X Solar (any light). Practice with the calculator you will be using. (See
http://www.ncees.org for a current list of approved calculators.)

 ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992) - INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS AND IDENTIFICATION

 ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992) - BINARY LOGIC DIAGRAMS FOR PROCESS OPERATIONS

 ISA-5.3-1983 - GRAPHIC SYMBOLS FOR DISTRIBUTED CONTROL/ SHARED DISPLAY

INSTRUMENTATION, LOGIC, AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS

 ISA-5.4-1991 - STANDARD INSTRUMENT LOOP DIAGRAMS

 Fisher or Masoneilan Control Valve Sizing Handbook / Catalog

(most data needed for the CSE examination is in this reference manual)

 A Safety Relief Valve Book (could be useful)

(most data needed for the CSE examination is in this reference manual)

Books for Additional Study

 The Control Systems Engineering (CSE) Study Guide, Fifth Edition, ISA (I highly recommend
purchasing this 4-hour review exam)

 Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control, Third Edition, CRC Press, LLC –
Norman A. Anderson. (Foxboro)

 Basic and Advanced Regulatory Control: Systems Design and Application

Third Edition, ISA – Dr. Harold Wade.

 Measurement and Control Basics, Fifth Edition, ISA – Thomas A. Hughes

 Process Control: A Practical Approach, Wiley – Myke King

 Crosby® Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook

 Pentair Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook

 Alfa Laval Pump Handbook

 Programmable Controllers: Theory and Implementation, Second Edition (Bryan and Bryan)

 Visit the site: http://learncontrolsystems.com for free study materials, utilities and online training

 See ISA (International Society of Automation) for a list of recommended books for study and review

40
Courses for Additional Study

ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) PE Review

 ISA (International Society of Automation) offers an instructor-led Control Systems Engineer

(CSE) PE exam review course at different locations across the nation.

The ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) information page:

http://www.isa.org/isa-certification/cse-licensure-preparation

This course is typically taught by Gerald Wilbanks, P.E. He is a registered

professional engineer in four states, a member of NSPE, and ASQ, and
an International Former President (1995) of the International Society of
Automation (ISA). Gerald is a graduate of Mississippi State University
with a B.S. in electrical engineering and was recognized as the Engineer
of the Year in 1991 by the Engineering Council of Birmingham.

He is a Distinguished Engineering Fellow of MSU and is a Life Fellow

member of ISA. He has served as an instructor in many courses, Gerald Wilbanks, P.E.
seminars, and other educational sessions for ISA and in his own business.

See the ISA web site http://www.isa.org for more books and training materials on advanced and
basic subjects. ISA offers webinars with instructor-led training in many aspects and topics of process
control and networking, as well as the popular topic of networking security. They offer several online
study courses specializing in instrumentation and process control for people needing an introduction
to the fundamentals of instrumentation. As an ISA member, many of the training videos and ISA/
ANSI standards are free.

Industrial Network Training

 Siemens Automation

Free Training
PROFINET and PROFIBUS one-day seminars PI North America and the PROFI Interface Centers
throughout North America. Webinars are also available on-demand.

Certified Courses
PROFItech certification courses are available to allow attendees to gain the designation "Certified
Network Engineer." Developer, installers, and other courses are available for both PROFINET and
PROFIBUS technology and training is also available for AS-i networks.

 Fieldbus Center

The Fieldbus Center at Lee College, Baytown, Texas offers instructor-led

training in the study and certification of FOUNDATION Fieldbus and other
process control systems. The training center uses industrial standard
equipment and instruments, utilizing the Emerson DELTAV DCS (distributed
control system) for programming and as a host system.

The Fieldbus Center at Lee College was the first national F OUNDATION
Fieldbus training center, established by Chuck Carter with a grant from the
National Science Foundation. It is supporting most manufacturers in the
instrumentation industry. On a note, Chuck Carter was also one of my Chuck Carter
instructors when I attended Lee College in 1994.

41
Control Systems Engineer (CSE) Supplement Course

 Integrated Systems offers online study courses in Controls Systems Engineering (CSE) as a
supplement to the ISA (CSE) PE REVIEW course. It includes study materials and streaming videos
of instructor-led training. These courses use a live small scale online process plant to demonstrate
real world applications of calculations and the tuning and response of real process systems. The
online plant is live and interactive at scheduled times during your studies. The plant includes a small
MCC and multiple Automation PLCs utilizing typical plant control systems, instrumentation and I/O
as seen every day in a large plant or manufacturing environments.

Topics include PLC programming, process equipment sizing, instrumentation calculations and
calibration procedures, industrial networking configuration and troubleshooting, motor controls,
electrical installations and codes, instrumentation and electrical safety grounding, applications of
fluid mechanics for process control and measurement. The student has three months to complete
their studies and the courses are led by the author of this exam reference manual.

Visit http://learncontrolsystems.com or http://www.integrated.cc for more information on training and

to run the process plant online for free.

Online Process Plant @ Learn Control Systems.com

Integrated Systems uses the plant shown to teach process and manufacturing control systems to
engineers and technicians in the Learn Control Systems courses. It is used to demonstrate in-depth
training on various applications of industrial instrumentation and industrial networking, including
multivariable control systems.

The plant is accessible through a standard web browser and uses live video feed of high definition
web cameras, with a wide view and a zoomed close up view of the instrumentation readings.

All variables are set and read over the internet in real time via a web browser. The full course work will be
in an HMI format, just like you would use in a real process plant. Desktop remote sessions can be
scheduled for personal programming of the PLCs.

(The free online demo mode has limited access to control functions. It serves as a course preview.)

42
 Process Measurement Standards and Terminology

Overview of process measurement, control and calibration

The process control industry covers a wide variety of applications: petrochemical; pharmaceutical; pulp
and paper; food processing; material handling; even commercial applications. Experience designing
process control systems is almost a necessity to pass the Control Systems Engineer PE examination.

Process control in a plant can include discrete logic, such as relay logic or a PLC; analog control, such as
single loop control or a DCS (distributed control system) as well as pneumatic; hydraulic and electrical
systems. The Control Systems Engineer must be versatile and have a broad range of understanding of
the engineering sciences. The CSE is typically referred to as I & E (Instrumentation and Electrical),
though the CSE must have in-depth knowledge of mechanical and process systems.

The Control Systems Engineer (CSE) examination encompasses a broad range of subjects to ensure
minimum competency. This book will review the foundations of process control and demonstrate the
breadth and width of the CSE examination. We will then review the basic process control elements, their
theory of operation and then apply the elements to real-world application. We will then review the
calculations for sizing of the elements, as well as the applicable laws, standards and codes governing the
installation of a process control system.

43
Process Signal and Calibration Terminology

The most important terms in process measurement and calibration are range, span, zero, accuracy and
repeatability. Let us start by first defining Span; Range; Lower Range Value (LRV); Upper Range Value
(URV); Zero; Elevated Zero; Suppressed Zero.

Definition of the Range of an Instrument

Range: The region in which a quantity can be measured, received, or transmitted, by an element,
controller or final control device. The range can usually be adjusted and is expressed by stating the
lower and upper range values.

NOTE 1: For example:

Full Range Adjusted Range LRV URV
a) 0 to 150°F None 0°F 150°F
b) –20 to +200°F –10 to +180°F –10°F +180°F
c) 20 to 150°C 50 to 100°C 50°C 100°C

NOTE 2: Unless otherwise modified, input range is implied.

NOTE 3: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications in the units: measured
variable range, measured signal range, indicating scale range, chart scale range, etc. See Tables 1 and 2.

NOTE 4: For multi-range devices, this definition applies to the particular range that the device is set to
measure.

Range-limit, lower: LRV (Lower Range Value) The lowest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

Range-limit, upper: URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

NOTE 1: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable lower range-limit, measured signal lower range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2. Range-limit,
upper: URV (Upper Range Value) The highest value of the measured variable that a device is adjusted to
measure.

NOTE 2: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable upper range-limit, measured signal upper range-limit, etc. See Tables 1 and 2, Span: The
algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.

44
Definition of the Span of an Instrument

Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.

NOTE 1: For example:

Range: 0 to 150°F, Span 150°F
Range: –10 to 180°F, Span 190°F
Range: 50 to 100°C, Span 50°C

NOTE 2: The following compound terms are used with suitable modifications to the units: measured
variable range, measured signal range, etc.

NOTE 3: For multi-range devices, this definition applies to the particular range that the device is set to
measure. See Tables 1 and 2.

Definition of the use of Zero in Instrumentation

Live-Zero

The lower range value (LRV) is said to be set to zero, as a reference point, whether it is at zero or not.
This LRV can be 0%; -40°F; 4 mA; 1V or 3 PSI. All LRVs are an example of the ZERO (Live Zero), in
process control signals or elements.

Elevated-Zero

The lower range-value of the range is below the value of zero. The LRV of the range must be raised to
Live Zero, for the instrument to function properly. The output signal of the measured value will always
be 0 to 100%. If the LRV of the range is too low, the instrument may not be able to reach 100% output.

NOTE: For example: input signal = (-100 in H2O to 25 in H2O)

output signal = (4 mA to 20m A)

The output signal may only reach 12 mA for 25 in H2O (100%) input, due to limitation in the electronics
or pneumatics. Therefore, the Elevate jumper must be set in the transmitter or an elevation kit must be
installed in a pneumatic transmitter. See Table 1.

Suppressed-Zero

The lower range-value of the span is above the value of zero. The LRV of the range must be lowered to
Live Zero, for the instrument to function properly. The output signal of the measured value will always
be 0 to 100%. If the LRV of the range is too high, the instrument may not be able to reach 0% output.

NOTE: For example: input signal = (50 in H2O to 200 in H2O)

output signal = (4 mA to 20 mA)

The output signal may only reach 6 mA for 50 in H2O (0%) input, due to limitation in the electronics or
pneumatics. Therefore, the Suppress jumper must be set in the transmitter or a suppression kit must be
installed in a pneumatic transmitter. See Tab1e 1.

45
Illustrations of range and span terminology

Table 1 – Examples of range and span terminology

TYPICAL NAME RANGE LOWER UPPER SPAN SUPPLEMENTARY

RANGES RANGE RANGE DATA
VALUE VALUE

0 +100 — 0 to 100 0 +100 100 —

20 +100 SUPPRESSED SUPPRESSION

20 to +100 20 +100 80
ZERO RANGE RATIO = 0.25

ELEVATED
-25 +100 –25 to +100 –25 +100 125 —
ZERO RANGE

–100 ELEVATED
0 –100 to 0 -100 0 100 —
ZERO RANGE

–100 –20 ELEVATED

–100 to –20 -100 -20 80 —
ZERO RANGE

46
Illustrations of measured variable, measured signal, range and span

Table 2 – Examples of measured variable, measured signal range and span

TYPICAL RANGES TYPE OF RANGE LOWER UPPER SPAN

RANGE RANGE RANGE
VALUE VALUE

THERMOCOUPLE
MEASURED
0 2000°F 0 to 2000°F 0°F 2000°F 2000°F
VARIABLE
TYPE K T/C

– 0.68 + 44.91 MEASURED –0.68 to +44.91

–0.68 mV +44.91 mV 45.59 mV
mV SIGNAL mV

FLOWMETER
MEASURED
0 10,000 0 to 10 000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10,000 lb/h 10,000 lb/h
VARIABLE
lb/h

0 100 MEASURED
0 to 100 in H2O 0 in H2O 100 in H2O 100 in H2O
in H2O SIGNAL

SCALE AND/OR
0 10 0 to 10,000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10,000 lb/h 10,000 lb/h
CHART
x1000=lb/h

MEASURED
4 20 4 to 20 mA 4 mA 20 mA 16 mA
SIGNAL
mA

1 5 MEASURED
1 to 5V 1V 5V 4V
Volts SIGNAL

47
48
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics in Process Control

Relationship of pressure and flow

In a pipe, the static pressure distributed across the pipe is even during no flow. You have the same
pressure at both ends of the pipe because the total energy in the system is at equilibrium. As the fluid
flows, it is accelerated through the pipe. There is a pressure drop across the pipe. The static pressure is a
measurement of the potential energy in the fluid. It is changed to the form of kinetic energy and is used up
in the form of heat and vibration doing work on the pipe to overcome the friction of the pipe.

The higher the flow rate, the greater the pressures drop across the pipe. The work done to transfer the
fluid through the pipe at higher flow rates becomes greater. Therefore, the pressure drop across the pipe
increases as the velocity of the fluid increases through the pipe. It can be seen that the static pressure
(available pressure) at the end of the pipe will be lower than the supply or pump pressure at the start of
the pipe, due to the fact that work is being done on the pipe. The pump head energy is used up doing
work on the pipe.

The ∆P measurement across the flow element acts just a little bit different. Flow is measured in the units
of ∆P or DP (differential pressure). There is a pressure drop across the orifice element and there will be
more pressure drop across the element as the flow rate (the fluid’s velocity) increases. This is the same
thing that is happening in the pipe. This is because more work is being done on the element as the
velocity increases. But remember the pressure on the downstream side the flow element drops as the
velocity increases. How does the pressure for the flow measurement increase? It doesn’t, it is an increase
in ∆P or DP (differential pressure), not in the static pressure.

We are measuring the ∆P differential pressure

across the element and this is an inferred
measurement of flow rate. Flow rate equals the
velocity (distance per time) multiplied by the
area of the pipe. We achieve the measurement
of velocity by differential pressure. The
difference between the upstream pressure and
the downstream pressure across the element is
a measurement of the difference in height in two
different water columns. This difference in height
is a direct proportional measurement of the
velocity of the fluid flowing through the pipe.

The pump endows potential energy into the fluid and accelerates the fluid upward into a measurable
column of water. The water column is typically measured in feet of HEAD PRESSURE, but can be
measured in PSI. The water is constantly “falling” down the pipe toward the other end of the pipe and the

49
pump has to constantly accelerate the water upward against the pull of gravity to keep the water column
up in the air. The potential energy endowed into
the water column turns into kinetic energy, as the
water column falls.

The kinetic energy is used to overcome the

resistance of the pipe and the work done on the
pipe as the fluid flows to the other end. If there is
energy left over in the fluid, it is again
transformed back into to potential energy at the
other end of the pipe, as an available pressure at
the end of the pipe. This potential energy left over
can now fall through a pipe or device or some
equipment and do work and then finally resting at
a state of equilibrium. At this point all of the
energy endowed into fluid by the pump will be
used up.

Note: The image at the right shows the pump has

to develop enough head to raise the fluid to the
pipe’s top elevation plus enough head to
overcome the friction loss of the piping (suction
and discharge). You will also need to add head
for any differential pressure across the valve and the orifice or head type meter.
2
The velocity of the fluid is measured as the fluid falls. V =2gH, where “H” is the height in feet (the head).
The volumetric flow rate can then be an inferred measurement of the height of the water column. By
knowing the size of the pipe and the coefficient of the orifice and the properties of the fluid, we can
accurately measure the volumetric flow rate of the fluid.

As the fluid flows through the opening of the orifice restriction, kinetic energy is transformed into potential
energy in the form of a difference of water column on each side of the restriction orifice element. The
height of the water column is the “SCALED” velocity of the fluid through the pipe. Remember the slower
the fluid travels, the less work it has to do. The fluid has to accelerate through the small opening in the
orifice to maintain the same mass flow rate through the pipe. Remember mass in has to equal mass out.

Energy is lost doing work on the orifice

plate and the pressure drops on the exit
side of the orifice. This can be seen in the
profile of the vena contracta of the fluid
flowing and the ∆P (differential pressure)
across the orifice element. As the fluid
exits the small opening into the much
larger area of the pipe, the fluid
decelerates and a portion of the kinetic
energy endowed into the fluid by the pump,
is transformed back into potential energy.
This potential energy can be seen in the
form of a water column, of varying height,
on the entry and exit sides of the orifice.

If the pipe were blocked at the exit end, the

water would squirt out the taps on both sides of the orifice and the two water columns of equal height
would become obvious. Again as the fluid starts to accelerate through the pipe and through the orifice,
the fluid’s potential energy tends to change back into kinetic energy to do work. This means the water
columns start to fall on both side of the orifice. The exit side will fall even more than the entrance side,
due to the fact that work is done on the orifice restriction element, as the flow rate increases. The
difference in height the column falls on the exit side compared to the upstream column, is its scaled
velocity of the flow rate. The higher the fluid’s velocity, the more work is done on the orifice and the
pressure drops even more on the exit side of the orifice. This gives a greater ∆P (differential pressure)

50
across the orifice. Note that as the pressure drops in the pipe due to increased velocity, the ∆P at the
measurement meter becomes greater! This is because the total system pressure (total hydraulic head) is
decreasing by doing work on the pipe and the potential energy (pressure head) is being transformed back
into kinetic energy (velocity head) to do the work.

The lower the fluid’s velocity through the orifice, the higher the pressure on the exit side of the orifice.
This means there is less difference between the pressure on the high side (entry side) water column and
the low side pressure (exit side) water column. Therefore, there is less measured ∆P (differential
pressure) across the orifice when the fluid decelerates, even though the pressure increased on the exit
side of the orifice and everywhere in the pipe system.

Note as the fluid flow approaches a stop, the two water columns are almost even in height. The pressure
differential, ∆P, becomes almost
nothing. The static pressure on the
exit side of the orifice, which
represents the potential energy in
the fluid, becomes greater. The
pipe system will try to reach
equilibrium or uniform distribution of
static pressure across the pipe
system as the work across the pipe
becomes less and less. The kinetic
energy will change back into
potential energy.

Remember the total energy in

the system equals the kinetic +
potential + work done. As the fluid
starts to accelerate down the pipe
once again, the exit side water
column starts to drop in height. The
potential energy (pressure head) is
once again being transformed back
into kinetic energy (velocity head),
to do work across the element and
pipe. The distance in height the
exit side water column falls
compared to the height of the entry
side water column is the “SCALED”
velocity of the flowing fluid.

Since we know the fluid’s specific gravity (s.g.), we can now calculate the fluid’s height as if it were a
column of water. Remember (F=m*a) and weight is a measure of the force exerted by the pull of gravity.
Pressure equals (density * height) and force equals (pressure * area), therefore the pressure
measurement is a representation of the fluid’s height.

Stack 231 cubic inches of water on top of each other, to form a tall column of water, with a base of 1
square inch. The column of water will be 231 inches tall. Divide the height of the column of water, 231
inches, by the weight of one (1) gallon of water, 8.324 pounds at 60°F. The result will be 27.691 or 27.7
inches of water column per pound of water, over a one square inch of area. Therefore 27.7 inches H 2O, of
head pressure, equals one (1) PSI.

Therefore, the column of water can be measured in pounds per square inch (psi), not just “HEAD
PRESSURE” as a height of inches of water in the measurement meter. Just by knowing the height of the
column we can determine the pressure it can excerpt and the inferred amount work it can do. A column of
fluid with a lesser weight or density compared to water has specific gravity less than one (1).

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density or weight of a fluid compared to the density or weight of water.
The more dense the fluid is, the more mass it has, therefore the more force it excerts due to the
acceleration of gravity (F=m*a). So a fluid with a specific gravity less than one (1) cannot excerpt as much

51
force as water because it has less mass. Therefore, a column of fluid with a specific gravity less than 1
excerpts less pressure on a measurement meter, compared to the pressure excerpted by a column of
water. This is why we divide the pressure head by the specific gravity to give it a “gain” of force equal to
that excerpted by water, the industrial standard of measurement.

From the previous demonstration, it can be seen that a column of fluid with a specific gravity less than
1, needs to be taller than a column of water, to excerpt the same pressure on the measurement
meter. If we had a fluid, such as a solvent, it may have a s.g. of (0.7874). We use the industrial standard
of water to calibrate the meter. So to measure the height of the column of solvent in the standard
of calibration with water, the column of solvent needs to be taller than a column of water to excerpt the
same force on a weight scale. It would seem that the taller column of solvent would be falling faster than
the velocity we need to measure and it is. It has less mass; therefore, it needs to be accelerated faster than
the column of water to develop more force on impact. This force at impact will be the same force generated
by the column of water falling from a lower height and the pressure on the measurement element will be the
same. It can be seen we have an equivalent force and an equivalent pressure on the meter, for the two
different height columns of fluid.

In level measurement, the column of water used to calibrate the meter

will less than the column of solvent being measured. The water must
fall from a lower height to excerpt the same pressure as the taller
column of solvent. So if we have a s.g. of 0.7874 for the solvent, the
column of water will be 0.7874 times the height of the solvent column
or 78.74% of the intended height measurement. This will produce a
78.74” column of water (100” H2O * 0.7874 s.g. = 78.74” H2O). The
solvent column will be 100” tall but will appear to be only 78.74” of
water to the measurement meter. Zero to 100% output will equal 0 to
100” of solvent.

The height of solvent needed to produce a pressure equal to that of

100 cm of water is shown to the right. The solvent column height is
taller than the column of water, 100 cm / (s.g. = 0.7874). So the
column of solvent equals 100 cm / 0.7874 = 127 cm. It can be seen
that both columns produce the exact same pressure at the bottom of
the “U” tube.

The same thing is happening in the flow meter. The solvent is less dense than water and excerpts less
pressure on the meter for the same flow rate as water. 10 gallons a minute of water traveling down a pipe
or conveyor weights (10 * 8.33 lb. = 83.3 lbs.). 10 gallons a minute of solvent traveling down a pipe or
conveyor weights (10 * 8.33 lb. * 0.7874 s.g. = 65.59 lbs.). The pressure the solvent excerpts on the scale
is less for the same volumetric flow rate. Again the flow meter will be calibrated in water with a lower
measure of water column applied to the meter to read the desired flow rate of solvent.

Applications of the formulas

Let’s do a quick overview of how we use fluid mechanics in process control measurements and then we
will discuss how we get the formulas and how fluid mechanics are used in detail in the following sections
of this guide to provide safe and accurate control of process plants.

Part One

Let’s look at the flow measurement formula for calibration. We have 100 gpm of water flowing in a 3”
schedule 40 pipe (ID=3.068”) with a s.g. of 1 and the orifice diameter is 1.534”. The “Beta Ratio” is the
pipe inside diameter divided by the orifice hole diameter.

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf

52
The Beta Ratio = 0.5 (3.068 /1.534 =0.5).
From Table 3: Beta = 0.500, S = 0.1568

h
100( gpm)  5.667  0.1568 3.068
2

100( gpm) h

5.667  0.1568 3.068 
2
1

2
 100( gpm)   h 
2

   
 8.3639   1 

h
11.95612 
1

142.95" H 2 O  h

Now we will have 100 gpm of solvent flowing in a 3” schedule 40 pipe (ID=3.068”) with a s.g. of 0.7874.

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf

From Table 3: Beta = 0.500, S  0.1568

h
100( gpm)  5.667  0.1568 3.068
2

0.7874

100( gpm) h

5.667  0.1568 3.068
2
0.7874

2
 100( gpm)   h 
2

    
 8.3639   0.7874 
h
11.95612 
0.7874
142.95  0.7874   h
112.56" H 2 O  h

It can be seen we need less water to calibrate the flow meter in the calibration standard of water, to
measure the flow of solvent.

53
Part two

Let’s apply Bernoulli’s principal to the pressure drop in pipes:

For a change in the static pressure anywhere in the piping system:

2
F 
p F  p2 F
1 1
2
2
2
p2   1  p1
 F2 

This is practical for a pressure meter to measure the available pressure at a flow rate, but it does not tell
the loss of pressure across the piping system or flow element.

We have 100 gpm of water flowing through 100 foot of 2” schedule 40 pipe (ID=2.067”) at 60°F
(cST=1.22). The pump is producing 100 feet of water or 43.32 psi. When the pump is running at full
speed and the pipe is blocked by a valve at the exit end of the pipe, the pressure of 100 feet of head is
distributed evenly throughout the pipe.

We crack open the valve until the water is flowing at 100 gpm. Let’s calculate the head drop (delta
pressure drop) across the pipe.

First find the velocity of the fluid:

gpm *0.4085
velocity( ft / sec) 
ID2 (inches)

100*0.4085
9.56( ft / sec) 
2.0672 (inches)

Find the Reynolds number for the pipe:

3160 * flow rate( gpm) * Specific Gravity

Re = Note: for liquids
Pipe ID(inches) * Viscosity (cST )

3160 * 100 * 1
125,310Re 
2.067" ID * 1.22(cST )

Find the head loss across the pipe using the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

Find the friction factor:

Friction factor for Darcy-Weisbach equation

Note: e = 0.00015 for steel pipes
1
  e *12  6
10 3
f  0.0055  0.0055  20,000   
  Pipe ID(inches)  Re 

1
  0.00015 *12  106 3
0.0217  0.0055  0.0055  20,000   
  2.067"  125,310 

54
Find the head loss in the piping system:

 Length( ft ) * 12  V  ft / sec 
2

hL  f   *
 Pipe ID(inches )  64

 100' * 12  9.56  ft / sec 

2

17.99 feet  0.0217  *

 2.067"  64

There is a head loss (pressure drop) across the pipe of 17.99 feet of water (or 7.8 psi) at 100 gpm. This
leaves 82 feet of head (100’ – 18’ = 82’) or 35.52 psi, at the end of the pipe to do work across a control
valve or overcome a pressure in a vessel. Note: Usually there is no more than a 10 psi differential of
pressure across the control valve.

It is recommended that an additional 10% to 40% increase in pump head be added to the required
system pump pressure for normal pumping through the piping system, minus the required head to
overcome any vessel pressure (pressurized tank, vessel or column). We only need to add the 10% to
40% extra head to the pump head that is needed to overcome the friction loss of the pipe and to do the
foot-pounds of work to accelerate the fluid through the pipe.

Important Note: You cannot size the pump for just the pressure drop across the piping system
due to friction loss and flow rate. The valve will not work. There must be extra head pressure
across the valve or the valve will not function.

The ∆P across the valve for 10% should be:

17.99 psi * 0.10 = 1.799 psi or 4.153 feet of head for the valve sizing calculation.
There will be 1.799 psi across the valve, if there is a 10% increase in the pump head for the piping
system.

The ∆P across the valve for 40% should be:

17.99 psi * 0.40 = 7.196 psi or 16.61 feet of head for the valve sizing calculation.
There will be 7.196 psi across the valve, if there is a 40% increase in the pump head for the piping
system.

Let’s now calculate the head loss at 50 gpm:

First find the velocity of the fluid:

50*0.4085
4.78( ft / sec) 
2.0672 (inches)

Find the Reynolds number for the pipe:

3160 * 50 * 1
62,655Re =
2.067" ID * 1.22(cST )

Find the friction factor:

1
  0.00015 *12  10  3
6
0.0217  0.0055  0.0055 20,000   
  2.067"  62,655 

Find the head loss across the pipe:

 100' * 12  4.78  ft / sec 

2

4.8 feet  0.0232  *

 2.067"  64
55
There is a head loss (pressure drop) across the pipe of 4.8 feet of water (or 2.08 psi) at 50 gpm. This
leaves 95.2 feet of head (100’– 4.8 ’= 95.2’) or 41.24 psi, at the end of the pipe to do work across a
control valve or overcome a pressure in a vessel.

Note: The psi drop across the control valve increases as the flow slows down and the valve absorbs the
remaining pressure left in the system across the control valve. The difference of the system pressure is
the pump head minus the head loss across the piping system and minus any head needed to overcome
entry into a pressurized vessel. Just like I*R=E, the valve has more resistance to flow as it closes down,
so the pressure drop across the valve increases to maintain the flow rate. So even though the control
valve is trying to slow down the flow rate of the fluid, the fluid will try to maintain its flow rate as the valve
absorbs the extra pressure in the system. The control valve controls the flow by burning up the extra
energy head in the fluid as it flows through the piping system. We will discuss this in much more detail in
the section on control valves.

1 gpm  1 CV * 1 Ppsig

Visit http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/studymaterials/ for more resources to study. A piping system

calculator can be downloaded for free from my web site. It is an Excel Spreadsheet to show real-world
system results, with generated graphs of response curves of valve characteristics for a given system.

Liquid System Sizer - version 2.7 (Size Pump, Valve, Orifice, Transmitter and Piping System)
http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/studymaterials/System-Sizer.htm

Summary of fluid mechanics for process control

The ∆P across the orifice decreases as the velocity of the fluid decreases. It can be seen that the
pressure on the exit side of the orifice increases as the fluid’s velocity decreases and the pressure drop
across the pipe decreases (less work is being done).

The velocity being measured is a “SCALED” velocity. It is scaled by the orifice size; the beta factor “the
Spink Factor" or flow coefficient; the pipe ID and the specific gravity (s.g.) of the fluid. Velocity equals the
“square root of (2gH)”. The fluid’s velocity through the pipe may be much different than the measured
differential height of the two water columns that are being measured to obtain the fluid’s velocity.

Depending on the orifice size and the beta factor (say 0.3), for a given flow rate, the ∆P may be 1,000
inches of water column differential across a small orifice opening. The fluid has to do much more work to
get through the high resistance of the small opening. The ∆P could be only 100 inches water column
differential for a much larger beta ratio (say 0.7). The larger opening has less resistance and therefore
much less work is being done to flow through it. Therefore less potential energy has to change into kinetic
and the height of the water column on the exit side of the orifice is much higher than with a beta ratio of
(say 0.3). Therefore there is less ∆P across the orifice for the same flow rate that has been “SCALED” to
calculate the volumetric flow rate.

Remember the pump will have to produce enough head pressure to provide energy for the work to be
done on the piping system and any valves or head type meters at the maximum flow rate. The valve
cannot just be sized for some selected differential pressure; it must be sized for the pump head pressure
not being used to do work on the rest of the piping system. The valve differential pressure must be
checked at maximum flow, normal flow and minimum flow rates, to ensure the valve will control the flow
rate properly.

Now we will discuss most process measurement subjects in detail, including the application of the fluid
mechanics we just reviewed. These basic principles work for level, flow, orifice sizing, valve sizing, pump
sizing, pipe sizing and understanding the basics of process operations.

56
 Temperature Measurement and Calibration

Temperature measurement devices and calibration

In the process industry, temperature measurements are typically made with thermocouples, RTDs
(Resistance Temperature Detector) and industrial thermometers. Industrial thermometers are typically of
the liquid (class I), vapor (class II), and gas (class III) type.

Standard Thermocouple Configurations

Single Grounded Dual Grounded Unisolated In plants there are five major types
of thermocouple (TC) configurations
used. They are shown to the left.

The first two thermocouples are

welded or grounded, as shown, to
the outside metal protective
Dual Ungrounded sheathing.
Single Ungrounded
Unisolated
The bottom three thermocouples
are ungrounded and should never
touch the metal protective
sheathing; otherwise they are
shorted to ground
Dual Ungrounded Isolated

Most Popular Types Used in Process Plant Temperature Measurements

J-Type K-Type The four major thermocouples used

in the process industry for
temperature measurement are: J-
Type, E-Type, K-Type, and T-Type.

The red wire is always the negative

wire with thermocouples.
E-Type T-Type
Thermocouple terminal junction blocks
should be made of the same material
as the thermocouple wire that is being
connected to terminal. This will prevent
additional thermocouple (TC) junction
points from being introduced in the
temperature signal. Some companies
use standard terminal strips, this can
cause an error in the signal.

Thermocouple Extension Wiring

Thermocouples should be extended with thermocouple extension wire and thermocouple termination
blocks, but can be extended with standard copper wire and standard terminal blocks. This is due to
the fact that the voltages generated at the extension junctions almost cancel each other out with very
little error. One side is positive (the color: yellow, white, purple, etc.) and the other side is negative
(always red, except in some extension wires).
57
Thermocouple millivolt tables for the examination can be found in the Table A1 – Thermocouple Table
(Type J) through Table A4 – Thermocouple Table (Type T) in the Appendix section of this guide.

Thermocouple Linearity Chart

Thermocouple Makeup Material and Color Code

TC THEMOCOUPLE RANGE USEFUL TC COLORS

Type MATERIAL FOR CALIB. RANGE
DEG F DEF F

Purple Wire Jacket

Chromel (+)
E -300 to 1830 200 to 1650 Purple (+)
Constantan (-)
Red (-)

Black Wire Jacket

Iron (+) 200 to 1400
J -320 to 1400 Black (+)
Constantan (-) (300 to 800)
Red (-)

Yellow Wire Jacket

Chromel (+)
K -310 to 250 200 to 2300 Yellow (+)
Alumel (-)
Red (-)

Green Wire Jacket

Platinum 13% Rhodium (+)
R 0 to 3100 1600 to 2640 Black (+)
Platinum (-)
Red (-)

Green Wire Jacket

Platinum 10% Rhodium (+)
S 0 to 3200 1800 to 2640 Black(+)
Platinum (-)
Red (-)

Blue Wire Jacket

Copper (+)
T -300 to 750 -310 to 660 Blue (+)
Constantan (-)
Red (-)

58
Thermocouple - worked examples (how to read the thermocouple tables)

Sample problem: What is the Millivolt (mV) output of a Type “J” thermocouple at 218°F and
referenced to a 32°F electronic ice bath?

Find the nearest temperature in Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) in the appendix of this
guide.

The nearest temperature in the first column is 210. Look at the column headers at the bottom of the
chart. Find the column header labeled 8. Follow the column up to the row with the 210 value. Where
they meet is a total of 210°F + 8ºF = (218°F).

Read the value of mV. The answer is: 5.45 mV

Sample problem: What is the Millivolt (mV) output of a Type “K” thermocouple at 672°F from the
data given? Assume the thermocouple is linear.

Given:
670°F = 14.479mV
672°F = mV
680°F = 14.713mV

We will have to interpolate the mV value for the desired temperature as follows:

Interpolation:

 deg desired - deg lower value  

mV     mV upper value - mV lower value  
 deg upper value - deg lower value  
 mV lower value

Therefore the new mV for 672°F:

 672 - 670  
14.526    14.713 - 14.479    14.479
 680 - 670  

The mV at 672°F is 14.526 mV

This can be verified in Table A2 –Thermocouple Table (Type K) in the appendix.

59
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

The process control industry also uses RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) for many applications, for
example, when precise temperature measurement is needed, such as mass flow measurements or critical
temperature measurements of motor bearings.

RTDs typically come in 10-ohm copper and 100-ohm platinum elements. Their resistance is typically very
linear over the scale.

Resistance values for the examination can be found in the Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in
ohms, in the appendix section of this guide.

Typical wiring configurations and uses of RTDs

2-wire RTD 3-wire RTD 4-wire RTD

Good for close applications, at Good for further distance Best application and usually uses 20
the transmitter. applications. Remote from the mA driving current and a voltage
transmitter. measurement.

RTD - worked examples

Sample problem: A RTD is platinum and has a resistance of 100 ohms at a temperature of 32°F
and an alpha 0.2178 ohms per °F. What is the resistance of the RTD at a temperature of 240°F?

Find the difference in the temperature first. 240°F – 32°F = 208°F

Now find the resistance for the differential temperature:

208°F * 0.2178 ohms/deg F = 45.3 ohms

Now we add the change in resistance to the resistance at 32°F:

100 ohms + 45.3 = 145.3 ohms

Referring to Table-A5. Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms, in the appendix. The resistance
value for the RTD can be interpolated and found for a given temperature.

60
 Sample problem: In the bridge circuit below, if R1 and R2 are 200 ohms and the RTD is at 60°F.
What resistance should R3 measure, to balance the circuit and give the meter a reading of 0 volts?
The RTD is platinum and measures 100 ohms at 32°F with an alpha of 0.2178 ohms per °F.

Find the difference in the temperature first. 60°F – 32°F = 28°F

Now find the resistance for the differential temperature:

28°F * 0.2178 ohms/°F = 6.0984 ohms

Now we add the change in resistance to the resistance at 32°F:

100 ohms + 6.0984 = 106.0984 ohms

The resistor R3 needs to be 106 ohms to balance the bridge and give 0 volts at the meter.

Sample problem: In the bridge circuit above, R1 and R2 are 200 ohms. R3 is150 ohms. The
excite voltage to the bridge is 10 volts. If the meter is reading 0.4 volts (the positive is on the right
side and the negative on the left side) what is the temperature at the RTD?

Find the voltage on the left side of the bridge. This is the voltage we will add to the meter voltage on
the right side. We will use the voltage divider theorem to find the voltage across R1.

R1 200
VR1  (10V )  (10V )  5V
R1  R2 200  200

This means the voltage across the RTD is 5.0V + 0.4V = 5.4 volts.

We will now use the voltage divider theorem to find the resistance of RTD.

RRTD RRTD
VRTD  (10V ) ; 5.4V  (10V )
RRTD  RR 3 RRTD  150

Solving for RRTD :

 RRTD 
5.4   10
 RRTD  150 
61
5.4  RRTD  10
 
10  RRTD  150  10

 RRTD 
0.54  RRTD  150      RRTD  150 
 RRTD  150 

0.54( RRTD  150)  RRTD

0.54 RRTD  0.54(150)  RRTD

0.54 RRTD  81  RRTD

0.54 RRTD - 0.54 RRTD  81  RRTD - 0.54 RRTD

81  RRTD - 0.54 RRTD

81  (1  0.54) RRTD

81  (0.46) RRTD

81 (0.46) RRTD

0.46 0.46

176.087  RRTD

We can prove that the 176.087 ohms for the RTD is correct by plugging the value into the voltage
divider formula to find the 5.4 volts at the meter.

176.087
VRTD  (10V )  5.4V
176.087  150

We have the ohms of the RTD, now we can find the temperature.

100 ohms = 32°F,

So subtract the difference in ohms 176.087 – 100 = 76.087 ohms.

Divide the 76.087 ohms by the alpha 0.2178 ohms per °F.

76.087 ohms
F   349.34 F
 0.2178 ohms 
 deg F 
 

62
 Add the 32°F bias for 100 ohms to the 349.34°F for 76.087 ohms and we get:

349.34°F + 32.00°F = 381.34°F.

Installing RTDs and Thermocouples into a process stream

63
Typical RTD and thermocouple applications

A complete assembly with a 4-20 mA transmitter in an explosion proof housing

Industrial RTD or Thermocouple with head Various Industrial Thermometers

A straight and tapered thermowell is shown Threaded for mounting in tanks and pipes

64
 Pressure Measurement and Calibration

Pressure measurement and head pressure

Pressure is measured in typically two different forms. Pounds per square inch (psi) or in head
pressure. Head pressure is measured in inches or feet of water column (H2O).

Head pressure is independent of the tank’s height or area. The transmitter

measures head pressure. Head pressure is the measure of the potential
energy in the system. The transmitter measurement is from how high is the
fluid falling. The distance the fluid falls indicates the force generated (F=ma).
This is why the density of the fluid must be known to calibrate a pressure
transmitter for a process, to obtain the fluid mass. The calibration process uses
specific gravity (s.g.), the ratio of a known density of a fluid divided by the
density of water (H2O).

To illustrate these facts, we will start with one gallon of water. The gallon of
water equals 231 cubic inches and weighs approximately 8.324 pounds at
60°F. Pressure is measured in PSI (pounds per square inch). Only one (1)
square inch of area is needed to calculate the height of the water and the
force it is excerpting. Remember force divided by area = pressure.

Stack 231 cubic inches of water on top of each other, to form a tall column of
water, with a base of one (1) square inch. The column of water will be 231
inches tall. Divide the height of the column of water, 231 inches, by the weight
of one (1) gallon of water, 8.324 pounds. The result will be 27.691 or 27.7
inches of water per pound of water, over a one square inch of area. Therefore
27.7 inches H2O, of head pressure, equals one (1) PSI.

By knowing the specific gravity of the fluid to be measured, multiplied by the

height of the tank in inches, an equivalent value in inches of water can be
found. The transmitter can now be calibrated in inches of water, regardless of
the fluid. If the tank’s fluid has a s.g. equal to 0.8 and a height of 100 inches
tall, then the height in inches of H2O will be:

(100” of fluid * 0.8 s.g. = 80” of H2O).

Pressure transmitters are purchased in different sizes of measurement. They

are in ranges of inches H2O, psig (the “g” stands for gauge pressure) or psia
(the “a” stands for absolute pressure). When the symbol psid (the “d” stands
for differential pressure) is called for, a standard psig transmitter is used. Most industrial pressure
transmitters are differential pressure transmitters. They act on differential forces applied to each side of
the transmitter. The force is produced by the pressure in the system multiplied by the area of the
diaphragm.

65
Applying pressure measurement and signals - worked examples

Differential pressure and meter calibration

Differential pressure or differential head pressure is used to calibrate transmitters for pressure, level, flow
and density measurements. The transmitter has a high side, marked with an H, and a low side, marked
with a L. The low side will typically go to atmospheric pressure or to a fixed height wet leg measurement.
The high side will typically go to the tank, where the varying height of fluid is to be measured. When
calibrating an instrument remember: The low side is the negative scale, below zero, and the high side is
the positive scale, above zero. The transmitter’s sensor element is static in position or elevation and
therefore the transmitter itself is always equal to zero elevation. This will be discussed in detail in the
section on Level Measurement.

Transmitters can be purchased in ranges of 25 in. of H2O, 250 in. of H2O, 1000 in. of H2O, 300 psi
and 2000 psi.
The formula for calibration is:
(high side inches x s.g.) – (low side inches x s.g.) = lower or upper range value.
Note: Gives LRV when empty or minimum and URV when full or maximum

Sample problem: A pressure gauge is reading 25 pisg. It is attached to a tank filled with a fluid.
The bottom of tank is 65 feet above the ground. The pressure gauge is 5 feet above the ground. The
fluid has a specific gravity of (0.7 s.g.). What is the level of the fluid in the tank?

First convert the psi gauge measurement to feet of head measurement.

25 psi * 2.31 feet per psi = 57.75 feet of H2O.

Next find the elevation of the bottom of tank in relation to the elevation of the pressure gauge. Tank
bottom in feet – pressure gauge elevation in feet, equals the height in feet to the bottom of tank.

65 feet– 5 feet = 60 feet of head to bottom of the tank.

Note: Head is always measured in the standard of inches or feet of water column (WC / w.c.).

Multiply the head between the bottom of the tank and the pressure gauge times the s.g. to get the
head equal to H2O.
60 feet of fluid * 0.7 s.g. = 42 feet H2O to bottom of tank from the pressure gauge.

Next subtract (the height from the pressure gauge to the bottom of the tank in feet of H2O), from (the
total height of fluid in feet of in H2O above the pressure gauge), to find (the height of the fluid in the
tank in H2O).

(57.75 feet of H2O total head) – (42 feet of H2O below the tank) = (feet of fluid in H2O in the tank).
(57.75 feet total) – (42 feet to bottom tank from the pressure gauge) = 15.75 feet in H2O in the tank

Next convert height in feet of H2O to height of fluid with a specific gravity (s.g.) of 0.7:

15.75 feet of H2O / 0.7 s.g. = 22.5 feet of total height of the fluid column in the tank

66
Pressure change in a pipe for a given flow rate

On the CSE examination you will be asked to correlate signals and measurements using Flow, Pressure
and the Output in (4 mA to 20 mA) signals. A change in flow in a pipe will cause a change in the head
pressure across the pipe and measurement element. If the flow decreases in the pipe the pressure in the
pipe will increase at any point along the pipe.

If the flow rate increases, the pressure in the piping system decreases. If the flow rate decreases, the
pressure in the piping system increases. This is because the total head of the system remains constant
due to the head pressure developed by of the pump. The total energy head being endowed into the pump
and piping system, remains constant. This can be seen with a pump at a constant speed and two
pressure gauges, one at each end of the pipe and a hand valve at the end of the pipe.

2
F 
h1 F12  h2 F22 h1  1   h2
 F2 

Sample problem: There is a flow rate of 300 gpm in a piping system. There is a pressure gauge
reading 100 psi somewhere in the piping system. If the flow rate is decreased to 240 gpm. What is
the new pressure gauge reading in psi in the piping system?

Find the new pressure at the point of the gauge in the piping system for a flow rate of 240 gpm.

2
F 
2
 300 
h2  h1  1   100    156.25 psi
 F2   240 

Pressure change across the flow element for a given flow rate

If the flow in the pipe increases, the head pressure on the outlet of the measurement element will
decrease. This correlation can be demonstrated by the following equations for differential head pressure
(∆P) across the orifice element (a fixed resistor) or smaller section of pipe (venturi or dall tube). See the
section on applications of basic fluid mechanics in process control.

2
F 
hF h F
1 2
2
2 1
2
h1  2   h2
 F1 

Sample problem: a) A flow of 250 gpm has a head pressure measurement of 309 inches of
H2O. If the flow is decreased to 150 gpm, what is the new head pressure (∆P) in H2O for the
measurement element?
b) What would be the new output to the PLC or DCS, in a mA signal, if the transmitter was
calibrated in 0 to 400 inches of H2O? The signal is calibrated for 4 mA to 20 mA.

Answer:
a) Find the new head pressure for 150 gpm.

67
 2
F 
2
 150 
h2  h1  2  ; 309    111.24 in H 2O
 F1   250 

b) Find the mA output:

The output signal is the square root of the ratio of change in head pressure (new measurement) to
the full scale calibrated range of the transmitter. First find the % of head pressure in the scale of 0
to 400 inches H2O.
111.24
% head   0.2781
400
The output is a 4 mA to 20 mA current signal. The span is 16 mA (20 mA – bias of 4 mA)

Since the flow rate is a squared function, we must first extract the square root of the %
measurement to find the % of output signal.

output mA = 0.2781*16 mA +4 mA bias=12.44 mA

Pressure calibration of transmitter

Sample problem: The pressure in a pipe is to be measured. The maximum pressure is measured
as 462 feet of head of natural gas. It is to be displayed in units of psig. What is the calibration of the
transmitter to display this pressure in 0 to 100% psig on the display? The minimum pressure
measurement will be zero feet of head?

Find the psig for the given maximum head pressure:

psig = feet head / 2.31 psig per foot of head

Maximum measurement in psig:

200 psig = 462 / 2.31

Next find the calibration range to order the transmitter:

The formula for calibration is:

(high side psi) – (low side psi) = lower or upper range value.

Note: Gives lower range value when minimum and upper range value when maximum

LRV = 200 – 0 = 200 psi

URV = 0 – 0 = 0 psi

The transmitter will be calibrated as:

0 to 200 psig

68
 Level Measurement and Calibration

Applying level measurement and calibration - Worked examples

TUNED-SYSTEM BALANCED SYSTEM WET LEG WET/DRY LEG

The calibration procedure below is as follows.

The level in a vessel or tank can be measured by a number of methods: differential pressure;
displacement of volume; bubbler tube; capacitance; sonar; radar; weight, to name a few. This book will
focus on differential pressure, displacement of volume, and bubbler tube for the examination.

REMEMBER: (high side inches x s.g.) – (low side inches x s.g.) = lower or upper range value.

See Example 1.

The low side of the transmitter is open to atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is pushing on the low side. The
high side of the transmitter is connected to the tank; it also has atmospheric pressure pushing on it. The
atmospheric pressures on each side of the transmitter cancel out. In the example, the first line of math
will be the LRV and the second line of math will be the URV. The tank has 100 inches of fluid with a s.g. of
1.0. The calibrated Range of the instrument will be 0” to 100” of water or H2O.
The Span of the transmitter is: (100” x 1.0 = 100”)

See Example 2.

The low side of the transmitter is open to atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is pushing on the low side. The
high side of the transmitter is connected to the tank; it also has atmospheric pressure pushing on it. The
atmospheric pressures on each side of the transmitter cancel out. In the example, the first line of math will
be the LRV and the second line of math will be the URV.

The tank has a 100-inch level and the tube dropping down below the tank adds 20” of fluid height, with a
s.g. of 1.0. The calibrated Range of the instrument will be 20” to 120” of water or H2O. Remember the
minimum measurement cannot be lower than the fixed tube height of 20”. Suppress the zero with the hard
wire jumper or set the variable in the transmitter and make 20” a live zero for the instrument. In pneumatic
instruments a suppression kit must be installed.
The Span of the transmitter is: (100” x 1.0 = 100”)

69
 Example 1: Open Tank Example 2: Open Tank
Zero-Based Level Application Suppress the Zero

Tank Level = 0 to 100 inches Tank Level = 0 to 100 inches

s.g. = 1.0 s.g. 1.0
(switch jumper to normal zero) (switch jumper to suppress zero)

LRV = (0” x 1.0) – (0” x 1.0) = 0” = 4 mA LRV = (20” x 1.0) – (0” x 1.0) = 20” = 4 mA
URV = (100” x 1.0) – (0” x 1.0) = 100” = 20 mA URV = (120” x 1.0) – (0” x 1.0) = 120” = 20 mA
Calibrate range from 0” to 100” H2O Calibrate range from 20” to 120” H2O

See Example 3.

The low side is connected to the top of the closed tank. The high side is connected to the bottom of the
closed tank. The tank’s pressure does not matter, because the pressures in low and high side lines cancel
each other out. Since the tank is pressurized, a “wet leg” or “reference leg” must be used. This is the
piping going from the low side of the transmitter to the top of the tank. It will be typically filled with some
other type of product, such as glycol or silicon. This prevents moisture from accumulating in the line.

If moisture accumulates in the line, it will give an error in the transmitter reading. The wet leg has 100
inches of fluid with a s.g. of 1.1. In the example, the first line of math will be the LRV and the second line
of math will be the URV. The tank has 100 inches of fluid with a s.g. of 1.0. The calibrated range of the
instrument will be -110” to -10” of water or H2O. Elevate the zero in the transmitter with the hard wire
jumper or set the variable in the transmitter and make -110” a live zero for the instrument. In pneumatic
instruments a suppression kit must be installed.

The Span of the transmitter is: (100” x 1.0 = 100”)

See Example 4.

The low side is connected to the top of the closed tank. The high side is connected to the bottom of the
closed tank. The tank’s pressure does not matter, because the pressures in the low and high lines cancel
each other out. The wet leg has 120 inches of fluid with a s.g. of 1.1. The first line of math will be the LRV
and the second line of math will be the URV. The tank has 100 inches of fluid and the tube dropping down
below the tank adds 20” of fluid height with a s.g. of 0.8. The calibrated Range of the instrument will be -
116” to -36” of water or H2O. Remember the minimum measurement cannot be lower than 20” on the high
side, due to the fixed 20” height of the tube dropping below the tank. Elevate the zero and make -116” a
live zero.

The Span of the transmitter is: (100” x 0.8 = 80”).

REMEMBER: (high side inches x s.g.) – (low side inches x s.g.) = lower or upper range value.
Note: Gives lower range value (LRV) when empty and upper range value (URV) when full.

70
 Example 3: Closed Tank Example 4: Closed Tank
Elevate the Zero Elevate the Zero (transmitter below tank)

Tank Level = 0 to 100 inches Tank Level = 0 to 100 inches

s.g. = 1.0, Wet Leg: s.g. = 1.1 s.g. = 0.8, Wet Leg: s.g. = 1.1
Height = 100” Height = 120”
(switch jumper to elevate zero) (switch jumper to elevate zero)

LRV = (0” x 1.0) – (100” x 1.1) = -110” = 4 mA LRV = (20” x 0.8) – (120” x 1.1) = -116” = 4 mA
URV = (100” x 1.0) – (100” x 1.1) =-10” = 20 mA URV = (120” x 0.8) – (120” x 1.1) = -36” = 20 mA
Calibrate range from -110” to -10” H2O Calibrate range from -116” to -36” H2O

Rosemount transmitters with seal Rosemount suggested mounting with

for density and level applications Wet/Dry Leg to prevent freezing

71
Level displacer (Buoyancy)

The displacer tube for liquid level measurement is based on Archimedes principle that, the buoyancy
force exerted on a sealed body immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.

There are two types of displacer transmitters in common use

today: torque tube and spring operated.

Vd f
f  (8.338)G f
231

Where:

f = buoyancy force in lbf

Vd f = total volume of displaced process fluid in cubic inches
Ls = the submerged length of the displacer in process fluid
231 = cubic inches in one gallon of water
8.338 = weight of one gallon of water in pounds
Gf = specific gravity of displaced process fluid

Sample problem: a) What is the force upward on the 30” displacer, if the displacer is 4” in diameter
and submerged 10” in a fluid, with a specific gravity of 0.72?

b) What is the mA output and percent output of the process signal?

Answer:

a) Find displaced volume:

   D2    16 
Vd f     Ls    10  125.66 in
3

 4   4 

Find displacement force upward

Vdf 125.66
f  (8.33)G f  (8.338)(0.72)  3.266 lbf
231 231

b) Find displacement force upward for the total 30 inches submerged :

   D2    16 
Vd f     Ls     30  376.99 in
3

 4   4 

Vd f 376.99
f  (8.338)G f  (8.33)(0.72)  9.798 lbf
231 231

72
 Find the % output and mA:

3.26
%  0.333 100  33.3% output
9.79

 0.333 16mA  4mA  9.328mA output

Various types of displacement measuring devices and transmitters

73
Bubbler level measurement

The bubbler tube or dip tube measures the level of the process fluid by
measuring the back pressure on the bottom of the tube. This back
pressure is the force excerpted from the weight of the fluid in the tank
against the tube opening. The tube will have to build up enough pressure
for the gas to escape through the process fluid above the opening. The
dip tube will have a static back pressure equal to the height or head of
the process fluid above the bottom of the opening, as the bubbles escape
the dip tube.

This simple level measurement has a dip tube installed with the open end
close to the bottom of the process vessel. The lowest level that can be
measured is from the bottom of the tank to the bottom of the dip tube. If
the bottom of the dip tube is 2 inches of the bottom, the minimum level
that can be measured is 2 inches. The maximum height that can be
measured is only limited to the air supply pressure minus the minimum
measureable level.

A flow of gas, usually air or nitrogen, is passed

through a regulator to reduce the pressure. Then the
flow of the gas will be controlled and monitored by
passing through a rotameter (flow meter). It then
makes its way down the dip tube and the resultant
backpressure, due to the hydraulic head of the
process fluid, forces back on the pressure
transmitter. The pressure in the bubbler tube or dip
tube equals the head pressure of level of the fluid in
the vessel and a proportional signal is sent to the
PLC or DCS. With a transmitter standard level
calibration in inches of water, the signal out will vary
proportionally with the change in level of the process
fluid.

Sample problem: a) What is the head pressure measurement of a bubbler tube submerged 24”
in a fluid with a specific gravity (s.g.) of 0.85?

b) What is the percent output and mA output, if the transmitter is calibrated for a tube 100” long and
the transmitter is calibrated 0 to 85 inches H2O (100 inches * 0.85 s.g.= 85 inches H2O)?

Answer:

a) Find the head pressure of the process fluid

h  LDipTubeG f  24  0.85  20.4 inches H2 O
(the water only excerpts a force of 20.4 inches H2O against the bottom of the tube)

b) Find percent and mA output

The transmitter is calibrated for 0 to 85 inches H2O which equals = 0% to 100%

20.4
%  0.24 100%  24% output
85
The transmitter output is a 4mA to 20 mA current signal. The span is 16 mA (20 mA – bias of 4 mA)
(0.24 * 16 mA) + 4 mA (bias) = 7.84 mA output, which equals 24% of the input measurement scale
into the control room.

The control room computer (DCS or PLC) is scaling the input signal to value of 0 inches to 100
inches for the tank level. You can see 24% signal reads as 24 inches in the tank for the control room.

74
Density measurement

Head pressure and volume displacement can be used to measure density. By using a differential head
pressure transmitter, calibrated in inches of water, connect the high and low lines to the tank at a fixed
distance of separation, such as 10”. Both taps of the density transmitter must be completely submerged
below the top of fluid whose density is being measured. The height measured in inches of water divided
by 10” (in our example), is the (s.g.) of the unknown fluid. Example: The density transmitter is measuring 7
inches H2O, the s.g. = 0.7 (7”/10” = 0.7). See figure 2 below.

With the specific gravity (s.g.) known from the density transmitter, and a second level transmitter
calibrated in inches of H2O, the tank level can be found. The level measurement can be divided by the
(s.g.) measurement from the density transmitter, to show the true height of the process fluid in the tank.

Sample problem: Find the density of the hydrocarbon product and the interface level of the
water in the bottom of the tank in figure 2. The wet leg (sealed diaphragm leg) has a s.g. equal to 1.1

Remember: [(high side * s.g.) – (low side * s.g.)] = LRV or URV

Density:
LRV = (0” * 1.0) – (10” * 1.1) = -11” H2O (transmitter not covered with fluid or tank empty)
URV = (10” * s.g.) – (10” * 1.1) = ?” H2O (transmitter completely covered with process fluid)
o
URV = (10” * 0.825) – (10” * 1.1) = -2.75” H2O (for Crude oil 40 API)
Find s.g. for crude oil 40 API: [(-11) – (-2.75)] = 8.25” so… 8.25”/10” = 0.825 s.g.
o

URV = (10” * 0.7874) – (10” * 1.1) = -3.126” H2O (for ethyl alcohol)
Find s.g. for ethyl alcohol: [(-11) – (-3.126)] = 7.874” so… 7.874”/10” = 0.7874 s.g.
s.g. process signal = mA = [16 * 0.7874] + 4 = 16.5984mA or 78.74% signal.

Level:
(% Level signal / % Density signal) * Tank Level = level of process fluid in the tank.

Note: The tank level measurement can be any height and the fluid to be measured of any density.
Remember to elevate the zero on the density transmitter.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Using a bubbler arrangement to measure level with a varying density of process fluid:
Connect the high and low lines to the dip tubes as shown above in figure 1, at a fixed distance of
separation in height, such as 2” or 10”. We will use a 2” height differential between the bottoms of the
tubes. The maximum distance above L1 equals 20” of process fluid.

Sample problem: Find the density and level in the tank in figure 1, using a bubbler arrangement.

Density is calculated as
LRV = (0” * s.g.) – (0” * s.g.) = 0” H2O (Density minimum, tank empty)
URV = (0” * s.g.) – (2” * 1.0) = -2” H2O (Density equals H2O, L2 submersed and fluid at bottom of L1)

75
 Remember to elevate the zero in the transmitter!

Since any level above L1 will cancel out in the density transmitter, the output is simply the percent
signal which equals the s.g. of the process fluid.
Example: -2” * 0.7874 = -1.5748” H2O (for ethyl alcohol) -1.5748”/-2” = s.g. = 0.7874 or 78.74%
signal.

Level is calculated as:

For a 15” level of ethyl alcohol above L1:

% mA = (15” * s.g.) = 11.811” H2O = (11.811” level)/( 20” max level) = 0.59055 or 59.055% signal
At DCS/PLC the display will show Level/Density = 59.055/78.74 = 0.75 or 75% level.

Level = 0.75 * 20” = 15” level

Interface level measurement

The combined level of the fluids in the tank must be above the top tap of the level transmitter connected
to the tank. The distance “h” is the height between the high and low side taps and must be at a known
constant distance. We want the lower tap (high side) to see the difference in height in the higher specific
gravity fluid in the bottom of the tank, minus the lower specific gravity fluid in the top of the tank. Say we
are trying to measure the level of water in a tank holding a hydrocarbon product.

If we know the s.g. of the hydrocarbon, we can calibrate the transmitter to an output of zero % signal, due
to cancellation of forces (pressure * area) on both sides. Then when the heavier water product enters the
tank we can measure this extra weight by the force it is excerpting on the transmitter in inches of water for
an interface height. If we do not know the density of the hydrocarbon product, we will do what we did in
the previous examples for finding the density of a fluid in a tank. We will put the density transmitter on the
upper fluid level and then divide the bottom level measurement by the density multiplier.

If the wet leg and the lighter hydrocarbon product in the tank are
the same fluid, the two levels (or forces) will cancel each other
out when there is no water in the tank. (The s.g. of the
hydrocarbon product must be known and consistent, otherwise
a density transmitter should be used to perform the level
calculation for accuracy).

The height in H2O in the tank = [(height of H2O) + (height of the

lighter fluid * s.g.)]

The height in H2O in the wet leg = (height of the lighter

fluid in the wet leg * s.g.)

The signal height in inches of H2O from the transmitter =

[(height of H2O) + (height of the lighter fluid * s.g.)] - (height of wet leg * s.g.) = measurement inches
H 2O

Sample problem: Find the interface level in the tank.

The distance between taps is h = 100 inches

Hydrocarbon s.g. = 0.7 (can be found from the density transmitter)
Water (H2O) s.g. = 1.0
Maximum interface level to be measured = 50 inches (50% full)

76
 First find the maximum level measurement in inches H2O on each side of the transmitter:
The tank level (high side):
(50” H2O ) + (50” hydrocarbon * 0.7) = 50 + 35 = 85 in H2O

The wet leg level (Low Side) :

(100” hydrocarbon * 0.7) = 70 in H2O

Max inches H2O seen by the transmitter:

(high side) – (low side) = 85 – 70 = 15 in H2O

Our transmitter will be calibrated to: 0” to 15” H2O = 4 to 20 mA signal. We are at 50% full,
therefore 100% transmitter signal or 20 mA. At 20 mA the DCS or PLC will see 100% input. We
will convert that signal to the actual height of water in the tank.

Find the difference of s.g. of the two fluids:

1.0 s.g. (H2O) – 0.7 s.g. (hydrocarbon) = 0.3 = 30%

 15 in H 2 O   15 
 =
 1.0 water  - 0.7 s.g. process fluid  .   0.3 s.g. 
= 50 inches = 100% of the maximum interface level
 

Proof it works:
The transmitter is measuring 3.75 in H2O.
Percentage of measurement = (measured inches by transmitter) / (full scale measurement or span).
This equals 3.75”/15” = 0.25 or 25% signal.
25% signal means the tank should have 12.5 inches of water in the bottom of the tank.

(measured inches H2O by transmitter) / (difference in specific gravities) = Actual height of tank water.
 3.75 in H 2 O   3.75 
 =
  0.3 s.g. 
= 12.5 inches = 25% of the maximum interface level
 1.0 water  - 0.7 s.g. process fluid 
 

Transmitter calculation:
(high side): (12.5” H2O) + (87.5” hydro * 0.7) = 12.5 + 61.25 = 73.75 in H2O
(low side): (100” * 0.7) = 70 in H2O
(high side) – (low side) = 73.75 – 70 = 3.75 in H2O

3.75” at the transmitter = 25% of signal = 3.75”/0.3 Δs.g. = 12.5” of water in the tank.
25% of the maximum allowable level of 50” in the tank would equal 12.5” of water.

Application Hint: The analog signal will be 25% or 8 mA. If we were using a 14-bit analog input card,
14
the bit count would be 2 or 16384 bits or steps. 16384 bits / 20 mA = 819.2 bits per mA. We need to
subtract our bias of 4 mA, so 4 mA * 819.2 bits = 3276.8 or 3277 bits.

We subtract to get the full scale bit count: 16384 bits – 3277 bits = 13107 bits = 100% or full scale.
100% span equals 13107 bits to the PLC or DCS. The bits will be scaled in the PLC to floating point.

Bits for level: 25% signal = 0.25 * 13107 = 3276.75 or 3277 bits input signal.
3277 bits (signal) / 13107 bits (full scale) = 0.250019 (the PLC scaled register value)

Bits for density: 70% signal = 0.7 * 13107 = 9174.9 or 9175 bits.
Remember we want the difference of the specific gravities so: 1.0-0.7 = 13107 – 9175 = 3932
bits. Δ s.g. = (3932 bits / 13107 bits) = 0.29999237 (the PLC scaled register value)

Water interface height in inches = transmitter measurement height in inches / delta density.

[0.250019(% level signal from transmitter) * 15 inches(full scale measurement)] / 0.29999237(Δ s.g.)
= 12.50127 inches water in the tank.

77
Radar and Ultrasonic level measurement

Time of flight technology

Time of flight devices are much newer technology than hydrostatic devices and consist of ultrasonic and
radar devices (non-contact and guided wave). Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.
Radar devices used for level measurement operate with electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths of 1.5
to 26 gigahertz. They are commonly known as microwaves. Non-contact radar and guide wave radar
operate using the same principle.

Ultrasonic level measurement

Ultrasonic waves are not electromagnetic waves; they are mechanical sound waves. The speed at which
mechanical waves travel is well known, about 1096 feet per second (334 meters/second) through air at
68°F. The level of the media can be determined by measuring the amount of time it takes for the
ultrasonic wave to travel to the liquid, reflect and travel back to the device.

Most ultrasonic transmitters and receivers operate from 10 KHz to 70

KHz, well above the frequency of audible sound waves. In order for
ultrasonic waves to be reflected, they need a media with a certain mass
(density). In level measuring applications, there must be enough mass in
the media (density) to reflect the sound waves.

Equations: L = E – D and D = C x T/2

L = media level
E = distance from measuring device to zero level
D = distance from measuring device to media
C = speed of sound or speed of light
T = amount of time for sound or light to travel from device to liquid
and back

Based on the figure to the right the level of media can be determined
from the time it takes for sound waves or electromagnetic waves to travel
from the measuring device to the media and back to the measuring
device.

Advantages Disadvantages
Accuracy independent of density Minimum density required
changes, dielectric or conductivity Foam is an issue
No calibration with medium False measurements with turbulent surfaces
required No vacuum (10 psia), no high pressures (44 psia)
Some come with SIL 2 and 3
ratings

Radar (non-contact)
Non-contact radar devices use microwaves in the 6 to 26 gigahertz range to measure liquid level in tanks.
Like the speed of sound, the speed of light (electromagnetic radiation) is well known, 186,000 miles per
second. Based on equations 1 and 2 above, the level can be calculated by knowing the dimensions of the
tank and measuring the amount of time it takes for the microwaves to reflect off the process media.

Why do radar level devices use microwaves compared to other types of energy in the electromagnetic
spectrum? Microwaves have little effect from type of gases, temperature, pressure, buildup and
condensate. However, the ability for the process medium to reflect or not reflect microwaves needs to be
taken into account. You can determine this ability to reflect light or microwaves by looking at the dielectric
number of the media.
78
The dielectric number is a measure of the polarization power of an insulating material or how much
charge can be stored in a type of material vs. air. Water has a dielectric number of 80 and is considered a
great reflector of microwaves. Air has a dielectric number of 1 and is considered a poor reflector of
microwaves. Aqueous mixtures tend to work well with radar due to the high dielectric number.

However, while hydrocarbon based liquids can be measured, the measuring ranges may be lower due to
lower dielectrics numbers. Petroleum oil has a dielectric number of 2 while gasoline has a dielectric
number between 2 and 3. Because, ambient conditions have little effect on microwaves, radar devices
are generally accepted as the most accurate level devices – some can measure level to ±0.5 mm or ±0.02
inches. This is one of the main reasons why suppliers, processors, and sellers of crude oil and other high-
cost materials will use a radar device as part of their tank gauging equipment to accurately measure level.

Guided Wave Radar (GWR)

Guided wave radar devices use the same principle as non-contact radar devices – it has the ability to
transmit and receive reflected microwave energy. Guided wave (sometimes called TDR – Time Domain
Reflectometry) operates at 1.5 GHz. While the electronics are mostly the same as non-contact radar, the
big difference is the wave guide. The wave guide is a metal rod or rope which guides the energy to the
process media. See the image to the left. The wave guide directs approximately 80% of the available
energy down the guide within an 8” radius.

GWR is suitable for a variety of level measurement applications including:

Unstable Process Conditions
- Changes in viscosity, density, or acidity do not affect accuracy
Agitated Surfaces
- Boiling surfaces, dust, foam, vapor do not effect device performance
- Recirculating fluids, propeller mixers, aeration tanks
Extreme Operating limits
- GWR performs well under extreme temperatures up to 600ºF
(315ºC) - Capable of withstanding pressures up to 580 PSIG (40 Bar)
Fine Powders and Sticky Fluids
- Paint, latex, animal fat and soy bean oil
- Saw dust, carbon black, titanium tetrachloride, salt, grain
- Oils or grease in tanks

Capacitance level measurement

Commercial capacitance level transmitters are proven devices and were first introduced
in the 1950’s. They are also extremely versatile in that they can measure the continuous
level and point level (a predetermined measurement point) of liquids, slurries, liquid-
liquid interface as well as point level of solids. Capacitance technology for level devices
has also become known as reactance, admittance or RF technology.

The capacitance calculation for empty and full is important because a minimum change
of capacitance of about 10 pF is needed for measurement. Last but not least, foam can
be tricky with capacitance probes. If the foam is conductive, the capacitance probe will
see the liquid and the foam as the complete level. Capacitance transmitters and
switches can come with SIL 2 and 3 ratings.

79
Radiometric (gamma) level measurement

Similar to radar devices, gamma level devices use electromagnetic

radiation emitters and receivers to measure the level. Gama devices
can be used for liquids and solids in tanks. Gamma devices use
electromagnetic radiation at a different part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They use gamma rays which have much higher frequency
and therefore smaller wavelengths vs. microwaves.

A source of gamma radiation, usually Cesium 137 or Cobalt 60

depending on the application, is placed in a lead source container.
The container can be closed (emitting no radiation) or open (emitting
gamma radiation). A detector, capable of measuring the amount of
radiation from the source, is installed on the other side of the tank. If
the tank is empty, the detector receives most of the available gamma
radiation. If the tank starts to be filled with liquid or solid, as the level
increases, the media will attenuate (absorb) some of the available
gamma radiation. When the tank is full, the detector receives very
little radiation compared to the empty tank scenario.

This is an excellent level transmitter for difficult level measurements,

such as catalyst levels in tanks that are in series with other tanks or the piping is in the way.

Gama devices can also be used to measure the thickness of materials as well, not just levels. Gama
devices can also be used as Irradiators. Irradiators are devices or facilities that expose products to
radiation to sterilize them, such as spices and some foods, milk containers, and hospital supplies.

Gamma level devices have been proven to be safe and reliable, if safety procedures and regulations are
followed. The safety of personnel is number one and the amount of radiation over time that an employee
can receive is well known and documented. All of this must be taken into account when purchasing
gamma level devices. However, used safely, some of the most critical level measurements can be made
with a gamma device.

Level gauging system in a tank farm

80
Calculating the volume in tanks

With a head pressure measurement, the height of the liquid in a tank can be measured. This is simple
with standard cylindrical tanks, but much more difficult with irregular shaped tanks.

Calculating the volume in tanks will probably not be on the CSE exam, but the formulas to calculate the
volume in these tanks is derived from calculus and included in the appendix of this guide. It will show how
to calculate the volume of spherical tanks and bullet tanks, so the volume can be calculated in the PLC or
DCS. See the section Calculating the Volume in Tanks for the volume formulas.

The tank ends can be flat (so the tank is just a horizontal cylinder). Tanks can come with different heads
(end caps). They can be dished (ASME F&D, or Flanged & Dished), 2:1 elliptical or hemispherical.

TANK VOLUME CALCULATION

 D  
 D  2  2 -h   D  
Horizontal Cylinder   cos 
-1
 -  -h   Dh-h   L
2 0.5

 2   D  2  
  2  

HEAD VOLUME CALCULATION

ASME F&D 0.215483h 2 1.5D-h 


Elliptical Head h 2 1.5D-h 
6


Hemispherical Head h 2 1.5D-h 
3

The liquid volumes in a horizontal cylinder, and ASME F&D, 2:1 elliptical and hemispherical heads are
-1
given by these equations. The (cos ) or (arccos) or (arcos) function must return radians, NOT degrees. In
the appendix, the volume for the tank section plus both heads combine into one formula. These formulas
can be modified using the formulas above for more accuracy with different heads (end caps).

The total volume of liquid in the tank is simply the liquid volume in the cylinder plus 2 times the liquid
volume in the heads. (Hint: multiply tank diameter “D” x % level signal to get “h” (the height shown on the
HMI or display), and then calculate the total tank volume with the math formula in the appendix.
.

81
82
 Flow Measurement and Calibration

Applying flow measurement devices

Like level measurement, flow measurement is also head pressure and zero elevation based. Head
pressure is the measure of the endowed potential energy in the system. The transmitter measurement is
from how high the fluid falls, it is velocity squared. The velocity is squared due to the fact that the fluid is
constantly being accelerated through
the pipe, as potential energy is endowed
into the fluid by the pump‘s head
pressure.

Head pressure is lost across the orifice

element due to the fact that, energy loss
is the product of energy flow multiplied
by the resistance thought which it flows
(see figure at right).

Sizing of the orifice will be discussed in

detail in the subsection on Orifice Type
Meters. You should familiarize yourself
with the different types of flow meters,
their applications, and their ISA
symbols. The ISA P&ID symbols are
shown below.

Turndown ratio in a flow meter

The turndown ratio of a flow meter is its ability to measure with acceptable accuracy the ratio of maximum
flow rate measurement to minimum flow rate measurement. This is also known as the rangeability of the
flow meter. Turndown ratio is important when choosing a flow meter technology for a specific application.
If a gas flow to be measured will have a maximum measured flow rate of 1,000,000 scfm (standard cubic
feet per minute) and a minimum measured flow rate of 100,000 scfm, the meter needs to have a minimum
turndown ratio of 10:1 (1,000,000 / 100,000). For example, if the meter had an advertised turndown ratio
of 20:1 and maximum flow rate measurement of 2,000,000 scfm, then the minimum measureable flow
rate would be 100,000 scfm.

The turndown ratio of each type of meter is limited by constraints of the manufacturing process and
materials used, as well as practical application considerations. For example, orifice meters create a
pressure drop in the measured fluid proportional to the square of the velocity.

ISA standard flow meter symbols

Flow Nozzle Magnetic Meter Orifice Meter Pitot Meter

Sonic or Doppler Turbine Meter Venturi Tube Meter Vortex Meter

83
Flow meter applications chart

Sensor Rangeability Accuracy Advantages Disadvantages

-low cost
-high pressure loss
orifice 3.5:1 2-4% of full span -extensive industrial
-plugging with slurries
practice
-lower pressure loss than
-high cost
venturi 3.5:1 1% of full span orifice
-line under 15 cm
-slurries do not plug
-good for slurry service -higher cost than orifice
flow nozzle 3.5:1 2% full span -intermediate plate
pressure loss -limited pipe sizes
elbow meter 3:1 5-10% of full span -low pressure loss -very poor accuracy
-low pressure loss -poor performance with
Annubar 3:1 0.5-1.5% of full span
-large pipe diameters dirty or sticky fluids
-high cost
-wide rangeability
turbine 20:1 0.25% of measurement -strainer needed,
-good accuracy
especially for slurries
-wide rangeability
Vortex -insensitive to variations
10:1 1% of measurement -expensive
shedding in density, temperature,
pressure, and viscosity
-high pressure drop
positive -high rangeability
10:1 or greater 0.5% of measurement -damaged by flow surge
displacement -good accuracy
or solids

Coriolis 0.05-0.15% of
100:1 -good accuracy -expensive
mass flow measurement

Pressure tappings (Impulse Line Taps)

There are three standard positions for pressure tappings (also called taps), commonly named as follows:
 Corner taps placed immediately upstream and downstream of the plate; convenient when the
plate is provided with an orifice carrier incorporating tappings
 D and D/2 taps or radius taps or vena contracta taps, placed one pipe diameter upstream and
half a pipe diameter downstream of the plate
 Flange taps placed 25.4mm (1 inch) upstream and downstream of the plate, normally within
specialized pipe flanges.

These types are covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards. Other types include
 2½D and 8D taps or recovery taps placed 2.5 pipe diameters upstream and 8 diameters
downstream, at which point the measured differential is equal to the unrecoverable pressure
loss caused by the orifice
 Vena contracta tappings placed one pipe diameter upstream and at a position of 0.3 to 0.9
diameters downstream, depending on the orifice type and size relative to the pipe, in the plane
of minimum fluid pressure.

The measured differential pressure differs for each combination and so the coefficient of discharge used
in flow calculations depends partly on the tapping positions.

84
The simplest installations use single tappings upstream and downstream, but in some circumstances
these may be unreliable; they might be blocked by solids or gas-bubbles, or the flow profile might be
uneven so that the pressures at the tappings are higher or lower than the average in those planes. In
these situations, multiple tappings can be used, arranged circumferentially around the pipe and joined by
a piezometer ring or in the case of corner taps, annular slots running completely around the internal
circumference of the orifice carrier.

Orifice tap dimensions and impulse line connections

Flow meter and pressure meter impulse line connections

ΔP=The Square of ΔP=The Process

Process Fluid’s Fluid’s Pressure
Velocity

Low Side Connected Low Side is Open to

Down Stream of Orifice the Atmosphere
Configuration for Flow Configuration for Pressure

Orifice carrier for quick change out of orifice, no line flange disassembly

85
Flow meter impulse lines connections

Gas or Air Installation Steam or Liquid Installations

(taps on the top side of the pipe) (taps on the side of the pipe)
Any condensate will drip back into the pipe Note: avoid bottom taps so impulse lines
do not plug with debris or settlements

86
 Standard Mass Flow Meter and Orifice Installation

Typical Rosemount Annubar or Pitot Tube installation

87
Various Types of Flow Meters

Click image to watch video of flow meter measuring principals

If the Flow Meters video does not run in your PDF viewer, then click the button below to run the MP4
video from the official web site of http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/flow_meters.mp4

88
Applying the Bernoulli principle for flow control

The process control industry covers a wide variety of applications of elements and final correction
devices. The Control Systems Engineer (CSE) examination encompasses a broad range of valve
applications and sizing for different head or pressure devices, possibly an orifice meter; a turbine meter;
pressure relief valve or safety rupture disk. This manual will cover the essential basics for the CSE
examination.

Let’s start by reviewing the energy equation and its applicable laws governing flow control for processes.
Relationship of the Energy Equation and flow rate through a pipe or head measurement device:
V12 p1 V22 p2
Z1    Z2   AV  A2V2
 
1 1
2g 2g

These equations are very useful on the CSE examination

For change in pressure anywhere in the piping system:

F 
2

p1 F1  p2 F
2
2
2
p2   1  p1
 F2 
For change in head pressure across the flow measurement element:
F 
2

h1 F  h2 F1
2
2 2
h2   2  h1
 F1 
For calculating the Reynolds Number of a fluid to determine laminar or turbulent flow
characteristics:
3160 * flow rate( gpm) * Specific Gravity 6.316 * Flow Rate( LB / Hr )
Re = ; for liquids Re = ; for vapors
Pipe ID (inches ) * Viscosity (cSt ) Pipe ID (inches ) * Viscosity (cSt )

7740*Velocity ( ft / sec) * Pipe ID(inches ) v  m s  D  mm 

Re = ; for liquids Re = 1000 ; metric
Viscosity (cST )   cSt 

89
Types of Head Pressure-Based Meters

There are several types of flow meter that rely on Bernoulli's principle, either by measuring the differential
pressure (ΔP) within a constriction, or by measuring the difference between static and stagnation (impact)
pressures to derive the fluid velocity.

Venturi meter
A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors measure the differential
pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the
transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times. The coefficient of
discharge of ‘C’, in Venturi meters ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The first large-scale Venturi meter to
measure liquid flows were developed by Clemens Herschel who used them to measure small and large
flows of water and wastewater beginning at the end of the 19th century.

ISO 5167 Orifice Plate

An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow; it constricts the flow, and measuring
the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of Venturi
meter, but with higher energy losses. There are three basic types of orifice plates: concentric, eccentric,
and segmental.

Dall tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate.
As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop
caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm
pressure transducers with a digital readout. Since these meters have significantly lower permanent
pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipe
systems. Differential pressure produced by a dall tube is higher than the venturi tube or nozzle, all of
them having the same throat diameters.

Pitot-Static tube
A Pitot-Static tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by differential
pressure. The difference of the static pressure and stagnation (impact) pressure. Bernoulli's equation is
2
used to calculate the dynamic pressure which is the kinetic energy of the fluid V =2gh/s.g. (the difference
of the height of the water column of the fluid) and therefore the fluid’s velocity. Pitot tubes are often used
to measure the air speed of a plane.

Multi-hole pressure probe

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of the Pitot tube to more than
one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe)
on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the
direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three holes
arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction
of more holes (e.g., five holes arranged in a "plus" formation) allows measurement of the three-
dimensional velocity vector.

Cone meters
Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched in 1985 by McCrometer in
Hemet, CA. While working with the same basic principles as Venturi and Orifice type ΔP or DP meters,
cone meters don’t require the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone acts as a conditioning
device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements are between 0-5 diameters
compared to upstream diameters of up to 22 diameters for an orifice plate or Venturi. Because cone
meters are generally of welded construction, it is recommended they are always calibrated prior to
service. The inevitably effects of heat caused by welding, can cause distortions and other effects that
prevent tabular data on discharge coefficients with respect to line size, beta ratio and operating Reynolds

90
Numbers from being collected and published. Calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty up to +/-0.5%.
Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty of +/-5.0%.

Annubar meters (also reference averaging pitot tubes)

A Rosemount Annubar primary element is an averaging Pitot tube similar to a single point pitot tube used
to measure the flow of gas, steam, or liquid in a pipe. An Annubar primary element or Annubar averaging
Pitot tube provides better accuracy than single point Pitot tubes.

The Pitot tube measures the difference between the static pressure and the flowing pressure of the media
in the pipe. The volumetric flow is calculated from that difference using Bernoulli's principle and taking into
account the pipe inside diameter.

The biggest difference between an Annubar averaging Pitot tube and a Pitot tube is that an Annubar
averaging Pitot tube takes multiple samples across a section of a pipe or duct. In this way, it averages the
differential pressures encountered accounting for variations in flow across the section. A Pitot tube will
give a similar reading if the tip is located at a point in the pipe cross section where the flowing velocity is
close to the average velocity.

The T-Shape cross section of the Rosemount Annubar primary element allows for increased signal
strength and reduced signal noise compared to other averaging Pitot tube shapes

Important note: Pitot tubes and Annubars must be supported in high velocity fluids, due to vortex
sheading. High frequencies can weaken the tube at the welds and it can snap off inside the pipe. See the
manufacturer’s instructions for calculations and mounting procedures for installation in high velocity fluids.

Differential head meter calculations

Classic fluid mechanics model

The equation for flow through an orifice is a simple one to understand. Only the units are somewhat
awkward, but can be easily converted into terms that make them useful.
Q = AV
Q = The flow in cubic feet per second (ft3/sec).
A = The area of the orifice in square feet (ft2).
V = The velocity of the liquid in feet per second (ft/sec)

Experience shows that the actual flow is quite different than calculated because of the different shapes of
the various orifices. Look at the following diagrams and you will see some of these popular shapes. Each
has been assigned a "K" value.

91
“K” value flow coefficients

We will enter the "K" value into our equation and the new equation becomes:
Q = AVK

To make the equation easier to handle we can express the velocity "V" as a function of head in feet of
water “H”: Note: water column can be expressed as (WC) or (H2O).

V2
 H or V  2 gH or V  64.34 * H  8.02 * H
2g

Where:

g = 32.2 ft/sec2
H = Head across the orifice in feet. Use the differential head across the orifice.

From your previous studies, remember to convert pressure to head, use these formulas:

27.731 in 1 ft 2.31092 ft
* 
1 psi 12 in 1 psi

It would also make sense to convert some of the terms in our equation to terms that are more convenient
to use. As an example:

"Q" can be converted from cubic feet per second to gallons per minute:

1 ft3/sec = 448.831 gpm

92
 1728 in3 1 gal 7.4805 gal 60sec 448.831gpm
*  * 
1 ft 3 231 in3 1 ft 3 1min 1 ft 3

The area in square feet ("A”) can be converted to square inches:

2
1 ft = 144 square inches

Putting all of this together gives us a new formula that looks like this:

A *8.02 * 448.831* K * H
Qgpm   25.0 * A * K * H
144

Let's plug in some numbers and calculate a flow through a typical orifice.

Where:

H = 20 feet
A = 0.049 square inches
K = 0.62

Qgpm  0.049 * 25.0 * 0.62 * 20

Q = 3.397 gallons per minute

If we want to solve for the orifice area:

Qgpm 3.397
A   0.049in2
25.0* K * H 25.0*0.62* 20

Remember…

27.731 inches = 1 psi and Head Meters are typically in inches of water head, so let’s change the feet into
inches (note: lower case “h” is now head in inches):
h
Qgpm  A * 25.0 * K * H  A * 25.0 * K *  A * 25.0 * K * 0.288675* h
12
Qgpm  A * 7.21688 * K * h

Let's plug in some numbers and calculate a flow through a typical orifice.

Where:

h = 240 inches (20 feet)

A = 0.049 square inches
K = 0.62

Qgpm  0.049 * 7.21688 * 0.62 * 240

Qgpm
= 3.396 gallons per minute

93
We made our formula more user friendly by substituting in some conversions and now we can make our
calculations in gallons per minute and the area of the orifice hole in square inches, but the flow rate
formula would be much better if we could measure the orifice diameter rather than the orifice area. This is
a much more practical way to size an orifice. Use the following equation:

d2 4A
A or d 
4 

Inserting the 0.049 square inches we calculated from the prior formula we get

4*0.049
d  0.250 inches or 1 inch
 4

I took you through this exercise to show you how the formulas we use in obtaining flow rates are derived.
We will re-write the flow and orifice diameter formulas again and maybe this time they will be simpler to
use. We will start with the flow rate formula and then correct for the orifice formula:

d2 4A
A or d  so A  0.7854d 2
4 

Substitute the previous formula in the flow equation for “A” and we get…


Qgpm  A * 7.21688* K * h or d 2 * 7.21688* K * h
4

Ignoring the rounding errors through the previous equations we get:

Qgpm  5.667 * d 2 * K * h

The formula for calculating the orifice diameter becomes:

Qgpm Qgpm
d2  or... d 
5.667 * K * h 5.667 * K * h

Let's see if the formula still works. Here are the numbers:

 d = .250 or 1/4 inch

 K = 0.620
 Q = required flow rate of 3.4 gallons per minute
 h = 240 inches

We will begin by solving for flow (Q)

Qgpm  5.667 * 0.252 * 0.62 * 240 = 3.402 gpm

Now let's try it to find the orifice size.

Qgpm 3.402 1
d   0.25 inches or inch
5.667 * K * h 54.44 4

94
The formula has proven correct; there is less than 1/1000th of an inch and 6/100th of a gallon error. All of
these above numbers were generated assuming that you were moving water through the orifice at 60°F.
If you are making calculations for a liquid other than water or at a temperature other than 60°F, you will
have to factor in the specific gravity of that liquid compared to water.

The beta ratio

d
The ratio of has a special name. It is called the “beta ratio” of the orifice plate or head measuring
D
element.

Where:

d = Orifice hole diameter or head restriction element throat diameter.

D = The exact internal diameter of the pipe carrying the fluid (related to pipe schedule and material)

We will be using the beta ratio (  ) over and over in our studies of flow and pressure relief devices.

d
Some might say if greater than 30% (0.3), use is a modifier formula. The upcoming industrial standard
D
formulas we will use to for solving problems on CSE examination will show the modifier formula gives
results that are much greater that the actual flow rate.

The modifier (M) looks like this:

1
M 4
d
1  
D

When you are using the modifier, the formulas look like this:

Qgpm  5.667 * d 2 * K * h * M

Qgpm
d
5.667 * K * h * M

Now we will see what happens when a 0.250 inch (1/4) orifice is put into a smaller cross section 0.5 inch
(1/2) pipe, assuming the other numbers stay the same:

4 4
 d   0.250 
     0.0625
 D   0.500 

1
M  1.0328
1  0.0625

This means that you would have to multiply by 1.0328 so the 3.402 gpm we got in the last calculation
would become 3.514 gpm.
95
Pipe Size Is Important - Remember!

The internal diameter of real pipe does not equal the nominal pipe size. Example: 1/2-inch schedule 40
pipe has an internal diameter (0.622) inches and 8-inch schedule 40 pipe equals (7.981) inches.
Let’s recalculate the flow equation with the corrected size:

4 4
 d   0.250 
     0.0261
 D   0.622 

1
M  1.0133
1  0.0261

This means that you would have to multiply by 1.0133 so the 3.402 gpm we got in the standard
calculation would become 3.447 gpm.

That is a difference of 3.514 – 3.447 = 0.067 gpm. This equals 4.02 gallons error in 1 hour (0.067 gpm *
60 min = 4.02 gpm). A typical work year is 8760. That is an error of 35,215.2 gallons in one year. It can
be seen in much larger flow rate, these errors can add up to millions of dollars in loss or over charges,
due to inaccuracies in measurement.

We will address handling these errors in the following standard equations used for real world industrial
flow measurements. The Spink equation, taught in the ISA CSE review course and the ISO 5167
equations used by most companies and software.

Other factors also affect the accuracy of the measurement

 The placement of the measurement instrument’s line taps. (They are called impulse lines)
 Solids buildup inside the piping. Calcium in water applications and coke in hot oil applications are
typical. (The interior pipe diameter varies). Higher temperature usually hastens the solids buildup.
 The specific gravity of the fluid being measured, which can also change with temperature.
 Shape and design of the orifice plate and any defects, such as nicks in the orifice hole of the plate.
(nicks can cause up to 1% error in measurement)
 Shape and design of restriction elements other than just an orifice plate

96
Standard Flow Measurement Equations

There are many variations of flow equations. Books dedicated to flow measurement alone, can be over
500 to 1000 pages. They are dedicated to just how to take flow measurements. There are commercially
available software packages for calculating flow measurements, such as Flowel. This software can cost
in the area of $3,000. Most calculations do not need to be this accurate. The Spink equation is my
favorite, but we will list others used by the top manufactures of flow measurement equipment.

The most popular standard equations for flow calculation are:

 Spink
 ISO 5167
 AGA3 (now API-MPMS-14.3)
 AGA5/7/8
 AGA9
 API Manual for Petroleum Measurement

See the attachments with this manual for details on how to use these calculations for flow
measurement.

Spink - Flow Measurement Equation

The basic Spink equation for liquid flow through an orifice plate is:

Volume Flow Mass Flow Note:

h h lb.
Q  5.667 SD 2 Qm  5.667  SD 2   8.3378 @ 60F  for water
Gf Gf gal.

The book, ‘Principles and Practice of Flow Meter Engineering’ by L.K. Spink, first published in 1930, is
generally recognized as the first, and for many years the only, definitive collected ‘body of knowledge’
appertaining to industrial flow measurement. Undergoing nine revisions, the last addition was printed in
1978 – 21 years after Spink’s death.

Another book of authority on the subject of flow is the ‘Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook’ by
Richard Miller. This is a vey in depth book almost 2 inches thick and can be found at most libraries or
obtained through inter-library loan. This book is also used by many colleges.

97
The basic Spink equation derived

Let us review the math that derives this volumetric flow equation.

V 2  2gH

V  2 gH

Q  AV

Q  A 2 gH

h
H Note: h is in inches, put it in feet
12G f

h
Q  A 2g
12G f

 2g A h 

Q( gpm)  time scaling  volume scaling       Note: scale inches to feet
 1 144
 12G f 


 60sec 1728 in 3  2 g   d 2 h
Q( gpm)    3 
  
 1min 231 in  12 4 144 Gf

 60sec 1728 in 3  64.34 ft  h in

Q( gpm)        d in  
2
3 
 1min 231in  12 in sec 4 144 in
2 2
Gf

60 sec 7.4805 gal 2.3155 ft  0.00545 2 h in

Q( gpm)       d in   ft 2 
min ft 3
in sec  in 2
 Gf

Ignoring the rounding errors accumulated, we derive:

60 h h gal
Q( gpm)   7.4805 gal  2.3155  0.00545  d 2   5.667  d 2  
min Gf G f min
h
Q( gpm)  5.667  d 2 
Gf

Add factor for coefficients of friction, viscosity, convergence, and divergence.

h
Q( gpm)  5.667  Kd 2 
Gf

98
Note: S = the Spink factor used for sizing orifice flow measurements.
Since the K (the constant) and d (orifice diameter) are unknowns:

 D2   d2 
Note that  2   1 and S  K  2 
D  D 
2
We will cancel the orifice diameter (d ) with “S” and we are left with “S” times the pipe internal diameter
2
squared, (D )…

D2 h Kd 2 h h
Q( gpm)  5.667  Kd 2 * 2
 = 5.667  2
* D2  = 5.667 SD 2
D Gf D Gf Gf

The basic Spink equation for liquid

The basic equation for liquid through an orifice or restriction type device is:

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf

Using the sizing equation and the Spink sizing factor table, we can accurately size the orifice diameter
and the dimensions for the orifices taps; pipe taps; nozzle and venturi; lo-loss tube; and dall (flow) tube
for flow measurement.

The basic Spink equation for gas and vapor

The basic equation for gas or vapor through an orifice or restriction type device is:

Tabs hPf
Q( scfh)  218.4 SD 2
Pabs Tf G f

If the conditions are standard 60°F and 14.7psia then the formula can be reduced to:

hPf
Q ( scfh)  7,727 SD 2 ; ONLY at 60°F and 14.7 psia conditions
Tf G f

The basic Spink equation for steam

W ( pounds per hour )  359SD2 h f

Where:

G f  Specific gravity, for a gas is

 molecular weight of gas 
28.97  is the M.W. of air 

Gf  Specific gravity, for a fluid is

 liquid weight of fluid 
 liquid weight of water 
h  Head in inches

Pabs  Reference pressure  psi absolute 

99
Pf  Fluid operating pressure  psi absolute 
Tabs  Reference temperature  temperature absolute in Rankin,  F  460
Tf  Fluid operating temperature temperature absolute in Rankin,  F  460 
 f  Specific weight of the steam or vapor in pounds per cubic foot  operating cond .

Let's compare the Spink equation to basic fluid mechanics equation we studied earlier. Here are the
numbers:

 d = .250 or 1/4 inch (orifice diameter)

 D = 0.622 inches (½ inch Sch 40 pipe internal diameter)
 h = 240 inches

We will begin by solving for beta:

0.25
 =0.402
0.662

From table 3 – The Spink Factor (S), S=0.0988 for a beta of 0.402 (interpolate):

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2  5.667 * 0.0988* 0.622 2 * 240  3.356 gpm
Gf

Classic fluid mechanics with the “K” factor gave us Qgpm = 3.404 gpm.
With the K” factor and “M” factor became Qgpm = 3.445 gpm.
The Spinks equation offers a much more accurate measurement than using classical fluid mechanics.
The Spink equation has many more modifiers detailed in the Spink ‘Principles and Practice of Flow Meter
Engineering’ book, but this simple equation will work fine for the CSE examination.

Applications of the Beta and Spink factors

Various Orifice plate configurations Orifice, flow nozzle and venturi tubes

100
Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S)

Beta Square Full-Flow Nozzle Lo-Loss Dall Quadrant

or Edged (Pipe) and Tube (Flow) Edged
d/D Orifice; 2½D Venturi Tube Orifice
Ratio Flange and
Corner 8D
or Taps
Radius
Taps
0.100 0.005990 0.006100
0.125 0.009364 0.009591
0.150 0.01349 0.01389
0.175 0.01839 0.01902
0.200 0.02402 0.02499 0.0305
0.225 0.03044 0.03183 0.0390
0.250 0.03760 0.03957 0.0484
0.275 0.04558 0.04826 0.0587
0.300 0.05432 0.05796 0.08858 0.0700
0.325 0.06390 0.06874 0.1041 0.0824
0.350 0.07429 0.08086 0.1210 0.1048 0.0959
0.375 0.08559 0.09390 0.1392 0.1198 0.1106
0.400 0.09776 0.1085 0.1588 0.1356 0.1170 0.1267
0.425 0.1109 0.1247 0.1800 0.1527 0.1335 0.1443
0.450 0.1251 0.1426 0.2026 0.1705 0.1500 0.1635
0.475 0.1404 0.1625 0.2270 0.1900 0.1665 0.1844
0.500 0.1568 0.1845 0.2530 0.2098 0.1830 0.207
0.525 0.1745 0.2090 0.2810 0.2312 0.2044 0.232
0.550 0.1937 0.2362 0.3110 0.2539 0.2258 0.260
0.575 0.2144 0.2664 0.3433 0.2783 0.2472 0.292
0.600 0.2369 0.3002 0.3781 0.3041 0.2685 0.326
0.625 0.2614 0.3377 0.4159 0.3318 0.2956 0.364
0.650 0.2879 0.3796 0.4568 0.3617 0.3228
0.675 0.3171 0.4262 0.5016 0.3939 0.3499
0.700 0.3488 0.4782 0.5509 0.4289 0.3770
0.725 0.3838 0.6054 0.4846 0.4100
0.750 0.4222 0.6667 0.5111 0.4430
0.775 0.4646 0.5598 0.4840
0.800 0.5113 0.6153 0.5250
0.820 0.6666 0.5635

101
ISO 5167 - Flow Measurement Equation

ISO 5167 (1991) and ASME MFC-3M (2004) - The Most Popular

C 
Mass Flow Rate: qm  K *  * A * 2 g * m * p  * d 2 * 2 1p
1  4 4
qm
Volumetric Flow Rate: qv 
1
qm = The mass flow rate kg/m3/s
qv = The volumetric mass flow rate m 3/s.
 = The expansibility factor.
C = The discharge coefficient.
p1 = The upstream pressure before the orifice in Pa.
p 2 = The downstream pressure after the orifice in Pa.
p = The differential pressure across the orifice in Pa.
1 = The density of the fluid kg/m 3.
 = The ratio of orifice diameter to exact interior piping diameter in meters.
V = The fluid velocity in meters per second.

The expansibility factor

The variable or coefficient expresses the different compressibility of different fluids (gases, steam); that is,
molecules are—depending on their form—more or less compressed when passing the orifice, where: ≤ 1.
Water and other liquids are considered incompressible and  = 1.

This makes calculations much simpler. The size of ε depends on the pressure relation and the isentropic
coefficient ‘K’ (note: this is a different ‘K’ than used previously, it is the heat ratio factor); that is, the
relation between a relative change in pressure and the corresponding relative change in density. ‘K’ is a
property that is different for different media and varies also with the pressure and temperature of the
medium. For many gases there are no published data for ‘K’. The standard recommends using CP/CV.

 1

 
 1   0.351  0.256 *  4  0.93*  8  * 1   2  
p K
   p1  
Expansibility factor
 

Note:   1 for incompressible fluids

102
The discharge coefficient
The variable or coefficient ‘ C ’ determines the relation between the real flow through a ‘primary device’
and the theoretical possible flow. For a given ‘primary device’ this dimensionless parameter is determined
using an incompressible fluid. With fixed geometry, ‘ C ’ only depends on the actual Reynolds number
‘Re’.

In a way, ‘C ’ can be regarded as a ‘calibration constant’ for a ‘primary device’. Generally in different
installations, that are geometrically equivalent and sense the same flow conditions and are characterized
by the same Reynolds number, render the same value for ‘ C ’.

Remember: ‘Re’ varies with pressure, temperature, viscosity and flow, therefore so does ‘ C ’.

The ISO 5167 equation explained

0.7
 106 *  
0.5961  0.0261*   0.216 *   0.000521* 
2 8

C=  ReD  Data on pipe orifice
 10 *  6
0.3 plate medium
  0.0188  0.0063*   *  3.5 *  
 ReD 
4
  0.043  0.080* e-10L1  0.123* e7L1  * 1  0.11*   *
Data on upstream
1  4 pressure tappings

0.031*  M2 -0.8*M1.1
2 * 
1.3 Data on downstream
pressure tappings

d
= relation between orifice and pipe diameter Beta Ratio
D

0.8 Reader-Harris
 19000 *  
A  A function of β and Re D Gallagher
 Re D  Equation

Reader-Harris
 2 * L2 
M2    M 2 function of β and L 2 Gallagher
 1-  Equation

for example, 40°C, 3m/s flow

DV 1
Re  1.968in / 12in / ft  * 9.842ft / sec * 1.92slugs / ft 3
 Re   229,559
English Units 1.35 * 10-5 lb  sec/ ft 2

for example, 40°C, 3m/s flow

DV 1
Re  0.050m * 3m / s * 992.2kg / m3
 Re   226,900
0.656 * 10-3 N  s / m 2
Metric Units

103
Only the three following pairs of values for L 1 and L 2 are valid:

L1 = L 2 = 0 corner tappings

0.0254
L1 = L 2 = flange tappings
D
L1 = 1
D and D/2 tappings
L 2 = 0.47

Let's compare the ISO 5167 equation to the Spink equation formula and to basic fluid mechanics. Here
are the numbers:

 d = .250 inch = 0.00635 meters

 D = 0.622 inches = 0.0157988 meters
 V = 3.5899 ft/s = 1.0942 m/s
 Operating Temperature = 60°F = 20°C
 Orifice taps are flange tappings
  = 4.02
 Δh = 240 inches = 8.66426 psi = 6.096 meters H2O
 p = Δh = 59737.9693 Pa
  = 1.005 N*s/m2
 1 = 998.992 kg/m3

Solve for the Reynolds number ‘Re’

DV 1 0.00635m * 1.0942m / s * 998.992kg / m3

Re    6906.633
 1.005 * 10-3 N  s / m2

Solve for the coefficient ‘C’

First we will solve for the needed variables:

0.8
 19000 *  
0.8
 19000 * 0.402 
A     1.0839
 ReD   6906.633 

0.0254 0.0254
L1 =L2 =   1.6077
D 0.0157988

 2 * L 2   2 *1.6077 
M2      5.3769
 1-   1-0.402 

Next we will solve for ‘C’ in the three parts as shown previously C1+C2+C3 = C

Data on pipe orifice plate medium:

104
 0.7
 106 *  
C1  0.5961  0.0261*   0.216 *   0.000521* 
2 8

 Re D 
0.3
 106 *  
  0.0188  0.0063*   *  3.5
* 
 Re D 
0.7
 106 * (0.402) 
C1  0.5961  0.0261* (0.402)  0.216 * (0.402)  0.000521* 
2 8

 6906.633 
0.3
 106 * (0.402) 
  0.0188  0.0063*1.0839  * (0.402) *  3.5
  0.6127
 6906.633 

Data on upstream pressure tappings:

4
C2   0.043  0.080 * e-10L1  0.123* e7L1  * 1  0.11*   *
1  4

 
C2  0.043  0.080 * e-101.6077   0.123* e71.6077  * 1  0.11*1.0839  *
0.4024
1  0.4024
 0.001016

Data on downstream pressure tappings:

C3  0.031*  M2 -0.8*M1.1
2 *
1.3
 0.031*  5.3769-0.8*5.37691.1  *0.4021.3  0.002725

Sum solutions for “C” as C1+C2+C3 = C

C  0.6127  0.001016 +  -0.002725  0.61099 or 0.611

Solve for mass flow rate:

(Note: This is the same ‘K’ as used in the fluid mechanics examples)
C 
qm  K *  * A * 2 g * m * p  * d 2 * 2 1p
1  4 4
0.611 
qm  * 0.006352 * 2  998.992  59,737.9693   0.2142
1  0.402 4 4

Solve for volumetric flow rate

qm
qv 
1
0.2142
qv   0.0002144m3
998.992
3
0.0002144m 60sec 61023.7in3 1gal
gpm  * * *  3.39856 or 3.399gpm
1sec 1min 1m3 231in3

105
Equation Comparison Summary

Fluid 60 °F
0.5 inch Schedule 40 Pipe, Beta = 0.4
Classic Fluid Mechanics (NO beta 3.404 gpm Orifice=0.25 in, Head=240 in H2O
compensation)
Classic Fluid Mechanics (w/ beta 3.516 gpm Orifice=0.25 in, Head=240 in H2O
compensation)
Spink Basic Equation (uncompensated) 3.356 gpm Orifice=0.25 in, Head=240 in H2O
ISO 5167 Equation 3.399 gpm Orifice=0.25 in, Head=240 in H2O

Fluid 60 °F
8-inch Schedule 40 Pipe, Beta = 0.5
Classic Fluid Mechanics (NO beta 559.894 gpm Orifice=3.9905 in, Head=100 in H2O
compensation)
Classic Fluid Mechanics (w/ beta 578.256 gpm Orifice=3.9905 in, Head=100 in H2O
compensation)
Spink Basic Equation 565.997 gpm Orifice=3.9905 in, Head=100 in H2O
ISO 5167 Equation 564.216 gpm Orifice=3.9905 in, Head=100 in H2O

There is a 0.315% flow rate disagreement between the Spinks and ISO 5167 on the larger flow rate and a
1.27% disagreement on the smaller flow rate.

Sizing orifice type devices for flow measurement - worked examples

Note: Table 3 – The Spink Factor (Orifice Sizing Factor) will be used to size the orifice devices

Liquid Sample Problem: Gasoline is carried in a 3-inch schedule 40 pipe (ID=3.068). A

concentric sharp-edged orifice plate, with corner taps, is used to measure the flow. If the Beta Ratio
2 2
(d /D ) is 0.500, maximum flow rate is 100 gpm, and specific gravity G f = 0.75, what is the
differential head and span of the flow meter transmitter?

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf
From Table 3 the Spink factor: Beta = 0.500, S=0.1568
h
100( gpm)  5.667  0.1568 3.068
2

0.75
100( gpm) h

5.667  0.1568  3.068 
2
0.75

2
 100( gpm)   h 
2

   
 8.3639   0.75 

106
 h
11.95612 
0.75

142.95  0.75  h

107.21  h (span)

Calibrate the transmitter from 0% to 100% and 4 mA to 20 mA.

We only need 107.21 inches H2O, but you may want calibrate the transmitter in some even span of
measurement, like the range of 0 to 110 inches H 2O. 110 inches H2O will provide a full scale flow of
101.29 gpm.

Steam Sample Problem: Dry saturated steam is carried in an 8-inch schedule 80 pipe
(ID=7.625). A flow nozzle is used to measure the flow. If the Beta Ratio is 0.450, and the static
pressure is 345.3 psig, what is the flow rate with a differential head pressure of 200 inches H 2O
across the meter?

W ( pounds per hour )  359SD2 h f

Find the density from Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam. A gauge pressure of 345.3 gives
a specific volume of 1.2895.

lb 1
Density in =
ft 3 ft 3
specific volume in
lb
1
f =  0.7755
1.2895

From Table 3 the Spink factor: Beta = 0.4500, S=0.2026

W ( pounds per hour )  359  0.2026 7.625  200 0.7755  52,664.68 lb / hr

2

Gas Sample problem: Natural gas is carried in a 6-inch schedule 40 pipe (ID=6.065). Flowing
temperature is 60⁰F at 30 psig pressure. A concentric sharp-edged orifice plate, with flange taps, is
used to measure the flow. If maximum flow rate is 4,000,000 scf per day; specific gravity Gf = 0.60,
and the differential head of the flow meter transmitter is 50 inches H 2O. What is the orifice hole bore
diameter?

Tabs hPf
Q( scfh)  218.4 SD 2
Pabs Tf G f

Change flow from per day to per hour and temperature and pressure to absolute:

 4,000,000 scf   1 day 

    166,666.7 scfh
 day   24 hour 

107
166,666.7  218.4 S  6.065 
2 520  50  30  14.7 
14.7  520  (0.60)

166,667  218.4S  6.065 

520  50  44.7   759, 216.398 S
 
2

14.7  520  (0.60)

Find the “S” sizing factor:

166,666.7
 S  0.2195
759, 216.398

From Table 3:

Beta = 0.575 S = 0.2144

Beta = 0.600 S = 0.2369

This will require interpolation:

 S desired - S lower value  

Beta     Beta upper value - Beta lower value  
 S upper value - S lower value  
 Beta lower value

 0.2195  0.2144  
Beta     0.600  0.575    0.575  0.5807
 0.2369  0.2144  

Find the orifice hole diameter:

d = Beta  pipe ID = hole size

d  0.5807  6.065  3.522inches

For the calibrated range of the transmitter 0 to 50 inches H2O, and a flow rate of 166,666.7 scfh or
4,000,000 scfd, the orifice hole bore diameter = 3.522 inches

108
Mass flow measurement and control

Note: Mass flow calculations will probably not be presented on the CSE exam. They have been
added for information only.

From Bulletin C-404A, Courtesy of the Foxboro Company

Mass flow of gas: Substituting Q for V/t:

m M V   p  MQ  p 
w  3    w
t 10 R  t   T  103 R  T 

Substituting for Q: Finally, the simplified mass flow equation:

Mk f  p
Q  k D; k  wk D 
T 
3
10 R

109
Where:

w = mass flow rate, kilogram/second

Q = volume flow rate, cubic meters per second
p = absolute pressure, Pascal’s
T = absolute temperature, Kelvin
M = gram molecular weight of gas (g/mol)
R = universal gas constant = 8.314 J/K
D = flow meter differential pressure in Pascals
k = mass flow proportionality constant
kf = flow meter proportionality constant

Mass Flow Rate in English Units

The equation for standard cubic feet is:

m * Z * R * Ta
Q
144* Pa

The equation for mass in lbm is:

Q *144* Pa
m
Z * R * Ta

1545.34
R ; Substituting this equation into the above equation for R we get:
Mw

Q *144 * Pa * M w
m ; Solving this equation for mass with the molecular weight:
Z *1545.34 * Ta

For standard temperature of 60°F and standard pressure of 14.7 psia, enter the scfh and molecular
weight to get lbm per hour mass flow rate. (use Z = 1 for ideal gas)

Q * 4.0707 * M w
m
Z *1545.34

We can further simplify the equation for standard temperature of 60°F and standard pressure of 14.7 psia,

We reduce the equation to constant multiplied by scfh and the ratio of molecular weight Mw(gas)/ Mw(air
28.966) or Gf (specific gravity), to get lbm per hour mass flow rate. (Z = 1 for ideal gas)
m  0.0763lbm * scfh * G f

Where:

Q = scf (standard cubic feet) per unit time

R = Universal Gas Flow Constant (1545.34 ft•lbf/(lb•mol)(°R)) divided by Mw
Z = compressibility factor
m = mass flow rate in lbm (pounds mass) per unit time
Pa = pressure absolute (psig + 14.7)
Ta = temperature absolute (°F + 460)
Gf = specific gravity of gas, for example (Mw of gas / Mw of air)
110
lbm = pounds of mass
Mw = molecular weight of gas
acfh = actual cubic feet per hour
scfh = standard cubic feet per hour (at 60°F and 14.7 psia)

Convert ACFH to SCFH

Note: acfh = scfh if both calculations are at 60°F and 14.7 psia. To correct acfh to scfh, multiply acfh by
the temperature and pressure correction factors below.

 Tf   Ps 
scfh  acfh    
 Ts   Pf 
Where:

Tf = temperature of flowing gas in °R (°F + 460)

Ts = standard temperature of gas in °R (60°F + 460) = 520°R
Pf = pressure of flowing gas in psia (psig + 14.7)
Ps = standard pressure of gas in psia (14.7)

Note: Different standards for pressure and temperature are used in industry, but 14.7 psia (atmospheric
pressure) and 60°F are the most common and are used in this review guide for sizing flow elements and
control valves. Most of the ISA standard equations use this reference standard.

Note: Using the Rosemount 3051S with

built-in advanced diagnostics capabilities,
the following can be detected for alarms:

 Cavitation in the process stream

 A plugged impulse line
 Water in in the transmitter housing
 Power supply maybe failing or faulty
 The signal line has a high impedance
due to corrosion in the terminations or
connections of the electrical signal
loop

The 3051S has a microprocessor capable of statistical analysis of the of the process measurements.

These alarms can be read through the digital HART signal or by putting the transmitter in burst mode and
splitting out three analog signals through a Rosemount Tri-Loop 333 Note: the alarm signals cannot be
used to meet the requirements of SIS applications, they are only for quality control and maintenance.

111
Applying mass flow measurement with an orifice - worked example

Note: These measurements will be in English units for this application

Mass Sample problem: Natural gas is carried in a 6-inch schedule 40 pipe (ID=6.065). Flowing
temperature is 85⁰F at 325 psig pressure. A concentric sharp-edged orifice plate, with flange taps, is
used to measure the flow. The specific gravity Gf = 0.657 and the Mw = 19. The differential head of the
flow meter transmitter is 0 to 50 inches H2O. The Spink factor is 0.2191 and beta ratio is 0.5802.
Find the SCFH and the mass flow rate in lbm per hour and lbm per day.

(50)(325  14.7)
scfh  218.4(0.2191)  36.784  (35.374)
85  460 (0.657)

(50)(325  14.7)
scfh  62,264.161
85  460  (0.657)
scfh  (62,264.161)(6.8873)  428,831.956 scfh

Find the mass for the scfh of gas knowing the molecular weight (Mw) :

Q * 4.07 * M w lbm
m   428,831.956  0.002634 19   21,461.324
Z *1545.35 hr

Find the mass for the scfh of gas knowing flowing specific gravity (Gf ):
lbm
m  0.07612 lbm * scfh * G f   0.07612  428,831.956  0.657   21,446.246
hr

We are showing a disagreement of 15.074 lbm, due to rounding error or approximately an error of
0.07%. I would use molecular weight, it is more exact.

We now need to convert lbm per hr to lbm per day

 lbm   24hr  lbm

    (21, 461.324)(24)  515,071.776
 hr   day  day

Real World Application in a Computer (DCS or PLC)

The computer will read three signals from the field: pressure (psig), temperature (F) and
differential pressure (in H2O). Note: Do NOT extract the square root in the transmitter. This will be
done in the computer calculation.

TT 100 = 0 to 120°F and 4 to 20 mA (the gas temperature)

PT 100 = 0 to 500 psig and 4 to 20 mA (the gas pressure)
PT 101 = 0 to 100 in H2O and 4 to 20 mA (the gas flow rate as velocity)

The calculation in the computer will be some constant times the square root of the orifice equation.
First calculate the scfh flow; this has already been defined in the previous example at a standard
pressure and temperature of 14.7 and 60°F.

112
 (in H 2 0)( psig  14.7)
scfh  62,264.161
( F  460)(G f )

Take the specific gravity out of the square root, it is a constant:

1 (in H 2 0)( psig  14.7)

scfh  62,264.161
Gf ( F  460)

For a specific gravity of .657 the equation becomes:

(in H 2 0)( psig  14.7)

scfh  76,816.6663
( F  460)

Change scfh to lbm per hr and then lbm per hour to lbm per day

lbm lbm  24hr 

  scfh  0.002634  M w  ;   scfh  0.002634  M w   
hr day  day 

Plugging this into the equation above using scfh and Mw = 19 we get:

lbm (in H 2 0)( psig  14.7) (in H 2 0)( psig  14.7)

 76,816.6663(0.002634)(19)(24)  92, 264.8
day ( F  460) ( F  460)

Testing the PLC equation we get: 515,075.1161 lbm/day

That is an error of 3.34015 lbm difference between the calculation previously and the PLC calculation.

Turbine meter applications

How Turbine Flow meters Work

Turbine flow meters use the energy of the fluid to mechanically rotate a “pinwheel” (rotor) in the flow
stream. Blades on the rotor are angled to transform energy from the flow stream into rotational energy.
The rotor shaft spins on bearings. When the fluid moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster.

Shaft rotation can be sensed mechanically or by detecting the movement of the blades. Blade movement
is often detected magnetically, with each blade or embedded piece of metal generating a pulse. When the
fluid moves faster, more pulses are generated. If a transmitter is used, it processes the pulse signal to
determine the flow of the fluid. Transmitters and sensing systems are available to sense flow in both the
forward and reverse flow directions.

Industries Where Used

In order of largest industry to smallest industry of use, turbine meters are used in oil and gas, water and
wastewater, gas utility, chemical, power, food and beverage, aerospace, pharmaceutical, metals and
mining, and pulp and paper.

113
The Plusses and Minuses of Turbine Meters

The cost is moderate. The turbine meter is very good at clean, low viscosity fluids of moderate velocity
and a steady rate. Turndown is very good as it can read very low compared to the maximum flow. They
are reliable if put in a clean fluid, especially if the fluid has some lubrication properties. They are AGA and
API approved for custody transfers. They do cause some pressure drop in the piping system, and should
be considered as a factor in gravity flowing systems. They are not reliable for steam and bearings
eventually wear out.

How to Use Turbine Flow Meters

Turbine flow meters measure the velocity of liquids, gases and vapors in pipes, such as hydrocarbons,
chemicals, water, cryogenic liquids, air, and industrial gases. High accuracy turbine flow meters are
available for custody transfer of hydrocarbons and natural gas. These flow meters often incorporate the
functionality of a flow computer to correct for pressure, temperature and fluid properties in order to
achieve the desired accuracy for the application.

Be careful using turbine flow meters on fluids that are non-lubricating, because the flow meter can
become inaccurate and fail if its bearings prematurely wear. Some turbine flow meters have grease
fittings for use with non-lubricating fluids. In addition, turbine flow meters that are designed for a specific
purpose, such as for natural gas service, can often be limited to an operate upper range of temperature,
such as 60ºC. Operating above the upper temperature limit can cause damage to the flow meter.

Smaller turbine flow meters can be installed directly in the piping, but the size and weight of larger turbine
flow meters may require the installation of substantial concrete foundations and supports. The flow of
corrosive liquids can be measured with proper attention to the materials of construction of all wetted
parts, such as the body, rotor, bearings, and fittings.

Applications for turbine flow meters are found in the water, petroleum, and chemical industries. Water
applications include distribution systems within and between water districts. Petroleum applications
include the custody transfer of hydrocarbons. Miscellaneous applications are found in the food and
beverage, and chemical industries.

Application Cautions for Turbine Flow meters

Turbine flowmeters are less accurate at low flow rates due to rotor/bearing drag that slows the rotor. Make
sure to not operate these flowmeters above approximately 5% of maximum flow. Turbine flowmeters
should not be operated at high velocity because premature bearing wear and/or damage can occur. Be
careful when measuring fluids that are non-lubricating because bearing wear can cause the flowmeter
become inaccurate and fail. In some applications, bearing replacement may need to be performed
routinely and increase maintenance costs. Application in dirty fluids should generally be avoided so as to
reduce the possibility of flowmeter wear and bearing damage. In summary, turbine flowmeters have
moving parts that are subject to degradation with time and use.

Abrupt transitions from gas flow to liquid flow should be avoided because they can mechanically stress
the flowmeter, degrade accuracy, and/or damage the flowmeter. These conditions generally occur when
filling the pipe and under slug flow conditions. Two-phase flow conditions can also cause turbine
flowmeters to measure inaccurately.

Mass Flow Measurement with Turbine meters

If the turbine flow meter has one rotor only, then it can only measure the velocity of the fluid. Temperature
compensation will be need for accuracy in mass flow measurements, such as natural gas sales. Two rotor
meters can be used to measure the angular momentum of the fluid for accurate mass flow
measurements.

114
Actual vs. Standard units of gas measure

 Turbine flow meters measure the actual volume of gas passing through the meter at the operating
temperature and pressure. They are therefore sized in Actual Liters per Minute (ALPM) or Actual
Cubic Feet (ACFM).
 Standard Liters per Minute (SLPM) or Standard Cubic Feet (SCFM) are the equivalent volume of gas
referenced back to standard temperature and pressure as described previously in this section.
 The perfect gas law used to convert between ALPM and SLPM is:

 101.7 bar T1 
ALPM = SLPM  * 
 P1 288.15 °K 
P1 = Operating pressure in BarA
T1 = Operating temperature in deg K

Standard air calibration

The most common and economical calibration is in air at standard conditions. Data can be presented in
actual units of measure or converted to standard units using the operating temperature and pressure.

Actual air volume flow is often termed ACFM - Actual Cubic Feet per Minute. Unfortunately, in real life
"actual conditions" are seldom "standard conditions." SCFM will change based on the flowing conditions:
 pressure is applied a volume of air - it gets smaller
 vacuum is applied to a volume of air - it expand

Actual Cubic Feet per Minute - ACFM, depends on the following variables of the actual air.
 pressure
 temperature
 humidity

The conversion from SCFM to ACFM can be expressed as:

 Pstandard  Tactual 
ACFM = SCFM   
 Pactual -Psaturation  Tstandard 
Where:

ACFM = actual cubic feet per minute

SCFM = standard cubic feet per minute
Pstd = standard absolute air pressure (psia)
Pact = absolute pressure at the actual level (psia)
Psat = saturation pressure at the actual temperature (psi)
Φ = actual relative humidity
Tact = actual ambient air temperature ( R)
o

Tstd = standard temperature ( R)

o

115
Turbine flow meter - worked example

The basic equation for flow through a turbine meter is:

V = KN

Where:
V = volume
K = volume per pulse
N = number of pulses

The average flow rate ( Qavg ) is equal to the

total volume divided by the time interval.

V N
Qavg  K
t t

N
f  Number of pulses per unit time…
t

Qavg  Kf

Note: The turbine flow meter can measure the flow rate in units of cubic inches or gallons per pulse.

Sample problem: The turbine meter has a K value of 1.22 in3 per pulse.

a) Determine the liquid volume transferred for a pulse count of 6,400.

b) Determine the flow rate, if the 6,400 pulses are counted in duration of 40 seconds.

c) What would be the totalized flow after 15 minutes at the current pulse rate of flow?

d) What is the frequency ( f ) of the signal?

Answer:

a) Liquid volume:

V  KN
V  1.22in3   6400   7808in3
1gal
Gallons  7808in3   33.8 gal
231in3

b) Flow Rate:

V
Q
t

116
 7808in3 195.2in3
Q 
40sec sec

195.2in3 60sec 1gal gal

Q   3
 50.7
sec 1min 231in min

c) Totalized flow after 15 minutes:

gal
Q  50.7 15min  760.5 gal
min

d. Find the frequency

Note: frequency in Hz is frequency per 60 seconds, so the Hz are: count(frequency)/sec = Hz

N 6400 count 6400 count

f     160 Hz
t 40sec 40sec

Sample problem: A Daniel size 2 turbine flow meter has a K value of 127 pulses per gallon.

a) Determine the liquid volume in gallons transferred for a pulse count of 7,300.

b) Determine the flow rate, if the flow meter sends a pulse count of 86,500 pulses in 6.8 minutes.

c) What are the total gallons transferred in 8 hours for question (b.)?

d) What is the frequency ( f ) of the signal for question (b.)?

Answer:

a) Liquid volume:

V  KN

 1 gallons 
V    7300 pulses   57.5 gallons
 127 pulses 

b) Flow Rate:

V
Q
t

 1 gallons 
V    86,500 pulses   681.1 gallons
 127 pulses 

681.1 gallons
Q  100.16 gpm
6.8 min
117
c) Totalized flow after 8 hours for the flow rate in question (b.):

gal 60 min
Q  681.1 * *8 hours  326,928 gallons
min 1 hour

d) Find the frequency for the flow rate in question (b.):

Note: frequency in Hz is frequency per 60 seconds, therefore the count(frequency)/sec = Hz

N 86,500 count 1 min

f  = * = 212 Hz
Δt 6.8 min 60 sec

118
 Weight Measurement and Calibration

Weight measurement devices and calibration

Weight measurements are typically made with Load Cells (strain gauges attached to metal bars). The
bending moment of the bar causes the strain gauge to elongate,
resulting in an increase of resistance in the strain gauge. This variable
resistance is connected to a bridge circuit and a voltage is measured
across the bridge. The voltage is proportional to the weight applied to
the measuring bar.

This strain gauge technology is used in measuring the weight in tanks,

the weight in screw conveyors and the weight on conveyor belts. The tare
weight (tank weight) is nulled out and the voltage is set to zero or 0% in
the bridge circuit. Then the maximum weight to be measured is applied.
These weights are NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology)
certified. The span voltage is then calibrated to a maximum of 100%. This
measurement is the net weight.
Note: Remember all calibration processes should be repeated at least three times.

Load cells

When outfitting a tank for batching, you must select a method for measuring the amounts of each
ingredient added. A flow meter may be the first device that comes to mind. However, the load cell might
actually be the better solution.

A flow meter may come in many forms, but it is usually an in-line device that measures the rate or flow of
a fluid, either in volume or mass. On the other hand, a load cell is a device that allows for the contents of
a tank or vessel to be weighed.

Because a flow meter is located in the tubing upstream from a tank, there is a difference between what
the meter reads and what is truly in the tank. Programming changes can correct for the delays in
measurement caused by this difference, but they can be imprecise and require frequent calibration.

However, because a load cell measures the weight of the tank itself, delays are minimized. Load cells
offer a particular benefit when dealing with products that don’t usually work well with flow meters. Liquids
with entrained air or bubbles may give meters trouble, but they are no problem for load cells. Even dry
ingredients like powders can be measured just like liquid mass and volumes using load cells.

119
Load cells for (flow, level, force) applications in process

Mass Flow Meter Batch Weighing Weighbridge Measurements

Tank Dispensing Silo Measurement Automation Container Filling

Hydraulic/Pneumatic Press Wire Tension Measurement Robotic Tactile Sensing

Force

120
 Process Analyzers

Electrical conductivity and pH correction

It is often useful to characterize an environment, such as a body of water, by measuring its pH and
electrical conductivity (EC). pH is a measure of the acidity
of the water or soil based on its hydrogen ion concentration
and is mathematically defined as the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentration:

pH = -log[H+]

The brackets around the H+ symbolize "concentration." The

pH of a material ranges on a logarithmic scale from 1-14,
where pH 1-6 are acidic, pH 7 is neutral, and pH 8-14 are
basic. Lower pH corresponds with higher [H+], while higher
pH is associated with lower [H+].

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measurement of the

dissolved material in an aqueous solution, which relates to
the ability of the material to conduct electrical current
through it. EC is measured in units called Siemens per unit
area (e.g., mS/cm, or miliSiemens per centimeter), and the
higher the dissolved material in a water or soil sample, the higher the EC will be in that material. See the
section Chemical Process Technology and Equipment / Cooling Towers for more information on pH.

How are pH and electrical conductivity measured?

A meter and probe or litmus paper can be used to measure the pH of a sample. The more accurate and t
expensive of these methods, is the meter and probe. pH meters are calibrated using special solutions, or
buffers with a known pH value.

Electrical conductivity can be measured using a meter and probe as well. The probe consists of two metal
electrodes spaced 1 cm apart (thus the unit of measurement is microSeimens or miliSiemens per
centimeter). A constant voltage is applied across the electrodes resulting in an electrical current flowing
through the aqueous sample. Since the current flowing through the water is proportional to the
concentration of dissolved ions in the water, the electrical conductivity can be measured. The higher the
dissolved salt/ion concentration, the more conductive the sample and hence the higher the conductivity
reading.

Control of pH values in processes

The process curve below shows the response of pH correction is not linear and cannot be controlled as
such. Most pH "controllers" on the market are not truly pH controllers because they use simple on / off
control or linear control algorithm by using a standard PID algorithm, which is far too simple to account for
the ever changing control gain encountered with the logarithmic reaction of pH to control input.

A true pH controller MUST have the ability to control a logarithmic and non-linear response, such as
the typical pH process correction response curve shown below.

The response of the process being corrected accelerates around a pH level equal to 7. Special pH
controllers with adaptive gain and logarithmic algorithms are typically used. A window or hysteresis about
the correction set point is typically used for control as shown below. This reduces hunting and allows the
121
process to run continuously within acceptable tolerances. Chart recorders are typically used to document
the pH correction before the process products are allowed to be discharged into rivers and sewage
systems.

Typical pH correction control scheme

Conventionally, in the controllers, 4 mA would correspond to 0 pH and 20 mA to 14 pH. When such a

device is connected to a 1/4 DIN panel mounted chart recorder, the pH value can be constantly
monitored. If the process requires a stringent control and is also operating within a narrow band of set
points, say 1 pH; the recording on the chart paper will not be well resolved. This is due to the fact that in
the conventional controller, the range of 14 pH is distributed over 16 mA. It can therefore be seen for a 1
pH variation, the current varies only by 1.15 mA approximately. See the section on The Application of
Analog Circuits in Control Systems, for more information on 4 to 20 mA process signal current loops.

122
Control of conductivity

Electrical conductivity in water is a measure of the ion-facilitated electron flow through it. Water molecules
dissociate into ions as a function of pH and temperature and result in a very predictable conductivity.
Some gases, most notably carbon dioxide, readily dissolve in water and interact to form ions, which
predictably affect conductivity as well as pH. For the purpose of this discussion, these ions and their
resulting conductivity can be considered intrinsic to the water.

Water conductivity is also affected by the presence of extraneous ions. The extraneous ions used in
modeling conductivity are the chloride and sodium ions. A balancing quantity of cations, such as sodium
ion, allows the impurity level to maintain electroneutrality. Extraneous ions such as these may have
significant impact on the water's chemical purity and suitability for use in pharmaceutical applications. The
combined conductivities of the intrinsic and extraneous ions vary as a function of pH and are the basis for
the conductivity.

Instrument specifications and operating parameters

Water conductivity must be measured accurately using calibrated instrumentation. The conductivity cell
constant, a factor used as a multiplier for the scale reading from the meter, must be known within ±2%.
The cell constant can be verified directly by using a solution of known conductivity, or indirectly by
comparing the instrument reading taken with the cell in question to readings from a cell of known or
certified cell constant.

Meter calibration is accomplished by replacing the conductivity cell with NIST-traceable precision resistors
(accurate to ±0.1% of the stated value) or an equivalently accurate adjustable resistance device, such as
a Wheatstone Bridge, to give a predicted instrument response. Each scale on the meter may require
separate calibration prior to use. The frequency of recalibration is a function of instrument design, degree
of use, etc.

Common Plant Analyzers

There are many locations that should be measured and monitored with an analyzer to maximize product
quality, combustion efficiency, safety, and emissions reductions including the following:

1. Rotary Kiln gas outlet - O2, CO, NOx, CO2, SO2, CxHy, temperature
2. Pre-Heater and Pre-Calciner - O2, CO, NOx, CO2, temperature
3. Flue Gas Conditioning System (such as scrubber, SCR, SNCR) - CO, NOx, SO2, CO2
4. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) inlet - CO
5. Main Stack (for CEM back-up) - O2, CO, NOx, CO2, SO2, CxHy

You may be asked some questions about the application of analyzers on the CSE exam

Some possible applications of various analytical instruments in the crude distillation unit are as follows:

Boiling Point Analyzers

A Boiling Point or Distillation Analyzer would typically be used to control the 5% or 95% evaporated
temperatures of the atmospheric tower side fraction products, the 95% evaporated temperature of the
kerosene stream, and the 95% evaporated temperature of the diesel fraction. Depending on the individual
refiner’s circumstance, boiling point analyzers might be profitably employed to monitor or control
appropriate percent evaporated temperature for other streams in the crude distillation unit.

Vacuum Distillation Analyzer

This analyzer could be used to control appropriate percent evaporated temperatures on gas oil streams
from the vacuum tower. Refiners will be more inclined to use this unit in refineries which have a
hydrocracker or a lube oil manufacturing facility.
123
Flash Point Analyzer
This analyzer would most commonly be used to monitor or control the flash point of the kerosene
products. In some instances, it might be installed on the naphtha or diesel stream.

Cloud Point Analyzer

This instrument would normally be used to monitor or control the diesel product from the crude distillation
unit. Closer control of the cloud point would allow the refiners to reduce the amount of kerosene which
must be used to product specification heating oil during the winter.

Freeze Point Analyzer

This instrument could monitor or control the freeze point of the naphtha or kerosene streams in refineries
which produce jet fuel, thereby maximizing yields of these normally high-priced products.

Pour Point Analyzer

This analyzer would normally be used to monitor or control the pour point of the diesel stream from the
crude distillation unit. This will decrease the amount of kerosene which must be added to produce
specification product during the wintertime, and permit the kerosene to be added to the normally higher-
priced jet fuel feeds.

Color Analyzer
Some refiners employ crude oil to cool and condense the crude tower overhead vapor stream. If a leak
develops in this heat exchanger, crude oil can leak into the naphtha or light straight run product. This
could have a serious effect on catalyst in the down-streaming processing units. A Color Analyzer installed
on these streams can warn of leakage of crude oil into the light straight run or naphtha streams. A similar
application could be made on the crude / pump-around reflux or crude/product exchangers. A Color
Analyzer could also be installed on the atmospheric gas oil stream to warn unit operators if residual
material is being entrained into the stream.

Combustion and Analyzers

Combustion furnaces, such as heating furnaces and boilers in plants, include various sizes and types and
serve as energy sources, that is, they are core components in all production activities. Because a large
amount of fuel, such as gas or fuel oil, is consumed in plants, their combustion efficiency directly affects
the performance and running cost of the plants. Since they generate large amounts of exhaust gas, in
recent years it has become important to reduce various greenhouse gases including CO 2 in addition to
coping with pollution caused by nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, etc. Consequently, not only is the proper
measurement and control of O2 and CO important, but also solving of multi-faceted issues are required.

Relationship between Air-fuel Ratio and Heat Efficiency (Combustion)

124
Combustion furnace and air-fuel ratio control
Combustion requires fuel and air (oxygen), and insufficient air causes fuel residue, resulting in incomplete
combustion with soot and smoke. On the other hand, excessive air causes problems, such as a larger
amount of exhaust gas and heating of excessive air, resulting in lower fuel efficiency. The figure above
shows the principle of the air-fuel ratio and state of combustion. The air-fuel ratio plotted on the horizontal
axis shows the ratio of actual supply air to the theoretical amount of air required for fuel combustion
(theoretical air amount).

For combustion furnaces (such as heating furnaces and boilers in plants and factories), small-scale
controllers (such as single loop controllers or PLCs) are employed to optimize the air-fuel control ratio for
improving the combustion efficiency. In large combustion furnaces, distributed control systems (DCS) and
advanced control (multivariable predictive control, etc.) are used. These mainly control the air-fuel ratio
and internal pressure of the furnace to prevent CO, CO2 and NOx (nitrogen oxide) from being emitted and
apply a cross limit circuit to prevent incomplete combustion while controlling combustion to maximize
efficiency. See the section Chemical Process Technology and Equipment / Furnaces for more
information on burner control.

Air-Fuel ratio control utilizing CO and O2 concentrations

According to Lyman F. Gilbert, the CO concentration
in the optimum combustion zone (having the highest
heat efficiency per unit amount of fuel) is around 200
ppm irrespective of fuel types and devices. However,
CO increases rapidly once it has begun to increase.
Thus, either a stable combustion must be kept with
sufficient supply of air or a control system must
monitor the CO concentration in real-time and keep it
constant at a relatively low level.

The amount of air supplied to a burner is controlled by

two methods: using a forced draft fan (FDF) and
damper as shown in the figure at the right, or using
natural air intake by controlling the opening degree of the damper of an induced draft fan (IDF). The O2
and CO concentrations are measured by a concentration meter at the entrance of the flue and then
supplied to the control system. The measured CO concentration can be used for combustion control by
two methods: controlling O2 when the O2 concentration exceeds a prescribed value and overriding to CO
control when the O2 concentration falls below the value, or giving a CO concentration bias
(compensation) to the O2 concentration.

BMS - Burner Management Safety

A burner management system (BMS) safely controls the burner of the combustion furnace and includes
an interlock mechanism and a safety shut-off mechanism to prevent explosion. The BMS must comply
with safety standards based on risk assessment, such as the international standard (ISO12100) and the
EU, USA and Japanese standards (EU standard: EN 746, USA standard: NFPA 86, Japanese standard:
JIS B9700).

Because the analyzer monitors the

CO concentration in near real-time
and detects the generation of toxic
gas due to incomplete combustion,
it increases the reliability of the
safety system by inputting a signal
of the detected CO concentration to
the BMS. The CO concentration is
expected for implementing the
defined safety requirements. The
figure to the right shows a typical
combustion system in which CO
(carbon monoxide) measurement capability is added to the BMS burner shut-off system.

125
OSHA Requirements
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970: The employer must furnish a place of employment
which is free from recognized hazards that could cause death or serious physical harm to employees if
employees were exposed to fire and explosion hazards.

1) The burner management systems on boilers, furnaces, ovens and flare systems located within the
facility must be in compliance with NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code 5.3.7.1 and
5.7.2, as well as manufacturer's and design specifications.

2) The Employer must perform a risk assessment to identify, evaluate and control the hazards involved
with the process in accordance with ANSI/ISA S.84.001 and IEC-61511.
Note: See the section Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) for more CSE exam review
material.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) reading

The CO2 level in the flue gas provides an indication of the efficiency of the combustion process. If the
production of CO2 is as high as possible with slight excess air (complete combustion), the flue gas heat
losses are at their lowest. The CO2 reading is calculated from the O2 reading by the analyzer. This
maximum theoretical level is never reached in practice. Each fuel has a maximum possible CO 2 level
(CO2 max), which is determined by the chemical composition of the fuel:

• Light fuel oil - 15.4% by volume CO2

• Natural gas - 11.8% by volume CO2

Examples of Process Analyzers

A Rosemount Analytical analyzer that is specifically designed

for continuous emissions monitoring (CEMS) and process
control.

Often process gas cannot be taken directly from the process

to the analyzer. Most systems demand a level of application
specific sample handling.

Some Common Streams Measured:

 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Nitrogen Monoxide (NO)
 Total Hydrocarbon (THC)
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Opacity
 Oxygen (O2)

126
Select the appropriate analyzer and configuration

Off-line lab analysis

• Manual sampling
• Sample transport to the lab
• Sample registration

At-line analysis

• Manual sampling
• Continuous manpower needed
• Automated lab analysis close to
sampling point inside plant
• Ideal where multiple samples have to
be taken at several sampling points
along the process

On-line analysis

• In-process measurement and response

• Automated sampling and registration
• Automated sample preconditioning
• Automated lab analysis
• Fast feedback of results
• Very limited manpower needed
• Close loop control

127
Typical Analyzer Piping and Control Schematic

128
 Process Control Valves and Actuators

Process control valves

A wide variety of valve types exist, the most widely used for process control systems and other industrial
fluid applications are the valve types which have linear stem and rotary spindle movement:

 Linear stem movement type valves include globe valves and slide valves
 Rotary spindle type valves include ball valves, butterfly valves, plug valves and their variants

The first choice to be made is between two-port and three-port valves:

 Two-port valves 'throttle' (restrict) the fluid passing through them

 Three-port valves can be used to 'mix' or 'divert' liquid passing through them

Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for throttling flow and
the ease with which they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve opening to flow. For any
given valve orifice size, the greater the differential pressure, the greater the flow rate. The maximum
value of the valve flow coefficient Cv is defined as the number of U.S. gallons of water per minute (at
standard pressure and temperature) that will flow through a wide open valve when there is 1 psig
pressure drop across the valve. The flow rate can be determined by the following equation:

1 gpm  1 CV * 1 Ppsig

Control valve sizing will be discussed in detail for liquid, steam, gas, vapor and two phase applications in
this section of the manual. We will also take a look at the accessories that are used on common valves
and how valve sizing has limitation that must be considered. The style of the valve trim (internal makeup),
the characteristics (the gain of the flow per signal) and the ΔP across the valve, all affect if the valve will
function or not in the process piping loop. There may be limits of the maximum and minimum ΔP across
the valve to adhere to. The ΔP can limit the flow through the valve and can cause excessive noise and
even destruction of the valve.

129
Considerations when sizing a control valve

The following should be considered when sizing and selecting process control valves for a project.

1 Ppsig
1 gpm  1 CV *
1 S .G. flowing

Flow Coefficient Cv
The use of the flow coefficient, Cv, first introduced by Masoneilan in 1944, quickly became accepted as
the universal yardstick of valve capacity. So useful has Cv become, that practically all discussions of
valve design and characteristics or flow behavior now employ this coefficient. By definition, the valve flow
coefficient, Cv, is the number of U. S. gallons per minute of water that will pass through a given flow
restriction with a pressure drop of one psi.

For example, a control valve with a maximum flow coefficient of Cv = 12, has an effective port area in
the full open position such that it passes 12 gpm of water with one psi pressure drop. Basically, it is a
capacity index upon which the engineer can rapidly and accurately estimate the required size of a valve
restriction for desired flow in any fluid system. The flow is dependent on other variables as well and there
may be limitations of the maximum Δ P that can be applied across the valve.

Specific Gravity
In the flow formulas, the specific gravity is a square root function; therefore, small differences in gravity will
have a minor effect on valve capacity. If the specific gravity is not known accurately, a reasonable
assumption will suffice. The use of specific gravity equal to 0.9 for example, instead of specific gravity
equal to 0.8, would cause an error of less than 5 % in valve capacity. Sqrt [1 / (0.9-0.8) ] = 3.16 % error in
flow.

Operating Conditions
The selection of a correct valve size, as determined by formula, is always premised on the assumption of
full knowledge of the actual flowing conditions. Frequently, one or more of these conditions is arbitrarily
assumed. It is the evaluation of these arbitrary data that really determines the final valve size.

No formulas, only good common sense combined with experience, can solve this problem. There is no
substitute for good engineering judgement.

Most errors in sizing are due to incorrect assumptions as to actual flowing conditions. Generally speaking,
the tendency is to make the valve too large and to be on the "safe" side (commonly referred to as
"oversizing"). A combination of several of these "safety factors" can result in a valve so greatly oversized
it tends to be troublesome.

130
ISA standard valve symbols

Valve (generic) Globe valve Butterfly valve Ball valve

Gate valve Saunders valve Plug valve Characterized ball valve

Pressure relief
Pneumatic pinch valve or safety valve Angle valve Three-way valve

Check valve (generic) Pressure regulator valve Ball check valve Diaphragm valve

ISA standard pressure regulating valve symbols

Pressure reducing regulator Pressure reducing regulator Pressure reducing differential

self-contained with hand wheel external pressure tap regulator
external and internal pressure tap

Back pressure regulator Back pressure regulator Pressure reducing regulator

self-contained external pressure tap with integral pressure relief valve
and optional indicator

131
Valve actuators

The operation of a control valve involves positioning its movable part (the plug, ball or vane) relative to
the stationary seat of the valve. The purpose of the valve actuator is to accurately locate the valve plug in
a position dictated by the control signal.

The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response, moves the valve to a fully-open
or fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed position (depending on whether 'on/off' or
'continuous' control action is used).
There are several ways of providing this actuation; the two major ways are by:

 Pneumatic Actuator
 Electric Actuator

Other significant actuators include the hydraulic and the direct acting types. It should be noted that
pneumatic actuators do not operate on a standard 3 to 15 psig pressure output from a current to
pneumatic convertor (I/P). This is a misconception. The standard pneumatic signal, 3 to 15 psig, is left
over from the pneumatic controller days. The actuator operates on 0 to 15 psig or 0 to 30 psig or 0 to 60
psig. The (I/P) may be calibrated from 1.5 to 12.8 psig or 8 to 20 psig to close the valve and overcome the
pressure in the pipe pushing up against the valve seat trying to open the valve, as well as any friction of
the valve stem packing trying to stop the valve stem from moving. This is called the bench set calibration
of the valve’s actuator.

ISA standard actuator symbols

Diaphragm Electric motor Solenoid Piston

Diaphragm with Electric motor with Hand manual Piston

hand jack hand jack with positioner

Diaphragm Electro-hydraulic
with positioner

132
Limit switches on a valve - ISA standard symbol

A typical application of a valve for a gas service is shown below. Limit switches are attached to the
actuator to verify the valve position status. The limit switches send a full open signal (ZSO) or full closed
signal (ZSC). If neither signal is received by the PLC or DCS within a reasonable time, the limit switches
provide a valve stuck or malfunctioning indication (show proper ISA P&ID symbols, the “B” represents
burner or combustion). The solenoid is a safety shutdown lockout type mechanism. The diamond symbol
with the “R” indicates a manual reset of the solenoid valve in the field is necessary to provide instrument
air to the gas valve for operation. This insures that personal inspect the furnace or heater before restoring
the gas, to prevent explosions or fire.

Limit Switches

Position Transmitter

Calculating the size of the actuator

Reference the figure of the air to open (ATO) valve below. The process fluid flows through the valve from
left to right, excerpting a force upward due to the process fluid’s pressure multiplied by the seating area
on the valve trim, (the globe type “plug” against the valve seat). The actuator spring must be sized to not
only hold the valve closed against the differential pressure excerpted upward on the plug by the process
fluid’s pressure, but also to add extra seating force to the valve to prevent leakage of the process fluid
between the valve’s plug and the seat. This leakage is measured in what is called bubbles per minute.
Also extra force on the spring may be required to overcome the friction of the packing. The spring is
usually oversized for the application, due to the fact that standard size springs are used for various
applications and process fluid pressures.
The actuator must be sized for the total forces needed to move the valve stem into position.

2
The force upward (Fp): Process fluid pressure (psig) * area of the plug (in ) in pounds force (lbf).
 The force downward by the spring (Fk): Force in (lbf) varies with spring size, Hook’s Constant
 The force upward of the diaphragm (Fd): The I/P supplied device pressure (psig) * area of the
2
valve diaphragm (in ) in pounds force (lbf).
 The force to overcome stem friction (Ff): To move valve against the friction of the stem packing.
 The force applied to the seat (Fs): The force applied to the plug to prevent leakage through the
valve seat, in (lbf) per lineal inch of seat around the circumference.

133
For an air to open (ATO) valve, the diaphragm force (Fd) must be in the opposite direction of the spring
force (Fk) and equal to the sum of the force excerpted by the spring (Fk) and the force excerpted by the
stem packing (Ff), minus the force of the process fluid
(Fp) pushing up on the valve seat, before the spring
will start compressing and the valve plug will start
moving open.

For an air to close (ATC) valve, the diaphragm force

(Fd) must be in the opposite direction of the spring
force (Fk) and equal to the sum of the force excerpted
by the spring (Fk) and the force excerpted by the stem
packing (Ff), before the spring will start compressing
and the valve stem will start moving closed.

Once it starts closing, the diaphragm force (Fd) must

be increased to equal of the compressed spring force
(Fk) and equal to the process fluid force (Fp) pushing
up on the seat and the force excerpted by the stem
packing (Ff) and the extra seating force (Fs) needed to
meet bubble leakage specification (say 150 lbf per
linear inch of seat), before the diaphragm force will
fully seat the valve plug. This force (Fd) may equal 8
2
pisg * 100 in for the diaphragm, to equal 800 lbf
excerpted downward by the actuator diaphragm.

The diaphragm pressure must be increased to force the stem downward more. The spring is already
forcing up against the diaphragm plate and must be compressed more (see Hook’s Constant); the
process fluid (Fp) is forcing up against the seat trying to open the valve; plus we must add the force for
seating (Fs) the valve and the still required added resisting force of the packing friction (F f), will all add up
to the required force that must be generated by the diaphragm and diaphragm plate connected to the plug
stem.
2
The I/P supplied device pressure (psig) * area of the valve diaphragm (in ) in pounds force (lbf), will
produce the minimum diaphragm force (Fd) needed to overcome the total resistive forces against the
diaphragm. The spring will start compressing and the valve will start moving toward the fully closed
position. If the I/P (current to pressure convertor) excerpts 15 psig to the diaphragm, the diaphragm force
2
downward (Fd) will be 15 psig * 100 in which equals 1,500 lbf. A force of 1,500 excerpted by the
diaphragm is the force needed to compress the spring all the way and allow the valve trim plug to move to
the fully closed and seated position and provide safe and effective operation.

It can be seen that all valve I/Ps are not calibrated 3 to 15 psig. When a large pressure exists in process
piping system, the valve’s actuator will be calibrated to a range to produce sufficient force to overcome
the force of the process fluid and seat the plug. In our example, the I/P was calibrated 8 to 15 psig.

Example actuator sizing

Sample problem: We will now size a reverse acting valve actuator (ATO) for a process having the
following data:

Single seated globe valve with flow under the plug (air to open).
Delta pressure across the valve: 25 psig
Stem travel: 1.5 inches
2
Actuator area: 78.5 inches
Port diameter: 2-5/16 inches
Plug seating class: II (20 lbf per lineal inch)
Stem friction: Ff =125 lbf (graphite packing)
Spring force: Fk = 500 lbf

134
 First calculate the force excerpted by the process fluid (F p): 25 psig * area of plug:

 2.31252
FP  25*  105.0 lbf
4

Find Seating force for plug for a class II shutoff:

FS   * D * 20lbf per inch   * 2.375* 20  149.23 lbf

To unseat the valve and start movement of the stem toward open, we add the stem friction force to
the spring force and subtract the process fluid force pushing upward:
FD(min)  FK  Ff  FP  500  125  105.0  520.0 lbf

Find the LRV of the I/P pressure:

F 520.0
P   6.63 psi
A 78.5

The force of the spring compressed when the valve is fully open:
FX  FK * x(inches of travel)
FX  500lbf *1.5inches  750lbf

To open the valve fully, we add the stem friction force to the spring force pushing down:

Note: The valve plug is already unseated, so there will no longer be a force Fp helping the spring to
fully open, due to the fact that there is practically no delta pressure being excerpted upon the plug.

FD(max)  FX  Ff  750  125  875 lbf

Find the URV of the I/P pressure:

F 875
P   11.15 psi
A 78.5

The I/P transducer will be calibrated: 6.63 to 11.15 psig

Split ranging control valves

In a split range control loop, output of the controller is split and sent to two or more control valves. The
splitter defines how each valve is sequenced as the controller output changes from 0 to 100%. In most
split range applications, the controller adjusts the opening of one of the valves when its output is in the
range of 0 to 50% (4 to 12 mA) and the other valve when its output is in the range of 50% to 100% (12 to
20 mA).

When split ranging valves to handle flow rates varying from very large to very small, a 10% overlap in the
valve signal is recommended. This allows the valves to have a smoother transition, due to the difference
in the Cv ranges of the two valves. The overlap provides a more linear process gain for the system.

135
In this example when the gas pressure exceeds the pressure that the compressors can handle, the extra
gas is sent to the flare to burn, this relieves the pressure on the vessel.

In this example the reactor needs to maintain at a specific temperature range. This requires heating and
cooling the jacket to regulate the temperature for the reaction.

136
Valve positioner applications

A valve positioner takes an input signal from the DCS or PLC and positions the valve plug using a
feedback signal from the position of the valve stem. The positioner will provide air pressure to the
pneumatic actuator’s diagram. The air pressure output signal to the actuator will be a percentage of the
full scale calibrated air output of the positioner. The percentage of full scale air output will be proportional
to the percentage of the full scale input signal.

There may be a gain in the percentage of air output; this will be due to the amplifier setting being greater
or less than 1. The actuator moves the valve stem to a percentage of full stroke that is equal to the
percentage of the input signal, say 50% open. The positioner receives a feedback signal from a lever arm
connected to the valve plug stem. The positioner may also apply additional corrective pressure to the
actuator diaphragm. This extra compensated pressure is proportional to the error of the position of the
plug stem and will try to move the valve plug into the exact position being called for by the signal from the
DCS or PLC. The positioner is being used as a cascade controller for the flow loop. It provides tighter
and faster control of the valve stem position.

When a positioner is fitted to an 'air-to-open' valve with an actuator, the spring range of the actuator may
be increased to increase the closing (seating) force of the plug in the valve. A positioner can compensate
for the extra required pressure required to properly position the valve. The positioner will allow for an
increase in the maximum differential pressure a particular valve can tolerate across the plug. Pulsations
in this differential pressure across the plug will cause upward forces on the valve plug and can cause the
valve to fluctuate in position. The positioner will compensate for these fluctuations with a feedback signal
from the lever arm and send a proportional air signal to the diaphragm of the actuator to compensate for
the error in position of the plug and move the valve plug to the true desired position. The positioner also
sends additional air pressure to the actuator when an error is measured in position, allowing the actuator
to overcome the friction of the stem packing and reduce hysteresis effects.

It should be noted that a positioner is a proportional device, and in the same way that a proportional
controller will always give an offset, so does a positioner. On a typical positioner, the proportional band
may be between 3 and 6%. The positioner sensitivity can usually be adjusted.

ISA standard valve positioner symbols

A typical positioner on a valve SIS System application with solenoid Interlock

137
Summary of positioners

1. A positioner ensures that there is a linear relationship between the input signal from the control
system and the position of the control valve. This means that for a given input signal, the valve
will always attempt to maintain the same position regardless of changes in valve differential
pressure, stem friction, diaphragm hysteresis and so on.
2. A positioner can also sometimes modify the input signal to characterize the action of the valve
trim. This is especially true of a digital valve positioner.
3. A positioner may be used as a signal amplifier or booster. It accepts an input signal in the form of
a low pressure air control signal (3-15 psig). Using the positioner amplifier to add gain to the input
position signal, the positioner provides an amplified pressure output air signal to the actuator
diaphragm to position the valve plug. This ensures that the valve reaches the desired position.
4. Some positioners incorporate an electro-pneumatic converter so that an electrical input (typically
4 - 20 mA) can be used to control a pneumatic valve.
5. Some positioners can also act as basic controllers, accepting input from sensors.

When should a positioner be used?

A positioner should be considered in the following circumstances:

1. When accurate valve positioning is required.

2. To speed up the valve response. The positioner uses higher pressure and greater air flow to
adjust the valve position.
3. To increase the pressure that a particular actuator and valve can close against. (To act as an
amplifier).
4. Where friction in the valve (especially the packing) would cause unacceptable hysteresis.
5. To linearize a non-linear actuator.
6. Where varying differential pressures within the fluid would cause the plug position to vary.

Note: Positioners should not be used on fast responding loops, such as a flow loop with a lot of
noise. The loop is much harder to stabilize and cyclic oscillations may be continuous.

To ensure that the full differential pressure across the valve can be accepted, it is important to adjust the
positioner zero setting so that no air pressure opposes the spring force when the valve is in its normal
zero percent state or off-the-shelf position.

Electrical positioners
Electric valve positioners send and receive electrical signals. These signals are typically a 4-20 mA
positioning control signal and digital or discrete on/off position indication signals from limits switches
inside the valve. There are three electric actuation types: single-phase and three-phase alternating
current (AC), and direct current (DC) voltage. Electrical actuators are fairly responsive and can develop
large torques for high pressure applications.

Most actuators offer compatibility with a wide range of

communication and process control systems. Network
control of the actuator may be available using
PROFIBUS, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, Modbus,
DeviceNet, HART, and Rotork's Pakscan. More recent
innovations of these actuators include the option of
advanced display, Bluetooth® communications
interface and absolute encoders.

138
Control valve application comparison chart

Valve Characteristic Uses on Slurries, Relative Rating as

Type and Dirty Solid Cost Control
Rangeability Bearing Fluids Valve

Globe body with

Excellent; any
characterized Equal percentage Very poor,
desired
plug or cage or linear can be constructed of High,
characteristic can
Max 50:1 corrosion resistant very high in
be designed into
Sizes from Approx. 35:1 materials larger sizes
this type
needle up to 24 for needle
valve
inches

Equal percentage Reasonably good,

Ball valve
Approx. 50:1 can be constructed of Excellent, if
availability
Ball can be corrosion resistance Medium characteristic is
up to
characterized materials suitable
42 inches

Equal percentage
or linear
Butterfly valve Poor,
Approx. 30:1 Lowest cost Good, if
availability a variety of material
(some can for large characteristic is
up to for construction
characterized size valves suitable
150 inches available
for quick opening)

Conventional
is poor;
Saunders valve Very good,
Approx. Linear dual range is fair.
availability available with liner to
3:1 conventional Medium Use only when
up to resist
15:1 dual range ability is needed
20 inches corrosion
to handle dirty
flow

Excellent,
Poor to fair.
Pinch valve Approx. Linear several materials
Use only when
availability 3:1 to 15:1, available
Low ability is needed
up to depending on to resist
to handle dirty
24 inches type corrosion
flow

Note: See appendix for more tables on valve sizing applications and material section.
This may be asked on the CSE exam

When valves are mounted in a position or orientation other than the vertical
position, the actuator must be supported so the stem does not bind. This may
prevent the valve from opening or closing properly due to stiction of the valve.

Valve stiction is one of the largest stand-alone reasons for oscillatory behavior
in process industry. It is a problem that is hard to detect and time consuming for
oil and gas plants. When stems are in a binding position they may be subject to
stem packing wear and leakage. The ISA standard and most EPA rules only
allow 500 ppm leakage from packing seal of the stem and joints. Read on LDAR
(leakage detection and repair) in the code review section.
139
Understanding flow with valve characteristics

When controlling a process fluid flow rate, the full capacity of the valve (100%) cannot be used. All
processes have upsets due to disturbances and changing load demands on the process system. The
valve needs to throttle the process fluid to control the process, not just regulate a fix amount of flow. Due
to the nature of the valve and piping systems, the differential pressure (ΔP) across the valve is always
changing. This leads to choked flow, cavitation and even flashing of the liquid into vapor. We will now
discuss how a valve really works when installed in a process piping system.

What is the ΔP for valve sizing?

As it has already been stated, you cannot arbitrarily just pick a ΔP for sizing the process control valve. It is
not a made-up or magical number. It is the extra pressure head in the piping system. The Cv verses
valve stem stroke chart in the valve sizing book is based on a fixed pressure drop across the valve. This
is called the inherent characteristic of the valve. But when the valve is installed in a real piping system,
the pressure across the valve is constantly changing as the flow rate changes. This is called the installed
characteristics of the valve. This is why the valve starts choking at about 70% of the maximum flow rate of
the valve. As the flow increases, the pressure drops in the piping system become greater across the other
elements in the piping system; they need more energy to do more work.

So the pressure drop across the valve becomes lower, hence less flow rate
per percent of valve stem stroke for the valves percent Cv rating in the
catalog. Therefore, there is less flow through the valve at the maximum
opening than assumed by the percent of stroke in the catalog. 100% valve
opening is not equal to 100% flow when installed in the piping system,
unless the valve is sized at the lowest pressure drop in the system for the
maximum flow rate. As the flow becomes less or slower, the pressure drops
in the system become less and the pressure drop across the valve becomes
greater, therefore, there is more flow thought the valve at less stroke of the
valve stem.

1 gpm = 1 CV * 1 ΔPpsig

This installed characteristic makes the equal percentage valve look more like
a linear valve and a linear valve look more like a quick opening valve. Also
keep in mind that when sizing the valve, we need to control system upsets.
This requires more or less flow than the normal demand for flow.

The pump needs to provide about 15 to 40% more head than is required to
pump through the piping system, to provide the extra ΔP across the valve to
ensure higher flow rates and even that the valve will operate. Without this
extra ΔP in the system, the valve will not function properly and there will be
hardly any flow through the valve until it is almost fully open.

Also the valve Cv will have to be larger than the demand flow (normal conditions) to handle 10% to 15%
more flow for process upsets. The industrial standard is to size the valve Cv for 200% of demand flow or
throttle the valve at 50% of the valve’s Cv rating.

System piping ΔP pressure drops

Look at the figure below. In the section on fluid mechanics we discussed the pump head, pressure head,
kinetic head and static head in a piping system. We showed how the pressure head changed to kinetic
head to accelerate the fluid through the piping system and that work was done on the pipe, fittings and
elements.

The figure below on the right side shows, the pump head equals the pressure head at no flow. When the
system is at minimum flow (the green low flow line) the available pressure head produced by the pump is
much less. This reduction in pressure head is the difference of the pump head minus the kinetic head, to
accelerate the fluid and do work on the piping system. The reduction in head will be constant for this flow
rate. As we increase the flow rate to maximum flow (the blue high flow line) the pressure head drops even
140
more to add more kinetic energy to the pipline system to do even more work on the piping system. Moving
from left to right on the graph, we see there is additional drop in pressure for each section of the pipe and
the elements in the piping system. At the end of the graph you will see there is still pressure head above
zero. This is the head pressure of the tank level in feet of head.

Notice the ΔP across the valve in the middle of the graph. At low flow it is very large, just the opposite of
the orifice element in our studies previously. The orifice or a head device consumes energy to do work
passing the fluid through the orifice. The control valve absorbs the left over energy of the system, the
difference of pump head minus the kinetic head and minus the work done on the system (the energy
consumed in the form of heat and vibration).

The control valve has to consume

or burn up the extra head energy
in the system or the fluid would
accelerate far too fast. ΔP * A
(area) = F (force), there is a ΔF
across the piping system.

Work = ΔF * D (distance) also

ΔF/m (mass) = g (acceleration).

The valve has to burn up the extra

ΔP in the system or the fluid
would be accelerating far too fast
for the demand of flow. By
burning up some of the pressure
head across the valve the fluid
decelerates. This allows us to control the flow rate of the process fluid. Notice there is less ΔP across the
valve at the higher flow rate. This is because we need a greater differential pressure across the piping
system to accelerate the fluid faster and to do more work. Note that the hand valves typically do not
change, so they act just like an orifice or head device and consume a fixed amount of energy proportional
to the flow rate of the process fluid.

Control valve ΔP pressure drop

The varying ΔP across the valve in
the piping system discussed above
is shown in the figure to the right.
The graph shows the total energy
put into the system and how it is
divided up into its head energy
components.

Let’s do a breakdown of flow rates

for a 2” linear valve, max Cv = 39.2

gpm  CV * Ppsig

Flow Cv ΔP %Stem
rate required Valve stroke
GPM for flow ft / psi (open)
35.0 5.66 88 ft/ 14.54%
38.26 psi
50.0 10.72 50 ft/ 27.35%
21.74psi
70.0 20.43 27 ft/ 52.12%
11.74 psi
80.5 29.62 17 ft/ 75.54%
7.39 psi
141
Graph of the Inherent valve characteristics (off the shelf)
The control valve characteristics refers to the relationship between the volumetric flowrate C v or GPM (Y-
axis) through the valve AND the valve travel or stem opening position m (X-axis), as the valve is opened
from its closed position to various degree of opening. (Note that the symbol m or Z is used here to
represent the valve travel or opening position, in %).

The control valve manufacturer can only state the inherent valve characteristics, which refer to the
flowrate (Cv) versus the valve travel position (% open) relationship, at a constant pressure drop across
the control valve (ΔPv). Note that the pressure drop across the control valve (ΔPv) can be almost constant
only if the piping system pressure drops (ΔPs) is concentrated at the control valve and not distributed
along the pipeline. This means that the pipeline must be of very short length with minimum pressure
reducing devices or equipment in series with the control valve. Such a condition rarely exists in actual
installation except in the control valve manufacturer testing facilities, where the control valve
characteristics are obtained using very short lengths of piping.

Cage valves are shown to the left

Globe valves are shown below left

Valve characteristics chart is below

Which valve characteristic trim to use?

Since it is desirable to achieve and maintain process stability, the proper inherent valve characteristic
must be selected to compensate for process changes. The first step is to determine the controlled
process variable. There are four main classes: liquid level, pressure, flow, and temperature.

Controlled Variable: Liquid Level

If the valve pressure drop is constant, the inherent valve characteristic should be linear. This is because
the process gain does not change. For varying pressure drops, the following guidelines are
recommended: use equal-percentage if the drop at maximum flow is less than 20% of the drop at
minimum flow and a quick-opening if the drop at minimum flow is greater than twice the drop at minimum

142
flow. The equal-percentage is selected because as the load changes, the variation in valve gain is
minimized. The quick-opening is selected to negate the effects of the large pressure drop at high flows.

Controlled Variable: Pressure

Processes that control pressure are a function of the process time constant. These processes can be
“slow” (e.g., large volumes, receivers, or long distribution lines) or “fast” (e.g., liquid flowing in a pipe). For
the same reasons as liquid level, a linear characteristic is recommended for a slow process with a
constant pressure drop. If the pressure drop at maximum flow is less than 20% of the drop at minimum
flow in a slow process, then an equal-percentage is used. For fast processes under any pressure drop, an
equal-percentage is again recommended.

Controlled Variable: Flow

Controlling flow as the process variable offers additional

challenges since the flow does not vary with the load. A
load change in a flow loop does not change the flow
rate, but results usually in a change in pressure. The
flow is controlled by the set point. An additional aspect is
that transmitters are not always linear. Some are
proportional to flow and some are proportional to the
square of the flow rate. The selection of the valve
characteristic then becomes a function of the type of
signal sent to the controller. Whether the valve is used
in series or a bypass also makes a difference.

Controlled Variable: Temperature

In temperature control loops, the time constants are generally large and the characteristic frequency of the
system changes as the load varies. Numerous temperature control loops exist in chemical plants and
refineries, and experience has shown the best inherent characteristic is equal-percentage.

Valve Selection for Liquid Level Valve Selection for Pressure

Valve ΔP Characteristic Process Valve ΔP Characteristic
Approximately Constant Linear Fast Any Equal-Percentage
Constant or
ΔPQmax < 0.20 ΔPQmin Equal-Percentage Linear
Slow ΔPQmax > 2.0 ΔPQmin
ΔPQmax > 2.0 ΔPQmin Quick-Opening ΔPQmax < 0.20 ΔPQmin Quick-Opening

Valve Selection for Flow

Valve Characteristic If Characteristic
Signal
Location set point varies If load varies
Proportional to Q Series Linear Equal-Percentage
(% flow) Bypass Linear Equal-Percentage
2
Proportional to Q Series Linear Equal-Percentage
(% flow squared) Bypass Equal-Percentage Equal-Percentage

Characteristic distortion in valves

Flow distortion in valve characteristics (Cv verse % stem position)

Most control systems give the best performance when they behave in a linear manner. So you might ask
the question, “Why would you use an equal percentage valve which is not at all linear?” The answer is
because of the installed characteristic. The installed characteristic is the relationship between valve
position and flow in the specific system being considered, taking into account any changes in the

143
pressure differential available to the control valve, due to the flow squared relationship between flow and
the piping pressure losses and/or the behavior of a centrifugal pump’s head curve.

The majority of fluid process systems include a significant amount of pipe and other pressure consuming
elements (elbows, pipe reducers, isolation valves, heat exchangers, pumps whose pressure decreases
with increasing flow, etc.). This results in a relationship between system flow and pressure differential
available to the control valve as it was just explained earlier with the curves in the figures under this
section. See the sections: What is the ΔP for valve sizing? and System piping ΔP pressure drops and
Control valve ΔP pressure drop.

When the control valve is installed into the piping in a process plant, its flow characteristics are no longer
independent (inherent) of the rest of the system. This is because the flow through the valve will be subject
to the frictional resistance, which is in series with the valve. The consequence is this type of distortion is
illustrated in figures below. From the figures below for a linear and an equal percentage valve, you can
understand that the pressure drops in different piping installations, will have a very substantial effect on
both the characteristics and rangeability of the valve. Under conditions of excessive distortion, the equal
percentage valve characteristics can be distorted toward linear or even quick opening. The distortion can
be approximated from the formula to the right:

Where:

ΔP = pressure drop across the valve

ΔPt = pressure of the pump head
ΔPs= pressure drop across the pipe
plus the fittings

It should be emphasized that the figure of the piping installation above assumes the use of a constant
speed pump. In variable-speed pumping systems, you can adjust the pump speed to keep the ΔP across
the valve pretty much at a constant, and, therefore, in a VFD pump controlled system, the theoretical
(inherent) valve characteristics and the real (installed) valve characteristics are pretty much similar, and
less distortion will occur.

Naturally, in variable-speed pumping systems you can completely eliminate the valve and just throttle the
pump speed. The predictability of installed valve behavior is reduced, not only because the inherent valve
characteristics deviates but the ΔP across the valve and the ΔP across the pipe are constantly changing
at different rates.

144
Gain and Rangeability (turndown ratio in valves)

Turndown is the ratio of maximum to minimum controllable flow. For a pinch valve, 10:1 is typical, so if
you have a maximum flow of 5,000 scfm, you can expect to maintain stable control down to 500 scfm. Of
course, the valve can close or drop tight to zero flow, but it’s difficult to maintain stable control between
zero and your minimum controllable flow. Turndown says nothing about the response, speed of valve,
undershoot, overshoot or duty cycle.

The conventional definition of rangeability is the ratio between the maximum and minimum “controllable”
flows through the valve. Minimum controllable flow (F min) is not the leakage flow (which occurs when the
valve is closed), but the minimum flow that is still controllable, and can be changed up or down as the
valve is throttled.

Using this definition, manufacturers usually claim a 50:1 rangeability for equal-percentage valves, 33:1 for
linear valves, and about 20:1 for quick-opening valves. These claims suggest that the flow through these
valves can be controlled down to 2%, 3%, and 5% of maximum. However, these percentages are often
exaggerated. Also it can be seen in figure above that the minimum controllable flow (Fmin) rises as the
distortion coefficient (Dc) drops. Therefore, at a Dc of 0.1, the 50:1 rangeability of an equal-percentage
valve drops to about 10:1.

Consequently, the rangeability should be defined as the flow range over which the actual installed valve
gain stays within ±25% of the theoretical valve gain. To illustrate the importance of this limitation, the
figures below show that the actual gain of an equal percentage valve starts to deviate from its theoretical
gain by more than 25%, when the flow reaches about 65%.

Therefore, in determining the rangeability of such a valve, the maximum allowable flow should be 65%.
Actually, if you use this definition, the rangeability of an equal-percentage (=%) valve is seldom more than
10:1. In such cases, the rangeability of a linear valve can be greater than that of an equal-percentage
(=%) valve. Also, the rangeability of some rotary valves can be higher because their clearance flow tends
to be lower, and their body losses near the wide open position also tend to be lower than those of other
valve designs.

145
To stay within ±25% of the theoretical valve’s gain, the maximum flow should not exceed 60% of
maximum Cv in a linear valve or 70% of maximum Cv in an equal-percentage (=%) valve. In terms of
valve lift, these flow limits correspond to 85% of maximum lift for an equal-percentage (=%) and 70% for
linear valves.

Proper control valve sizing

The symptom of a misapplied control valve flow characteristic is a control loop that only gives good
control at one end of its operating range and is either sluggish or becomes unstable at the other end of its
operating range. An example of a misapplied valve inherent flow characteristic would be an equal
percentage valve in a system with very little piping.

The left-hand graph in the figure to the right shows

the unstable oscillations as results of a short run.
The flow characteristic is due to the fact there is
not enough non-linear flow pressure drop that
would normally be created by long runs of piping
that would greatly reduce the ΔP across the valve
at maximum flow. Looking at the previous figure
above, the gain for an equal-percentage valve is
very high near 100% of stroke, so when there is an
upset and the valve opens, the flow rate
accelerates very quickly, overshooting the desired
flow for correction. The control system (controller) has to hunt and as the valve starts to close down the
process loop gain becomes less, allowing the loop to stabilize.

Upon startup of this system, if it was running at a low process load and the valve was around 25% open
(Point 1), after going through the process of tuning a PID controller you can see that the slope of the
valve’s installed characteristic curve is quite shallow. This means that the valve’s gain (or the sensitivity of
flow to changes in valve position) is quite low. To make up for this, the proportional gain of the controller
would need to be set fairly high. As expected, when you make a step change in the set point, there is a
quick and stable response. Later, when the process load increases, the valve might be around 50% open
(Point 2).

At this point, the slope of the valve’s installed characteristic curve (its gain) is higher meaning that the
value of controller proportional gain previously selected is higher than it should be when the valve is 50%
open. When the set point is stepped up from the current 50% position there is an oscillatory response.
When the process load increases to where the valve is around 75% open (Point 3) the slope of the valve’s
installed characteristic curve is quite steep, meaning that the valve’s flow gain is quite high.

The value of controller gain originally selected when the valve was 25% open is now much too high, and
when the set point again is stepped up there is a very unstable response. If the loop were instead tuned
when the control valve was 75% open, a lower value of proportional gain in the controller had been used,
there would be a fast, stable response to a step change in set point. However, if operated at lower loads,
the response would be very sluggish.

If you had misapplied a linear valve in a system with a lot of pipe, the situation would be the opposite of
what is shown in figure above right. Just as the system with a lot of pipe pushes the equal percentage
inherent characteristic upward into a linear installed characteristic, it would push a linear inherent
characteristic upward into a quick-opening characteristic. With a quick-opening characteristic, a small
increment of valve position at small openings results in a large increase in flow capacity, while the same
increment of valve position at large openings results in a small increase in flow capacity. This system
would be very sensitive at low valve openings (high gain) and very insensitive at large openings (low
gain). The system would still be very difficult or impossible to tune to get a fast stable response
throughout the flow range.

146
On the other hand, a properly applied control valve inherent characteristic (an equal percentage valve in a
system with a lot of pipe, or a linear valve in a
system with little pipe) results in a linear, or at least
nearly linear installed characteristic, as shown in
the left-hand graph of the figure to the right. A
linear installed characteristic gives responsive and
stable control throughout the entire flow range.

This properly applied valve’s installed flow

characteristic has a slope that is quite constant
throughout the entire flow range and the sensitivity
of flow to changes in valve position is a nearly a
linear flow gain. Regardless of what the operating
point was during the controller tuning process, the
PID tuning parameters selected would be appropriate at all points in the operating range.

In simplicity the above learning can be summarized just by looking a heat exchanger application which
has a significate amount of pressure drop, using an equal-percentage control valve as shown below for
flow control. When more heat or BTU per (lbm * °F) is called for, the flow must greatly increase so the
gain of the heat exchanger drastically drops off near the top of the design flow rate. The pipe friction
creates a greater non-linear pressure drop as shown below. The equal-percentage valve has a gain that
is the inverse of the heat exchanger, so when there is an increase in flow, the heat exchanger gain is
dropping and the equal-percentage valve gain is increasing, creating a fairly linear gain over the flow
range and temperature control range of the process loop. This will be discussed further in the section in
this manual Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning.

Equal percentage valves provide linear gain in flow applications

Oversized valves present problems

Next, it’s important to understand the importance of proper control valve sizing. If the right size valve is
not selected, there are two possibilities:

1) The valve may too small. If it is, it won’t be able to pass the required flow. In actual practice,
undersized valves are fairly uncommon

2) The valve may be too large, which turns out to be all too common. An oversized control valve will cost
more than is necessary, but it is only a minor point compared to the real problem they present. The real
problem with an oversized valve is that it will be very sensitive; meaning small changes in valve position
will cause large changes in flow. This will make it difficult, or even impossible, for the valve to adjust
exactly to the required flow.

The figure below shows graphs of the installed characteristics of two different valves in the same system.
These are both segment ball valves, which have equal percentage inherent characteristics, and the
system has a lot of pipe. Note that up to the specified maximum flow rate of 550 GPM both have
reasonable linear installed characteristics. The 3” valve is a properly sized valve and the 6” valve is an

147
oversized valve. The reason that the 3” valve is a properly sized valve is because it meets the criterion of
the rule of thumb of being between 60% and 80% open at the maximum required flow of 550 GPM. This
rule of thumb has served valve users well because it gives a good balance between using as much of the
valve’s control range as possible, giving good flow resolution, while providing adequate safety factor. (The
3” valve can increase flow about 20% above 550 GPM which should be
adequate, while the 6” valve can
increase the flow about 60%
above 550 GPM, which is more
than should ever be required.

Starting at 550 GPM, if the

properly sized valve opens by 1
percentage point the flow will
increase by 8 GPM. If the
oversized valve opens by 1
percentage point the flow will
increase by 20 GPM.

All valves exhibit a certain

amount of stickiness. After a
valve has been in service for a
long time, especially if someone
has been a little overzealous in
adjusting the packing, it is not
unusual to find that the smallest increment that the valve can move is 1%. If the best each of these valves
can do is position themselves in 1% increments, the 3” valve will be able to control flow within 8 GPM
increments, and the 6” valve will only be able to control flow within 20 GPM increments. In general, the
more oversized a control valve is, the poorer the accuracy of control will be.

Note: For problems with stiction in valves, review the previous lesson on the application of valve
positioners. But remember they should not be used with fast responding process flow loops.

Although not always possible, it is also preferable to have the minimum opening no less than 20% to
provide some safety factor at the low end. Normally, the control valve manufacturers publish Cv values in
10% increments beginning at 10% open, so it’s impossible to know what is happening to the Cv below that
point. It is also not uncommon for the inherent characteristic to start deviating from the ideal Cv curve
somewhere below 20% open.

It is not unusual to find properly sized full-ball, segment-ball and high-performance butterfly valves that
are two sizes smaller than the line and properly sized globe valves that are one size smaller than the line.
This is not a rule, but just the way things often turn out. If a valve is sized, and it turns out to be different
than these, it is a good idea to check the work. A mistake may have been made. Additionally, the person
who sized the pipe may have made a mistake.

Most people consider it poor piping practice to use a control valve that is less than one half the pipe line
size or larger than the line size.

148
Experiment and understand Installed valve characteristics

The top row shows the Cv verses stroke for an equal percentage and a linear valve as in the sizing
catalog.

The second row shows the actual or installed characteristic flow rate in gpm verses the percent signal for
stem stroke from the DCS or PLC.

The third row shows the ideal (off the self) flow rate in gpm verses the percent signal for stem stroke from
the DCS or PLC, for a constant pressure differential. Remember a constant ΔP across the valve cannot
be achieved in a real flow control system.

Remember the valve starts choking at about 70% of its rated catalog Cv verses stem stroke.

Go to the Learn Control Systems web site for a free Excel Spreadsheet which will demonstrate how the
valve works in an installed piping system with real-time graphs of the real installed characteristics of the
valve. Download this free excel spreadsheet I have created and play with different flow rates and percent
extra pump head for the operation of an installed valve and a flow meter orifice application.

Liquid System Sizer - version 2.7 (Size Pump, Valve, Orifice, Transmitter and Piping System)
http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/studymaterials/System-Sizer.htm

149
Summary of control valve characteristics

Here are some points to remember:

 If a set of loop-tuning parameters only works at one end of the control range and not the other,
the valve’s flow characteristic is most likely the wrong one.

 If a system has a lot of pipe and/or other pressure consuming elements, or a pressure source that
decreases with increasing flow, an equal percentage valve will usually be the best choice.

 If a system has very little pipe and/or other pressure-consuming elements and has a pressure
source that doesn’t decrease with increasing flow, a linear valve will usually be the best choice.

 A control valve that is sized to operate around 60% to 80% open at the maximum required flow
and not much less than 20% open at the minimum required flow will give the best control.

 The valve will start choking at about 70% of its rated Cv when installed in a system with long pipe
runs.

 The maximum flow should not exceed 60% of maximum Cv in a linear valve or 70% of maximum
Cv in an equal-percentage valve.

This chapter has laid the foundation for a solid understanding of loop response and tuning of control
loops. This subject and it applications will be further expanded on in these sections of the manual:

Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning and Chemical Process Technology and Equipment

150
Control Valve Sizing

As demonstrated in the previous studies of the section, it is important to understand that you cannot just
pick a differential pressure (ΔP) to be across the valve and size the valve for a flow control system. It is a
system and all the elements interact as a system. The pressure drops across the elements in the system
are constantly changing as the flow rate changes.

The piping system can be thought of as being

similar to an electrical circuit. There is a battery
(the pump) and fixed resistors in series to make up
the system (the pipe, the fittings, the orifice plate
or measuring restriction). The valve is a variable
resistor in the system and is constantly changing
resistance.

From electrical physics, you will remember

Kirchhoff’s voltage law. The sum of the voltage
drops (pressure drops) equals the sum of the
source (pressure produced by the pump). Unless
we are pumping into a pressurized vessel or tank
maintaining a level head, all the pressure is dropped as we exit the pipe and the fluid’s pressure equals
the atmosphere upon exiting the pipe. All the pressure has been used up.

Remember that the pressure drop is “head pressure” and it is a component of the total head energy
produced by the pump. The head pressure does not just drop off as it goes down the pipe; it is consumed
to do work. This can be seen by looking at the pump motor. It absorbs a constant wattage to produce a
constant horsepower (HP) which in turn produced the hydraulic head. The wattage or energy does not
change with a constant pump rpm. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, so it just changes to heat and
vibration to be dissipated into the environment.

There will be other advanced consideration when sizing the valve based on the ΔP across the valve, such
as choking, cavitation and flashing. We will discuss these concerns in detail at the end of this section after
we are familiar with control valve sizing for different applications.

For more information on these and other subjects of process plant design, visit my web site to gain
extensive insight into design applications with the online study course at http://learncontrolsystems.com.

The Valve Sizing Equations

The Basic equation for liquid flow

p
q   N1 Fp Cv  Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia
Gf

The basic equation for gas flow

q   N1 N 7 Fp Cv PY
1 
x
Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia, N7 = 1360
G f T1Z

The basic equation for steam flow

w   N1 N6 FpCvY  xP1 1 Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia, N6 = 63.3

151
Where:

G f  Specific gravity, for gas

 molecular weight of gas 
28.967  is the M.W. of air 
Cv  Valve sizing coefficient
Fk  Ratio of specific heat factors
Fp  Piping geometric factor
K1  Inlet velocity head loss coefficient
K 2  Outlet velocity head loss coefficient
K i  Inlet head loss coefficient; K1  K B1
K B1  Inlet Bernoulli coefficient
K B 2  Outlet Bernoulli coefficient
K  K1  K 2  K B1  K B 2
N1  1.00 (for psia; equation constant see Table A13. in appendix)
N 6  63.3 (for lb / h; equation constant see Table A13. in appendix)
N 7  1360 (for scfh; equation constant see Table A13. in appendix)
N 9  7320 (for scfh; equation constant see Table A13. in appendix)
p  Pressure in psid across the valve
P1  Inlet pressure  psi absolute 
P2  Outlet pressure  psi absolute 
q  Volumetric Flow  in gpm for liquid or scfh for gas 
T1  Fluid operating temperature  psi absolute ;  reference temp in  F + 460
w  Volumetric flow (in pounds per hour)
x  Ratio of delta pressure to inlet pressure absolute
Z  Fluid compressibility
 f  Specific weight of the steam or vapor in pounds per cubic foot  operating cond .
Note: for SI (metric) calculations K v  0.856(Cv )

Note: The Fisher Control Valve Handbook, the Fisher Control Valve Catalog or Table A11 and Table
A12 of the guide can be used for CV, FL and XT references for problems in this guide and on the CSE
exam.

All variables are discussed in detail. We will keep the equations simple and to the point for sizing. We will
size for the correct size valve to be installed. On the CSE examination, only obtaining the C V of the
valve may be of interest, and not sizing for actual applications.

The other factors—such as the piping geometry factor (Fp) for reducers in the piping, the expansion factor
(Y) of gas and vapors, and the Bernoulli factors (Kb)—will probably not be used in the CSE exam. There
may be questions of temperature limits and hardness of the materials that make up the valve for given
applications.

ISA offers video tape training (The Control Valves and Actuators Series) and Integrated Systems offers
online training on control valve sizing and selection, http://learncontrolsystems.com.

152
Sizing valves for liquid - worked example

The basic equation for liquid flow through a control valve is:

p
q   N1 Fp Cv  Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia
Gf

Solving for Cv we get:

q
Cv  Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia
p
N F 
1 p
Gf

1
  K  Cv  2  2

Fp  1   2  Note: FP = piping geometric factor

 890  d  

The piping geometry factor covers reducing fittings attached to each side of the valve body. See Table
A11 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients of Globe Valves and Table A12 - Properties and Sizing
Coefficients of Rotary Valves in the appendix of this guide, for use of C V, XT and FL.

Now the equation becomes:

q
Cv 
p
N1 Fp
Gf

LIQUID WORKED EXAMPLE

Sample problem: We will now assume an 8-inch pipe connected to a Globe Valve, with the
following service, Liquid Propane. Size the equal percentage valve for the following criteria.

q = 800 gpm T1 = 70⁰F Gf = 0.5 ∆P = 25 psi

P1 = 300 psig P2 = 275 psig

Find the approximate CV. The CV is needed to find FP (for now set to FP = 1).

q 800
Cv    113.13
p 25
Fp
Gf 0.5

Note: If piping were the same size as the valve, we’re done.

153
From Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients of Globe Valves, we find a 3” Globe Valve
(equal percentage) has a maximum CV of 136 at full open. But we want to throttle at 50%, so pick a
4” with a CV of 224. Now we will plug this CV into the piping geometry equation to get the installed
valve CV.
K  K1 (the entry factor )  K 2 (the exit factor )

2 2
 d2   d2 
K  K1 2  1.5 1  2  Note: K1  K 2,  (0.5  1) 1  2  same size piping
 D   D 

2
 42 
K  K1 2  1.5 1  2   0.844 Note: 4 = valve size, 8=pipe size
 8 

1
  K  Cv  2  2

Fp  1  
890  d 2  
Note: Fp = piping geometry factor.


1
 0.844  224  2  2
1
Fp  1      1.1859 2
 0.918
 890  42  

Find the corrected CV for the installed valve.

q
Cv 
p
Fp
Gf

800 800
Cv    123.24 or 124
25 6.238
 0.918
0.5

This shows a 3” valve is too small; it will require the 4” with the maximum CV = 224.

124
%  55.4% of maximum Cv and about 75% open
224

In Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients of Globe Valves, a Fisher type ED (equal
percentage) valve is used. A 3”valve would be correct with a CV of 136, but it is too small.

The valve would be (124/136) or 91% of maximum CV, and you might not get the required flow
through the valve for throttling. Remember, valves start choking at about 75% throttle, so size your
CV to fit at about 50% maximum CV. The industrial standard is to size your valves for 200% CV.

154
Sizing valves for gas - worked example

The basic equation for gas or vapor flow through a control valve is:

q   N1 N 7 Fp Cv PY
1 
x
Note: N1 = always equal to 1 for psia, N7 = 1360
G f T1Z

q (in scfh)
Cv  Note: for volumetric flow units
x
1360 Fp PY
1
G f T1Z

Where:

 x 
Y 1   Note: the expansion factor
 3Fk xTP 

Note: The expansion factor must be between 1.0 and 0.667. The velocity downstream will always be
greater than upstream velocity.

k
Fk  Note: ratio of specific heat factor
1.4

k = ratio of specific heats

P
x Note: pressure drop ratio of ΔP to inlet P1
P1

xT  pressure drop ratio required to produce maximum flow through the valve
when Fk =1.0. ( xT can be found in valve coefficients table)

-1
xT  xT Ki  Cv  
2

xTP  2 1+ 
N5  d 2  
Note: pressure drop ratio factor with installed fittings attached
Fp 

Where:
1
  K  Cv  2  2

Fp  1   2  Note: piping geometric factor

 890  d  

K i  K1  K b1 Note: inlet head loss coefficient

2
 d2 
K1  0.5 1  2 
 D 
2
 d2 
K 2  1 1  2 
 D 

4
d
K B1 or K B 2  1    Note: Bernoulli coefficients
D

155
GAS WORKED EXAMPLE

Sample problem: We will now assume a 6” inch pipe connected to a Globe Valve, with the
following service, Natural Gas. Size the equal percentage valve for the following criteria.

q = 800,000 scfh T1 = 60⁰F = 520⁰R Gf = 0.60 ∆P = 150 psi

P1 = 400 psig P2 = 250 psig Mw = 17.38 k = 1.32

The molecular weight, Mw of gas/ Mw of air (17.38 /28.96) gives the specific gravity, Gf = 0.60. We will
use specific gravity and N7 = 1360.

q (in scfh)
Cv  Note : for volumetric flow units
x
1360 Fp PY
1
G f T1Z

First find the approximate valve size and CV for formulas. Set Fp = 1, Y = 1, Z = 1.

P 150  1.32 
x   0.362; Fk xT    0.68  0.641
P1  400  14.7   1.4 

Use the lesser value of the two equations above for “x” in the valve sizing formula.

q (in scfh) 800,000

Cv    41.64 or 42
x 0.362
1360P1 1360(400  14.7)
G f T1  0.60 60  460

Note: If piping were the same size as the valve in the CSE exam, we’re done.

When the pressure differential ratio x reaches a value of FK xT. The limiting value of x is defined as the
critical differential pressure ratio. The value of x used in any of the sizing equations and in the
relationship for Y, shall be held to this limit, even if the actual pressure differential ratio is greater.
Thus, the numerical value of Y may range from 0.667, when x = FK xT, to a value of 1.0 for very low
differential pressures. The xT comes from the valve coefficient tables in the appendix. (Calculate the
valve for 200% CV for throttling applications).

From Table A11, we want to throttle at about 50% of maximum Cv, so double the Cv of the initial
equation. In the globe valve coefficients table, we see a 3” valve with the CV = 136.

Calculate for piping geometric factors. Inlet = 6” and Outlet = 6” schedule 40 pipe.

K  K1  K 2  K B1  K B 2

156
 2
 d2   3 
K1  0.5 1  2   0.5 1  2   0.281 Note: 3 = valve size, 6 = pipe size
 D   6 

2
 d2   3 
K 2  11  2   11  2   0.5625
 D   6 

2
 d2   3
4

K B1   2      0.0625
 D  6

2
 d2   3
4

K B 2   2      0.0625
 D  6

Sum resistance coefficients and Bernoulli coefficients and get the piping geometry factor:

K  0.281  0.5625  0.0625  0.0625  0.8435

1
 K  Cv 2  2
1
Fp  1   2   0.9067
 890  d   0.8435  136
2

1  
890  32 

Find the pressure drop ratio for the installed fitting attached to the 3” valve.

K i  K1  K B1  0.281  0.0625  0.3435

From Table A11 and Table A13 in the appendix we find: N5 =1000 and xT = 0.68

-1
xT  xT Ki  Cv  
2

xTP  2 1+
Fp  N5  d 2    x K C 2
Fp2 1+ T i  2v
 N5  d  

0.68
xTP   0.7853
  0.68  0.3435   136 2
0.9067 1+
2
2  
 1000  3 

Find the expansion factor Y, it must be between 0.667 and 1.0

1.32
Fk   0.943 Note: ratio of specific heats factors
1.4

 x   0.362
Y 1   1    0.837
 3Fk xTP   3  0.943 0.7853 

157
 q (in scfh) 800,000
Cv    54.872 or 55
x 0.362
1360 Fp PY 1360  0.9067  414.7  0.837 
1
G f T1  0.60 520 
We want to throttle at around 50% so; a 3 inch valve has a CV of 136. Using a 2-inch valve, the
calculation would have required a CV of 55.89 and the 2-inch valve only has a CV of 50.7 at 100%
open.

55
%  41% of maximum Cv and about 64% open
136

C g  40 Cv xT ; if needed to convert Cv to C g as in the FCVH

Sizing valves for vapor and steam - worked example

The basic equation for vapor or steam flow through a control valve is:

w   N6 FpCvY  xP1 1 Note: N6 = 63.3

w(lb / h)
Cv  Note: for mass flow units in pounds per hour
63.3FpY xP1 1

STEAM WORKED EXAMPLE

Sample problem: We will now assume 6-inch pipe inlet and 8-inch pipe outlet of schedule 40, is
connected to a type ED Globe (equal percentage) Valve, with the following service: Process Steam.
Size the valve for the following criteria.
Note: 1/ (  1 ) can be found in Table A9 - Saturated Steam Tables in the appendix of this guide.

q = 125,000 lb/h T1 = 470⁰F Gf = 0.60 ∆P = 250 psi

P1 = 500 psig P2 = 250 psig  1 = 1.089 k = 1.31

Answer:

First find the approximate valve size and CV for the formulas. Set Fp = 1, Y = 1.

Find  1 :
1 lb
 1 =Specific weight is the reciprocal of specific volume  3
 ft / lb  ft
3

From Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam, we can find the specific volume of the steam at a

158
 3
pressure of 514.7 psia equals 0.9182 ft /lb

ft 3  P desired - P lower value   ft 3 ft 3   ft 3

   upper value - lower value   low value
lb  P upper value - P lower value  lb lb   lb
ft 3  514.7  500   ft 3
    0.9278  0.8915    0.8915  0.9182
lb  520  500   lb

1 1 lb
 1 =Specific weight is the reciprocal of specific volume   1.089
 ft 3
/ lb  0.9182 ft 3
1.31
Fk   0.936 Note: Ratio of specific heat factors
1.4

 x  P P1  0.486   x  Fk xT   0.936  0.69   0.646 

Pressure ratio is smaller than critical limits, so we will use x = 0.486.

Find the CV:

w (in lb / h) 125,000
Cv    119.65 or 120
63.3FpY xP1 1 63.311  0.486 514.7 1.089

Note: If piping were the same size as the valve in the CSE exam, we’re done.

When the pressure differential ratio x reaches a value of FkxT. The limiting value of x is defined as the
critical differential pressure ratio. The value of x used in any of the sizing equations, and in the
relationship for Y, shall be held to this limit, even if the actual pressure differential ratio is greater.

Thus, the numerical value of Y may range from 0.667, when x = FkxT, to a value of 1.0 for very low
differential pressures. The xT comes from Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients for Globe
Valves.
The Table shows a 3-inch valve with a CV of 136, but we want to throttle around 50% (200% of 120 =
240), so a 4-inch valve with the CV of 224 is too small. Doing the calculation with a 4-inch valve will
prove we are already at 71% CV at normal flow and will probably be choking already. You should
select a 6-inch pipe with the CV of 394.

B: Calculate for piping geometric factors. Inlet = 6-inch and Outlet = 8-inch schedule 40 pipe.

2 2
 d2   62 
K1  0.5 1  2   0.5 1  2   0.0
 D   6 
2 2
 d2   62 
K 2  11  2   11  2   0.1914
 D   8 

2
 d2   6 
4

K B1   2      1.0
 D  6

159
 2
 d2   6 
4

K B 2   2      0.3164
 D  8

Sum resistance coefficients and Bernoulli coefficients and get piping geometry factor:

K  K1  K 2  K B1  K B 2

K  0.0  0.1914  1.0  0.3164  0.875

1
 K  Cv  2  2
1
Fp  1   2    0.9459
 890  d   0.875  394 
2

1  
890  62 

C: Find the pressure drop ratio for the installed fitting attached to the valve.

K i  K1  K B1  0.0  1.0  1.0

From the Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Valve Sizing Formulas and Table A11 - Sizing
Coefficients for Globe Valves , in the appendix shows : N5 = 1000 and xT = 0.78

-1
x  xT Ki  Cv 2 
xTP  T2 1+
Fp  N5  d 2    x K C 2
Fp2 1+ T i  2v
 N5  d  

0.78
xTP   0.9783
  0.78 1.0   394  2 
0.94592 1+   
 1000  62  

D: Find the expansion factor Y, it must be between 0.667 and 1.0

 x   0.486 
Y 1    1     0.823
 3Fk xTP   3  0.936  0.9783 

Note: Replace xTP with xT if pipe size, inlet and outlet, are the same size as the valve

w (in lb / h) 125,000
Cv    153.69 or 154
63.3FpY xP1  1 63.3 0.9459 0.823  0.486 514.71.089

This shows a 6” valve is the correct size.

154
%  39% of maximum C v and about 63% open
394

Note: This valve is a 6 inch valve with a CV = 394 and should be used for this application.

C g  40 Cv xT ; if needed to convert Cv to C g as in the FCVH

160
Sizing valves for two phase flow - worked example

Two phase flow is a flow which is comprised of liquid and vapor or liquid and gas in part ratios of mass.
The quality of the gas or vapor and liquid must be known to size the valve. Recall the quality of gas or
vapor is Quality (vapor) = Vapor mass / Total mass and Quality (liquid) = Liquid mass / Total mass.

Some Types of Two Phase Flow

161
The basic equations for two phase flow through a control valve are:

w   N6 FpCvY  xP1 1 Note: N 6 = 63.3

w   N6 FpCvY  ( P1  P2 ) 1 Note: N 6 = 63.3

Note: Y 2 only applies to the gas portion and not the liquid portion of the mass flow

w(lb / h)
Fp Cv 
N6 P 1Y 2

1
  1Y 2 Note: specific volume is the reciprocal of density
ve

ve  f g vg / Y 2  f f v f

w(lb / h) ve
Fp Cv  Note: Y 2 is in the coefficient ve
N6 P

x
Y 1
3Fk xt

P
x
P1

k
Fk 
1.40

Note: v g is the specific volume of the gas and M is the molecular weight of air

RT
vg 
M  P1  conversion factor in2 to ft 2 

 ft * lbf 
1545   deg R  ft 3
vg   lb * mol * R 

 lbm  lbf   in 2  lbm
 28.97  P1 2  144 2 
 lb * mol  in   ft 

162
Two Phase Flow Worked Example

Sample problem: The goal in this example is to find the required valve capacity (FpCv) for the
conditions listed below:

Air flow rate: 600 lb/hr Pressure drop, ∆p: 50 psi

Water flow rate: 26,000 lb/hr Temperature: 90°F (550°R)
Upstream pressure, P1: 150 psia Line size: 3 in. schedule 40

Answer:

Step 1: Determine the relative mass fractions of gas and liquid, fg and ff. The total mass flow rate is
w = 600 + 26,000 = 26,600 lb/hr.

The fraction of gas:

600
fg   0.0226
26,600

The fraction of fluid:

26,000
ff   0.9774
26,600

Step 2: Make a preliminary selection of valve type and determine the critical pressure drop ratio
factor (xT) for expansion factor (Y ) of the valve. Assume a single-seated globe valve with a
contoured plug with flow under the plug (to open).

gpm 26,000lb 1gpm 1min 52 gpm 52 gpm

Cv   * * =   7.35
P 1 8.33lb 60sec P 50

Double the Cv for an approximation of the vapor through the valve.

Approx. Cv = 14.7

Using the manufacture’s catalog tables, for valves ranging from 0.75” to 1-1/2” we obtain an
average estimate of xT = 0.68.

Find the expansion factor (Y):

x 0.334
Y 1 1  0.8454
3Fk xt 3 1 0.72 

Step 2: Calculate the pressure drop ratio, (x):

50
x  0.334
150

163
Because x < xT, and the gas flow is not choked.

Find the ratio of specific heat factor (FK):

1.40
Fk   1.0
1.40

Step 4: Determine the effective specific volume of the mixture at upstream conditions. The specific
volume of the air can be calculated from the gas law equation:

 ft * lbf 
1545   550  R  ft 3
vg   lb * mol * R 
 1.358
 lbm  lbf   in 2  lbm
 28.97 150 2  144 2 
 lb * mol  in   ft 

From Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density at 90°F,

The liquid specific volume is:

ft 3
v f  0.01610
lbm

The mixture effective specific volume ve :

f g vg (0.0226)(1.358) ft 3
ve  2
 f f vf  2
  0.9774  0.01610   0.0587
Y 0.8454 lbm

Step 5: Calculate valve capacity from Equation:

w(lb / h) ve 26,600 0.0587

Fp Cv   =14.39
N6 P 63.3 50

If the piping geometric factor (Fp) is equal to 1, then the Cv of the valve would be: 14.39

If the piping geometric factor (Fp) is equal to 0.98, then the Cv of the valve would be:

(0.98)(14.39)=14.1

We want to throttle at 50%, so size the valve Cv for 200%.

14.1 * 2.00 = 28.2 Cv

Choose a 1-1/2” valve with a Cv = 35.8 and xT = 0.68

(The xT matches our calculation, so no recalculation is necessary)

14.1
%  39.4% of maximum Cv and about 63% open
35.8

Note: This valve is a 1-1/2 inch valve with a CV = 35.8 and should be used for this application.

164
ΔP Valve Limitations - Very Important!

On a simple back pressure or pressure reducing application, the drop across the valve may be calculated
quite accurately. This may also be true on a liquid level control installation, where the liquid is passing
from one vessel at a constant pressure to another vessel at a lower constant pressure. If the pressure
difference is relatively small, some allowance may be necessary for line friction.

On the other hand, in a large percentage of control applications, the pressure drop across the valve will
be chosen arbitrarily as a percent of piping pressure drop. Any attempt to state a specific numerical rule
for such a choice becomes too complex to be practical. The design drop across the valve is sometimes
expressed as a percentage of the friction drop in the system, exclusive of the valve. A good working rule
is that 15% to 40% of this friction drop (piping pressure drop) should be available as drop across the
valve. With a pressure drop of 40% you should be very safe, but 15% to 30% is usually all you need. With
30% drop, in other words, one-third of the total system drop, including all heat exchangers, mixing
nozzles, piping etc., is assumed to be absorbed by the control valve. This may sound excessive, but if the
control valve were completely eliminated from such a system, the flow increase would only be about 23%.
In pump discharge systems, the head characteristic of the pump becomes a major factor. For valves
installed in extremely long or high-pressure drop lines, the percentage of drop across the valve may be
somewhat lower, but at least 15% (up to 25% where possible) of the system drop should be taken.

Remember one important fact, the

pressure differential absorbed by the
control valve in actual operation will be
the difference between the total
available head and that required to
maintain the desired flow through the
valve. It is determined by the system
characteristics rather than by the
theoretical assumptions of the
engineer. In the interest of economy,
the engineer tries to keep the control
valve pressure drop as low as
possible. However, a valve can only
regulate flow by absorbing and giving
up pressure drop to the system. As
the proportion of the system pressure
drop across the valve is reduced, its
ability to further increase flow rapidly
disappears. Valves work in the same
way as orifice plates and head meters, using Bernoulli’s Principal.

In some cases, it may be necessary to make an arbitrary choice of the pressure drop across the valve
because there is not enough process data are available at the time of design. For instance, if the valve is
in a pump discharge line, having a discharge pressure of 100 psi (7 bars), a drop of 10 to 25 psi (0.7 to
1.7 bar) may be assumed sufficient. This is true if the pump discharge line is not extremely long or
complicated by large drops through heat exchangers or other equipment. The tendency should be to use
the higher figure. On more complicated systems, consideration should be given to both maximum and
minimum operating conditions. Masoneilan Valve or Fisher Valve product companies offer engineering
assistance for analysis of such applications. Both companies also offer free valve sizing software for
selection and engineering of valve applications.

Flowing Quantity (the turndown ratio of a valve)

The selection of a control valve is based on the required flowing quantity of the process. The control valve
must be selected to operate under several different conditions. The maximum quantity that a valve should
be required to pass is 10 to 15 % above the specified maximum of normal flow (this is compensating for
process upsets). The normal flow and maximum flow used in sizing calculations should be based on
actual operating conditions, whenever possible, without any factors having been applied.

165
On many systems, a reduction in flow means an increase in pressure drop, and the Cv ratio may be much
greater than would be suspected. If, for example the maximum operating conditions for a valve are: 200
gpm at 25 psi drop, and the minimum conditions are 25 gpm at 100 psi drop, the Cv ratio is 16 to 1, not 8
to 1 as it would first seem. The required change in valve Cv is the product of the ratio of maximum to
minimum flow and the square root of the ratio of maximum to minimum pressure drop, example:

200 gpm 25 gpm 200 gpm 100 psi 16

200 gpm  25 psi Same Energy Head =  Rearranging 
25 psi 100 psi 25 gpm 25 psi 1

Flashing

If the downstream pressure is equal to or less than the vapor pressure, then vapor bubbles created at the
vena contracta do not collapse, resulting in a liquid-gas mixture downstream of the valve. This is
commonly called flashing. When flashing of a liquid occurs, the inlet fluid is 100% liquid which experiences
pressures at the inlet and downstream of the control valve which are at or below the vapor pressure. The
result is a two phase mixture (vapor and liquid) at the valve outlet and in the downstream piping. Velocity
of this two phase flow is usually very high and results in the possibility for erosion of the valve and piping
components

Joule-Thomson Effect (J-T) – auto refrigeration in valves

The throttling process is commonly exploited in thermal expansion processes, such as refrigerators, air
conditioners, heat pumps, and liquefiers. To minimize or prevent the gas from liquefying and the valve
from freezing, often a two-stage pressure reduction scheme is used to minimize the J-T Effect. By taking
the pressure drop in two stages, the total cooling effect is split between the two pressure reducing valves,
each of which may be able to absorb enough heat from the atmosphere to prevent the gas from
liquefying. Also heat can be applied to the piping before the first and second stage reducing valves,
raising the gas temperature enough to prevent the gas from liquefying. For details on the J-T Effect, read
about it in the section later in this guide under Chemical Process Technology and Equipment.

Choked Flow

Choked flow occurs in gases and vapors when the fluid velocity reaches sonic values at any point in the
valve body, trim, or pipe. As the pressure in the valve or pipe is lowered, the specific volume increases to
the point where sonic velocity is reached. In liquids, vapor is formed as the result of cavitation or flashing
and increases the specific volume of the fluid at a faster rate than the increase in flow due to pressure
differential. Lowering the downstream pressure beyond this point in either case will not increase the flow
rate for a constant upstream pressure. The velocity at any point in the valve or downstream piping is
limited to sonic (Mach = 1). As a result, the flow rate will be limited to an amount which yields a sonic
velocity in the valve trim or the pipe under the specified pressure conditions. Under choked conditions,
ΔPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop), is the choked pressure drop.

See the section in this manual Chemical Process Technology and Equipment / Vapor Pressure,
Boiling and Cavitation in Equipment on the subject of vapor pressure and cavitation. There is a
simple, very insightful and excellent video that demonstrates this phenomenon.

166
Maximum ΔP and Maximum Flow (qmax) in Valves Applications

You must be aware of the maximum delta pressure to be absorbed across the valve. If the ΔP is too large
the valve will choke the flow and cavitation or flashing may occur.

Determining qmax or ΔPmax

qmax (the Maximum Flow Rate) or ΔPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop).
Calculate either qmax or ΔPmax to determine if it is possible for choked flow to develop within the control
valve that is to be sized. The values can be determined by using the following procedures.

Determining qmax (Maximum Flow Rate)

P1 - FF PV
qmax  N1 FL CV
Gf
Values for the coefficient FF (liquid critical pressure ratio) factor used in the formula can be obtained from
figure below, or from the equation:
PV
FF  0.96  0.28
PC
Use the FF curve to the right for liquids other than water. Determine the vapor pressure/critical pressure
ratio by dividing the liquid
vapor pressure at the
valve inlet by the critical
pressure of the liquid.
Enter on the abscissa at
the ratio just calculated
and proceed vertically to
intersect the curve. Move
horizontally to the left and
read the critical pressure
ratio, FF. on the ordinate.
Values of FL, the recovery
factor for valves installed
without fittings attached,
can be found in the flow
coefficient tables (Table A11 and Table A12).

If the given valve is to be installed with fittings (such as a reducer) attached to it, FL in the equation
must be replaced by the quotient FLP/Fp, where:

 K1  CV  2 1 
FLP    2   2 
 N 2  d  FL 

K1 = K1 + K B1

Where:
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings KB1 = Inlet Bernoulli coefficient

(See the procedure for Determining Fp, the Piping Geometry Factor, for definitions of the other constants
and coefficients used in the above equations.)

167
Determining ΔPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop)

The maximum value for differential pressure (ΔPmax) at which the flow rate is achieved due to cavitation,
is obtained with the FL value from above and the equation ΔPmax (the allowable sizing pressure drop). We
can now determine the following relationships:

For valves installed without fittings: For valves installed with fittings attached: Recovery factor valves:
2
F  Pmax
Pmax( L )  FL2  P1  FF PV  Pmax( LP )   LP   P1  FF PV  FL2 
 FP  PVC

Where:

P1 = upstream absolute static pressure

P2 = downstream absolute static pressure
Pv = absolute vapor pressure at inlet temperature
Pvc = absolute vapor pressure at vena contracta
FF = value of the liquid critical pressure ratio factor, can be calculated as previously shown above
FLP = combined liquid pressure recovery factor and piping geometry factor with attached fittings
FL = value of the recovery factor for valves

Note: FL for valves installed without fittings attached, can be found in (Table A11 and Table A12)

An explanation of how to calculate values of FLP, the recovery factor for valves installed with fittings
attached, is presented in the procedure for determining qmax (the Maximum Flow Rate). Once the ΔP max
value has been obtained from the appropriate equation, it should be compared with the actual service
pressure differential (ΔP = P1 − P2). If ΔPmax is less than ΔP, this is an indication that choked flow
conditions will exist under the service conditions specified.

If choked flow conditions do exist (ΔPmax < P1 − P2), then the procedure for sizing valves for liquids must
be modified by replacing the actual service delta pressure ΔP = (P1 − P2) in the valve sizing equation with
the calculated ΔPmax value.

Important Note:

Once it is known that choked flow conditions will develop within the specified valve design (ΔP max is
calculated to be less than ΔP), a further distinction can be made to determine whether the choked flow is
caused by cavitation or flashing. The choked flow conditions are caused by flashing if the outlet pressure
of the given valve is less than the vapor pressure of the flowing liquid. The choked flow conditions are
caused by cavitation if the outlet pressure of the valve is greater than the vapor pressure of the flowing
liquid.

168
Cavitation in valves

In liquids, when the pressure anywhere in the liquid drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid, vapor
bubbles begin to form in the fluid stream. As the fluid decelerates there is a resultant increase in
pressure. If this pressure is higher than the vapor pressure, the bubbles collapse or (implode) as the
vapor returns to the liquid phase.

Cavitation occurs in two steps and produces noise, vibration, and causes erosion damage to the valve
and downstream piping. The onset of cavitation, known as incipient cavitation, is the point when the
bubbles first begin to form and collapse. Advanced cavitation can affect capacity and valve performance,
which begins at a ΔP(cavitation) determined from the factor Kc.

P
KC 
P1  PV

The point at which full or choked cavitation

occurs (severe damage, vibration, and noise)
can be determined by the equation:

P(cavitation )  KC  P1  PV 

KC  FL2

Where:
Kc = liquid cavitation factor or valve recovery
coefficient.
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
PV = vapor pressure of the liquid, psia
FL = liquid pressure recovery factor (as referred to by most control valve manufacturers)
ΔP(cavitation) = maximum allowable pressure drop across the valve (psig)

The valve recovery coefficient, Kc, depends on the design of the valve. It is always less than 1.

As the values of FL and Kc of the different valve designs become smaller, the probability of cavitation
increases. Cavitation damage always occurs downstream of the vena contracta when pressure recovery
in the valve causes the temporary voids to collapse. Destruction is due to the implosions that generate
the extremely high-pressure shock waves in the substantially non-compressible stream. When these
waves strike the solid metal surface of the valve or downstream piping, the damage gives a cinder-like
appearance. Cavitation is usually coupled with vibration and a sound resembling rock fragments or gravel
flowing through the valve.

For typical valves, such as globe and control ball valves, a valve recovery factor of Kc = 0.5 to 0.6 can
be expected. If Kc is not known, a conservative estimate of Kc = 0.5 should be used. The cavitation
formula can be rearranged as follows: ΔP allowed = 0.5 * (P1 – Pv)

Flowserve uses the following formula to check for the severity of cavitation in a valve:

P1  PV

P

• σ > 2.0 No cavitation is occurring.

• 1.7 < σ < 2.0 No cavitation control required. Hardened trim provides protection.
• 1.5 < σ < 1.7 Some cavitation control required. Mutual impingement trim may work.
• 1.0 < σ < 1.5 Potential for severe cavitation. Use staged pressure drop trim.
• σ < 1.0 Flashing is occurring.

169
Check for cavitation and choked flow in a control valves - worked examples

The thermodynamic effects of velocity and pressure through the valve port are shown above as a result
of ΔP applied across the valve body to induce flow through the valve in a process piping system.

Let’s work some problems dealing with choking, cavitation and flashing in process control valves.

Sample problem: Check for cavitation and choked flow in this HVAC hydronic valve installation

Example1:

ΔP(actual) = 10 psid (69 kPa)

P1 = 20 psig = 34.7 psia (239 kPa)
Pv = 9.3 psia (64 kPa) for 190°F (88°C) water.
ΔP allowed = 0.5 (34.7 – 9.3) = 12.7 psid (88 kPa)

The operating pressure drop for this valve would probably be 4 to 10 psid (28 to 69 kPa). Cavitation
would not be a problem in this application.

Example 2:

ΔP(actual) = 10 psid (69 kPa)

P1 = 10 psig = 24.7 psia (170 kPa)
Pv = 9.3 psia (64 kPa) for 190°F (88°C) water.
ΔP allowed = 0.5 (24.7 – 9.3) = 7.7 psid (53 kPa)

The ΔP pressure drop across the valve must not be greater than 7.7 psi (53 kPa) or cavitation will
occur. The alternative is to increase the pump pressure by at least 2.3 psia (10 - 7.7) / 0.5 = 4.6 to
use a ΔP of 10 psig or psid across the valve for operation without cavitation.
10 psig + 4.6 psig + 14.7 psia = 29.3 psia
ΔP allowed = 0.5 (29.3 – 9.3) = 10 psid (69 kPa)

170
 Sample problem: Check for cavitation, choked flow, ΔPmax and qmax for this valve in a process
plant piping installation.

Liquid .................................. Water Valve Action .......................... Flow-to-open

Critical Pressure (PC) ..........3206.2 psia Line Size ................................ 4-inch (Class600)
Temperature........................ 250° F Flow Rate Maximum............... 500 gpm
Upstream Pressure (P1) ......314.7 psia Vapor Pressure (PV) .............. 30 psia
Downstream Pressure (P2) ..104.7 psia Kinematic Viscosity (n) ...........0.014 centistokes
Specific Gravity ...................0.94 Flow Characteristic .................Equal Percentage

Answer:

Step 1) Calculate actual pressure drop across the valve ΔP(actual):

ΔP(actual) = 314.7 psia - 104.7 psia = 210 psid

Step 2) Find initial valve size using the ISA standard liquid equation:

p
q   N1 Fp Cv 
Gf 0.94
-> Cv  q -> 33.45  500 gpm
Gf P 210

We will size the valve for 50% operating capacity or 200% Cv:

From the appendix Table A11:

A Fisher 2” equal percentage valve has a maximum Cv of 59.7. This will be close enough to check
the size.

Step 3) Check for choked flow:

Find FL, it can be found in the appendix Table A11:

Looking under the column for globe valve, 2 inch, equal percentage, we find FL equals 0.85.

Next, estimate FF using Equation:

PV
FF  0.96  0.28
PC

FF = 0.96 - 0.28(0.097) = 0.93

Insert FL and FF into the ΔPmax equation:

Pmax( L )  FL2  P1  FF PV 

Pmax( L )  0.852 [314.7 - (0.93)(30)] = 207.2 psi

If this were a straight pipe run with no reducing fittings the flow would be choked.

Since the calculated ΔPmax is less than ΔP(actual), the flow is choked; therefore, use the smaller
ΔPmax to size the valve. This is the maximum ΔP that the valve can absorb and produce increasing
flow. Any increase in ΔP greater than ΔPmax will not deliver any increase in flow rate.

Note: But we are using reducer fittings so we need to use the equation F LP with ΔPmax(LP) :

171
K LP1  K1  K B1

Note: Find FLP for a Class 600 (600 psi rating) Fisher ED 2” equal percentage valve. It has a port
diameter of 2.3125” The Fisher ED valve is rated for service up to Class 900 (900 psi).

2 2
 d2   2.31252 
K1  0.5 1  2   0.5 1    0.2245
 D   4.0262 
4 4
d  2.3125 
K B1 or K B 2 1   = 1    0.8911
D  4.026 
K LP1  0.2245  0.8911  1.1156

 K  C  2 1  1.1156  59.7  2 1 
FLP   LP1  V2   2     2 
 2 
 1.54
 N 2  d  FL   890  2.3125  0.85 

Sum resistance coefficients and Bernoulli coefficients and get piping geometry factor:

We will use K2 to find ΣK for FP

2 2
 d 2   2.31252 
K 2  1  2   1    0.449
 D   4.0262 

K  K1  K 2

2 2
 d2   2.31252 
K  1.5 1  2   1.5 1    6.735
 D   4.0262 

1 1
  K  Cv  2  2
 0.6735  59.7  2  2

Fp  1   2  = 1      0.9559
 890  d    890  2.31252  

2
F 
2
 1.54 
Pmax( LP )   LP   P1  FF PV     314.7   0.93 30   744.38 psi
 FP   0.9559 

Since the calculated ΔPmax is greater than ΔP(actual) the valve will work, it is not choking.

Step 4) Check for cavitation using the cavitation equation:

P(cavitation)  KC  P1  PV 

KC  FL2

P(cavitation )  0.852 (314.7-30) = 187 psi

172
 Flowserve uses the following formula to check for the severity of cavitation in a valve:

P1  PV 314.7  30
   1.36
P 210

What the sigma means to cavitation in the valve:

• σ > 2.0 No cavitation is occurring.

• 1.7 < σ < 2.0 No cavitation control required. Hardened trim provides protection.
• 1.5 < σ < 1.7 Some cavitation control required. Mutual impingement trim may work.
• 1.0 < σ < 1.5 Potential for severe cavitation. Use staged pressure drop trim.
• σ < 1.0 Flashing is occurring

Since ΔP(actual) and ΔPmax exceeds ΔP(cavitation), substantial cavitation will occur when the ΔP exceeds
187 psid across the valve and if the ΔP across the valve exceeds 285 psid there will be flashing of
the fluid. The piping system needs to be redesigned for a lower (smaller) ΔP (actual) or if you need 187
psid across the valve, special attention should be paid to the material and trim selection.

Step 5) Check for check for maximum flow rate through the valve qmax:

Estimate FF using Equation:

PV
FF  0.96  0.28
PC

FF  0.96 - 0.28(0.097)  0.93

P1 - FF PV 314.7 -  0.93 30 
qmax  N1 FL CV  1 0.85  59.7   886.38 gpm
Gf 0.94

Step 6) Check for check for maximum flow rate through piping systems:

1 1
  K  Cv  2  2
 0.6735  59.7  2  2

Fp  1   2  = 1      0.9559
 890  d    890  2.31252  

p
q   N1 Fp Cv 
210
 1 0.9559  59.7   852.96 gpm
Gf 0.94

Step 7) Calculate exit velocity through valve:

The following Equation is used to calculate entrance or exit velocities for liquids:

0.321 q actual   0.321 500

V   30 ft sec
AV 2.31252

Where:

V = velocity, ft/sec
q (actual) = liquid flow rate, gpm
Av = applicable flow area, in of body port
2

173
 The speed of sound is 1125.33 ft/sec

The exit velocity of the fluid is: 30/1125.33 = Mach 0.023

The inlet velocity is:

gpm *0.4085 500*0.4085
velocity( ft / sec)    12.6 ft / sec
ID2 (inches) 4.262

Since q(actual) is less than q(max) we will not have any problems except the cavitation. You might
consider a 3” valve to reduce the effect of cavitation by operating at a lower ΔP(actual) and reduced
velocity through the valve body.

Fluid Velocities through Control Valves

The recommended (maximum inlet flow velocities) applied to control valves are shown below
Globe Valves Size Liquid Steam or Gas
mm inch m/s ft/s m/s ft/s
15 - 25 1/2 - 1 9 30 120 400
40 - 50 1 1/2 - 2 7.5 25 90 300
65 - 100 2 1/2 - 4 6 20 75 250
150 - 200 6-8 6 20 70 225
250 – 400 10 – 16 4.5 15 55 175
Angle Valves Size Liquid Steam or Gas
mm inch m/s ft/s m/s ft/s
15 - 25 1/2 - 1 13.5 45 135 450
40 - 50 1 1/2 - 2 12 40 105 350
65 - 100 2 1/2 - 4 10.5 35 90 300
150 - 200 6-8 9 30 85 275
250 – 400 10 – 16 7.5 25 70 225

The recommended (maximum outlet flow velocities) recommended by Fisher Valve are below

Liquids 50 feet per second

Gases Approaching Mach 1.0 (limit to Mach 0.3 or less to reduce noise)
Mixed Gases and Liquids 500 feet per second

Note: Not only is the table of maximum inlet flow velocities into a control valve important, the
characteristics and size of the control valve port opening and trim (valve interior mechanical makeup) is
also very important for the smooth function of the entire control loop.

The exit velocity of the fluid through the valve orifice (port opening) should be less than Mach 0.3 to
reduce noise in the environment. Velocities between Mach 0.3 and Mach 0.7 are acceptable for short
periods of time. With velocities above Mach 0.7 there will be no difference in the sound between a
standard valve and one with a sound reducing valve design. Flow will start to choke at Mach 0.7 and
should be fully choked at Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.0.

174
Viscosity Correction for Sizing Valves

There are a few methods available for calculating the flow through a control valve under non-turbulent
conditions. The two receiving the stamp of official international recognition are those described in the IEC
standard 60534-1-2 and the ISA/ANSI standard 75.01 (refs 1 and 2).

Similar to the reducer correction factor Fp, we have to increase the C V from that calculated with the
standard sizing equations in order to make up for the additional friction caused by the stickiness of the of
a laminar fluid passing through the valve. This is expressed by the "valve Reynolds number factor," F r.
The corrected valve CV you need is the CV originally calculated divided by Fr.

Using the CV determined by the basic liquid sizing equation and the flow and viscosity conditions, a fluid
Reynolds number can be found by using the nomograph in the Fisher Control Valve Handbook. The
graph of Reynolds number vs. viscosity correction factor (Fv) is used to determine the correction factor
needed. (If the Reynolds number is greater than 3,500, the correction will be 10% or less.)

The actual required CV (Cvr) is found by the equation: Cvr = FvCv. From the valve manufacturer's
published liquid capacity information, select a valve having a C v equal to or higher than the required
coefficient (Cvr) found by the equation above.

The valve size correction factor using the Reynolds number is only needed if:

 The fluid has a viscosity exceeding 40 centistokes (or = 40 centipoises for liquids)
 A valve is needed with a Cv of less than 0.1

See the attached files on control valve sizing for more detailed information and procedures for sizing
valves for different processes.

First blowout and unpredicted plant shutdown at Total refinery in Spergau located in Europe. Cavitation
damage occurred in a rotary plug valve as a result of “quick and dirty” sizing.

175
Modular wiring of skid control valves using wire trays. Visit the Turck and Belden cable web sites
for more information.

176
 Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks

Pressure Relief Valves (PRV) and Pressure Safety Valves (PSV)

Gases and steams can be compressed, when gas reaches the disk in a valve it compresses and builds
up pressure before escaping through the valve (F=P*A). This compression can cause system pressure to
build up rapidly. A liquid type relief valve doesn’t open fast enough to relief gas or steam pressure. A gas
system requires a valve that can open wide open under excess pressure or a ‘Pressure Safety Valve’.

'Pressure Safety Valve' and 'Pressure Relief Valve' are commonly used terms to identify pressure relief
devices on a vessel. Frequently these terms are used interchangeably and it may entirely depend on a
particular project or company standards to identify all the pressure relief devices either as 'safety valves'
or as 'relief valves' or sometimes even as 'safety relief valves'.

Although used freely and interchangeably, these terms differ in the following aspect:

Pressure Relief Valve - is the term used to describe a relief device on a liquid filled vessel. For such a
valve the opening is proportional to the increase in the vessel pressure. Therefore, the opening of the
valve is not sudden but gradual, if the pressure is increased gradually.

Pressure Safety Valve - is the term used to describe a relief device on a compressible fluid or gas filled
vessel. For this type of valve, the opening is sudden. When the set pressure of the valve is reached, the
valve opens almost fully.

Safety valve performance summary

Important Note: (Do Not Throttle Pressure Relief Valves)

A pressure relief valve should not be used to control the pressure out of a pump. The pressure relief valve
will chatter and the hammering action due to the pulsations will destroy the valve no time. A proportional
control valve needs to be used for this application. Contact your manufacturer for more information about
this application.
177
EPA regulations

Many environmental protection agencies worldwide have been tightening regulations on hazardous
material emissions. In the U.S., for example, the EPA has been issuing new and tighter regulations for
several types of industries, ranging from food and beverage to nuclear power plants. There are
regulations for refineries, with specific sections for each type of plant unit, such as fluid catalytic cracking
units, catalytic reforming units, utilities, storage, and water treatment. The requirements for refineries and
other types of industries are similar, with the main difference being the tolerated amounts for each type of
pollutant released. The more stringent rules established by the new EPA regulations, issued in
September 2015 and other environmental agencies can be generalized with three simple requirements:

1. Provide indication and location where a PRD (pressure relief device) event occurs through electronic
monitoring.

2. Measure the time and duration of the PRD event for recording and reporting of emissions releases.
A. Protected vessel
B. Rupture disc
C. Relief valve
D. Bypass valve

3. Notify the operator of the event so corrective action can occur.

Also, the EPA expects “flare operation at all times during the process of gas being sent to the flare,” so
quick identification of a PRD (pressure relief device) release is not optional. In general, newer and more
stringent rules apply not only to normal operation, but now also to startup/shutdown periods, where there
have historically been more leniencies. These startup/shutdown periods are often when process upsets
are most likely to occur, so compliance with these new regulations can be very demanding.

Plants must comply with environmental regulations by law. Failing to do so can cause serious damage to
the environment and personnel. It can also cause serious damage to plant equipment and explosions. In
addition, lack of compliance can result in expensive fines, production disruptions, and bad publicity. But
there is another very compelling reason to monitor and curb fugitive emissions: leakages caused by PRD
malfunctions can waste large amounts of valuable product, along with the energy required to produce
these products.

Regulation details
Every national and international government has its own rules to control and monitor emissions of
pollutants. In the U.S., the Clean Air Act (CAA) is the key federal law regulating air emissions from
stationary and mobile sources. Among other things, this law authorizes the EPA to establish national
ambient air quality standards to protect public health and public welfare by regulating emissions of
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). CAA section 111(b) requires the EPA to set and periodically review
emission standards for new sources of Criteria Air Pollutants (CAP), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
and other pollutants. CAA section 112 requires the EPA to set emission standards for toxic air pollutants
from stationary sources reflecting the new Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT II) based on
the best performing facilities in an industry.

The EPA created or tightened regulations for several types of industries, going so far as to issue detailed
requirements for specific units in a plant. For refineries, for example, the EPA issued a revised Code of
Federal Regulations 40 (CFR) Parts 60 and 63: Petroleum Refinery Sector Risk and Technology Review
and New Source Performance Standards. These regulations establish tighter emission control
requirements for a refinery. The document addresses, among other things:

Petroleum Refinery Sector Risk and Technology Review and New Source Performance Standards, EPA,
Code of Federal Regulations 40 (CFR), Parts 60 and 63. More stringent operating requirements for flare
control to ensure good combustion. This is achieved, but not restricted, by:

 Measuring and monitoring the flow of waste gas going to the flare
 Measuring and monitoring the content of the waste gas going to the flare
 Measuring and monitoring any air or steam added into the flare
178
2. Emission control requirements for storage tanks, flares and delayed coking units at petroleum
refineries

3. Pollutant monitoring around the plant fence line as a development in practices for managing emissions
of toxic pollutants from fugitive sources

4. Elimination of exemptions during periods of startup, shutdown and malfunction

Most importantly, CFR 40 parts 60 and 63 establish that bypasses and discharges through PRDs are a
violation of these laws. The law now requires plants to monitor discharges of individual PRDs.

PRD bypass
Safety relief devices require shutoff valves and a bypass valve as shown in the figure below. These
valves are used for device maintenance and special process conditions. If a rupture disc diaphragm has
to be replaced, for example, the device has to be isolated using these valves. In some cases (such as
during startup, shutdowns, tests or load changes) it may be necessary to bypass the PRD.

It is not uncommon for plant personnel to forget and

leave these valves in the open position or not close them
properly, causing process fluid
losses and emissions that can
go undetected for a very long
period of time. Monitoring
bypass valve position enables
quick response to human error
or defective equipment. Also
releases can be monitored
with a pressure transmitter. It
can detect pressure changes and an acoustic monitor
can indicate flow of fugitive emissions from the PRD on
the tank or process line.

Many times, when the process pressure returns to normal operating conditions, the PRV does not close
completely. There are several reasons for this:
 Pressure increase on the discharge side
 Valve seat damaged after repeated actuations
 Deposition or formation of solids between the disc and the seat
 Altered process fluid
 Corrosion
 Mechanical malfunction

Rupture discs, see figure to the right, are safety devices for
one-time use. They consist of a membrane that bursts when
the differential pressure between its two sides exceeds a set
value. These devices are used alone or in combination with a
PRV, providing a physical isolation layer between the
process and the relief valve, especially on processes
containing highly corrosive fluid. Some models are equipped
with a sensor that indicates when the diaphragm is broken.

Rupture discs are very simple devices, with no moving parts.

Unlike pressure relief or safety valves, the rupture disc will
remain open until the ruptured diaphragm is replaced.
Diaphragms are less susceptible to causing fugitive
emissions, but there is always the possibility of pitting
corrosion which creates pinholes, leading to undetectable
leakage.

179
Pilot operated safety valve

This type of safety valve uses the flowing medium itself, through a pilot valve, to apply the closing force
on the safety valve disc. The pilot valve is itself a small safety valve.

There are two basic types of pilot operated safety valve, namely, the diaphragm and piston type.

The diaphragm type is typically only available for low pressure applications and it produces a proportional
type action, characteristic of relief valves used in liquid systems. They are therefore of little use in steam
systems.

The piston type valve consists of a main valve, which uses a piston shaped closing device (or obturator),
and an external pilot valve. The figure below shows a diagram of a typical piston type, pilot operated
safety valve.

180
Bellow or balanced bellow and diaphragm

Some safety valves, most commonly those used for water applications, incorporate a flexible diaphragm
or bellows to isolate the safety valve spring and upper chamber from dirty process fluid and contaminates.

Balanced bellows relief valves are typically used where the relief valves are piped to a closed flare
system and the back-pressure exceeds 10% of the set pressure which can’t be handled by conventional
relief valves. The balanced bellows relief valves also used in flow lines, multiphase lines, or for paraffinic
or asphaltic crude which may plug the pilot-operated valves.

When superimposed back pressure is variable, a balanced bellows or balanced piston design is
recommended. The bellows or piston is designed with an effective pressure area equal to the seat area of
the disc. The Bonnet is vented to ensure that the pressure area of the bellows or piston will always be
exposed to atmospheric pressure and to provide a telltale sign should the bellows or piston begin to leak.
Variations in back pressure, therefore, will have no effect on set pressure. Back pressure may, however,
affect flow.

Standard Relief Valve Balanced Bellow Relief Valve

Guided Stem

Weight loaded PRV operation

The weight loaded PRV (Pressure Relief Valve) is one of the simplest and least complex type of any
PRV. It is a direct acting valve. Because the dead weight pushing down on the valve’s internal moving
parts, the valve is held closed until the tank pressure equals the dead weight. These valves are often
called weighted pallet valves because the set pressure can be varied by adding or removing weights on
the top of a trim part called a pallet.

These weighted pallet valves are also known as conservation vents or breather vents. This is because
one of the primary uses of these devices is to protect low pressure storage tanks that have fixed roofs.
These storage tanks are often designed per API Standard 620 or 650 and have very low design pressures
in the inches of water column [mbar] range. Since the design pressures are very low, the simple pumping
in of product or increased ambient temperatures can raise vapor pressures in the tank and cause these
weight loaded valves to “breathe” and discharge the pressure.

181
The sizing and selection of these weight loaded valves is often done per API 2000 or ISO 28300.

Side by Side – Weighted Pressure/ Vacuum Vent Large Weight Loaded Emergency Vent

182
Blowdown is defined as the difference between opening and closing pressure. This pressure difference is
expressed as pressure or as a percent of the set pressure. Typical blowdowns are 0% to 7%. A vent valve
with 0% blowdown is known as a throttling vent valve. A throttling vent valve is similar to a direct-acting
vent valve because it begins to open and close at almost the same pressure; however, unlike in a direct-
acting vent valve, full lift of the seat in a throttling vent valve is obtained at or below 10% overpressure
(see figure C-5 chart below). Where tank operating pressures are very close to the maximum allowable
tank pressure, this lift characteristic permits overpressure protection to be accomplished with smaller or
fewer venting devices. One weighted PRV device may pass the same flow rate as two or more PRD in
parallel, such as a standard PRV and a rupture disk.

Figure C-5

Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Sizing and installing pressure relief valves on low pressure tanks is required by law per federal regulation
49 CFR 195.264 – API 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks. (Click red link to view code)

§ 195.264 Impoundment, protection against entry, normal/emergency venting or pressure/vacuum relief

for aboveground breakout tanks.
(a) A means must be provided for containing hazardous liquids in the event of spillage or failure of an
above ground breakout tank.
(b) After October 2, 2000, compliance with paragraph (a) of this section requires the following for the
above ground breakout tanks specified:
(1) For tanks built to API Specification 12F, API Standard 620, and others (such as API Standard 650
or its predecessor Standard 12C), the installation of impoundment must be in accordance with the
following sections of NFPA 30:
(i) Impoundment around a breakout tank must be installed in accordance with section 4.3.2.3.2; and
(ii) Impoundment by drainage to a remote impounding area must be installed in accordance with
section 4.3.2.3.1.
183
 (2) For tanks built to API 2510, the installation of impoundment must be in accordance with section 5
or 11 of API 2510 (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3).
(c) Aboveground breakout tank areas must be adequately protected against unauthorized entry.
(d) Normal/emergency relief venting must be provided for each atmospheric pressure breakout tank.
Pressure/vacuum-relieving devices must be provided for each low-pressure and high-pressure
breakout tank.
(e) For normal/emergency relief venting and pressure/vacuum-relieving devices installed on aboveground
breakout tanks after October 2, 2000, compliance with paragraph (d) of this section requires the
following for the tanks specified:
(1) Normal/emergency relief venting installed on atmospheric pressure tanks built to API
Specification 12F (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3) must be in accordance with Section
4, and Appendices B and C, of API Specification 12F (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3).
(2) Normal/emergency relief venting installed on atmospheric pressure tanks (such as those built
to API Standard 650 or its predecessor Standard 12C) must be in accordance with API
Standard 2000 (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3).
(3) Pressure-relieving and emergency vacuum-relieving devices installed on low pressure tanks
built to API Standard 620 (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3) must be in accordance with
section 9 of API Standard 620 (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3) and its references to
the normal and emergency venting requirements in API Standard 2000 (incorporated by
reference, see§ 195.3).
(4) Pressure and vacuum-relieving devices installed on high pressure tanks built to API Standard 2510
(incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3) must be in accordance with sections 7 or 11 of API Standard
2510 (incorporated by reference, see§ 195.3).

API STANDARD 2000

Table C-1-0perating Characteristics of Venting Devices

Characteristic Type of Venting Device

Direct Acting Pilot Operated

Seat Tightness Leakage rate increases with increasing Leakage rate decreases with
pressure. Leakage may begin at 75% of set. increasing pressure. Typically, no
leakage above 30% of set. A small
amount of leakage at pilot may
begin at 90% of set.

Capacity/Overpressure Rated capacity normally obtained at 200% Rated capacity obtained at 110%
(Refer to Figure C-5) of set, for pressure or vacuum. of set for pressure or vacuum.

Set Pressure Range Pressure-Weight Loaded Pressure-

(Typical) 1/2 oz/in2 to 16 oz/in2 2" WC to 15.0 psig
(0.865" we to 27.7" WC) (5 mbarg to 1.034 barg)
(2 mbarg to 69 mbarg)

Pressure-Spring Loaded Vacuum-

1.0 psig to 15.0 psig -2" WC to -14.7 psig
(69 mbarg to 1.034 barg) (-5 mbarg to -1.013 barg)

Vacuum-Weight Loaded
-1/2 oz/in to -10 oz/in
(-0.865" to -17.3" WC)
(-2 mbarg to -43 mbarg)

Vacuum-Spring Loaded
-10 oz/in2 to -7 psig
(-43 mbarg to 0.48 barg)

Typical Blowdown 0% 0% to 7%

184
The Weighted Relief Valve is typically available either 0.5 PSI incremental weights or 1.0 PSI increment
weights. To adjust add or remove weight plates. Below is a typical Republic blower pressure relief valve.

Manway Covers (PRVs) by Pentair shown below provide quick, easy access for tank inspection and
maintenance. When the tank is exposed to abnormal internal pressure beyond the capability of the
breather vent, the manway helps protect the tank against costly rupture. The most common cause of
excessive internal pressure is fire exposure. Emergency venting capacity requirements depend on the
wetted surface area of the tank. The venting requirements can be calculated using API Standard 2000.

185
API Standards for pressure relieving systems

Standard Title Description

API 520 Sizing, Selection, and Installation Guide for sizing and selection of pressure relief devices
Part I of Pressure-Relieving Devices in used in petroleum related industries for equipment with
Refineries—Part I, Sizing and maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig greater.
Selection The document is intended for protection of unfired
pressure vessels and equipment against overpressure
from operation or fire.

Pressure relief valves or rupture disks may be used

independently or in combination with each other to
provide the required protection against excessive
pressure accumulation

API 520 Sizing, Selection, and Installation Guide for installation of pressure relief devices used in
Part II of Pressure-Relieving Devices in petroleum related industries for equipment with
Refineries—Part II, Installation maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig greater.

API 521 Guide for Pressure-relieving and This API standard specifies requirements and gives
Depressuring Systems Petroleum guidelines for determining overpressure causes,
petrochemical and natural gas relieving rates for pressure relieving and vapor
industries, Pressure relieving and depressurizing systems in petroleum related industries.
depressuring systems The standard also discusses selection and design of
disposal systems, including such component parts as
piping, vessels, flares, and vent stacks.

API 526 Flanged Steel Pressure-relief The standard covers specifications for flanged steel
Valves pressure relief valves (PRVs) by presenting basic
requirements, such as orifice designation and area,
valve size, pressure rating, and materials, for direct
spring-loaded pressure relief valves and pilot-operated
pressure relief valves

API 527 Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Describes methods of determining the seat tightness of
Valves metal and soft-seated pressure relief valves (PRVs),
including those of conventional, bellows, and pilot-
operated designs.

API 576 Inspection of Pressure-relieving Describes the inspection and repair practices for
Devices automatic pressure relieving devices commonly used in
the oil and petrochemical industries. This API standard
covers pressure relief valves, pilot-operated pressure
relief valves, rupture disks, and weight-loaded pressure-
vacuum vents, with regards to inspection and repair.

API- 000 Venting Atmospheric and Low- Guide for normal and emergency vapor venting
pressure Storage Tanks requirements for above ground petroleum and petroleum
Petroleum, petrochemical and product storage tanks, above ground and underground
natural gas industries—Venting refrigerated storage tanks. The tanks discussed in the
of atmospheric and low-pressure document are designed for low pressures ranging from
storage tanks full vacuum through 15 psig. This API standard
discusses causes of overpressure and vacuum, venting
requirements, means of venting, and breathing selection,
and installation of venting devices and testing and
marking of relief devices etc. for storage tanks.

186
CFR Standards for pressure relief required by federal law

Standard Title Description

API 2003 Protection against ignitions The prevention of ignition of hydrocarbons by the
arising out of static, lightning, release of energy charge generated by static electricity
and stray currents and stray currents, which can cause extreme pressures
on tanks.

API 2350 Overfill protection for storage This standard is referenced by API 2000 and NFPA 30
tanks in petroleum facilities applies to storage tanks associated with marketing,
refining, pipeline, and terminals operations.

API 2510 Design and construction of LPG This standard covers the design, construction, and
installations location of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) installations at
marine and pipeline terminals, natural gas processing
plants, refineries, petrochemical plants, or tank farms.
This standard covers storage vessels, loading and
unloading systems, piping, or and related equipment.

NFPA 30 Flammable and combustible Enforceable under OSHA and many state and local
liquids code regulations, NFPA 30 reduces the hazards associated
with the storage, handling, and use of flammable and
combustible liquids. Topics covered are explosion
prevention and risk control, storage of liquids in
containers, storage of liquids in tanks, piping systems,
processing facilities, bulk loading-unloading, wharves.

ASME VIII Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Division 1 - Provides requirements applicable to the
Section VIII – Unfired pressure design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and certification
vessels of pressure vessels operating at either internal or
external pressures exceeding 15 psig.

Division 2 - Alternative rules, provides requirements to

the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and
certification of pressure vessels operating at either
internal or external pressures exceeding 15 psig.

Division 3 - Alternative rules for Construction of High

Pressure Vessels, provides requirements applicable to
the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and
certification of pressure vessels operating at either
internal or external pressures above 10,000 psi.

API Standard 2000 – Venting atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks

(API 2000 Click red link to view code)

4.3 DETERMINATION OF VENTING REQUIREMENTS

4.3.1 General
Venting requirements are given for the following conditions:
a. Inbreathing resulting from maximum outflow of liquid from the tank.
b. Inbreathing resulting from contraction or condensation of vapors caused by maximum decrease
in vapor space temperature (thermal breathing).
c. Outbreathing resulting from maximum inflow of liquid into the tank and maximum vaporization
caused by such inflow.

187
 d. Outbreathing resulting from expansion and vaporization that result from maximum increase in
vapor space temperature (thermal breathing).
e. Outbreathing resulting from fire exposure. Although design guidelines are not presented in this
standard for other circumstances discussed in Section 4.2.5, they should be considered.

*** See Chapter 4 of the API 2000 for venting and breathing flow rate requirements

API Standard 2003 – Protection against ignitions from static, lightning, and stray currents
(API 2003 Click red link to view code)

This standard is referenced by API 2000 and NFPA 30. The prevention of ignition of hydrocarbons by the
release of energy charge generated by static electricity and stray currents, which can cause extreme
pressures on tanks. (Also see NFPA 77 Static Electricity and NFPA 780 Lightning Protection). The
principles discussed in this recommended practice are applicable to other operations where ignitable
liquids and gases are handled.

API Standard 2350 – Overfill protection for storage tanks in petroleum facilities
(API 2350 Click red link to view code)

This standard is referenced by API 2000 and NFPA 30. Applies to storage tanks associated with
marketing, refining, pipeline, and terminals operations. This standard addresses overfill protection for
petroleum storage tanks. It recognizes that prevention provides the most basic level of protection, thus
while using both terms “protection” and “prevention,” the document emphasizes prevention. (CSE Note:
Overfilling will over-pressure the vessel, hence this is a form of over-pressure control)

The standard's scope covers overfill (and damage) as well as requirements for alarming and shutdown
systems. The goal is to receive product into the intended storage tank without overfill or loss of
containment. This standard does not apply to: underground storage tanks; aboveground tanks of 1320
U.S. gallons (5000 liters) or less; aboveground tanks which comply with PEI 600; pressure vessels; tanks
containing non-petroleum liquids; tanks storing LPG and LNG; tanks at service stations; tanks filled
exclusively from wheeled vehicles (i.e., tank trucks or railroad tank cars); and tanks covered by OSHA 29
CFR 1910.119 and EPA 40 CFR 68, or similar regulations.

188
API 2350 categorizes storage tanks by the extent to which personnel are in attendance during receiving
operations. The overfill prevention methodology is based upon the tank category.

API Standard 2510 – Design and construction of LPG installations

(API 2510 Click red link to view code)

API Standard 2510 provides minimum requirements for the design and construction of installations for the
storage and handling of LPG at marine and pipeline terminals, natural gas processing plants, refineries,
petrochemical plants, and tank farms. This standard covers storage vessels, loading and unloading
systems, piping and related equipment.

189
NFPA 30 – Flammable and combustible liquids code

(NFPA 30 Click red link to view code)

NFPA 30is required also by federal regulation 49 CFR 192.735 as of May 17, 2004 and is required by 49
CFR 195.264 (API 2000 Standard) for the sizing of pressure relief valves. It provides the minimum
requirements for the design and construction of installations for the storage and handling at marine and
pipeline terminals, natural gas processing plants, refineries, petrochemical plants, and tank farms. This
standard covers storage vessels, loading and unloading systems, piping and related equipment.

The purpose of this code shall be to provide

reasonable requirements for the safe storage
and handling of flammable and combustible
liquids.

Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 shall apply to bulk

storage of liquids in tanks and similar vessels.
Chapter 6 shall apply to storage of liquids in
containers and portable tanks in storage areas
and in warehouses. Chapter 7 shall apply to
handling of liquids in manufacturing and
related operations and processes. Chapter 8
shall apply to electrical systems.

Important excerpts from NFPA 30 code:

I have added important references to these code excerpts as ‘CSE Note:’ in italics and parenthesis.

Chapter 4: Tanks Storage

4.3.4.3.4* Storage tanks shall be separated from other occupancies within the building by construction
having at least a 2-hour fire resistance rating. As a minimum, each opening shall be protected by either a
listed, self-closing fire door or a listed fire damper having a minimum I-hour fire protection rating. The fire
door or fire damper shall be installed in accordance with NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Fire
Windows; NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems; or NFPA
91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible
Particulate Solids; whichever is applicable.

(CSE Note: Fire detection system required, such as IR and UV sensors and interlocking to door closers,
damper and or building fire detection system)

Table 4.3.4.2.1 Location of Storage Tank Buildings with Respect to Property Lines, Public Ways, and
the Nearest Important Building on the same property.

(CSE Note: Minimum distances must be maintained from nearest important building to the pressure relief
valve discharge.)

4.3.4.4.5 For storage tank buildings with the interior grade more than 300 mm (1 ft) below the average
exterior grade, continuous mechanical ventilation in accordance with 4.3.4.4.2(3) shall be provided or a
vapor detection system shall be provided and set to give a warning alarm at 25% of the lower
flammable limit and to start the mechanical ventilation system. The alarm shall sound at a constantly
attended location.
(CSE Note: LEL, lower explosive limit, sensor and detection system required.)

190
Chapter 5: Piping Systems

5.5.6 Valves. Piping systems shall contain a sufficient number of

valves to operate the system properly and to protect the equipment.
Piping systems in connection with pumps shall contain a sufficient
number of valves to properly control the flow of liquid both in normal
operation and in the event of physical damage. Each connection to a
piping system by which equipment, such as tank cars, tank vehicles,
or marine vessels, discharges liquids into storage tanks shall be
provided with a check valve for automatic protection against back-
flow if the piping arrangement is such that back-flow from the system
is possible. (See also 4.3.2.5.1.)

(CSE Note: Be sure there are enough valves to handle abnormal

conditions. Excessive pressure can build up in the piping system.)

5.5.7 Common Loading and Unloading Piping. If loading and unloading is done through a common pipe
system, a check valve shall not be required. However, an isolation valve shall be provided. This valve
shall be located so that it is readily accessible or shall be remotely operable.

(CSE Note: Possible remote control of required isolation valve).

5.7.2.6 Where tank vent piping is manifold, pipe sizes shall be such as to discharge, within the pressure
limitations of the system, the vapors they can be required to handle when manifold tanks are filled
simultaneously. Float-type check valves installed in tank openings connected to manifold vent piping to
prevent product contamination shall be permitted to be used provided that the tank pressure will not
exceed that permitted by 4.3.3.2.3 when the valves close

(CSE Note: In buried tanks the bottom tank pressure cannot exceed 10 psig maximum.)

Chapter 6: Container and Portable Storage Tanks

6.2.2 Each portable tank or intermediate bulk container shall be provided with one or more devices
installed in the top with sufficient emergency venting capacity to limit internal pressure under fire
exposure conditions to a gauge pressure of 70 kPa (10 psig) or 30% of the bursting pressure of the
portable tank, whichever is greater. The total venting capacity shall be not less than that specified in
4.2.5.2.3 or 4.2.5.2.5. At least one pressure-actuated vent having a minimum capacity of 170 m3 (6000
ft3) of free air per hour at 1 bar (14.7 psia) and 15.6°C (60°F) shall be used. It shall be set to open at not
less than a gauge pressure of 35 kPa (5 psig). If fusible vents are used, they shall be actuated by
elements that operate at a temperature not exceeding 150°C (300°F). Where plugging of a pressure-
actuated vent can occur (such as when used for paints, drying oils, and similar materials), fusible plugs
or venting devices that soften to failure at a maximum of 150°C (300°F) under fire exposure shall
be permitted to be used for the entire emergency venting requirement.

(CSE Note: These requirements must be followed!)

6.8.1.3* For the purpose of Section 6.8, a relieving-style container shall mean a metal container, a metal
intermediate bulk container, or a metal portable tank that is equipped with at least one pressure-relieving
mechanism at its top that is designed, sized, and arranged to relieve the internal pressure generated due
to exposure to fire so that violent rupture is prevented. 6.8.1.3.1 The pressure-relieving mechanism for
containers shall be listed and labeled in accordance with Factory Mutual Research Corporation Class
6083, Examination Program for Fusible Closures for Steel Drums, or equivalent. The pressure relieving
mechanism shall not be painted.

(CSE Note: These pressure relief devices must have a factory mutual rating!)

191
Chapter 7: Operations

7.7.1 Section 7.7 shall apply to all wharves as defined in 3.3.50 whose primary purpose is the bulk
transfer of liquids. General purpose wharves that handle bulk transfer of liquids and other commodities
shall meet the requirements of NFPA 307, Standard for the Construction and Fire Protection of Marine
Terminals, Piers, and Wharves.

(CSE Note: Unloading and loading of vessels to and from petrochemical plant or distribution center.)

7.10.2 Overpressure/Vacuum Protection. Tanks and equipment shall have independent venting for
overpressure or vacuum conditions that could occur from malfunction of the vapor recovery or vapor
processing system. Exception: For tanks, venting shall comply with 4.2.5.

(CSE Note: Vapor recovery can be used to obtain product left in the tank or vessel of the delivery system,
such as a rail car, truck, or ship. As with anhydrous ammonia, recovering the vapor in a shipment tank can
add up to thousands of dollars that would otherwise be lost. But pressure relief must be used as to not
collapse the tank or vessel under the vacuum of the recovery system. The recovery system creates a
lower pressure to atmosphere. This atmospheric pressure in inches of water pushing against the outside
of the tank, times the enormous area of the tank, can add up to thousands of pounds of force on the tank,
causing it to collapse. This also applies to drainage of the tank or vessel.)

7.6.6* Loading and unloading facilities ...shall consist of a metallic bond wire that is permanently
electrically connected to the fill pipe assembly or to some part of the rack structure that is in electrical
contact with the fill pipe assembly... shall form a continuous electrically conductive path.7.6.7 Tank car
facilities where flammable and combustible liquids are loaded.

(CSE Note: Although not directly related to pressure relief valves, this is to prevent fire from explosions
due to electro-static discharge. This subject is covered in detail in the code review section of NFPA 79 –
Static Electricity.)

7.6.7 Tank car facilities where flammable and combustible liquids are loaded or unloaded through open
domes shall be protected against stray currents by permanently bonding the fill pipe to at least one rail
and to the facility structure, if of metal. Multiple pipelines that enter the area shall be permanently bonded
together. In addition, in areas where excessive stray currents are known to exist, all pipelines entering the
area shall be provided with insulating sections to electrically isolate them from the facility piping.

(CSE Note: Although not directly related to pressure relief valves, this is to prevent fire from explosions
due to electro-static discharge. Note that both side of the system isolator are grounded to earth. The
isolator will be a dielectric insulator and could store a large charge. By grounding both sides, the charge is
drained to earth.)

7.7. 7 Loading pumps capable of building up pressures that exceed the safe working pressure of cargo
hose or loading arms shall be provided with bypasses, relief valves, or other 2003 Edition 30-68
FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS CODE arrangements to protect the loading facilities against
excessive pressure. Relief devices shall be tested at least annually to determine that they function
satisfactorily at their set pressure.

(CSE Note: These requirements must be met for wharf loading and unloading stations!)

7.10.2 Overpressure/Vacuum Protection. Tanks and equipment shall have independent venting for
overpressure or vacuum conditions that could occur from malfunction of the vapor recovery or vapor
processing system. Exception: For tanks, venting shall comply with 4.2.5.

(CSE Note: These requirements must be followed for vapor recovery systems!)

7.10.5* Liquid Level Monitoring

7.10.5.1 A liquid knock-out vessel used in the vapor collection system shall have means to verify the
liquid level and a high liquid level sensor that activates an alarm.

192
7.10.5.2 For unmanned facilities, the high
liquid level sensor shall initiate shutdown of
liquid transfer into the vessel and shutdown
of vapor recovery or vapor processing
systems.

(CSE Note: Prevents excessive pressure

on the top and bottom of the vessel.)

7.10.6 Overfill Protection

7.10.6.1 Storage tanks served by vapor
processing or vapor recovery systems shall
be equipped with overfill protection in
accordance with 4.6.1.
7.10.6.2 Overfill protection of tank vehicles
shall be in accordance with 7.6.10.5
through 7.6.10.7.

(CSE Note: Overfill protection prevents excessive pressure on the top and bottom of the vessel. This
especially applies to low pressure tanks and vessels as in the API 2000 Standard, typically 5 psi or less. If
the tank fills to the top, the flow stops and the full head pressure of the pump is applied to the top and
bottom of the tank. If the pump has 30 psi then, 30 psi * 10 ft diameter area = 340,000 pound of force on
the roof and bottom of the tank. Pressure relief is necessary.)

ASME VIII code for sizing relief valves and rupture disks

(ASME boiler and pressure vessel code)

ASME VIII is required by federal law and Home Land Security now, not just state and city code. Visit site
Cornel University Law School Federal Regulation 73 FR 65164. (Click the blue links for documents)

46 CFR 54.01-2 - Adoption of division 1 of section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.

§ 54.01-2 Adoption of division 1 of section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
(a) Pressure vessels shall be designed, constructed, and inspected in accordance with section VIII of
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (incorporated by reference, see 46 CFR 54.01-1), as
limited, modified, or replaced by specific requirements in this part. The provisions in the
appendices to section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code are adopted and shall
be followed when the requirements in section VIII make them mandatory. For general information,
Table 54.01-2(a) lists the various paragraphs in section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code that are limited, modified, or replaced by regulations in this part.
(b) (b) References to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, such as paragraph UG-125,
indicate:
(c) U = Division 1 of section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
G = Part containing general requirements.
125 = Paragraph within part.
(d)
(e) (c) When a paragraph or a section of the regulations in this part relates to material in section VIII
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the relationship with the code will be shown
immediately following the heading of the section or at the beginning of the paragraph, as follows:
(f) (1) (Modifies U___.) This indicates that the material in U___ is generally applicable but is being
altered, amplified or augmented.
(g) (2) (Replaces U___.) This indicates that U___ does not apply.
(h) (3) (Reproduces U___.) This indicates that U___ is being identically reproduced for convenience,
not for emphasis.

193
Table 54.01-2(a)—Limitations and Modifications in the Adoption of Section VIII of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

The references to specific provisions in section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code are
coded. The first letter, such as “U,” refers to division 1 of section VIII. The second letter, such as “G,”
refers to a subsection within section VIII. The number refers to the paragraph within the subsection.

Paragraphs in section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure

Vessel Code1 and disposition Unit of this part

U-1 and U-2 modified by 54.01-5 through 54.01-15.

U-1(c) replaced by 54.01-5.
U-1(d) replaced by 54.01-5(a) and 54.01-15.
U-1(g) modified by 54.01-10.
U-1(c)(2) modified by 54.01-15.
UG-11 modified by 54.01-25.
UG-22 modified by 54.01-30.
UG-25 modified by 54.01-35.
UG-28 modified by 54.01-40.
UG-84 replaced by 54.05-1.
UG-90 and UG-91 replaced by 54.10-3.
UG-92 through UG-103 modified by 54.10-1 through 54.10-15.
UG-98 reproduced by 54.10-5.
UG-115 through UG-120 modified by 54.10-1.
UG-116, except (k), replaced by 54.10-20(a).
UG-116(k) replaced by 54.10-20(b).
UG-117 replaced by 54.10-20(c).
UG-118 replaced by 54.10-20(a).
UG-119 modified by 54.10-20(d).
UG-120 modified by 54.10-25.
UG-125 through UG-137 modified by 54.15-1 through 54.15-15.
UW-1 through UW-65 modified by 54.20-1.
UW-2(a) replaced by 54.01-5(b) and 54.20-2.
UW-2(b) replaced by 54.01-5(b) and 54.20-2.
UW-9, UW-11(a), UW-13, and UW-16 modified by 54.20-3.
UW-11(a) modified by 54.25-8.
UW-26, UW-27, UW-28, UW-29, UW-47, and UW-48 modified by 54.20-5.
UB-1 modified by 54.23-1
UB-2 modified by 52.01-95(d) and 56.30-30(b)(1).
UCS-6 modified by 54.25-3.
UCS-56 modified by 54.25-7.
UCS-57, UNF-57, UHA-33, and UHT-57 modified by 54.25-8.
UCS-65 through UCS-67 replaced by 54.25-10.
UHA-23(b) and UHA-51 modified by 54.25-15.
UHT-5(c), UHT-6, and UHT-23 modified by 54.25-20.
UHT-82 modified by 54.25-20 and 54.25-25.
Appendix 3 modified by 54.15-3.

194
Introduction to ASME VIII
ASME and installing pressure relief valves on unfired pressure vessels is required by law per federal
regulation 49 CFR 173.32 (c)(4). The User is responsible for overpressure protection of the vessel, not
the designer or manufacturer. Therefore, the User must explicitly state the type of overpressure protection
that will be provided once the vessel is installed. Finally, the User must state whether jurisdictional
acceptance of the vessel is required prior to operation of the vessel per the AHJ (authority having
jurisdiction) Note: The ASME VIII and API 2000 Standard can be retroactive if determined by AHJ that
after evaluation, the system could possibly endanger the life and property of the public.

Overview Section VIII - Pressure Vessels

Division 1 provides requirements applicable to the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and certification
of pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures exceeding 15 psig. Such vessels
may be fired or unfired. This pressure may be obtained from
an external source or by the application of heat from a direct or
indirect source, or any combination thereof. Specific
requirements apply to several classes of material used in
pressure vessel construction, and also to fabrication methods,
such as welding, forging, and brazing.

Division 1 contains mandatory and non-mandatory appendices

detailing supplementary design criteria, nondestructive
examination and inspection acceptance standards. Rules
pertaining to the use of the single ASME certification mark with
the U, UM and UV designators are also included.

Division 2 requirements on materials, design, and nondestructive examination are more rigorous than in
Division 1; however, higher design stress intensify values are permitted. These rules may also apply to
human occupancy pressure vessels typically in the diving industry. Rules pertaining to the use of the
single ASME certification mark with the U2 and UV designators are also included.

Division 3 requirements are applicable to pressure vessels operating at either internal or external
pressures generally above 10,000 psi. It does not establish maximum pressure limits for Section VIII,
Divisions 1 or 2, nor minimum pressure limits for this Division. Rules pertaining to the use of the single
ASME certification mark with the U3 and UV3 designator are also included.

ASME VIII – Pressure relief requirements

UG-125 (a) — All pressure vessels within the Scope of this Division, irrespective of size or pressure, shall
be provided with pressure relief devices in accordance with the requirements of UG-125 through UG-
137.

(1) It is the responsibility of the user to ensure that the required pressure relief devices are properly
installed prior to initial operation.
Excerpts from ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code
UG-125 (c) — All pressure vessels other than unfired steam boilers shall be protected by a pressure relief
device that shall prevent the pressure from rising more than 10% or 3 psi (20 kPa), whichever is greater,
above the maximum allowable working pressure except as permitted in (1) and (2) below.
(See UG-134 for pressure settings.)

(1) When multiple pressure relief devices are provided and set in accordance with UG-134(a), they
shall prevent the pressure from rising more than 16% or 4 psi (30 kPa), whichever is greater, above
the maximum allowable working pressure.
(2) When a pressure vessel can be exposed to fire or other unexpected sources of external heat, the
pressure relief device(s) shall be capable of preventing the pressure from rising more than 21% above
the maximum allowable working pressure. Supplemental pressure relief devices shall be installed to
protect against this source of excessive pressure if the pressure relief devices used to satisfy the
capacity requirements of UG-125(c) and UG- 125(c)(1) have insufficient capacity to provide the
required protection.

195
UG-125(d) — Where an additional hazard can be created by exposure of a pressure vessel to fire or other
unexpected sources of external heat (for example, vessels used to store liquefied flammable gases),
supplemental pressure-relieving devices shall be installed to protect against excessive pressure. Such
supplemental pressure-relieving devices shall be capable of preventing the pressure from rising more than 20%
above the maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel. A single pressure-relieving device may be
used to satisfy the requirements of this paragraph and (c), provided it meets the requirements of both
paragraphs.

UG-133(f) — The set pressure tolerances, plus or minus, of safety or relief valves, shall not exceed 2 PSI
(13.8 kPA) for pressures up to and including 70 PSIG (483 kPa), and 3% for pressures above 70 PSIG (483
kPa).

ASME VIII - Pressure limits in sizing

The ASME Code requires that when a rupture disk or pressure relief valve is used as the primary relief
device, it must be sized to prevent the pressure from rising above 110% of the MAWP (UG-125(c)). If
used as a secondary relief device or as multiple relief devices, the size must prevent the pressure from
rising above 116% of the MAWP (UG-125(c)(1)). If used as a supplementary relief device for hazards
external to the protected vessel or system, the size must prevent the pressure from rising above 121% of
the MAWP (UG-125(c)(2)).

Table 5 - ASME standard nozzle orifice data

RELIEF VALVE NOZZLE ORIFICE AREAS

Size Designation Orifice Area, in2

D 0.110
E 0.196

F 0.307

G 0.503

H 0.785

J 1.280

K 1.840

L 2.850

M 3.600

N 4.340

P 6.380

Q 11.050

R 16.000

T 26.000

196
ISA pressure relief valve and rupture disc symbols

Pressure Relief Valve Vacuum Relief Valve

Pressure Rupture Disk

Vacuum Rupture Disc

Breathing Valve or
Pressure / Vacuum Relief Valve

A. Rupture Disk
B. Disk Holder
C. Sensor

A Typical Rupture Disk and Holder Operation of Breather / Vacuum Relief Valve

197
Sizing equations for relief valves and rupture disks

ASME VIII code equations USCS units

The user should understand the symbols used in the sizing and capacity calculation formulas.
The basic equation for flow through a pressure relief valve or rupture disk is:

VAPOR OR GASES VAPOR OR GASES

Mass Flow Rate Sizing Volumetric Flow Rate Sizing

3
(W = lb/hr) (Q=Standard ft /Min Flow Rate at 14.7 psia
and 60⁰F)
W T Z
A 60Q  T Z
CKP1 Kb M w A
CKP1 Kb M w

STEAM AIR

Mass Flow Rate Sizing Volumetric Flow Rate Sizing

3
(W = lb/hr) (Q = Standard ft /Min Flow Rate at 14.7 psia and
60⁰F)
W
A
51.5KPK 60Q  0.0763 T Z
1 b A
1 b  5.3824 
356 KPK

LIQUIDS Critical Pressure Ratio ( rc )

Certified Volumetric Flow Rate Sizing k

(If Q = U.S. Gallons per minute, Ku=38)  2  k 1

rc   
(If Q = Cubic feet per hour, Ku=5.2143)  k  1

Q Gf
A
Ku KK v P1  P2

Gas Constant ( C ) Gas Constant ( C )

sonic flow (typically 15 psig and above) subsonic flow (low pressure flow)

If (P2/P1) is greater than rc the flow will be

If (P2/P1) is less than rc the flow will be sonic. Use subsonic. Use this formula:
this formula:
 2 k 1

k 1 k  P2  k  P2  k 
 2  k 1 C  735 
   
C  520 k   k  1  P1   P1  
 k 1  

198
A Note about sonic or choked flow
The critical flow which also referred to as sonic flow, choked flow or Mach 1 is the limitation point of a
compressible fluid flow through an orifice. The critical flow can occur on a relief valve orifice or a
choke. A choke is a condition where piping goes from a small branch into a larger header, where pipe
size increases, or at the vent tip. The maximum flow occurs at sonic velocity, which exists as long as the
pressure drop through the orifice is greater than the critical pressure drop.

The maximum chocked flow can be less than the desired flow. Calculations are necessary to determine if
the flow is choked below the desired or required flow rate that is needed for control of the process.

Variables for PRV and PSV sizing equations

A = actual nozzle area of valve, square inches
C = gas constant (C = 315 if ratio of specific heats is unknown)
Gf = (s.g.) specific gravity of flowing fluids (liquid/water) or (gas/air)
k = specific heats ratio
K = coefficient of discharge (Kd * 0.9), (0.8775 for Vapor, Gas or Steam), (0.67 for Liquid)
Kb = back-pressure correction factor, dimensionless (See Table 4 - Calculate Kb)
Kc = combination factor for installations with a rupture disc upstream of the valve. Use a 0.9 value for any
rupture disc/pressure relief valve combination. Use a 1.0 value when a rupture disc is not installed
Kd = dimensionless value relating the actual vs. theoretical safety relief valve flow rate,
(0.975 for Vapor, Gas or Steam), (0.744 for Liquid)
Kp = overpressure correction for liquid (0.60 at 110%)
Ku = dimensionless factor used to adjust for the type of units used in the sizing equation.
(See liquid equation for value of Ku for gpm or cfh applications)
Kw = variable or constant back-pressure factor for bellows sealed valves only
Kv = viscosity correction factor (use Kv = 1 except for very high viscous fluids)
Mw = molecular weight
P1 = relieving pressure (psia). This is the set pressure (psig) + overpressure (psig) + atmospheric
pressure
(14.7 psia) – inlet pressure piping loss (psig)
P2 = the pressure at the outlet of the valve in absolute pressure units (psia)
ρ = Density of gas or vapor:
for vapors = (s.g.) x (Density of Air)
for liquids = (s.g.) x (Density of Water)
Density of Air = 0.0763 lb/ft3 at 14.7 psia, and 60°F (USCS)
Density of Water = 62.305 lb/ft3 at 70°F (USCS)
Q = capacity in volume per time units.
T = relieving temperature, absolute ⁰R (⁰F + 460)
W = required relieving rate, mass flow
Z = compressibility factor (Z = 1 for ideal gases)

199
Table 4 – Calculate Kb

200
Sizing rupture disks - worked examples

The function of a rupture disk is to protect pressure vessels, piping systems, and other equipment from
pressures exceeding their design pressure by more than a fixed predetermined amount. The permissible
amount of overpressure is covered by various codes and is a function of the type of equipment and the
conditions causing the overpressure.

The aim of safety systems in processing plants is to prevent damage to equipment, avoid injury to
personnel and to eliminate any risks of compromising the welfare of the community at large and the
environment. Proper sizing, selection, manufacture, assembly, test, installation, and maintenance of a
pressure relief valve are critical to obtaining maximum protection.

Note: Where rupture disks are installed upstream of a relief valve, the rupture disc is normally the same
size as the relief valve inlet nozzle.

Rupture Disk Sizing Example 1

Sample problem: We will size a rupture disk for the following service, LIQUID. Size the rupture
disk for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 1500 gpm (required) Vessel MAWP = 45 psig Gf = 0.85

P2 (Back Pressure) = 5 psig

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = (1.10)MAWP + 14.7

K = 0.67
Kv = 1 (except for very viscous applications)
Ku = 38 for gpm application
P1 = (1.1)(45) + 14.7 = 64.2
P2 = 5 + 14.7 = 19.7

Q Gf 1500 0.85
A   8.14in2
Ku KKv P1  P2 (38)  0.67 1 64.2  19.7

Use manufacturer’s catalog for the actual disk size to order for your application.

Rupture Disk Sizing Example 2

Sample problem: We will size a rupture disk for the following service, GAS (Air). Size the rupture
disk for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 5000 scfm (required) Vessel MAWP = 150 psig Mw = 28.9 k = 1.40

P2 (Back Pressure) = 20 psig Flow temperature = 250⁰F Z=1

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code.

P1 = (1.1)(MAWP) + 14.7 = 179.7

P2 = 20 + 14.7 = 34.7

201
 Flow pressure ratio:

P2 20  14.7
  0.193
P1 (1.1)(150)  14.7

Critical pressure ratio:

k 1.40
 2  k 1  2  1.40 1
rc     1.40  1   0.528
 k  1  

If (P2/P1) is less than rc , use this formula

k 1 1.40 1
 2  k 1  2  1.40 1
C  520 k    520 1.40 1.40  1   356
 k  1  

From Table 4 - Calculate Kb, we find that the value of Kb =1

K = 0.8775

Given the required flow in actual cubic feet per minute:

60Q  0.0763 T Z  60  5000  0.0763  250  460  1

A   2.02in 2
356 KP1  5.3824  K b  356  0.8775179.7  5.38241
Use manufacturer’s catalog for the actual disk to order your application.

Rupture Disk Sizing Example 3

Sample problem: We will size a rupture disk for the following service, GAS (some process). Size
the rupture disk for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 2000 scfm (required) Vessel MAWP = 15 psig Gf = 0.72 k = 1.26

P2 (Back Pressure) = 5 psig Flow temperature = -40⁰F Mw = 20.808 Z = 0.95

In this case 10% of gauge pressure is less than 3 psi, therefore, 3 psi over-pressure is permitted
by ASME code.

P1 = 3+ MAWP + 14.7 = 32.7

Flow pressure ratio:

P2 5  14.7
  0.602
P1 3  15  14.7

Critical pressure ratio:

202
 k 1.26
 2  k 1  2  1.26 1
rc     1.26  1   0.553
 k  1  

P2/P1 is greater than rc, use the low pressure subsonic formula:

 2 k 1

k  P2  k  P2  k  1.26  2 1.26 1

C  735
      
 735   0.602 1.26   0.602  1.26   115.68
k  1  P1   P1  1.26  1  
 

Find the constants for the equation:

Multiply Mw and  by specific gravity

Mw (gas) = Mw (air)(0.72)=20.808

3
Density of Air = 0.0763 lb/ft at 14.7 psia, and 60°F (USCS)

 = (0.0763 lb/ft3)(0.72) = 0.054936

From Table 4 - Calculate Kb, we find that the value of Kb =0.99

K =0.8775

60Q T Z  60 2000 0.054936  40  460 1

A   9.01in2
CKPK
1 b Mw 115.68 0.8775 32.7  0.99 20.808
Use manufacturer’s catalog for the actual disk size to order for your application.

Sizing pressure relief valves - worked examples

The function of a pressure relief valve is to protect pressure vessels, piping systems, and other
equipment from pressures exceeding their design pressure by more than a fixed predetermined amount.
The permissible amount of overpressure is covered by various codes and is a function of the type of
equipment and the conditions causing the overpressure.

It is not the purpose of a pressure relief valve to control or regulate the pressure in the vessel or system
that the valve protects, and it does not take the place of a control, proportional, or regulating valve. There
are modulating type proportional valves available for the purpose of regulating over pressure, such as in
the application of positive displacement pumps, but the backpressure will have to be known for proper
sizing.

The aim of safety systems in processing plants is to prevent damage to equipment, avoid injury to
personnel and to eliminate any risks of compromising the welfare of the community at large and the
environment. Proper sizing, selection, manufacture, assembly, test, installation, and maintenance of a
pressure relief valve are critical to obtaining maximum protection.

203
EXAMPLE 1 (Atmospheric Back Pressure Application)

Sample problem: We will size a Pressure Relief Valve for the following service, Natural GAS.
Size the Pressure Relief Valve for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 5900 lb/hr Set Pressure = 210 psig Mw = 19 k = 1.27

P2 (Back Pressure) = 14.7 psia Relieving temperature = 120⁰F Z=1

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = Set Pressure + (0.10)Set Pressure + 14.7
P1 = (1.1)(210) + 14.7 = 245.7(psia).
P2 = 14.7 (psia)

Flow pressure ratio:

P2 14.7
  0.0598
P1 (1.1)(210)  14.7

Critical pressure ratio:

Note: the value of “k” can be found in Table A20 – Typical properties of gases.

k 1.27
 2  k 1  2  1.27 1
rc     1.27  1   0.55
 k  1  

P2/P1 is less than rc , use this formula

k 1 1.27 1
 2  k 1  2  1.27 1
C  520 k    520 1.27 1.27  1   344.13
 k  1  

From Table 4 – For atmospheric pressure Kb = 1

Use formula:

VAPOR OR GASES
Mass Flow Rate Sizing

(W = lb/hr)

W T Z (5900) (120  460) 1

A   0.439in 2
CKP1 K b M w  344.13 0.8775  245.7 1 19 
Use Table 5 – ASME Standard nozzle orifice data to find the orifice size for the relief valve.
2
F = 0.307 in
2
G = 0.503 in

So we will select an orifice size of “G”

204
EXAMPLE 2 (Gas/Vapor with Back Pressure Application)

Sample problem: We will size a Pressure Relief Valve for the following service, NH3 (ammonia).
Size the Pressure Relief Valve for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 15,000 lb/hr Set Pressure = 325 psig Mw = 17 k = 1.30

P2 (Back Pressure) = 15 psig Relieving temperature = 138⁰F Z=1

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = Set Pressure + (0.10)Set Pressure + 14.7
P1 = (1.1)(325) + 14.7 = 372.2(psia).
P2 = 15 + 14.7 = 29.7 (psia)

Flow pressure ratio:

P2 15  14.7
  0.0798
P1 (1.1)(325)  14.7

Critical pressure ratio:

Note: the value of “k” can be found in Table A20 – Typical properties of gases.

k 1.30
 2  k 1  2  1.30 1
rc     1.30  1   0.546
 k  1  

P2/P1 is less than rc , use this formula

k 1 1.30 1
 2  k 1  2  1.30 1
C  520 k    520 1.30    346.98
 k  1 1.30  1 

From Table 4 – For atmospheric pressure Kb = 1

Use formula:

VAPOR OR GASES
Mass Flow Rate Sizing

(W = lb/hr)

W T Z (15,000) (138  460) 1

A   0.785in 2
CKP1 K b M w  346.98 0.8775 372.2 1 17 

Use Table 5 – ASME Standard nozzle orifice data to find the orifice size for the relief valve.
2
H = 0.785 in

So we will select an orifice size of “H”.

205
EXAMPLE 3 (Air SCFH Application)

Sample problem: We will size a Pressure Relief Valve for the following service, AIR. Size the
Pressure Relief Valve for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 6,000 scfh Set Pressure = 100 psig Mw = 28.97 k = 1.40

P2 (Back Pressure) = 15 psig Relieving temperature = 138⁰F Z=1

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = Set Pressure + (0.10)Set Pressure + 14.7
P1 = (1.1)(100) + 14.7 = 124.7(psia).
P2 = 15 + 14.7 = 29.7 (psia)

Flow pressure ratio:

P2 15  14.7
  0.238
P1 (1.1)(100)  14.7

Critical pressure ratio:

Note: the value of “k” can be found in Table A20 – Typical properties of gases.

k 1.40
 2  k 1  2  1.40 1
rc     1.40  1   0.528
 k  1  

P2/P1 is less than rc , use this formula

k 1 1.40 1
 2  k 1  2  1.401
C  520 k    520 1.40    356
 k  1 1.40  1 

C=356, We will use the AIR formula instead of the VAPOR / GAS formula.
From Table 4 – For atmospheric pressure Kb = 1

Use formula:

AIR
Volumetric Flow Rate Sizing
3
(Q = Standard ft /Min Flow Rate at 14.7 psia and 60⁰F)

60Q  0.0763 T Z  60  6,000  0.0763 138  460  1

A   3.2in 2
356 KP1 K b  5.3824   356  0.8775124.7 1 5.3824
Use Table 5 – ASME Standard nozzle orifice data to find the orifice size for the relief valve.
2
L = 2.850 in
2
M = 3.600 in

So we will select an orifice size of “M”.

206
EXAMPLE 4 (Saturated Steam Application)

Sample problem: We will size a Pressure Relief Valve for the following service, Saturated Steam.
Size the Pressure Relief Valve for the following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

Q = 40,000 lb/hr Set Pressure = 140 psig MW = 18

P2(Back Pressure) = 14.7 psia

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = Set Pressure + (0.10)Set Pressure + 14.7
P1 = (1.1)(140) + 14.7 = 168.7(psia).
P2 = 14.7 (psia)

Flow pressure ratio:

P2 14.7
  0.087
P1 (1.1)(140)  14.7

From Table 4 – For atmospheric pressure Kb = 1

Use formula:

STEAM
Mass Flow Rate Sizing (W = lb/hr)

W (40,000)
A   5.247in2
51.5KP1 Kb  51.5 (.8775) 168.7 1

Use Table 5 – ASME Standard nozzle orifice data to find the orifice size for the relief valve.
2
N = 4.340 in
2
P = 6.380 in

So we will select an orifice size of “P”.

207
208
 Review of Feedback Control Fundamentals

Compare Open Loop Control to Closed Loop Control

Open Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis

Most industries today use closed loop control. It offers a faster and tighter response. That is, it can
maintain the desired set point of a process almost exactly. Its output is almost perfect, (exactly what is
desired). Let us examine an everyday application, speed control of an automobile. Look at the figure C-1
below. There is a desired speed (R); a controller, mechanical accelerator pedal mechanism or
microprocessor controller and electronics, which provides a signal to the engine and transmission (u);
there is a disturbance, the slope of the road (w); and a desired output, the actual speed of the automobile
(Y).

Figure C-1

First let us examine open loop control and its drawbacks. Open loop control is cheap and can work in a
circumstance where the output can vary, that is the output can be in a range of speeds and does not have
to be exact for the conditions of the process. This may not always be desirable. Look at the figure C-2
below. Here we have variable (R), desired speed and variable (Yol), output speed of the open loop.

The automobile uses a mechanical linkage with an accelerator pedal to send a signal to the engine and
transmission, which will control the speed of the automobile. The mechanical linkage combined with the
accelerator pedal has a gain of 1/10. The accelerator pedal and mechanical linkage gain of 1/10 adds to
the automobile’s output speed. The road has a slope. This slope subtracts from the automobile’s response
of desired set point speed (R), with a gain of 0.5. When the slope of the road is zero, (for a level surface),
the disturbance does not affect the output speed.

When the slope is greater than zero (e.g., 1% or 10% grade) the automobile’s actual speed is less than
the desired speed. This can be seen driving down a road and holding the accelerator pedal at a constant
position. You will slow down going up a hill or slope (the rise verses the run or Y/X).

209
 Figure C-2

Where:
R = desired or reference speed (mph)
u = throttle angle in degrees (sets engine speed)
Yol = actual open loop speed of the automobile (mph)
w = road grade in %

The set point (desired speed) is multiplied by the gain of the controller (1/10). The output of the controller
is called the manipulated variable (u). Then the system disturbance (multiplied by a gain of 0.5) is
subtracted from the manipulated variable (u). The manipulated variable (u), which is the throttle angle of
the carburetor, sets the engine speed. The process final correction control device or element is the
engine and transmission, which has a gain of 10. The manipulated variable (u), minus the system
disturbance multiplied by a gain of 0.5, is then multiplied by the final control device or element gain of 10,
to set the value of the final output, which is the actual speed of the process or plant (Yol). In this case the
process or plant is the automobile.

Let us look at the math to prove what is happing in the system.

The open loop output speed is given by:

 1
u  R 
 10 

Yol   u  0.5w 10

R 
Yol    0.5w 10
 10 

Yol  R  5w

210
So it can be seen for a slope of 0%, if the set point is 55 mph, the output of the process is the
actual automotive speed of 55 mph. This is only true if there is no disturbance.
55 mph  55  5(0); (a slope of 0%)
If the slope is 1% the output is 50 mph:
50 mph  55  5(1); (a slope of 1%)

If the slope is 10% the output is 5 mph:

5 mph  55  5(10); (a slope of 10%)

Closed Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis

It can be seen for a large disturbance, open loop control is not desirable. Let us look at the automobile
with closed loop control used, the speed control setting. Refer to figure C-3 below.

Now the controller uses a microprocessor combined with electronics to set the throttle angle setting of the
engine’s carburetor. This will set the speed of the engine to maintain the output of the process or plant,
the actual speed of the automobile. The desired speed is reached and the speed control button is pushed.
This is called the set point (R), the desired speed of the automobile. The closed loop controller has a gain
of 100. We will now illustrate the tight control of the final output of the process (Ycl).

The set point or desired speed variable (R) is entered. Then the feedback signal, the process variable
(Ycl), is subtracted from the set point variable (R). This is called the error or set point error signal (e). The
set point error (e) is multiplied by the controller gain of 100. This output is called the manipulated variable
(u). The manipulated variable (u), which is the throttle angle of the carburetor, sets the engine speed. The
process final correction control device or element is the engine and transmission, which has a gain of 10.
The manipulated variable (u), minus the system disturbance multiplied by a gain of 0.5, is then multiplied
by the final control device or element gain of 10, to set the value of the final output, which is the actual
speed of the process or plant (Ycl). In this case the process or plant is the automobile.

Figure C-3

211
Where:

R = desired or reference speed (mph)

e = set point error
u = throttle angle in degrees (sets engine speed)
Ycl = actual closed loop speed of the automobile (mph)
w = road grade in %

Let us look at the math to prove what is happing to the system.

The closed loop output speed is given by:

e  R  Ycl

u   e  100

u   R  Ycl  100

Ycl   u  0.5w  10

Ycl  100R  100Ycl   0.5w  10

Ycl  1000R  1000Ycl  5w

1000Ycl  Ycl  1000R  5w

1001Ycl  1000R  5w

1000R  5w
Ycl 
1001

Ycl  0.999R  0.005w

So it can be seen for a slope of 0%, if the set point is 55 mph, the output of the process is the
actual automotive speed of 54.945 mph. This is only true if there is no disturbance.

54.945 mph  0.999(55)  0.005(0); (a slope of 0%)

If the slope is 1% the output is 54.94 mph:

54.94 mph  0.999(55)  0.005(1); (a slope of 1%)

If the slope is 5% the output is 54.92 mph:

54.92 mph  0.999(55)  0.005(5); (a slope of 5%)

If the slope is 10% the output is 54.90 mph:

54.90 mph  0.999(55)  0.005(10); (a slope of 10%)

212
The Transfer Function for the Automobile

See the block diagram in figure C-4 below for the process of deriving the transfer function for the
automobile.

Figure C-4

By using a more complex controller with additional modes of control, the process error can be removed
completely and the process (plant) can respond very quickly. We have just seen how proportional control
has an offset from the set point. Proportional control will stop the upset or process error and try to return
the process back to the set point. The proportional controller can have a significant error in the process
output, if the disturbance is large.

By using the integral mode in a controller, the offset can be completely removed. This is sometimes called
“reset action,” due to the fact in the old days; the operator would make a manual change in the set point
(reset the set point), to achieve the proper process output. With integral mode, or reset action, the
proportional output is increased (or repeated) every few seconds or minutes, depending on the controller
design, until the process output equals the set point of the system.

By using derivative mode, the controller can respond very quickly to a fast changing process error or
upset. The derivative mode or “rate action,” subtracts from the controller output to slow down a process
that is increasing too quickly, such a chemical reaction where the heat may increase so quickly it may
explode.

213
214
 Review of Frequency Response Fundamentals

Electrical Application – A First Order System

Frequency response is a way to analyze what the output of the process or plant will be. We can calculate
the output (e.g., volts or watts in power), for a given system gain and input (e.g., volts) at some
frequency. Remember the capacitance reactance is varying with the change in frequency (Xc = 1/2πfC).
First we will take a look at where the transfer function comes from. See figure T-1 below.

Figure T-1

We will now derive the transfer function for this first order system, where R(S) is the input signal at some
frequency and Y(S) is the output voltage with some phase angle and amplitude.

Current equals the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the resistor value:

VR
I
R

Vin  Vout
I
R

Current also equals the voltage out of the capacitor:

dVout
I C
dt

Substitute voltage drop divided by resistance for amps (I) and set the two equations equal to each other:

Vin  Vout dVout

C
R dt

dVout
Vin  Vout  RC
dt

d
S
dt

Vin  Vout  RCS Vout 

215
Vin  Vout  RCS Vout 

Vin  1  RCS Vout

Vin
 Vout
1  RCS

1 Vout

1  RCS Vin

t  RC

The transfer function is equal to the gain of the system:

1 Vout

1  St Vin

Use the transfer function to calculate the voltage out of the system:

 1 
Vin    Vout
 1  St 

We have now derived the transfer function for this first order system. We can now plug in an input voltage
and an angular frequency and calculate the attenuation of the output signal and the phase angle of the
output signal.

Bode Plot of First Order System

Make a Bode plot for a circuit with the following components.

Where:
Resistor = 100Ω
Capacitor = 2.65µF
Volts in =10v

f C = 60 Hz (corner or cutoff frequency)

1
t sec    RC
2 fC

t (time constant) = 1000 (Ω) x 0.00000265 (F) = 0.00265 seconds

 
Vin    Vout
1

 12   S  t  
2

 

S    2 f
 Vout 
 
dB  20 log  Vin 

216
Calculate the data for the Bode Plot

Freq. Rads Volts Out Signal Attenuation

/sec Phase Angle

1 6.28    9.9986v 
 
 1  20 log 10v 
= -0.0012 dB
10v    9.9986v
 12  6.28  0.00265  
2

 

 6.28  0.00265  
TAN 1 
1   0.95 
 

5 12.56    9.9889v 

10v 
 1  20 log = -0.0096 dB
10v    9.9889v
 12  12.56  0.00265  
2

 

 12.56  0.00265  
TAN 1    1.9 
 1 

10 62.8    9.8643v 

10v 
 1  20 log = -0.1187 dB
10v    9.8643v
 12  62.8  0.00265  
2

 

 62.8  0.00265  
TAN 1    9.5 
 1 

217
Calculate data for the Bode Plot Continued:

Freq. Rads Volts Out Signal Attenuation

/sec Phase Angle

50 314    7.69v 
 
 1  20 log 10v 
= -2.28 dB
10v    7.69v
 12  314  0.00265  
2

 

 314  0.00265  
TAN 1    40 
 1 

60 377    7.07v 
 
 1  20 log  10v 
= -3.0 dB
10v    7.07v
 12  377  0.00265  
2

 

 377  0.00265  
TAN 1    45 
 1 

100 628    5.15v 

 
 1  20 log 10v 
= -5.76 dB
10v    5.15v
 12  628  0.00265  
2

 

 628  0.00265  
TAN 1 
1   59 
 

200 1256    2.88v 


10v 
 1  20 log = -10.8 dB
10v    2.88v
 12  1256  0.00265  
2

 

 1256  0.00265  
TAN 1    73.3 
 1 

218
Calculate data for the Bode Plot Continued:

Freq. Rads Volts Out Signal Attenuation

/sec Phase Angle

10000 62800    0.006v 


10v 
 1  20 log = -64.44 dB
10v    0.006v
 12  62800  0.00265  
2

 

 62800  0.00265  
TAN 1    89.7 
 1 

100000 628000    0.0006009 

 
 1  20 log 10v  = -84.424 dB
10v    0.0006009v
 12  628000  0.00265  
2

 

 628000  0.00265  
TAN 1    89.97 
 1 

219
Creating a Bode Plot – First Order System using Frequency

Voltage Signal Attenuation

Phase Angle

220
Hydraulic Application – A First Order System

Frequency response is a way to analyze what the output of the process or plant will be. We can calculate
the output (e.g., flow as volume out), for a given system gain and input (e.g., flow as volume in) at some
low frequency (the rate of change of head in the tank with respect to time) and a varying time constant
RC (the resistance of the valve relating to a changing corrective position, multiplied by the capacitance of
the tank). First we will take a look at where the transfer function comes from. See figure T-2 below.

Figure T-2

We will now derive the transfer function for this first order system, where R(S) is the input signal at some
flow rate with the tank volume changing at some frequency and Y(S) is the output flow rate with some
phase angle and amplitude.

The accumulated volume in the tank equals the flow in (Fin) – the flow out (Fout):

Fin-Fout = Accumulated Volume in Tank

The accumulated volume in the tank also equals the head (H) multiplied by the area of tank (C):

dH
Accumulated Volume in Tank  C
dt

Set the equations equal to each other:

dH
Fin  Fout  C
dt

The valve resistance opposes flow out of the tank:

H  R( Fout )

221
Substitute the head equation in to the formula:

d  RFout 
Fin  Fout  C
dt
d
S
dt

Fin  Fout  RCS  Fout 

Fin  Fout  RCS  Fout 

Fin  1  RCS  Fout

Fin
 Fout
1  RCS

1 Fout

1  RCS Fin

t  RC

The transfer function is equal to the gain of the system:

1 Fout

1  St Fin

Remember the accumulated flow (tank volume) equals the flow in minus the flow out of the system.

Use the transfer function to calculate the flow out of the system:

 1 
Fin    Fout
 1  St 

We have now derived the transfer function for this first order system. At steady state there is no charging
of the tank and, therefore, no frequency (S). The transfer function is now 1/(1 +0) and we have a gain of 1
or DC steady state. The flow in equals the flow out and the head in the system (tank) does not vary.

222
 Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning

The process control industry covers a wide variety of applications: petrochemical; pharmaceutical; pulp
and paper; food processing; material handling; even commercial applications.

Process control in a plant can include discrete logic, such as relay logic or a PLC; analog control, such as
single loop control or a DCS (distributed control system); as well as pneumatic, hydraulic, and electrical
systems as well. The Control Systems Engineer must be versatile and understand a broad range of control
subjects as applied to controller applications, configuration, and tuning, as well as analysis and
understanding of loop gain and stability.

This section will review the foundations of process control theory and its applications. Some of this
material may be on the CSE examination. I have tried to keep the studies to a minimum and reduce the
math for the problem to a form in which you can just plug in the values and get the answer you need for
the exam.

We will cover degrees of freedom, process loop gain and applications, filtering of noise in process
variable signals, open and closed loop tuning, damping of the system, time constants, overshoot of
process set points and check for stability of a system transfer function.

Degrees of Freedom in Process Control Systems

In an unconstrained dynamic or other system, the number of independent variables required to specify
completely the state of the system at a given moment, must be defined. If the system has constraints, that
is, kinematic or geometric relations between the variables, each such relation reduces by one the number
of degrees of freedom (DOF) of the system.

Process Variables - (Equations + Constants) = Degrees of Freedom Degrees

of Freedom = The Minimum Number of Process Controllers Required

Example 1: An Airplane
Variables
Altitude 1
Latitude 1
Longitude 1
3
Minus Constants 0
Minus Equations 0
Degrees of freedom = 3

DOF = 3 – (0+0) = 3
Three (3) controllers are needed. One (1) for each variable.

223
Example 2: A Train

Variables
Altitude 1
Latitude 1
Longitude 1
3
Minus Constants
Altitude 1
Latitude 1
Minus Equations 0
Degrees of freedom = 1

DOF = 3 – (2+0) = 1
One (1) controller is needed. One (1) for Longitude only.

Example 3: A Hot Water Heat Exchanger

Variables
Ws (flow rate of steam) 1
Wcw (flow rate of cold water) 1
Whw (flow rate of hot water) 1
Q (quantity of steam in cubic feet) 1
Ps (supply pressure of steam) 1
Tcw (temperature of cold water) 1
Thw (temperature of hot water) 1
7
Minus Constants
Q (quantity of steam) 1
Ps (supply pressure of steam) 1
Tcw (temperature of cold water) 1
3
Minus Equations
Material Balance (conservation of mass) 1
Energy Balance (conservation of energy) 1
2
DOF = 7 – (3+2) = 2

Two (2) controllers are needed.

1. One (1) controller for steam flow.

2. One (1) controller for the energy equation (mass*Cp*deltaT). The controller type will be a
temperature controller, and it will be on the outlet water temperature. It will provide a remote set
point to the steam flow controller.

224
Controllers and control strategies (models-modes)

In general terms, a control loop is a group of components working together as a system to achieve and
maintain the desired value of a system variable by manipulating the value of another variable in the
control loop. Each control loop has at
least one input and one output. There
are two types of control loops: open loop
and closed loop. Refer to the section of
this manual, Review of Feedback
Control Fundamentals.

In this section we use simple math to

derive a compensated output signal for a
control loop with disturbance acting on
the system, for a given set point using a
process feedback signal to maintain the
desired set point with proportional control
having a minimal offset from the set
point.
In an open loop system, the controller
does not have a feedback signal from
the system. The controller has a
set point and an output signal. The system process variable varies, due to system disturbances
regardless of the set point signal and fixed controller output signal.

An example of an open loop system would be a car, when using the accelerator pedal only. The
accelerator pedal is held in fixed position. When the car goes up a hill, the car will tend to slow down. The
decrease in speed is inversely proportional to the increase in slope.

In a closed loop system, the controller does have a feedback signal from the system. The controller has
a set point, a feedback input signal and a varying output signal. The output signal increases or decreases
proportionally to the the error of the set
point compared to the input signal. The
input signal varies proportionally to the
system disturbances and the gain
of the measurement sensor.

An example of a closed loop system

would be a car, when using the speed
control only. When the car goes up a hill,
the car will tend to speed up to maintain
the set point speed, regardless of
increase in slope. The increase in slope
is a system disturbance, but there can be
more than one disturbance on a system.
A head wind would add to the error of
increasing slope, requiring the car to give
even more power to increase the speed
to the set point, say 55 mph.

All control systems have their limitations of control: either the ability to respond to a fast changing system
disturbance, frequency response limitations due to the design of the system, or limitations in adding
energy to the system or removing energy from system. For example: a valve is at 0% or 100% or the heat
exchanger is at maximum capacity. When responding to a system upset, the valve or servo mechanism
has limited speed of movement due to mechanical design. There is always a slew rate (delay of
movement or travel) of the mechanical or electrical parts. The valve or servo mechanism can only move
so many inches or degrees in a period of time. The electrical components can only charge or discharge
so fast in time. These response limitations are typically in frequency, as in hertz or cycles per second
(cps), and the oscillation period in time is the reciprocal of the frequency.

225
The process variable or feedback input signal is always measured in 0% to 100% and is typically evenly
divisible by 4 or measured at 25% increments.

Examples:
3 to 15 PSI 12 PSI span
4 to 20 mA 16 mA span
1 to 5 volts 4 volt span
Modes
Familiarize yourself with the different control modes and the ISA standards and symbols for representing
the modes on a P&ID (piping and instrumentation diagram).

The most common types of closed loop control modes are: feedback, feedforward, cascade, and ratio.

Feedback Control Loop Feedforward Control Loop

Cascade Control Loop Ratio Control Loop

226
Time Proportional Control Mode

An underused control strategy that offers significant benefits is time-proportional control (TPC). Unlike
traditional proportional or even PID control that requires a varying output to a modulating control device,
time-proportional control can achieve a proportional control response to process variation using an on/off
device by varying on and off times in a defined control period. The on/off device is generally a simpler,
less expensive control device.

Time-proportional control is a
less widely used method for
achieving proportional control,
and has the advantage that it is
used in lower cost on/off control
devices, such as a solenoid
valve or fixed output pump. By
proportioning the on-time
versus off-time of the control
device within a fixed time period
(sample period), a proportional
response is achieved. This type
of control mode is used
frequently in industrial heating
applications with furnaces using
SCRs and solid state relays, as
well as
tank filling applications and pH correction systems using pneumatic pumps. See the section in this
manual Process Analyzers / Control of pH values in processes for more information on pH control.

Process Loop Gain (Gp)

The goal here is control loop stability. This is done by making the loop response to load changes as linear
as possible and by keeping the loop gain more or less constant. The gain of any device is the ratio of its
output divided by its input. The loop gain (Lg) is the product of the gains of the loop components: the
process gain (Gp), sensor gain (Gs), controller gain (Gc), and valve gain (Gv). Tuning the loop means that
if our goal is quarter-amplitude damping, we adjust
the controller so that the loop gain will be about 0.5.
All gains put together are called the Total
Process Gain (TPG):
Loop Gain = (Gp)(Gs)(Gc)(Gv) = TPG ≈ 0.5
Linear valve application

If the TPG = (Gp)(Gs)(Gv), is more or less constant

and does not change much with the process load,
linear valves should be used. In a linear, constant
gain valve, a 1% change in lift results in a 1%
change in flow (Gv = 1.0). Linear valves are
acceptable if TPG = (Gp)(Gs)(Gv) ≈ 0.5 to 2.0, as
the load varies between its minimum and maximum
limits. Linear valves are used in most process
applications except temperature control and heat
transfer.

See the figure to the right. If the process is non-

linear (Gp varies with load), the product of the loop
gain (Lg) should be held more or less constant by
compensating for the variation in Gp by using a
non-linear valve with inverse Gv non-linearity.

227
Non-Linear Valve applications

If the valve gain rises as the valve opens, its characteristic is called equal percentage; if its gain drops as
it opens, it is called quick-opening. Special, custom-made valves can provide other non-linearities, for
example, characterized v-ball valves have gains that are the inverse of the pump curves. Therefore,
compensation is provided by using an inverse valve characteristic (Gv = 1/Gp), so that the installed
characteristics of the total process will be more or less linear (TPG ≈ 0.5 to 2.0). Naturally, Gv can never
be the exact inverse of Gp, but as long as the selected valve characteristic keeps the TPG within 0.5 and
2.0, instability and limited cycling can usually be avoided by good controller tuning (assuming TPG = 1.0
when adjusting Gc).

Process Signal Linearization

The installed flow characteristic of a control valve directly affects the process
gain. It is essential that the installed characteristic is linear. In the figure to the
right, look at the install characteristic, it can be seen that the process gain is
constant, regardless of the controller output. If the installed gradient of the
curve varies by more than a factor of two, control loop performance will be
noticeably affected. This means the controller has to have different tuning
parameters for different ranges in the controller output. If nothing is done to
linearize the valve, the controller will have to be detuned to accommodate the
maximum process gain. This leads to sluggish control loop response over
much of the valve’s operating range.

A nonlinear flow characteristic should be linearized to obtain good control performance throughout the
s operating range. This is done with a linearizer (also called a characterizer). The linearizer is a
valve’s
control block, function generator, f(x) curve, or a lookup table, placed between the controller and the valve
(see the figure below). Although the linearization can be done in a digital positioner, the DCS/PLC is the
best location for it. This allows replacement of the positioner without having to reprogram the linearization
curve in the new positioner.

Linearizing a Nonlinear Valve Characteristic How a Linearizer Works

Linearization is done with an X-Y curve or function generator that is configured to represent the reciprocal
(inverse) of the control element’s flow curve, see the figure above to the right.

To design the linearizer, you have to first determine the flow characteristic curve of the valve operating in
the actual process. For this you should take readings of the flow or process variable (PV) and controller
output (CO or C) under steady-state conditions at various controller output levels. You need a minimum of
three pairs of data from a closed loop process response curve. More pairs of data would provide a much
better response curve for characterizing a nonlinear relationship.

Make sure you span the entire operating range of the controller output, and try to obtain readings spaced
equally across the controller output span. You can do process tests to obtain these values, or examine

228
the data from your process historian. Then convert the process variable data from engineering units to a
percentage of full scale of the measurement.

Sort the data pairs in ascending order and enter them into a function generator. The PV readings in
percent become the X values (input side) and the CO readings in percent become the Y values (output
side). Include a zero (0, 0) point if you don’t already have one in your dataset and be sure to estimate a
full span (100, Y) point if you don’t have one. Also, if your valve opens as the CO decreases, your Y
column will obviously have to reflect this.

Linearizing of the signal is typically seen in controllers, but some valve positioners and transmitters
can have an 8- or 16-segment curve to correct for a non-linear measurement and then send the input
signal to the DCS or PLC. The points are fitted by a curve and the output signal is interpolated between
preset entered points. This is popular in digital valve controllers and transmitter of nonlinear
measurements, such as radiometric or Gama radiation transmitters for levels or thickness, as well as in
power monitoring such as in a GE Multilin power monitor for compressors and very large motors.

229
Signal Filtering in Process Control

Signal noise is generated due to pulsating characteristics of process control applications, such as
fluctuations in the process streams comprised of liquids, gases, powders, slurries, and melts. These
noises can be generated by pressure pulsations from the design of pumps, or sloshing in agitated tanks,
or cavitation of fluids.

The derivative mode of a PID controller, rate action, can cause the noise in the measured process
variable (PV) and make the controller output (CO) become erratic. Noise in the PV will be amplified by the
controller output (CO) signal and will produce “chatter” in the final control element. This extreme control
action will increase the wear on a mechanical final control element, such as a valve, leading to increased
maintenance and making it harder to stabilize the process. This higher frequency noise must be filtered
out. First look into the transmitter and the process equipment for a solution. If the noise cannot be
reduced, a filter must be applied to the process variable and or controller signals.

Appling Signal Filters

External Filters in Control

There are three popular places to put external filters in the feedback loop. By “external,” we mean that the
filters are designed, installed ,and maintained separately from the controller.

Internal Filters in Control

For feedback control, filtering need only be applied to the signal feeding the derivative term. As stated
before, noise does not present a problem for proportional and integral action. These elements will perform
best without the delay introduced from a signal filter.

First Order Filter The Derivative Term of the PV Filtered

230
Plot of the Process Variable Signal Filtered

The plot below shows the random behavior of a raw (unfiltered) PV signal and the smoother trace of a
filtered PV signal.

Filter Time Constant and Sample Time

From the plot above it can be seen that the derivative mode would add to the output tremendously,
without filtering. It can be seen the derivative mode (rate action), would see a gain of about 10/1
compared to 0.5/1 in the signal filtered.

To select a filter time for attenuation of noise or to eliminate the noise in the process signal (PV) signal,
we would take the reciprocal of the angular frequency, 2 Hz or 2 (cps) , of the noise signal and select a
filter time constant that is equal to or greater than the time constant of the corner frequency.

For the first order filter, we must pick a corner frequency ( f C ) that is smaller or less than that of the
frequency of the noise we wish to attenuate. This will allow the lower frequencies of the process signal
(PV) to pass through the filter to the controller amplifier section, allowing the system to respond to the
lower frequency upsets in the system. Remember that the time constant of the corner frequency is:

1
Tc 
2 f c

The time constant and frequency as used in the first order filter:
1
Tc * 2 f c  1 where   Tc & S  c  2 f c used in the equation for
1  S
1
3dB  0.707  where TC * 2 f C  1
12   2 f C TC 
2

It can be seen in the transfer function for the first order filter: at corner frequency the noise signal will be
attenuated to -3dB or 70.7%. All frequencies above or greater than corner frequency will be drastically
attenuated or fall off in amplitude ratio. The trick here is to pick a frequency as low as can be tolerated
and still keep the process control system responsive.

231
If you do not understand how the first order filter works, review the section in this manual Review of
Frequency Response Fundamentals.

 1 
Signal in *    Signal out
 1  St 

The sampling theorem states the sampling time should be at least twice the highest frequency of the
process signal. If the process signal was 10 seconds, the process frequency is (0.1 cps) = (1/10 sec). The
sampling frequency should be two times the process signal frequency to make the system responsive. So
2 * 0.1 = 0.2 cps; therefore, the maximum sample time should be 1/0.2 cps = 5 seconds.

Example of Filter Time Selection

The process signal has a noise frequency of 5 cps (cycles per second). The process signal has periods of
10 seconds or greater. Make the acceptable choice between the time constant for the filter and the
sample time for the DCS. Remember, the smaller the DCS sample time the better the system response.
Choose from the selections below:

Corner Frequency fC Filter Time Constant Tf (sec) Sampling Time TS (sec) Attenuation
of 5 Hz noise
a. 10 Hz (62.8 rads/sec) 0.016 0.5 -0.98 db
b. 5 Hz (31.4 rads/sec) 0.032 1 -3.01 db
c. 2 Hz (12.56 rads/sec) 0.080 5 -8.64 db
d. 1 Hz (6.28 rads/sec) 0.159 8 -14.14 db
e. 0.5 Hz (3.14 rads/sec) 3.140 10 -39.88 db

The best answer here is (c).

 Choice (a.) will never attenuate the noise signal. The filter is low pass, so the noise is passed.
 Choice (b.) the corner frequency is the noise frequency, so 70.7 % of the noise will still pass. The
DCS scan time is acceptable because it is smaller than the required 5 second period for samples.
 Choice (c.) is the best answer; the noise will be attenuated by 63.02%. Only 36.98% of the 5 Hz
noise in the process variable signal (PV) will pass to the controller and the DCS scan time is still
fast enough to respond to the 5 second recommended sample time period of the process.
 Choice (d.) is acceptable, the noise will be attenuated by 80.36% of the 5 Hz noise in the process
variable signal (PV), but the DCS scan time is not fast enough to respond to the 5 second
recommended sample time period of the process.
 Choice (e.) will work but the DCS scan time is on the borderline of seeing the process upset and
being able to respond. Low frequency oscillations will be filtered out. If the process was to cycle at
a period of say 6 or 8 seconds, the DCS will not be able to respond to that upset and the system
will become unresponsive and possibly unstable.

Choice C: The noise to be filtered is 5 Hz or 5 cps and filter time constant = 0.080 seconds:
Gn  Gain or Attenuation of the signal by the first order filter

1
Gn  = 0.3699 or 36.99% signal let-through db = 20 log Gn = -8.64db
1   2 5 0.080 
2 2

If the fundamental signal frequency of 8 Hz or 8 cps and a filter time constant = 0.080 seconds:
1
Gn  = 0.2414 or 24.14% signal let-through db = 20 log Gn = -12.34db
1   2 8 0.080 
2 2

232
DCS/PLC Sample and Scan Time Consideration

Sampling time
If the sampling time is too large (long time between samples), oscillations in the process may not be
detectable. On the HMI, the process may look fairly stable when, in reality, the process is fluctuating quite
rapidly. This can lead to bad product that may not meet specifications. On the other hand, if the sample
time is too small (short time between samples), you can read and respond to unnecessary process noise
which can also be a waste of processor time that may be dedicated to more critical processes.

The figure below shows various frequencies that may be riding on the process variable input signal. If the
sample time is too low or too slow; the higher frequencies (the oscillations in the process or upsets), may
not be detected. Notice how the higher frequencies look as if they are 1 Hz oscillations at a sample time of
0.25 second intervals. This noisy process will plot as a fairly smooth trend graph on the operator’s HMI.

Time per scan cycle

Most DCS control systems allow for vector programming. The time required for reading and writing each
individual input or output can be defined. With PLC control systems, all inputs and outputs are read at the
same time in sequence. This is called the scan cycle. First the inputs are read and then the outputs are
written. You must be aware of the time necessary for safe reading and writing of all inputs and outputs.
The PLC scan time may need to be adjusted, so critical process updates are not missed or skipped over.

Another thing to consider is using multiplexers in DCS and SCADA systems. They will require much more
time to gather and update their process variables into the words of the DCS or PLC. Multiplexers are
typically used on slow
process variables, such as
thermocouples, for taking
multiple readings, such as
the temperature over the
length of a heater or
distillation column.

It is important to consider
the slots that are filled with
I/O cards in a DCS system,
such as the Foxboro I/A
DCS system. Just because
there are slots available, it
does not mean they can be
used. The fieldbus
controller for
communications can only
process and communicate
so many words in time.
The amount of words per
card varies. You must
count the total words
required for all cards to
determine the maximum

233
card population per rack.

Tuning of Process Controllers

Many undergraduate engineering programs teach the Ziegler-Nichols tuning methods, developed by John
G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols in the 1940s. This tuning method has a large controller gain and short
integral time, and sometimes creates
process oscillations, which are not good for
most chemical engineering applications. As
a result, many process control engineers
resort to tuning by feel, individual control
loops are tuned as fast as possible without
disrupting the upstream and downstream
control loops.

However, by tuning only individual loops, the

overall process performance and the ability
to recover from disturbances are reduced.
When a process has been tuned by feel,
console operators often need to put
controllers into manual operation to settle the process down after a major process disturbance.

Automatic process control attenuates disturbances and maintains control of the process variables to
match the desired set point; appropriate tuning enables this capability. This section describes process
controller basics and details a step-by-step process for control loop tuning as recommended by Tim Olsen
and Norman Ito of Emerson Process management.

Process controllers can be tuned in two ways, open loop and closed loop. In open loop the controller is
put into manual mode, opening the measurement feedback loop. A change is made in the output to the
final correction device and a process reaction curve is read to tune the controller. In closed loop the
controller uses the feedback signal in automatic mode. Gain is increased until a sustained oscillation is
achieved. The plot of the oscillation is then used to retrieve the tuning parameters.

First we will look at the Ziegler-Nichols tuning methods, which will more than likely be presented on
the CSE examination, and then we will look at more advanced methods of tuning a control loop as
taught by Emerson Process Management. They will be the Integral Criteria Method and LAMBDA tuning
methods.
Tuning
We will now look at two different methods for tuning a controller, the Ultimate Gain (Continuous Cycling),
and Process Reaction Curve (Step Response) methods. We will use the Ziegler-Nichols method but the
Cohen-Coon or Integrated Absolute Error method could be used instead.

Closed Loop Tuning of the Controller

Tuning based on the ultimate gain method

Essentially, the tuning method works by oscillating the

process. Turn off the integral mode or set time to zero (0),
and turn off the derivative mode. Increase the gain of the
controller and make a slight set point change. Repeat the
process and gradually increase the gain of the controller
each time, until a sustained oscillation is achieved as
shown in the following figure.

This is called the ultimate gain (Ku). It is the gain of the

controller necessary to make the process sustain
oscillation. The proportional band gain (Pu) is the
reciprocal of the ultimate gain (Ku).

234
Tune the controller by entering the new Ziegler-Nichols values from the calculations in Table 8 below.

The table values are to be entered as gain. If you need to convert gain to proportional band, then
Pu=1/Ku and Ku=1/Pu. If Pu is used for the controller, then convert back to proportional band after
applying the table calculations.

Proportional band = 1/Gain Gain = 1/Proportional band

The period or time constant, equals Tu in minutes. The time calculation will be entered as minutes per
repeat for integral time and derivative time as minutes.

Remember when entering the integral time:

Minutes per repeat = 1/ Repeats per minute

Repeats per minute = 1/ Minutes per repeat
Proportional band is typically displayed as %, for example: 0.50 Kc = 200% PB, 2.00 Kc = 50% PB

Example: Tune Using Ultimate Gain (continuous cycling)

Period Time TU: 12 minutes Gain Ku: 2.2

Note: TI  minutes per repeat Kc  0.6Ku   0.6  2.2  1.32

Kc  standard gain of controller (output / input) T 12
TI  U   6 min
Pu  proportional gain of controller (input / output) 2 2
Ku  gain necessary to make the process cycle T 12
TD  u   1.5 min
8 8

Table 8 - Tuning parameters for the closed loop Ziegler-Nichols method

Controller type Gain, Kc Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

P 0.5Ku

Tu
PI 0.45Ku
1.2
Tu Tu
PID 0.6Ku
2 8

Table 9 - Tuning parameters for the open loop Ziegler-Nichols method

Controller Type Gain, Kc Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD


P
KP 
0.9  
PI
KP  0.3
1.2  
PID 0.5
KP  0.5

235
Note: This table of tuning parameters has (  = lag time) in the equation for a lag time of 62.3% of delta
process measurement, (Ѳ = Dead Time) of the process.

Open Loop Tuning of the Controller

Tuning based on the process reaction curve

In process control, the term ’reaction curve’ is sometimes used as a synonym for a step response curve.
Many chemical processes are stable and well damped. For such systems the step response curve can be
approximated by a first-order plus dead time (FOPDT) model. It is relatively straightforward to fit the model
parameters to the observed step response. Look at the reaction curve below.

Essentially, the tuning method works by manually causing a step change in the process. This is
accomplished by putting the controller in manual and forcing an output change of the controller. Record
the step change process reaction curve on the chart recorder and follow the setup instructions below.

1. Locate the point where the curve stops curving upwards from the left and bottom and starts to
complete the curve up to the right and settle at a new process measurement level. This will be
about half way up the reaction curve. It is the inflection point.

2. Draw an asymptote line tangential to the point of the inflection. Where the asymptote line crosses
the bottom of the process reaction curve, the previous output is assumed to be zero (it is the
measurement before the set point change was made, which is now zero to the measurement of the
process change). It may be equal to 50 psi or 500 degrees, but set it to a live zero. The time
between the start of the output step change and the start of the asymptote line at the live zero of the
process measurement is the apparent time delay or dead time (TD) of the system.

When the asymptote line reaches the steady state value of 63.2% of delta measurement, the time
difference between the end of the dead time measurement (TD) and the end of the 63.2% of delta
measurement, is called the time constant for the process (). Draw a line straight down from the
63.2% point to the live zero line. These are the values of ( ) the time constant of the process and
(TD) the dead time of the process.

3. The gain of the system KP (the slope of the asymptote line) is given by:

Δmeasurement Δmeasurement
KP = 
Δvalve change Δcontroller output

Typical Process Reaction curve for tuning controller in open loop

236
Table 10 - Tuning parameters for the open loop Cohen-Coon method

Controller Type Gain, KP Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

1   
P  1 
K P   3 

1  9    30  3  /   

K P   10 12 

PI
9  20  /  

1  4    32  6  /    4

K P   3 4  11  2  /  
PID
13  8  /  

Note: This table of tuning parameters has (  = lag time) in the equation for a lag time of 62.3% of delta
process measurement, (Ѳ = Dead Time) of the process.

Table 10 IAE1 - Tuning parameters for the Integrated Absolute Error (load change)

Controller Type Gain, KP Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

 
B 
A  TI  B  
B
   TD  A   
KC    A   
KP  

A B A B A B
P 0.902 -0.985
PI 0.984 -0.986 0.608 -0.707
PID 1.435 -0.921 0.878 -0.749 0.482 1.137

Note: This table of tuning parameters has (  = lag time) in the equation for a lag time of 62.3% of delta
process measurement, (Ѳ = Dead Time) of the process.

Table 10 IAE2 - Tuning parameters for the Integrated Absolute Error (set point change)

Controller Type Gain, KP Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

B
   B
A  TI   
  TD  A   
KC    AB  
KP 

A B A B A B
P

PI 0.758 -0.861 1.020 -0.323

PID 1.086 -0.869 0.740 -0.130 0.348 0.914

Note: This table of tuning parameters has (  = lag time) in the equation for a lag time of 62.3% of delta
process measurement, (Ѳ = Dead Time) of the process .

237
Example: Tuning using Process Reaction Curve (Step Response)
We will use the following graph of the process reaction curve (the step response) to tune the controller for
this worked example.

(See Table 9 - Tuning parameters for the open loop Ziegler-Nichols method.)

Data given: Solve for tuning parameters:

Time Constant  : 8 minutes PV % 30%

KP    1.5
Dead Time Ѳ: 3 minutes Output % 20%
Delta PV: 82%-52% = 30%
1.2 1.2 8 
Delta Output: 55%-35% = 20% Kc    2.134
KP 1.5  3 

Note: KC  controller gain setting  3

TI    6 min
TI  minutes per repeat 0.5 0.5
TI 1  repeats per minute TD  0.5   0.5  3   1.5 min
TD  minutes

238
Advanced Tuning Methods for Controllers

The Integral Criteria Method

General Definition: An integral criterion is a performance measure that is based on the integral of some
function of the control error and on possibly other variables (such as time).

Response to an IAE load change Response to an IAE set point change

The integral criteria method is an open loop method that calculates the controller tuning parameters from
the coefficients in a time-constant plus dead time model. The relationships provide the values of the
tuning coefficients that minimize an integral criterion. Although others are available, we shall present
relationships for only the following two integral criteria:

Integral of Absolute Error (IAE) = E
0
dt

Integral of Time and Absolute Error (ITAE) =  E t dt
0
(See Tables 10 IAE1 and IAE2 fpr tuning parameters for the Integrated Absolute Error “IAE” tuning.)

formulas)
Lambda Tuning Concepts

Lambda tuning is a model-based method related to Internal Model Control and Model Predictive Control.
The math behind it uses pole-zero cancellation to achieve the desired closed loop response. However, to
apply the method you need only simple arithmetic if your process dynamics fit any of the following
models:

First Order
Integrator
Integrator, First Order Lag
Integrator, First Order Lead
Integrator, Non-Minimum Phase
Second Order, Overdamped
Second Order, Underdamped
Second Order, Lead
Second Order, Lead with Overshoot
Second Order, Non-Minimum-Phase

The Lambda tuning rules, sometimes called Internal Model Control (IMC) tuning, offer a robust
alternative to tuning rules aiming for speed, like Ziegler-Nichols, Cohen-Coon, etc. Although the Lambda
and IMC rules are derived differently, both produce the same rules for a PI controller on a self-regulating
process.

239
While the Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-Coon tuning rules aim for quarter-amplitude damping, the Lambda
tuning rules aim for a first-order lag plus dead time response to a set point change. The Lambda tuning
rules offer the following advantages:

1. The process variable will not overshoot its set point after a disturbance or set point change.
2. The Lambda tuning rules are much less sensitive to any errors made when determining the
process dead time through step tests. This problem is common with lag-dominant processes,
because it is easy to under or overestimate the relatively short process dead time. Ziegler-Nichols
and Cohen-Coon tuning rules can give really bad results when the dead time is measured
incorrectly.
3. The tuning is very robust, meaning that the control loop will remain stable even if the process
characteristics change dramatically from the ones used for tuning.
4. A Lambda-tuned control loop absorbs a disturbance better, and passes less of it on to the rest of
the process. This is a very attractive characteristic for using Lambda tuning in highly interactive
processes. Control loops on paper-making machines are commonly tuned using the Lambda
tuning rules to prevent the entire machine from oscillating due to process interactions and
feedback control.
5. The user can specify the desired response time (actually the closed loop time constant) for the
control loop. This provides one tuning factor that can be used to speed up and slow down the
loop response.

Unfortunately, the Lambda tuning rules have a drawback too. They set the controller’s integral time equal
to the process time constant. If a process has a very long time constant, the controller will consequently
have a very long integral time. Long integral times make recovery from disturbances very slow.

It is up to you, the controls engineer, to decide if the benefits of Lambda tuning outweigh the one
drawback. This decision must take into account the purpose of the loop in the process, the control
performance objective, the typical size of process disturbances, and the impact of deviations from the set
point.

Below are the Lambda tuning rules for a PI controller. Although Lambda / IMC tuning rules have also
been derived for PID controllers, there is little point in using derivative control in a Lambda-tuned
controller. Derivative control should be used if a fast loop response is required, and should, therefore, be
used in conjunction with a fast tuning rule (like Cohen-Coon). Lambda tuning is not appropriate for
obtaining a fast loop response. If speed is the objective, use another tuning rule.

To apply the Lambda tuning rules for a self-regulating process, follow the steps below:

1. Do a step-test and determine the process characteristics

a) Place the controller in manual and wait for the process to settle out.

b) Make a step change in the controller output (CO) of a few percent and wait for the process variable
(PV) to settle out. The size of this step should be large enough that the PV moves well clear of the
process noise/disturbance level. A total movement of five times the noise/disturbances on the process
variable should be sufficient.

c) Calculate the process characteristics as follows:

Process Gain (KP)

KP = change in PV [%] / change in CO [%]
Dead Time (Ɵ)

Note: Make this measurement in the same time-units your controller’s integral mode uses. For
example, if your controller’s integral time is in minutes, use minutes for this measurement.

240
 Find the maximum slope of the PV response curve. This will be at the point of inflection. Draw a line
tangential through the PV response curve at this point. Extend this line to intersect with the original
level of the PV before the step in CO. Take note of the time value at this intersection.

Ɵ = time difference between the change in CO and the intersection of the tangential to PV level
change
the time constant tau

Calculate the value of the PV at 63.2% of its total change. On the PV reaction curve, find the time
value at which the PV reaches this level. The time constant tau () equals the time difference
between the intersection at the end of dead time and the PV reaching 63.2% of its total change.

Note: Make this measurement

in the same time-units your
controller’s integral mode uses.
For example, if your
controller’s integral time is in
minutes, use minutes for this
measurement.

d) Repeat steps b) and c) two

more times to obtain good
average values for the process
characteristics. If you get vastly
different numbers every time,
do even more step tests until
you have a few step tests that
produced similar values, then
use the average of those
values.
Step Test for Lambda Tuning

2. Pick a desired closed loop time constant (cl) for the control loop

A large value for  will result in a slow control loop and a small value will result in a faster control
loop. Generally, the value for  should be set between one and three times the value of tau.

Use ( = 3 *  to obtain a very stable control loop. If you set  to be shorter than  the advantages of
Lambda tuning listed above soon disappear.

3. Calculate PID controller settings using the equations below

τ
Controller Gain (Kc) Kc =
K P  λ+ θ 

Integral Time (Ti) Ti = tau ( τ )

Derivative Time (Td) Td = zero

Important Notes!
 The tuning equations above are designed to work on controllers with interactive or non-interactive
algorithms, but not controllers with parallel (independent gains) algorithms.
 The rules calculate controller gain (Kc) and not proportional band (PB). PB = 100/Kc.
 The rules assume the controller’s integral setting is integral time Ti (in minutes or seconds), and
not integral gain Ki (repeats per minute or repeats per second). Ki = 1/Ti.
241
Example Reactor Ratio Timing

When a facility implements a ratio control on the DCS, depicted in the figure below, the assumption is that
the ratio will be maintained consistently. However, there are inherent differences in control valve
characteristics based on valve type (e.g., a globe valve has a wider range of process gam than a butterfly
valve). Depending on where the control valve is operating, the initial response of each valve can be very
different when the set point is changed.

In the control loop below, Ziegler-Nichols

tuning was performed on two ratio-controlled
flow loops. The loop for Component A uses a
2-in. equal-percentage control valve, and the
loop for Component B has a 3-in. linear
control valve. The graphs on the left are the
flow set point changes. The graphs on the
right are the total of ratio components (32%
B) + (68% A) = 100% product. When the
overall process flow changes, the change in
ratio can vary by as much as 10%. This can
result in lower yield of the desired product
and higher yield of undesired side reactions.

If both controllers are tuned with the same lambda value, any change in demand flow will result in both
upstream reagent flows reaching both new set points at the same time. The result is that the ratio of
components remains the same regardless of process demand flow changes!

If Ziegler-Nichols tuning is performed on two ratio-controlled flow loops, when the overall process flow
changes, the change in ratio can vary by as much as 10%.

242
If the flow controllers are tuned with the same lambda value, a disturbance in the process flow will result in
the same change for both flow controllers. That way, both loops will reach their set point value at the
same time.

Summary Lambda Tuning Rules

The tuning constants are calculated from

formula developed by Chien:

Self-regulating process:
τ
KC  Ti   , Td  0
KP   + θ 

Integrating process:
2 + θ
KC  Ti  2 + θ, Td  0
KP   + θ 

IMC Tuning Method

Lambda tuning is an example of internal model control (IMC) tuning. It is developed using a technique
known as direct synthesis. It can be applied to higher order processes and to all types of controllers. The
principle is to synthesize a controller that will respond to a SP change according to a defined trajectory.
However the result may not have the form of the PID algorithm and so approximations have to be made.

The IMC function block can be used in place of a PID function block with the advantage over the PID
control variable when controlling processes with large dead times. For an integrating process type (such
as level control and position control), an internal non-integrating model is used to approximate the
integrating process. The Factor parameter is used to convert the identified integrating-process model to a
non-integrating internal model that is used for the CV (control variable) calculation. This is necessary to
provide for stable IMC execution.

The value of  (lambda) required to give a required MV overshoot (e.g., 15%) varies as the ratio varies.

This is the desired time constant of the process response to a SP change and gives the engineer the
ability to make the controller more or less aggressive.

Table 10 IMC - IMC Tuning Formula (Internal Model Control)

Process Type Self-regulating Integrating

KC TI TD KC TI TD

1 2   1 2  
1   
  
2 2
PID (non-interactive) KP  2   KP 
KP    2 2     2    2 
   


2 
1   1 2  
PID (interactive)  2 
KP    
2
2 KP  2 2
  
 2 
1  1 2  
PID  2  
KP    K P     2


Note: This table of tuning parameters has ( = lag time open loop) in the equation for a lag time of 62.3% of delta
process measurement, (Ѳ = Dead Time) of the process, (λ = closed loop time constant).
243
PID Controller Models

Trial and Error Tuning Method

Most plants find that the engineer or technician will tend to tune a control loop by “feel” or trial and error.
They tune the loop by the Ziegler-Nichols equations and then they will fine tune the controller by nudging
the parameters for the proportional, integral, and derivative.

Dead Time and PID Control

The best way to get better control of a dead time process is to reduce the dead time. A PI controller with
proper tuning gives a fast, stable response and it can be adaptive. There are some other tricks that can
help the response. For example applying a small filter to the process variable can smooth the response.
Also if the process has a small lag, you can use a little derivative very carefully. For a process with a
larger lag, using derivative can usually help response. The optimal tuning of a PI controller for a dead
time only process can be tuned as follows:

Controller gain = 0.3 / (process gain)

Integral time = 0.42 * (process dead time)

PID Tuning Video - Parameters in Action

If the PID tuning parameters video does not run in your PDF viewer, then click the button below to run the
MP4 video from the official web site: http://learncontrolsystems.com/pid_tuning.mp4.

244
Process Characteristics from the transfer function

We will now look at the controller and control loop characteristics. Mathematically we will describe the
response of a control loop and calculate the overshoot and damping of a typical control loop.

If you do not understand what a transfer function is or where it comes from, refer to the section of this
manual Review of Feedback Control Fundamentals. It will explain how a feedback control loop works,
the mathematics and the calculated output will be based on the closed loop and open loop system gain.
We will derive a block diagram of the transfer function.

If you do not understand frequency response and what it means or where the transfer function comes
from, refer to the section of this manual Review of Frequency Response Fundamentals. It will cover
how the transfer function is derived, how the signal is attenuated and phase shifted, and how the system
response is plotted, so you may understand what is happing in the system.

First an electrical RC circuit is introduced and the characteristics are discussed, how a varying frequency
changes the reactance of the circuit. Then a hydraulic circuit is discussed, how a constant capacitance
with a varying valve position changes the
frequency of tank head in time. A varying time
constant of RC also exists. It is a change of the
valve position multiplied by the capacitance of
the system.

To the right is a graph showing a typical

controller response to a set point change. Most
engineers use 0.25 amplitude damping for
control of loops in the process industry.

Let us find out how to solve for the above-

mentioned criteria.

Poles, Zeros, and Dampening from the Transfer Function

When the pole is rising upward, the

output is trying to go to infinity and the
zero is trying to pull the output back
down to zero output.

Example, if you define “impedance of

the circuit” as the transfer function for
the plant, then, Z(s) = N(S) / D(S).

This is just a way of saying; the

function has a numerator and
denominator, both of which depend on
"S", some frequency.

So, clearly, if N(s) goes to zero, the

transfer function Z(s) will go to zero. If
the D(s) goes to zero, the transfer
function Z(s) will go to infinity.

This means the impedance of the

circuit varies at different frequencies and has phase shifts and oscillations and tends to resonate at the
pole frequency. When “s” (the frequency) goes to zero, we have only a pure DC gain and a steady state
output for control.

245
Find the Poles from the Function

Equation given: Find Poles:

n2 b  b 2  4 AC
G(s)= p1 ; p2 
s 2  2n s  n2 2
G(s)=
25 5  25  4  25 
s  5s  25
2 p1 ; p2 
2
Pole1: -2.5+j4.33 5  25  100
p1 ; p2   2.5  j 4.33
2
Pole2: -2.5-j4.33

Find the Damping from the Function

Equation given: Solve for the equation:

n2 s 2  5s  25
G(s)=
s 2  2n s  n2
s 2  2n s  n2 ; n  25
25
G(s)= 2n s  5s
s  5s  25
2

5 5 5
  Damping Ratio Damping: 0.5  ;   0.5
2n 2 25 10

We will now calculate the rise time,

natural frequency, and the settling time.
We will refer to the graph to the right and
the previously used graph for the peak
amplitude designations.

Notice the rise time in the graph on the

right. It rises in a vertical line from 10% to
90% of steady state value. This is the
definition of rise time.

Notice the step response in the graph on

the right. It rises in a vertical line from 0%
to 63.2% of peak value. This is the
definition of step response time.

The time constant will be the step

response time minus the dead time or lag
time.

246
Find the Time Constant

Data given Solve for time constant:

Step response time: 6 seconds   Tsr  Td

Dead time: 1 second
  6 1
  5 seconds

Find the Period

Data given: Solve for period:

2
Step response time: 6 seconds P
Dead time: 1 second 1 2
Time Constant: 5 seconds
Damping: 0.5 6.28  5 
P
1  0.52

P  32.26 seconds

Find the Time Constant from the Period

Data given: Solve for time constant from period:

Period: 36.26 seconds

1  2
Damping: 0.5  P
2

1  0.52
 36.26
6.28
  5 seconds

Find Overshoot and Peak Value

Process variables given: The percent overshoot and peak is:

A% = 50 PSI; ζ (dampening) = 0.5

The first overshoot is:

A%  100e 0.5 10.52

A%  100e1.57 0.75
A%  100e 1 2

A%  100e1.812
The second overshoot is: A%  100  0.163
A%  16.3%
C %  100e3 1 2
50 psi  0.163  8.15 psi overshoot
50 psi  8.15 psi  58.15 psi peak

247
Block Diagram Algebra

Simplification Method

Original Block Diagram Equivalent Block Diagram

248
Example of Block Diagram Algebra Reduction

This may be on the CSE exam. Start at figure (a), the original multivariable diagram, and simplify.

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

Figure (c)

Figure (d)

Figure (e)

249
Nyquist Stability Criterion

This may be on the CSE exam. Most closed-loop systems are open-loop stable and do not have any pole
(open-loop pole) in the right half of the s plane. Closed-loop systems that are stable will not have any root
in the right half plane. The Nyquist diagram of an open-loop stable system does not encircle the (–1, j0)
point.

Note: The curve cannot encompass the stability point (-1, j0) in the polar plot or the system will become
unstable. This can be seen in the last polar plot below. Encompassing the phase margin point (1 <-140°)
or the gain margin point (-0.5, j0), makes the system marginally unstable.

Criterion

250
Routh Stability Criterion

This may be on the CSE exam. It will show a block diagram and give a transfer function for each block.
We are interested only in the poles of the closed loop transfer function of the system. Poles are at the
bottom of the equation. The poles of the closed loop transfer function equation will be used to evaluate
the stability of the system using the Routh Criterion.

K  s  3  s  4
Controller equation: G= Plant equation: P =
s  s  1 s 2
 6 s  13

Ks 2  7 Ks  12 K
We want to find the closed loop transfer function:
s 4  7 s 3  19  K  s 2  13  7 K  s  12 K

251
 A C  K s  3 s  4   Ks  3K  s  4 
open loop  *  
B D  s  s  1
  
s  6s  13 
2
 
s  s s 2  6s  13
2


open loop 
A *C
 2
 Ks  3K  s  4   Ks 2  4Ks  3Ks  12K
B*D  
s  s s 2  6s  13 
s 4  6s 3  13s 2  s 3  6s 2  13s

A *C Ks 2  4Ks  3Ks  12K Ks 2  7Ks  12K

open loop   4 
B * D s  6s 3  13s 2  s 3  6s 2  13s s 4  7s 3  19s 2  13s

  A *C    Ks 2  7Ks  12K 
 B*D   4 
   s  7s 3  19s 2  13s 
closed loop    
  A *C   Ks 2  7Ks  12K 
 1   B * D   1  4 
    s  7s  19s  13s 
3 2

 Ks 2  7Ks  12K   Ks 2  7Ks  12K  4

 4
 3
 2

  4
 3
 2


 s  7s  19s  13s
3 2

closed loop      
s 7s 19s 13s s 7s 19s 13s
 Ks  7Ks  12K    Ks  7Ks  12K   4
2 2
1  4  1   4
 s  7s  19s  13s    s  7s  19s  13s  
3 2 3 2   
s  7s 3  19s 2  13s 

 s 4  7s 3  19s 2  13s 
Ks 2  7Ks  12K  4 
 s  7s  19s  13s 
3 2

closed loop 
 s 4  7s 3  19s 2  13s 
 
s 4  7s 3  19s 2  13s  Ks 2  7Ks  12K  4 
 s  7s  19s  13s 
3 2

Ks 2  7Ks  12K Ks 2  7Ks  12K

closed loop  
s 4

 7s 3  19s 2  13s  Ks 2  7Ks  12K s 4  7s 3  19  K  s 2  13  7K  s  12K

P s   s 4  7s 3  19  K  s 2  13  7K  s  12K

The previous block diagrams and equations show the steps to calculate the closed loop transfer function,
needed for the CSE exam. We only need the poles in the bottom of the closed loop system transfer
function block diagram and equation. These poles will be evaluated for stability of the system in the Routh
Criterion as follows.

252
For given coefficients ai of the characteristic equation the method of Routh, which is an alternative to
the method of Hurwitz, can be applied. Here the coefficients ai  i  0,1,..., n  will be arranged in the first

two rows of the Routh schema, which contains n  1 rows:

n
Row n s ao a2 a4 a6 … … 0
n-1
Row n-1 s a1 a3 a5 a7 … … 0
n-2
Row n-2 s b1 b2 b3 b4 … 0
n-3
Row n-3 s c1 c2 c3 c4 … 0
: : : : :
3
Row 3 s d1 d2 0
2
Row 2 s e1 e2 0
1
Row 1 s f1
0
Row 0 s g1

Now the Routh criterion includes the following:

A polynomial P ( s) is Hurwitzian, if and only if the following three conditions are valid:

a) all coefficients ai  i  0,1,..., n  are positive,

b) all coefficients b1 , c1 ,... in the first column of the Routh schema are positive.
c) all coefficients b1 , c1 ,... in the first column of the Routh schema are not zero.

As in the first row of the Routh schema, if a coefficient is negative, the system is unstable. For proving
instability, it is sufficient to build the Routh schema only until a negative or zero value occurs in the first
column. In the example, the given schema could have been stopped at the fifth row.

Another interesting property of the Routh schema says that the number of roots with positive real parts is
equal to the number of changes of sign of the values in the first column.

253
Check for Stability using Routh (Example)

P(s)  s 4  7s3  (19  K )s 2  (13  7K )s  12K

Note : P(s )  a0  a1  a2  a3  a4 

The Routh schema is:

4
s a0 a2 a4 0
3
s a1 a3 a5 0
2
s b1 b2 b3
1
s c1 c2 0
0
s d1

Building the cross products, you start with the elements of the first row. The calculation of these “b”
values will be continued until all remaining elements become zero. The coefficients b1, b2 ,... in the third
row are the results from cross multiplication the first two rows according to

a1a2  a0a3  7 19  K   113  7K 

b1  
a1 7

b1 
133  7K   13  7K   120
7 7

b2 
a1a4  a0 a5

 7 12K   1 0 
a1 7
b2  12K
a1a6  a0a7  7  0   1 0 
b3   0
a1 7
5
Note: We do not have “s “ so “a5 “ will equal “0”.
We do not have “ a6 “ or “ a7 “ so they will equal “0”.

The calculation of the “c” values are performed accordingly from the two rows above as follows:

 120 
b1a3  a1b2  7 
 13  7K    7 12K 
c1  
b1  120 
 7 
 

 120   
 7  13  7K    7 12K  13  7K  84K 
c1      
 120    120  
 7    7  
   

c1  13  7K  4.9K  13  2.1K

254
  120 
b a  a1b3  7 
 0    7  0 
c2  1 5  0
b1  120 
 7 
 

Note: We do not have “ a5 “ so it will equal “0”.

For our example, the last two rows are:

13  2.1K 12K   

120 
c b  b1c2  0 
d1  1 2   7 
c1 13  2.1K 

d1 
13  2.1K 12K   12K
13  2.1K 
d1  b2  12K

The Routh schema is:

4
s 1 (19 + K) 12K 0
3
s 7 (13 + 7K) 0 0
2
s  120 
 7  12K 0
 
1
s (13 + 2.1K) 0 0
0
s 12K

Substituting a value for the controller equal to “K” will let us evaluate the scheme for stability. It can be
seen that any number greater than “0” will give a positive value.

255
256
 Communications and Industrial Control Networks

Overview of Corporate and Plant Networks

On the CSE exam, there may be a few questions on fieldbus, intelligent devices, and networks. We will
briefly review the highlights of these subjects. For more information on fieldbus, contact your local
distributor or these websites: HART.org, Fieldbus.org, PROFIBUS.org, or AB.com.

Fieldbus is a digital, two-way, multi-drop communication link among intelligent control devices that replace
the 4-20 mA analog standard devices. The key to fieldbus is that the device is digital not analog. There
are numerous protocols on the international market: FOUNDATION Fieldbus, PROFIBUS, As-i, ControlNet,
DeviceNet, Modbus, and HART are the most popular in the process industry.

The most popular types of fieldbus typically use EIA-485 protocol with token passing and 31.25kbps on a
single twisted pair wire that can be run up to 1900 Meters. They can have 32 segments and 1024
intelligent devices per network.

The connected intelligent devices are not calibrated; the data is scaled in software. Intelligent devices may
deliver from 1 up to 12 or more data variables of information from one instrument. The data is delivered in
data packets to the intelligent control device or master. With FOUNDATION Fieldbus, any intelligent device
can be the controller. More than likely, the valve may be selected as the intelligent controller, which will be
responsible for the PID calculation for its control loop.

Intelligent devices need to be configured when first installed. This is done through EDDL (Electronic
Device Description Language) or FDT (Field Device Tools). Most of the intelligent devices are plug and
play (PnP). PROFIBUS devices can even be changed out without reconfiguring the device once it is
initially configured. The configuration data is stored by the master controller and is then automatically
downloaded to the new device upon connection to the network.

257
Networks can be connected by wire or fiber optic cable, or it can be wireless. There are three major
categories of networks: LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), and MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network). The LAN is typically limited to 100 meters (or 330 feet per segment) and 1024 nodes.

Industrial instruments typically communicate through a version of one of three communication network
protocols below.

If a fieldbus network, they use one of the previously mentioned networks.

If a serial network, they use: EIA/RS-232, EIA/RS-485;, or EIA/RS-488.

If an Ethernet network, they use: Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE 802.5, and Fiber Distributed
Data Interface (FDDI). A fiber backbone for the control system, usually uses IEEE 802.1Q. This is a 1
Gigabit Ethernet network.

Three Typical Ethernet networks Ethernet Protocols

If the device communicates through Ethernet protocol, it typically has a MAC (Media Access Control)
address. Like a social security number, this number is unique to every device. For a device on one
network to talk to a device on another network using a different protocol, a Protocol Converter or
Gateway is needed.

258
Open System Interconnect (OSI) and TCP/IP network layer model

7 Layers of Networking in the OSI Model

Network layers enable us to break down functional steps in communication by program protocols. Think
of protocols as the different steps in an assembly line. Computers communicate with each other through
encapsulating or assembling data in packets. The receiving computer then disassembles these
encapsulated packets. Remember the network layer by the following:
Layers from top to bottom (7-1): All People Seem To Need Data Processing
Layers from bottom to top (1-7): Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away (used in Cisco training)

Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream—electrical impulse, light or radio signal—through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS-232, and ATM are
protocols with physical layer components.

Layer 1 examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, and RJ-45.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol
knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sublayers: The medium access control (MAC)
sublayer and the logical link control (LLC) sublayer. The MAC sublayer controls how a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC sublayer controls frame
synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Layer 2 examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, and
Frame Relay.

Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for
transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as
addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

Layer 3 examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, and IPX.

Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for
end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Layer 4 examples include SPX, TCP, and UDP.

259
Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer
sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications
at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBIOS names, RPC, and SQL.

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into
the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a
network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG,
and MIDI.

Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of
service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax
are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for
file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist
entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Layer 7 Application examples include (www) browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, and FTP.

Cisco Network Certification – IIOT (Industrial Internet of Things) for IT and OT

CCNA - Managing Industrial Networks with Cisco Networking Technologies

Subjects cover configuring Switching, Routing, Security, EtherNet/IP, PROFINET, Modbus TCP, PLCs

Cisco Industrial Networking Specialist exam: 200-401 IMINS Step 1

Cisco Certified Network Associate – Industrial exam: 200-601 IMINS2 Step 2

Visit the official Cisco learning website for online pricing, 365 days to complete your studies:
https://learningnetworkstore.cisco.com/industrial-networking

260
The typical network model

When data flows through a network and IP Addresses are changed, this is done in Layer 3 devices as
mentioned previously. Layer 3 devices are Routers, Smart Switches and WEB switches. In the flow of
data through segments of a network, the source and destination MAC address is changed on its way to
the destination device. This is done in bridging devices, Layer 2 switches.

If we want to travel to another network or through the internet, we must change the IP address. This is
done on the layer 3 device, typically a router. When a change in the IP address happens in the layer 3
smart or web switch or router, this is called a HOP. The number of times the IP address change though its
route to the destination device is called the HOP count.

Below will show how the IP address is changed through the network from computer A to computer B.

261
The following process describes how the IP address is changed as shown above:

NAT (Network Address Translation)

DA (Destination IP Address)
SA (Source IP Address)

1. The user at host 10.1.1.1 opens a connection to host B.

2. The first packet that the router receives from host 10.1.1.1 causes the router to check its NAT table:
– If a static translation entry was configured, the router goes to Step 3.

– If no translation entry exists, the router determines that Source-Address (SA) 10.1.1.1 must be
translated dynamically, selects a legal, global address from the dynamic address pool, and
creates a translation entry. This type of entry is called a simple entry.

3. The router replaces the inside local source address of host 10.1.1.1 with the global address of the
translation (203.0.13.2) entry and forwards the packet.

4. Host B receives the packet and responds to host 10.1.1.1 by using the inside global IP Destination-
Address (DA) 203.0.13.2.

5. When the router receives the packet with the inside global IP address (203.0.13.2), it performs a NAT
table lookup by using the inside global address as a key. It then translates the address to the inside
local address of host 10.1.1.1 and forwards the packet to host 10.1.1.1.

Above shows how data is transferred between applications, through direct connections and
Ethernet/Internet communications. The closer we come to the physical layer (Layer 1), the more data that
must be added to the information packet for understanding how to communicate the data to the
destination device or application.

262
The Network Essentials

263
Overview of Industrial Networks

We will now briefly discuss some of the more popular industrial networks used in plants today.

The most popular industrial networks and their applications are below

264
HART Networks

Traditional HART Network

The HART Communications Protocol (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol) is an early
implementation of fieldbus, a digital industrial automation protocol, although it is typically not used as a
fieldbus system. It’s most notable advantage is that it can communicate over legacy 4-20 mA analog
instrumentation wiring, sharing the pair of wires used by the older system.

The HART communication protocol is based on the Bell 202 telephone communication standard and
operates using the frequency shift keying (FSK) principle. The digital signal is made up of two frequencies;
1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing bits 1 and 0 respectively. Sine waves of these two frequencies are
superimposed on the direct current (DC) analog signal cables to provide simultaneous analog and digital
communications. See the figure below.

Because the average value of the FSK signal is always zero, the 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected.
The digital communication signal has a response time of approximately two to three data updates per
second without interrupting the analog signal. A recommended minimum loop impedance of 250 ohms is
required for communication.

HART digital signal for information and calibration superimposed on the 4-20 mA current
process signal

In multidrop mode (digital only) as shown below, the digital signal is used. The analog loop current is fixed
at 4 mA. In multidrop mode it is possible to have more than one instrument on one signal cable. HART
revisions 3 through 5 allowed polling addresses of the instruments to be in the range 1-15. HART 6 and
later allowed addresses up to 63. Each instrument needs to have a unique address. Note the device
address will be 0 for nonmultidrop and 1 or greater for multidrop.

265
A Wired HART Network

A Wireless HART Network

Wireless HART network protocol. Devices are addressable through multiple network gateways to ensure
the data has an unobstructed path back to the controller. The transmitter may be powered by a power
supply, battery or solar panel. The battery typically has to be replaced every 3.3 years if the transmitter
sends an update every (1) second and replaced every 10 years if it sends an update every 60 seconds.
Check with the manufacturer.

The ISA standard symbols for electromagnetic waves are shown below. The sine wave would be used for
radar and sonic signals as used in instrumentation. The lightning bolt would be used to show
communications of wireless network devices and gateways.

266
PROFIBUS and AS-i Networks

PROFIBUS (Process Fieldbus) is a standard for fieldbus communication in automation technology, not be
confused with the PROFINET standard for Industrial Ethernet. PROFIBUS is openly published as part of
IEC 61158. In excess of 30 million PROFIBUS nodes have been installed as of 2009, 5 million of these
are in the process industries. PROFIBUS uses Manchester encoding, allowing for its use in safety
applications.

Reasons for Choosing PROFIBUS

 Preferred fieldbus for most end users and used in the largest number of applications worldwide
 Openness and interoperability, allowing changes/updates at low cost
 Protocol optimized for factory and process control using standardized interfaces
Less hardware needed, less costs and space leading to lowered installation and lifecycle costs
 Easy integration of functional safety and motion control for factory and process automation
 Flexible media redundancy to ensure maximized up-time
 Huge vendor and product choice

PROFIBUS DP
PROFIBUS DP (Decentralized Peripherals) is used to operate sensors and actuators via a centralized
controller in production (factory) automation applications. The many standard diagnostic options, in
particular, are focused on here. PROFIBUS DP uses two-core screened cable with a violet sheath, and
runs at speeds between 9.6 kbit/s and 12 Mbit/s. A particular speed can be chosen for a network to give
enough time for communication with all the devices present in the network. The RS-485 balanced
transmission used in PROFIBUS DP only allows 126 devices to be connected at once; however, more
devices can be connected or the network expanded with the use of hubs or repeaters.

Application layer
To utilize these functions, various service levels of the DP protocol were defined:
 DP-V0 for cyclic exchange of data and diagnosis
 DP-V1 for acyclic data exchange and alarm handling
 DP-V2 for isochronous mode and data exchange broadcast (slave-to-slave communication)

Security layer
The security layer FDL (Fieldbus Data Link) works with a hybrid access method that combines token
passing with a master/slave method.

Bit-transmission layer
Three different methods are specified for the bit-transmission layer:

 With electrical transmission pursuant to EIA-485, twisted pair cables with impedances of 150 ohms
are used in a bus topology. Bit rates from 9.6 kbit/s to 12 Mbit/s can be used. The cable length
between two repeaters is limited from 100 to 1200 m, depending on the bit rate used. This
transmission method is primarily used with PROFIBUS DP.

 With optical transmission via fiber optics, star-, bus- and ring-topologies are used. The distance
between the repeaters can be up to 15 km. The ring topology can also be executed redundantly.

 With MBP (Manchester Bus Powered) transmission technology, data and fieldbus power are fed
through the same cable. The power can be reduced in such a way that use in explosion-
hazardous environments is possible. The bus topology can be up to 1900 m long and permits
branching to field devices (max. 60 m branches). The bit rate here is a fixed 31.25 kbit/s. This
technology was specially established for use in process automation for PROFIBUS PA.

267
PROFIBUS PA
PROFIBUS PA (Process Automation) is used to monitor measuring equipment via a process control
system in process automation applications. This variant is designed for use in explosion/hazardous areas
(Ex-zone 0 and 1). The physical layer (i.e., the cable) conforms to IEC 61158-2, which allows power to be
delivered over the bus to field instruments, while limiting current flows so that explosive conditions are not
created, even if a malfunction occurs.

The number of devices attached to a PA segment is limited by this feature. PA has a data transmission
rate of 31.25 kbit/s. However, PA uses the same protocol as DP, and can be linked to a DP network using
a coupler device. The much faster DP acts as a backbone network for transmitting process signals to the
controller. This means that DP and PA can work tightly together, especially in hybrid applications where
process and factory automation networks operate side by side.

PROFINET
PROFINET is a standard for Industrial Ethernet based on PROFIBUS. This model was largely inspired by
the IEC 61499 standard.

Technology
Three protocol levels are defined:
 TCP/IP for PROFINET CBA and the commissioning of a plan with reaction times in the range of
100 ms
 RT (real-time) protocol for PROFINET CBA and PROFINET IO applications up to 10 ms cycle times
 IRT (Isochronous Real-Time) for PROFINET IO applications in drive systems with cycles times of
less than 1 ms

AS-i
AS-Interface (AS-i), the Actuator Sensor Interface, is a lower level fieldbus system. Its primary application is
for on/off sensor and actuators. It is used extensively in manufacturing and machine safety applications, by
using asynchronous data transfer on two steams at the same time. Each sensor and actuator has a
network address and is powered by the two-wire network cable with a typical 30.5 VDC power supply. It can
control up to 62 slaves per master at data rates of 167 kbit/s and up to lengths of 300 meters. AS-i uses 4-
bit digital input and 3-bit digital output data, up to 248-bit digital input and 186-bit digital output data and
124-bit digital data for analog values. AS-i has a maximum bus cycle time of 10 ms.

268
PROFIBUS Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS)
FMS is the most universal SIEMENS STEP 7 PLC communications protocol. FMS uses Layer 7 to
establish the Lower Layer Interface (LLI). LLI establishes various communication relationships and
provides FMS with device-independent access to Layer 2.

PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS can be tailored to specific needs using application profiles. There are many profiles that
combine standards for transmission media, communication protocol (FMS, DP-V0, etc.), and unique
protocols. Each application profile is tailored to a specific use, and new profiles appear regularly. Some
application profiles are widespread. Three examples are PROFIsafe, PROFISync and PROFIdrive.

PROFIsafe
PROFIsafe uses additional software to create a high-integrity network. This network is useful in situations
where high safety is a requirement. For suppliers and manufacturers to be certified in PROFIsafe, they
must maintain high standards in quality.

PROFIdrive
PROFIdrive was created for motion control applications. Software added to the PROFIBUS DP
specification allows the network to achieve precise control of servo motors and other equipment. Thus
PROFIdrive can achieve synchronization across the network.

Use of the OSI Networking Layers

The physical layer corresponds to OSI Layer 1, which receives encoded messages from the upper layers
and converts the messages to physical signals on the fieldbus transmission medium and vice-versa.

Layers 3, 4, and 5 are not developed. Layer 7 is not used for the PROFIBUS DP protocol. This lean
architecture ensures high-speed data transmission. The Direct Data Link Mapper (DDLM) provides
direct access to the functions of Layer 2 for the PROFIBUS DP user interface.

PROFIBUS/AS-i/PROFINET Certifications:
Certified Network Engineer Organization:
Certified PROFIBUS Engineer http://www.profibus.com/
Certified PROFINET Engineer List of certified professionals:
Certified AS-i Engineer http://www.profibus.com/pi-organization/certified-people/

269
FOUNDATION Fieldbus

FOUNDATION Fieldbus was originally intended as a replacement for the 4-20 mA standard, and today it
coexists alongside other technologies, such as Modbus, PROFIBUS, and Industrial Ethernet.
FOUNDATION Fieldbus is used in many heavy process applications, such as refining, petrochemicals,
power generation, and even food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and nuclear applications.

FOUNDATION FIELDBUS was developed over a period of many years by the International Society of
Automation (ISA), as ANSI/ISA-50. In 1996 the first H1 (31.25 kbit/s) specifications were released. In 1999
the first HSE (high speed Ethernet) specifications were released. The International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) standard on fieldbus, including FOUNDATION Fieldbus, is IEC 61158. Type 1 is
FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1, while Type 5 is FOUNDATION Fieldbus HSE.

Reasons for Choosing FOUNDATION Fieldbus

 Reduce number of wires and marshalling cabinets
 Reduce number of intrinsic safety barriers
 Reduce number of input/output convertors
 Remote configuration of devices
 Increased sophistication and flexibility of instruments
 Increased up time due to less equipment, better self-diagnostic and remote diagnostics
 H1 technology is included in the international IEC standard (IEC 61158).

H2 or HSE (High Speed Ethernet)

High speed Ethernet (HSE), also known as H2 protocol, is ideally suited for use as a control backbone.
Running at 100 Mbit/s, the technology is designed for device, subsystem and enterprise integration. It
supports the entire range of fieldbus capabilities, including standard function blocks and Device
Descriptions (DDs), as well as application-specific flexible function blocks (FFBs) for advanced process
and discrete/hybrid/batch applications.

HSE supports complex logic functions, such as those performed by programmable logic controllers
(PLCs), or data-intensive process devices, such as analyzers and gateways to other networks. HSE
enhances access to H1 fieldbus technology via linking devices, while providing expanded capabilities for
high-speed automation devices and hybrid/batch applications .

FOUNDATION H1
FOUNDATION H1 is intended primarily for process control, field-level interface and device integration.
Running at 31.25 kbit/s, the technology interconnects devices, such as transmitters and actuators on a
field network. H1 is designed to operate on existing twisted pair instrument cabling with power and signal
on the same wire. Fiber optic media is optional. It also supports intrinsic safety (IS) applications.

FOUNDATION H1 devices comprise a function block application, act as a publisher and subscriber of
process variables, transmit alarms and trends, and provide server functionality for host access and
management functions.

Devices can act as schedulers and timing masters for regulating communication on a fieldbus segment.
They are also used for bus interfaces in process control systems or in linking devices. Capable of
controlling bus communications and many connections to multiple devices, they support both client and
server applications. Communications are scheduled via the LAS (Link Active Scheduler). The LAS bridges
between the HSE and H1 networks.

270
Typical FOUNDATION Segments
 H1 card – Fieldbus interface card (It is common practice to have redundant H1 cards,
but ultimately this is application specific.)
 PS – Bulk power (VDC) to fieldbus power supply
 FPS – Fieldbus power supply and signal conditioner (Integrated power supplies and conditioners
have become the standard nowadays.)
 T – Terminators (Exactly two terminators are used per fieldbus segment. One at the FPS and one
at the furthest point of a segment at the device coupler.)
 LD – Linking Device, alternatively used with HSE networks to terminate 4-8 H1 segments acting
as a gateway to an HSE backbone network.
 Fieldbus devices – Transmitters, transducers, valves, etc.

Like PROFIBUS, FOUNDATION uses modular wiring connections for quick installation and
maintenance of devices. There is no need to unwire anything. Each device should have at least 9
volts DC, and it is assumed that most devices have at least 12 volts DC. The fieldbus power supply is
normally a redundant, 24-volt bulk unit that provides power for multiple fieldbus segments.

The standard color code for wiring includes the following:

• Orange PVC jacket - general-purpose or Class 1, Division 2 applications
• Blue PVC jacket - intrinsically safe applications
• 18 AWG wires - orange for positive and blue for negative

Use of the OSI Networking Layers

The physical layer corresponds to OSI Layer 1, which receives encoded messages from the upper
layers and converts the messages to physical signals on the fieldbus transmission medium and vice-
versa.

The communication "stack" corresponds to Layers 2 and 7 in the OSI model. Layer 7, the application layer
(AL), encodes and decodes user layer commands. Layer 2, the data link layer (DLL), controls transmission
of messages onto the fieldbus through Layer 1. The DLL also manages access to the fieldbus through a
deterministic, centralized bus scheduler called the Link Active Scheduler (LAS). The LAS is used for
scheduling transmissions of deterministic messages and authorizing the exchange of data between
devices. The fieldbus does not use the OSI Layers 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Certifications: Training and Certification Center:

Foundation Certified Professional Fieldbus Center at Lee College
Foundation Certified Support Specialist Baytown, Texas 77520-4703
Foundation Certified Technical Specialist Phone: 832.556.4446
http://www.fieldbus.org fbcenter@lee.edu

271
Rockwell and ODVA (CIP) Networks

Rockwell Automation supports and prefers use of the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) networks. CIP is
an industrial protocol for industrial automation applications. It is supported by ODVA. ODVA is the
organization that supports network technologies built on the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP). These
also currently include application extensions to CIP: CIP Safety, CIP Motion, and CIP Sync.

Previously known as Control and Information Protocol, CIP encompasses a comprehensive suite of
messages and services for the collection of manufacturing automation applications: control, safety,
synchronization, motion, configuration, and information. It allows users to integrate these manufacturing
applications with enterprise-level Ethernet networks and the Internet. It is supported by hundreds of
vendors around the world and is media-independent. CIP provides a unified communication architecture
throughout the manufacturing enterprise. It is used in EtherNet/IP, DeviceNet, CompoNet, and ControlNet.

ControlNet

ControlNet is an open industrial network protocol for industrial automation applications, also known as a
fieldbus. ControlNet was earlier supported by ControlNet International, but in 2008 support and
management of ControlNet was transferred to ODVA, which now manages all protocols in the Common
Industrial Protocol family.

Features which set ControlNet apart from other fieldbuses include the built-in support for fully redundant
cables and the fact that communication on ControlNet can be strictly scheduled and highly deterministic.

Reasons for Choosing ControlNet

 Highly deterministic and repeatable

 Remains unaffected as devices are connected or disconnected from it
 Dependable, synchronized, and coordinated real-time performance
 Can be installed as a redundant system for mission critical applications
 Can be used as a default network for the ControlLogix and Honeywell PLC/DCS platforms
 Can be used as a backbone to multiple distributed DeviceNet networks
 Can be used in explosion proof/ hazardous locations with intrinsically safe Flex I/O modules

ControlNet Physical Layer

ControlNet cables consist of RG-6 coaxial cable with BNC connectors, though optical fiber is sometimes
used for long distances. The network topology is a bus structure with short taps. ControlNet also supports
a star topology if used with the appropriate hardware. ControlNet can operate with a single RG-6 coaxial
cable bus, or a dual RG-6 coaxial cable bus for cable redundancy.

In all cases, the RG-6 should be of quad-shield variety. The maximum cable length without repeaters is
1000 m and the maximum number of nodes on the bus is 99. However, there is a tradeoff between
number of devices on the bus and total cable length. Repeaters can be used to further extend the cable
length. The network can support up to 5 repeaters (10 when used for redundant networks). The repeaters
do not utilize network node numbers and are available in copper or fiber optic choices. The physical layer
signaling uses Manchester code at 5 Mbit/s.

272
ControlNet Data Link Layer

ControlNet is a scheduled communication network designed for cyclic data exchange. The protocol
operates in cycles, known as NUIs, where NUI stands for Network Update Interval. Each NUI has three
phases, the first phase is dedicated to scheduled traffic, where all nodes with scheduled data are
guaranteed a transmission opportunity. The second phase is dedicated to unscheduled traffic. There is no
guarantee that every node will get an opportunity to transmit in every unscheduled phase. The third phase
is network maintenance or "guardband." It includes synchronization and a means of determining the
starting node on the next unscheduled data transfer. Both the scheduled and unscheduled phases use an
implicit token ring media access method. The amount of time each NUI consists of is known as the NUT,
where NUT stands for Network Update Time. It is configurable from 2 to 100 ms. The default NUT on an
unscheduled network is 5 ms. The maximum size of a scheduled or unscheduled ControlNet data frame is
510 bytes.

DeviceNet

DeviceNet was originally developed by American company Allen-Bradley (now owned by Rockwell
Automation). It is an application layer protocol on top of the CAN (Controller Area Network) technology,
developed by Bosch. DeviceNet adapts the technology from the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) and
takes advantage of CAN, making it low-cost and robust compared to the traditional RS-485-based
protocols. ODVA later decided to bring DeviceNet back to its predecessor's umbrella and collectively call
the technology Common Industrial Protocol or (CIP).

DeviceNet Physical Layer

Nodes are distributed along a DeviceNet network by the means of a trunkline-dropline topology. This
topology allows for ease in wiring and access to the network from multiple taps. In addition, nodes can be
easily removed and added to reduce production downtime, increase network flexibility, and decrease
troubleshooting time. Since the physical layer is optically isolated from the device, communication power
and device power can share the same bus (further reducing the complexity of the network and
components within). DeviceNet supports 125 kbit/s, 250 kbit/s and 500 kbit/s data rates. Depending on
the chosen cable type, DeviceNet can support communication up to 500 meters (using round, large
diameter cable). Typical round cable supports up to 100 meters, while flat-style cable supports up to 380
meters at 125 kbit/s and 75 meters at 500 kbit/s.

DeviceNet Data Link Layer

DeviceNet uses a differential serial bus (Controller Area Network) as its data link layer. Using CAN as a
backbone, DeviceNet requires minimal bandwidth to transmit and package messages. In addition, a
smaller processor may be selected in the design of the device thanks to the data frame format and the
ease at which the processor can parse the data.

Reasons for Choosing DeviceNet

 The signal and 24 VDC power are on the same cable (standard cables are 4 amp and 8 amp).
 Powered support for network function (generally used in small devices, such as photo detectors, limit
switches, proximity switches, etc.).
 It is readily used for I/O modules and I/O racks (including analog applications).
 It allows three bit rates: 125 kbit/s, 250 kbit/s, and 500 kbit/s, the main trunk under different
bit rates (trunk) is inversely proportional to the length and bitrate.
 You can use flat cable network.
 A single network can have up to 64 nodes, node address (MAC ID in DeviceNet called in) by 0-63
 There is a duplicate node address detection function.
 It has support for master/slave and end-to-end (peer-to-peer) communication architecture.
 The master on the network can oversee multiple masters of subnets as well as slaves.
 You can plug in and unplug powered devices without affecting the operation of the network.

273
EtherNet/IP

EtherNet/IP is an industrial Ethernet network that combines standard Ethernet technologies with the
media-independent Common Industrial Protocol or "CIP." EtherNet/IP is one of the leading industrial
Ethernet networks in the world and is widely used in a range of industries including factory, hybrid and
process. The EtherNet/IP and CIP technologies are managed by ODVA, Inc., a global trade and
standards development organization founded in 1995 whose over 300 corporate members are the world
leading automation device suppliers.

EtherNet/IP uses both of the most widely deployed collections of Ethernet standards—the Internet
Protocol suite and IEEE 802 project—to define the features and functions for its transport, network, data
link, and physical layers. CIP uses its object-oriented design to provide EtherNet/IP with the services and
device profiles needed for real-time control applications and to promote consistent implementation of
automation functions across a diverse ecosystem of products. In addition, EtherNet/IP adapts key
elements of Ethernet’s standard capabilities and services to the CIP object model framework, such as the
User Datagram Protocol which EtherNet/IP uses to transport I/O messages.

Reasons for Choosing EtherNet/IP

 Transfer of basic I/O data via User Datagram Protocol (UDP)-based implicit messaging
 Uploading and downloading of parameters, set points, programs, and recipes via TCP (i.e.,
explicit messaging)
 Polled, cyclic, and change-of-state monitoring via UDP
 One-to-one (unicast), one-to-many (multicast), and one-to-all (broadcast) communication via IP
 EtherNet/IP makes use of well-known TCP port number 44818 for explicit messaging and UDP
port number 2222 for implicit messaging

CompoNet

CompoNet provides users with a bit-level network to control small, high-speed machines and the CIP
Network services to connect to the plant and the enterprise. CompoNet fulfills all the requirements of
applications using large numbers of simple sensors and actuators by providing high-speed
communications with configuration tools and combining this with efficient construction, simple set-p and
high availability all on a single network.

CompoNet uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) in its network layer. This approach combines with
a physical layer designed to minimize transmission delays and automatically compensate for potential
collisions within the CompoNet hierarchy to provide a deterministic network with the ability to update large
numbers of nodes at state-of the-art update rates. In addition, CompoNet includes an option for power (24
VDC, 5A) and signal in the same cable with the ability to remove and replace nodes under power.

DH485, DH+, RIO

DH485 (Data Highway) and DH+ (Data Highway Plus) are industrial bus protocols developed by Rockwell
Automation/Allen Bradley. DH and DH+ allow 64 nodes and the communications protocol used to
interconnect the Network link and a PC, called DF1. DH uses a trunk cable that runs up to 10,000 ft., and
drop cables to each node that extend to 100 ft. This system uses peer-to-peer communication in which
each node bids on being the floating master.

DH+ is appropriate for smaller networks. It uses peer-to-peer communication implementing token passing.
Nominal voltages on the bus are 8 to 12 volts peer-to-peer; and the bus is +/- 200 mV sensitive over the
two differential lines. Each node on the bus is a transformer coupled onto the bus. The bus should be
terminated to 150 ohms at each end of the bus. All messages on the bus are either a command or a reply.
Also developed by Rockwell Automation/Allen Bradley is the Data Highway 485 (DH-485) protocol, a local
area network design for factory-floor applications. DH-485 allows for the connection of up to 32 devices,

274
including controllers, color graphics systems, and PCs.

RIO (Remote I/O) is hardly seen today or has been replaced.

Modbus Networks

Traditional Modbus Networks

Modbus is a serial communications protocol originally published by Modicon (now Schneider Electric) in
1979 for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). Simple and robust, it has since become a de
facto standard communication protocol, and it is now a commonly available means of connecting
industrial electronic devices. Modbus is used extensively in VFD (variable frequency drives) and motion
control applications for interactive coordination of drives or master/slave communications.

The main reasons for the use of Modbus in the industrial environment are:
 Developed with industrial applications in mind
 Openly published and royalty-free
 Easy to deploy and maintain
 Moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on vendors

Modbus enables communication among many (approximately 240) devices connected to the same
network, for example a system that measures temperature and humidity and communicates the results to
a computer. Modbus is often used to connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Many of the data types are named from its
use in driving relays: a single-bit physical output is called a coil, and a single-bit physical input is called a
discrete input or a contact.

Communication and Devices

Each device intended to communicate using Modbus is given a unique address. In serial and MB+
networks, only the node assigned as the master may initiate a command. On Ethernet, any device can
send out a Modbus command, although usually only one master device does so. A Modbus command
contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for. Only the intended device will act on the
command, even though other devices might receive it. The basic Modbus commands can instruct an RTU
to change the value in one of its registers, control or read an I/O port, and command the device to send
back one or more values contained in its registers.

Protocols

Modbus Plus

Despite the name, Modbus Plus is not a variant of Modbus. It is a different protocol, involving token
passing.

Modbus TCP/IP

Modbus TCP/IP has become ubiquitous because of its openness, simplicity, low-cost development, and
the minimum hardware required to support it. There are several hundred Modbus TCP/IP devices
available in the market with more being developed each year. It is used to exchange information between
devices, monitor, and program them. It is also used to manage distributed I/Os, being the preferred
protocol by the manufacturers of this type of devices.

Enron Modbus

Enron Modbus is a modification to the standard Modicon Modbus communication protocol. It was
developed by Enron Corporation. The numbering of the register addresses are different and it supports 32
bit registers as well as 16 bit, and it has the ability to transmit event logs and historical data.

275
EtherCAT

EtherCAT (Ethernet for Control Automation Technology) is an Ethernet-based fieldbus system, invented
by Beckhoff Automation. The protocol is standardized in IEC 61158 and is suitable for both hard and soft
real-time requirements in automation technology. The goal during the development of EtherCAT was to
apply Ethernet for automation applications requiring short data update times (also called cycle times; ≤
100 µs) with low communication jitter (for precise synchronization purposes; ≤ 1 µs), and to reduce
hardware costs.

With EtherCAT, the Standard Ethernet packet or frame (according to IEEE 802.3) is no longer received,
interpreted, and copied as process data at every node. The EtherCAT slave devices read the data
addressed to them while the telegram passes through the device, processing data "on the fly." Similarly,
input data are inserted while the telegram passes through. A frame is not completely received before
being processed; instead processing starts as soon as possible. Sending also is conducted with a
minimum delay of small bit times. Typically the entire network can be addressed with just one frame.

SERCOS

The SERCOS (Serial Real-time Communication System) interface is a globally standardized, open digital
interface for communication between industrial controls, motion devices (drives), and input output devices
(I/O). It is classified as standard IEC 61491 and EN 61491. The SERCOS interface is designed to provide
hard real-time, high-performance communications between industrial motion controls and digital servo
drives.

Tight coordination is desirable especially in motion controls, where directing the movement of individual
axis of motion must be precisely coordinated so that the motion of the entire system follows a desired
path. Types of equipment requiring such coordination are; for example, metal cutting machine tools, metal
forming equipment, assembly machinery, packaging machinery, robotics, printing machinery, and material
handling equipment. Typically SERCOS is used for these applications.

A Rockwell Automation Solution for Process Plant Control

276
Summary - Automation and Process Control Networks

Plant Facility Monitoring and Control System (FMCS)

277
BACnet

BACnet (Building Automation Control network) is a communications protocol for building automation and
control networks. It is an ASHRAE, ANSI, and ISO standard protocol. BACnet was designed to allow
communication of building automation and control systems for applications, such as heating, ventilating,
and air-conditioning control, lighting control, access control, and fire detection systems and their
associated equipment. The BACnet protocol provides mechanisms for computerized building automation
devices to exchange information, regardless of the particular building service they perform. Proper
communication between building automation devices is critical for maximizing building energy efficiency,
indoor air quality, and other aspects of "green" buildings.

LonWorks

LonWorks (Local Operating Network) is a networking platform specifically created to address the needs of
control applications. The platform is built on a protocol created by Echelon Corporation for networking
devices over media, such as twisted pair, power lines, fiber optics, and RF.

By 2010 approximately 90 million devices were installed with LonWorks technology, include such diverse
functions as embedded machine control, municipal and highway/tunnel/street lighting, heating and air
conditioning systems, intelligent electricity metering, subway train control, building lighting, stadium
lighting and speaker control, security systems, fire detection and suppression, and alarming.

Typical Building Automation Network

278
Networked intelligent and smart devices

Intelligent and smart devices (instruments) are typically attached to a network and/or are addressable by
digital communications, such as a computer, PLC, DCS, or a communicator.

Smart devices are calibrated by way of digital communications with words and bytes of digital data,
used by the device’s microprocessor. Bits are set to configure the variables in the device. The
microprocessor is connected to the outside world by an ADC (Analog to Digital Convertor) and a
DAC (Digital to Analog Convertor). The microprocessor can scale the input and outputs by
manipulating bits in the words sent on the data lines. The smart device can perform calculations and
perform nonlinear algorithms.

Although some may disagree, an intelligent device is not a smart device. Smart devices, such as
level transmitters, are capable of being programmed or calibrated with a communicator or software
over the network. A device which is neither smart nor intelligent must be calibrated and commissioned
by hand (set the zero and span).

An intelligent device is not calibrated in the field or shop. It is calibrated at the factory and left alone. The
user chooses what part of the device range to use for the output scale. Standard devices and smart
devices typically deliver only one variable, for example: temperature, pressure, mass flow rate. But an
intelligent device can deliver temperature, pressure, delta pressure, mass flow rate, and viscosity, etc., all
in one data stream (digital signal). Intelligent devices can perform diagnostics and compensate for errors
and produce report and warning of failure or predicted failure.

The information is sent in framed data packets to the PLC, DCS, or host computer, which then extracts
the multiple data variables for use from the data packets. The information is typically delivered in one byte
per data variable. The data packet itself may be 8- to 40-plus bytes long. A frame can be from 64 to 1,518
bytes long in total.

PID control in intelligent networked devices

PROFIBUS and FOUNDATION Fieldbus devices are intelligent devices. FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an example
of how the intelligent device has moved the PID controller algorithm into the instrument, to control the
process loops in the field in place of the DCS or PLC. Now most of the new HART devices are intelligent,
offering diagnostics and multiple variables from the same measurement device.

For instance you would like a transmitter to be at a span 10 to 100 inches H2O. You can just enter that
amount and then the transmitter can send that information as a scaled psi, percent of maximum range, or
as some other measurement scale all at the same time from the same sensor. You may have a mass flow
meter. Just set the scale of max flow in the processor of the meter to be 50 gpm max or 10 gpm max. All
of the other variables will follow: volume, density, viscosity, and temperature.

279
PROFIBUS Control Blocks

The Rosemount 333 Tri-Loop to split multiple variable signals

If 4-20 mA analog technology

is being used for input, some
instruments will now support
multiple output channels of 4-
20 mA analog signals to send
the multiple variables from the
transmitter registers to the
DCS or PLC. Rosemount
makes a device called a Tri-
Loop. The analog 4-20 mA
signal will series through the
Tri-Loop with a digital HART
signal riding on it. The digital
signal will be programmed to
send three process variables
that are assigned to the three
independent variables on a
BURST signal to the Tri-Loop.
These three independent
variables will then be split into
three separate analog signals,
to be sent to the DCS or PLC, for a total of (4) four independent input process variables from the
transmitter.

With management software or a HART communicator to configure the Rosemount 333 Tri-Loop, it can
transmit advanced diagnostics in three separate 4-20 mA signals with such variables, such as a faulting
DC power loop, plugged impulse line, or air entrainment and cavitation, using the Rosemount 3051S
transmitters.

280
 The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems

Overview of Digital Logic

Discrete control plays a vital role in the process control industry. Discrete control is used for material
handling, system lockouts and safety controls, indicators, alarms and switching applications. Discrete
control usually takes the form of RLL (Relay Ladder Logic) or digital logic combined with some type of
mechanical apparatus. The PLC (programmable logic controller) is the workhorse of the industry today and
is covered on the CSE exam with ISA binary logic and Relay Ladder Logic.

Digital Logic Gate Symbols

Familiarize yourself with the following binary logic table and its functions. The ISA binary logic is the same
in function as digital logic, although the symbols are slightly different. Familiarize yourself with the ISA-
5.2-1976 (R1992) Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operations standard for the exam.

Familiarize yourself with the previous binary logic table and its functions. The ISA logic is used in the
examination. Look at some examples of its use in ISA’s Control Systems Engineer Study Guide and
ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992) Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operations.

281
Digital Logic Gate Truth Tables

282
ISA Binary Logic

The CSE exam may have a diagram similar to below. Questions will be asked as to the state or outcome
of the logic, if certain states occur in the process. Familiarize yourself with this type of logic and control
diagram.

Tank Filling Interlock Logic Diagram

283
Relay Ladder Logic

The CSE exam may have a diagram similar to below. Questions will be asked as to the state or outcome
of the logic, if certain states occur in the process. Familiarize yourself with this type of logic and control
diagram.

284
Standard RLL Symbols

The basic RLL symbols listed below are (1) NO or examine on; (2) NC or examine off; (3) NO button,
function, such as energize; (4) NC button function, such as de-energize; (5) Coil, such as on a relay,
solenoid, or motor starter; (6) OL, over current protection; and (7) timing contact shown in standard contact
form.

Sealing Circuits

Two types of sealing circuits can be seen below. The first is an OR gate. Once a signal is applied to the
gate’s “A” input, the gate seals and stays on until the system power is removed. This would be like a relay
being energized and the contact held closed until the relay’s power is removed.

The second is like the sealing circuit on a motor control starter. The gate’s input “A” is the stop button and
the gate’s input “B” is the start button. Once input “B” is set to “1” or pushed on, the output “C” stays on
until input “A,” the stop button, is pressed open and set to “0” or off.

Equivalent Sealing Circuit Equivalent Stop/Start Sealing Circuit

285
Control System Architectures

DCS (distributive control system) – Large scale plant wide control

DDC (direct digital control) – Single board processer or single controller control
PLC (programmable logic controller) – Small scale plant and process skid control
RTU (remote terminal unit) – Controller that receives a set point from a supervisory system SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) – Control of remote distance locations or plants

DCS Plant Wide Control System Architecture - Networked

Process Automation Controllers undergoing a Factory Authorization Test (FAT) for the customer

This is what a typical DCS looks

like if we were to build the DCS
with PACs (process automation
controllers). The ControlLogix is a
PLC and the ProcessLogix is a
PAC. They are manufactured by
Rockwell Automation.

ControlLogix looks the same as

the Honeywell PlantScape, also a
PAC. The controller and hardware
are manufactured by Rockwell
Automation for both companies
and Honeywell provides the PAC
software for both companies, but
Rockwell Automation provides the
programming software for the
ControlLogix PLC. Today many
consider the ControlLogix to be a PAC with the advances in software.

The ProcessLogix and PlantScape (PAC) processors use what is called vector programming. This type of
programming allows for time sliced control of each individual input and output. The ControlLogix PLC uses
Scan Cycle type programming for its program execution. First, all the inputs are read and then all the
outputs are written. There are exceptions for the immediate interrupt of a few inputs and outputs in a
typical PLC type program.

286
This is the typical cabinet structure found in most large petrochemical plants. It is also used widely in
pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, and some powerhouse applications. The cabinets are sitting on a
computer room floor, typically around two feet deep. There will be cable trays under the floor to route the
wiring to a marshalling cabinets along the walls for distribution of the wiring to the plant units.

Note: All instrument grounding is typically done in the marshalling cabinet. Take note of this later
on in the section on ISA standards for documentation, when studying loop diagrams and also in the
section on grounding per NEC. You will implement a “single point ground” system, not an isolated ground!

A Honeywell TDC 3000 DCS is shown below. It will typically be enclosed in cabinet like the Yokogawa
shown above.

A typical Honeywell DCS card for

termination of the wiring from the
marshalling cabinet to the DCS. The
plugin connectors will be connected
to the Input-Output Processors that
are in the front of the cabinets.

A new trend of DCS applications is to typically locate fieldbus modules (FBMs) in cabinets throughout
each unit of the plant and connect them by an industrial network. This type of DCS is shown below. The
Emerson DELTAV is shown below to the left and the Foxboro I/A is shown on the right.

287
PLC Control System Architecture

PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) vs PAC (Process Automation Controller)

If the application includes monitoring and control of a large number of analog and digital I/O points (each
wire termination is called a point in the industry), then a PAC is generally the better solution. This is also
the case when the application encompasses an entire plant or factory floor. This type of application
typically calls for a large number of distributed I/O modules, along with extensive process control analog
loop functions. For this application a PAC or large type DCS is better suited than a PLC.

Be aware that a small factory line, such as making cookies or cat food, may have around 500 points.
A large plant will have the upwards of over 10,000 points.

The confusion arises when an application lies somewhere between simple and complex operations, and
in these circumstances a high-end PLC or a low-end PAC platform will work equally well. Ultimately, a
choice between the two will be defined strictly by other factors outside of specific application
requirements. These factors include, but are not limited to, past experience with each platform, price, the
level of local support, and anticipated future growth and changes within the plant. Also consider reliability
of the operations when specifying and purchasing the equipment. Millions can be lost if the plant shuts
down due to equipment failure. Also consider the access of process and production data from the
controllers for corporate marketing as well as cost and quality control.

Once a decision is made between a PLC or a PAC for the control architecture scheme, users typically
have a wide range of products to choose from for various applications, even if only a single vendor is
being considered. This is because PLCs and PACs are typically designed with systems of scale in mind,
meaning that there is a family of controllers to choose from that range from lower I/O count to larger
system capacity, with correspondingly more features and functions as I/O counts and prices increase.

288
 Controller Application Function Comparison Chart

PLC DCS
Manufacturing or assembly of Involves the combination and/or
specific items transformation of raw material
Product is visible and it Impossible to visually see the
moves through the process product as it moves thought the
process
High speed logic control Discrete logic with redundancy
Small number (less than 500) of Large number (up to 1000s) of
regulatory / analog loop control regulatory / analog loop control
Simple batch control Complex batch control

SCADA Control System Architecture

289
PLC Programming Languages

IEC 1131-3 defines the basic programming languages and is platform independent.

FBD (Function Block Diagram) - A graphical dataflow programming method

LD (Ladder Diagram) or RLL (Relay Ladder Logic) - Relay logic diagram based programming
ST (Structured Text) - A BASIC like programming language
SFC (Sequential Function Charts) - A graphical method for structuring program execution
IL (Instruction List) - This is effectively mnemonic programming

FBD, SFC, and ST languages are typically an advanced feature in programming packages and
can be purchased for an additional charge. FBD is the common programming language in DCS
architectures.

FBD LD, RLL

(Function Block Diagram) (Ladder Diagram, Relay Ladder Logic)

ST SFC
(Structured text) (Sequential Function Chart)

IL
(Instruction List)

290
PLC Programming (LD) ladder diagram or (RLL) relay ladder logic

A typical PLC program as might be seen on the exam:

PLC Programming (ST) structured text

A typical PLC program as might be seen on the exam (Structured Text programming):
The structured text program is called as a subroutine by the main ladder logic program

291
PLC Programming (FBD) functional block diagram

A typical PLC program as might be seen on the exam (Function Block Diagram):
The function block diagram program is called as a subroutine by the main ladder logic program

PLC Programming (SFC) sequential function chart

A typical PLC program as might be seen on the exam (Sequential Function Chart):
This is typically used in batch processes.

292
Writing a Program and Developing a HMI for a Small Systems

Allen Bradley and Siemens are the most preferred PLC and automation equipment used in plants.
Emerson Rosemount and Endress + Hauser are the most preferred industrial instrumentation used in
most plants.

Sample Projects using Allen Bradley PLCs and Emerson Instrumentation

Three ingredients (city water, ingredient QR, and ingredient KM) are added in specified amounts by
weight to the mixing tank. After all the ingredients have been added to the mixing tank, the mixture is
blended by running the agitator for a given time. When the blending time is complete, the finished product
is pumped to the filling lines for bottling and final packaging. The project may look similar to the one
started below.

PLC Programming with RSLogix 500 - Inserting a Branch

293
RSLogix 5000, ControlLogix PIDE (PID Enhanced) Function Block Diagram

294
 FBD Programming of High-Low Select Scheme with PIDE in ControlLogix 5000

A high-low select FBD (function block diagram) PID algorithm control scheme is shown below. The output
of the loop is available in the CVn-1 term. It is a simple matter of wiring the output actually sent to the final
control element into the CVn-1 term of each loop. The two loops will therefore always be aligned with
each other and control can bumplessly move between temperature or pressure limited control. An
example of this logic is shown below:

FBD Programming of Cascade Control Scheme with PIDE in ControlLogix 5000

A typical setup of a cascaded loop in RSLogix 5000 is illustrated below. First on the primary loop, you
need to turn on visibility of the CVInitReq and CVInitValue pins. These will be used to setup the
initialization of the primary loop when the secondary leaves Cascade mode. You should also make sure
that the engineering units range of the primary’s output matches the engineering units range of the
secondary’s set point since the secondary will use the primary’s output as its set point.

295
DELTAV SIS Function Blocks Certified for use in SIL 3 Applications

DELTAV PID Function Block “Structure” Parameter

296
 Motor Control and Logic Functions

Plant Electrical System

Motor Control Center (MCC)

297
Typical MCC Design

This a typical MCC (Motor

Control Center) found in most
plants. It is a modular and
expandable unit. The smaller
squares are the motor starter
compartments (see right unit).

The compartments are called

buckets. The wiring can be
quickly disconnected and the
bucket removed and replaced
for fast repair and turnaround
during shutdowns and design
expansions.

They typically slide in or plug into a vertical busbar with

spring clamped contacts, called stab-in design. But some
buckets are wired on to the busbar. They take up different
vertical dimensions based on the motor starter size. These
dimensions are called space factors.

The MCC can come with 42 circuit panelboards, small power

transformers, VFDs, heater and lighting contactors, breakers,
and switches. Spare units and blank covers (called spaces)
are available for future expansion and can also be installed.

Most MCCs today are equipped with a PLC or HMI and a communications network for control of the MCC
remotely as well as power usage monitoring. The networks are typically DeviceNet, Ethernet, or an older
technology, such as Modbus RS-485 serial networks.

Typical Motor Controller

Stand-alone starter in NEMA enclosure Minimal Components to make a motor Stop-Start station

298
How to Control a Motor

Starter Auxiliary Contacts

We will start with the Stop-Start station. This is the work horse of the control industry. It used in MCCs for
controlling motors, lights, and heaters; and it is also used every day in PLCs to control the program logic.

Be very familiar with the Stop-Start Station. It is the fundamental application for sealing in and removing
or disconnecting power to automated devices and circuits. It used with PLC or DCS input and output
interactions, whether it is a physical button, a software graphic symbol setting a bit in memory of a
computer, or a level or pressure switch to start a pump or shutoff a valve.

You will need expertise in understanding logic functions in RLL and Boolean logic functions. These
subjects were briefly discussed in The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems.

Overload and Fault

Overload protection must be used to protect the
motor per NEC, which is usually adopted into
state and city codes as the NEC (National
Electrical Code). The trend is to use electronic
or smart networked overload protection units.

299
The basic NEMA stop-start station

The terminal number designations used below are standard on all NEMA (National Electrical
Manufactures Association) motor starters. Most cities require that all electrical control equipment have an
UL (Underwriters Laboratory) listing for safety requirements and also to meet insurance requirements.
Note CSA (Canadian Standards Association) will usually NOT be accepted.

Typical Motor Control Schematic

The schematic to the right is a typical control schematic for pump or fan applications. We may use it to
start a blower for a pneumatic system that we studied earlier.

The start button is pressed. M1 (motor-1 starter coil) energizes and N.O. auxiliary contact M1 (1,4) closes.
M1 could be the blower motor. Only if pressure has developed in the piping system, the pressure switch
(4,5) closes. This energizes M2 (motor-2 starter coil) and TR (timing relay). M2 could be the exhaust fan
motor. The TR timer starts timing for a predetermined period to make sure air is flowing and the blower is
running ok. (Faults could possibility be: loose fan on shaft or valve is closed or pipe is open or loose)

Note the arrow up, this is a “time on” timer and the contact will only close after the timer has done timing.
When the TR timer is done, the contact (1,7) closes and the M3 (motor-3 starter coil) energizes. M3 could
be the rotary vane airlock valve motor. The TR N.O. contact on the last rung closes and the system run
light comes on. (The color “R” red usually stands for stopped or danger). So the airlock valve starts
turning dropping product into the air stream to be conveyed through the pipe. Only if the stop button is
pressed or the pressure switch drops out due to an open pipe or the fan comes loose from the blower
shaft (stops spinning), does the system stop and reset its self to the OFF THE SHELF state we started
with.

300
NEMA and IEC Terminal Designations

NEMA Standards Publication ICS 19-2002 (R2007)

Relays and Contacts

DIN stands for "Deutsches Institut für Normung," which means "German Institute for Standardization."

Per DIN standards, the terminals of auxiliary contacts on contactors and control devices are marked with
a two-digit number. Terminals that belong together are marked with the same location digit (first digit).

The second digit (called the function digit) identifies the function of each contact per the following
designation.

The numbers 13 and 14 represent an auxiliary contact

 The number 1 identifies that this is the first contact in the sequence
 The numbers 3 and 4 identify this as a normally open contact

The numbers 21 and 22 represent another auxiliary contact

 The number 2 identifies that this is the second contact in the sequence
 The numbers 1 and 2 identify this as a normally closed contact

Coil Lettering and Relay Socket Numbers (NEMA and IEC Numbers)

301
NEMA ICS 19-2002 (R2007) Definitions

Block diagram: A diagram made up of a group of interconnected blocks, each of which represents a
device or subsystem.

Connection diagram: See wiring diagram.

Construction diagram: A diagram that shows the physical arrangement of parts, such as wiring, buses,
resistor units, etc.

Example: A diagram showing the arrangement of grids and terminals in a grid-type resistor.

Control sequence diagram: A portrayal of the contact positions or connections that are made for each
successive step of the control action.

Control system diagram: A conceptual diagram of the functional interrelationship of subsystems, usually
in block form that does not include the process equipment or details of circuits and device elements.

Controller diagram: A diagram that shows the electrical connections between the parts comprising the
controller and that shows electrical connections.

Dimension drawing; outline drawing: A drawing (base plan, floor plan, etc.) that shows the physical
space and mounting requirements of a piece of equipment. It shall be permitted to also indicate ventilation
requirements and space provided for connections or the location to which connections are to be made.

Graphic symbol: Symbols used on single-line (one-line) diagrams, on schematic or elementary

diagrams, or, as applicable, on connection or wiring diagrams. Graphic symbols are correlated with parts
lists, descriptions, or instructions by means of device designations.

Interconnection diagram: A diagram that shows only the external connections between controllers and
associated machinery and equipment.

One-line diagram; single-line diagram: A diagram that shows, by means of single lines and graphic
symbols, the course of an electrical circuit or circuits and the component devices or parts used therein.
Physical relationships are usually disregarded.

Process diagram; flow diagram: A conceptual diagram of the functional interrelationship of subsystems
in block or pictorial form that shows process equipment, such as machinery for proper understanding.

Schematic diagram; elementary diagram: A diagram that shows all circuits and device elements of a
piece of equipment and its associated apparatus or any clearly defined functional portion thereof.

302
Standard Symbols

303
Standard Symbols (Continued)

304
NEMA and IEC Comparisons

305
Stop-Start Station Control Circuit Schematic

Starter Control Circuit Schematic

306
Relay Ladder Logic (RLL) and Function Blocks

RLL and Their Boolean Functions

RLL “AND” Function RLL “NOT” Function

RLL “NAND” Function RLL “NOR” Function

RLL “OR” Function RLL “XOR” (exclusive or) Function

307
Putting Ladder Logic into the PLC

RLL “AND” Function (another type of and) Typical motor starter controlled by the PLC

The stop button is always made, so X2 is always on

The output is a “NAND” function. Example: NOT (part1 and part 2 and part 3) turn on the warning light.

308
Example of a Safety System in a PLC

We want to tell if the incinerator flame has gone out. We cannot be dumping toxic waste into the
environment. We will use three sensors to verify the flame for safety purposes.

The 120 volt sensors are “ANDed” together to Here we can use logic to drive an output
energize the waste valve for safety purposes. device (such as a triac, to energize the waste
valve.

We can use voting to make the system more reliable for operation of this hazardous process. We will use
2 out of 3 voting (2oo3). This means as long as minimum of two of the three sensors are working, the
system is operating in a safe manner.

309
Safety Logic in the PLC

We can use voting in the PLC ladder rung logic to do 2 out of 3 voting (2oo3). This means as long as two
of the three sensors are working, the system is operating in a safe manner and the waste valve stays
energized. (Note: the bar over the input variable represents a NOT function or a de-energized state)

Alarming on Sensor Input Failure

If all three sensors are operating properly, they should detect flame with equal accuracy. Thus, they
should either all register "low" (000: no flame) or all register "high" (111: good flame). Any other output
combination (001, 010, 011, 100, 101, or 110) constitutes a
disagreement between sensors, and may therefore serve as an
indicator of a potential sensor failure.

If we added circuitry to detect any one of the six "sensor

disagreement" conditions, we could use the output of that
circuitry to activate an alarm. Whoever is monitoring the
incinerator would then exercise judgment in either continuing to
operate with a possible failed sensor (inputs: 011, 101, or 110)
or shut the incinerator down to be absolutely safe. Also, if the
incinerator is shut down (no flame) and one or more of the
sensors still indicates flame (001, 010, 011, 100, 101, or 110)
while the other(s) indicate(s) no flame, it will be known that a
definite sensor problem exists.

The first step to take in designing the logic for the “sensor
disagreement" detection circuit is to write a truth table
describing its behavior. Since we already have a truth table
describing the output of the "good flame" logic circuit, we can
simply add another output column to the table to represent the
second circuit, and make a table representing the entire logic
system.

310
The PLC Logic for Valve and Alarm Monitoring

The top rung in the PLC checks to see if 2 out of 3 (2oo3) sensors are good and lets the waste valve
open. The bottom rung checks to see if any one of the sensors failed and turns on the “disagreement”
alarm lamp. The waste solenoid continues to operate in the alarmed state. Only if two sensors fail will the
PLC turn off the waste valve.

Schematic to Programming Languages

Comparison of RLL (Relay Ladder Logic), FBD (Function Block Diagram), STL (structured Text
Language)

311
City of Galveston, Texas: Quadraplex Lift Station Pump System by 5 Star Electric

City of Houston, Texas: Waste Water Treatment Plant

Return Activated Sludge (RAS) Pumps with Stainless Steel Air Conditioners
312
 The Application of Analog Circuits in Control Systems

Overview of Analog Signals

On the CSE Eeam, there may be a few questions on ISA symbols for electrical and pneumatic systems.
Study the following ISA standards publications:

ISA-5.1-2009 Instrumentation Symbols and Identification

ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992) Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operations
ISA-5.3-1983 Graphic Symbols for Distributed Control/ Shared Display
ISA-5.4-1991 Standard Instrument Loop Diagrams

I consider this information required reading. There are numerous problems dealing with all the above
standards. You will be tested on details, so do not feel comfortable with your company’s standards. Only
the exact ISA standard is correct. There may be questions from the documentation text, not just symbols.

Typical Analog Loop Wiring Diagram

Most instrumentation operates on what is called a 4-20 mA loop or a loop-powered system. The signal is
sent on a 4-20 mA current loop, because the signal does not degrade with changes in voltage or
resistance in the signal wires. The signal is also very immune to electrical noise. Any noise that is injected
into the signal loop, such as EMI and RFI, are typically canceled out by the data acquisition card or input
signal card electronic circuitry by design using common mode rejection (CMR) amplifiers.

It is important to understand that this is a current-based signal and NOT VOLTAGE-based! Ohms law
does apply to the total voltage drops in the system and will have to be considered when designing your
current loops in the plant control system.

See the equivalent schematic of a transmitter below. The transmitter acts as a current pump, not a
voltage regulator, for the measurement or control signal which is directly proportional to the measurement
process variable or controller output.

313
Simplified signal transmitters that maintain constant flow rate for measurement variable

A pneumatic analogy of the electronic transmitter and process variable transmission signal that is not
affected by pressure drops in the signal line:

A standard 4-20 mA electronic current transmitter with a process variable transmission signal that is not
affected by voltage (pressure) drops in the signal line:

Above is a schematic example of simplified analog

electronics circuit, such as in the Rosemount 1151
transmitter.

To the right is a transmitter circuit controller similar

to how most digital transmitters work today, such
as an 1151 retrofitted with a smart electronics
module.

Transmitters will use ADC > uP > DAC in the

electronics. This allows for scaling and easy bit
level trimming of the inputs and outputs signals of
the transmitter.
314
Constant Current Loops and Ohm’s Law

Current Loop Fundamentals

Since the 1950s, current loops have been used to transmit transducer data for process monitoring and
control. With their low implementation cost, inherent resistance to noise, and ability to carry signals long
distances, current loops have proven particularly well-suited for industrial environments. The illustration
below shows the electronics, such as in a calibrator, but controllers and transmitters work the same way.
The flow direction is that of electron flow not power or hole flow.

The 4-20 mA Current Loop

The input voltage to this circuit, the set point, is assumed to be coming from some type of physical
transducer/amplifier arrangement, calibrated to produce 1 volt at 0% of physical measurement, and 5 volts
at 100% of physical measurement. The standard analog current signal range is 4 mA to 20 mA, signifying
0% to 100% of the measurement range, respectively. For a 5 volts input (set point), the 250 Ω (precision)
resistor will have 5 volts applied across it from the result of 20 mA of current flowing through the loop
circuit, with R (load) in series with the circuit’s current loop.

It does not matter what resistance value Rload is, or how much wire resistance is present in the current
loop, so long as the op-amp has a high enough power supply voltage to output the voltage necessary to
maintain the 20 mA flow through Rload and Rwire. The 250 Ω precision resistor establishes the relationship
between input voltage and output current. The input and output have a direct relationship of 1-5 V in / 4-20
mA out. If we were converting the 1-5 volt input (set point) signal to a 10-50 mA output signal (an older,
obsolete instrumentation standard for industry), we'd use a 100 Ω precision resistor instead.

315
Using Current to Transmit Transducer Data

Industrial-grade transducers commonly use current signals to transmit data. This is in contrast to most
other transducers, such as thermocouples and resistive strain gages, which use a voltage signal. While
voltage-based transducers are sufficient in many environments, current-based transducers are at times
preferred. For instance, the inherent disadvantage of using voltage to transmit signals in an industrial
environment is voltage drops over long cable lengths due to wire resistance. You can use high input
impedance devices to reduce the loop current and signal loss due to voltage drop. However, these
devices are sensitive to the noise induced by nearby
motors, conveyor belts, and radio transmissions.

According to Kirchhoff’s current law, all current present at

the beginning of a loop must reach the end. This is the
basic principle on which a current loop operates. Measuring
current at any position along a single loop produces the
same result. By using current signals and low impedance
data acquisition devices, industrial applications benefit from
better noise immunity and longer transmission cable
lengths.

Current Loop Components

The main components of a current loop include a DC power

supply, transducer, a data acquisition device or input
and wires connecting themcard ,
together in a series, as shown in the figure below. The DC power supply
provides the power to the system. The transducer regulates the flow of current through the wires at 4 to
20 mA, where 4 mA represents a live zero and 20 mA represents the maximum signal. IMPORTANT
NOTE: A 0 mA signal or -25% signal, signifies a break or fault in the loop.

Current Loop System

The data acquisition device measures the regulated current flow (as in an input to a PLC or DCS). An
effective and accurate method of measuring current is to place a precision shunt resistor between the
input leads of the data acquisition device amplifier as shown in the figure above. The resistor will convert
the current signal into a voltage measurement. This input voltage measurement is directly proportional to
the transducer’s output of the original measurement on a 0 to 100% process measurement scale.

To help better understand current loops, consider the design of an example system using a temperature
transducer throughout this example. System specifications include the following:

 The transducer needs to measure the temperature in a vessel.

 The transducer is located 2,000 ft away from PLC input.
 There is variable resistance in the loop and modifications are possible, such as inserting meters.

316
Designing a Current Loop System

For the example 4-20 mA current loop system, the chosen transducer measures temperature and has an
operating voltage of 12 to 32 V. The selected transducer is calibrated to the span of the temperature
measurement, to produce a 4 to 20 mA (0 to 100%) signal, proportional to the measurement. The current
signal is required to provide an accurate representation of the temperature measured by the transducer
for the process. The input signal transducer (TY) is a precision resistor with a tolerance of 0.1% accuracy.
(250 Ω @ 0.001% = 249.75Ω to 250.25Ω)

Choosing a Power Supply

Discovering which power supply best meets your requirements is simple. In a current loop, the power
supply must supply voltage equal to or greater than all the voltage drops in the system combined. The
data acquisition device for this example uses a precision shunt resistor to measure current. You need to
calculate the voltage drop across the resistor. A typical shunt resistor is 249 Ω. Implementing basic
calculations with the 4 to 20 mA current loop shows the following or better:

With this 249 Ω shunt resistor, you can directly relate current to a range of 1 to 5 volts, allowing the data
acquisition amplifier’s voltage reading to be related to the temperature transducer’s signal. The
temperature transducer from above, requires a minimum operating voltage of 12 V with a maximum of 32
V. Adding the voltage drop of the precision shunt resistor to the transducer yields the following:

This suggests that a 17 V power supply suffices. However, the current loop wire’s internal resistance
creates an additional load on the power supply. In applications where a transducer is far away from the
measuring instruments, you must factor wire resistance into the loop power calculations. Copper wires
have a DC resistance that is directly proportional to their lengths and diameters (gauge). With the
temperature transducer from the example system, you need to calculate the 2,000 ft distance in the power
requirements. With 24-gauge solid copper wire, the internal resistance is 2.62 Ω/100 ft.

(Note: the wire resistance of the loop varies with the environment temperature)

This resistance calculation becomes:

At 2,000 ft away, there is a 1.05 V drop along the wire. To complete the loop, you need two
wires, effectively doubling the length to 4,000 ft:

In total, approximately 2.1 V is lost due to wiring when the pressure transducer is 2,000 ft away from
the data acquisition device. Combining all the voltage drops results in the following:

If you used a 17 V power supply to drive the previous setup, the temperature transducer voltage would be
below the minimum operating level for a transducer due to natural wire resistance and shunt resistor

317
requirements. Choosing a common 24 V power supply usually meets the power requirements of the
temperature control measurement loop and is the industrial standard for process installations.

NOTE: Always ground the negative of your process DC power supply loops. This for short circuit
protection of the wiring and if there is a device failure. The fuse will isolate the faulty instrument loop and
allow the plant process systems to continue to function.

Adding More Transducers and Instruments

For larger applications, you can add more transducers and instruments in parallel to the power supply, as
shown in the figure below. Please note these are NOT parallel loads as on AC 120 volt circuits. Each
process loop is an individual series loop. Only the power supply is in parallel (common) to all process
loops. They all have the same +24 volt supply and -0 volt (grounded negative) return to the power supply.
Each loop is a separate series path or loop, made of the transducer and PLC / DCS input card.

Because you add the extra current loops in parallel, the power supply’s voltage doesn’t need to change.
You only need to make sure it can source the required current required by all combined process loops.
You can mix and match different types of transducers as long as the total impedance is less than the
supply voltage divided by the required current. This applies for each single loop on the 24 volt supply.

318
Devices in Series

At times, you may need multiple current measuring data acquisition devices to measure the same signal.
To add another data acquisition device to the same transducer, you must place the new instrument in
series with the process measurement current loop. For this example, you add a simple digital current loop
meter with the existing data acquisition device, as shown in the figure below.

Adding an Extra Instrument to a Process Transmitter (Transducer) Loop

Each time you add a current-measuring data acquisition device in series with the transducer, you must
recalculate the total voltage requirement to ensure that the power requirements of the loop are still within
specification. In this example, the new current meter uses a 105 Ω precision resistor:

With a 105 Ω shunt resistor, the current meter requires a maximum of 2.1 V, so the total voltage
requirement of the system becomes:

Because adding the meter brings the total voltage requirement to only about 21.2 V, the 24 V power
supply previously recommended is still sufficient for the application. We may want to add a process meter
display unit or chart recorder in the field or control room. Each of these could use a 250 Ω resistor for an
extra 10 volts (5V+ 5V) of supply voltage needed by the two additional devices.

In this case a current repeater is needed. The temperature loop signal will then series through the
repeater and the field display unit and the chart recorder will then be powered in their own independent
series loop with its own voltage drops. Now a 24 V power supply will work fine.

319
A typical Current Loop Repeater

320
Active and Passive Current Loops

Passive transmitters require a power supply to power up the loop and electronics. The Type 2 transmitter
loop is called PASSIVE.

Type 3 and Type 4 transmitters are considered as ACTIVE transmitters, but this can be misleading. The
transmitter is powering up the current loop, but the transmitter’s electronics are being powered up by an
external power source. Some transmitters will have an internal power supply built into them. Caution must
be taken with these transmitters. These type 4 (four-wire) transmitters can be powered with 120 VAC
power for the display, computer and electronics. These type a transmitters CAN BE or MAY NOT be
active. You must consult the manufacturer's data first.

If the transmitter, instrument, or analyzer is ACTIVE and you supply an external 24 VDC power source,
you may damage the device. Typically you will blow out a transistor in the current driving circuit.

Summary:

If the device is a Type 2 passive (two-wire), you will need a power supply to power the current loop.

If the device is a Type 3 or Type 4 (three-wire or four-wire), you will need to verify if an external power
supply is needed. An external power supply in series with the current loop may damage the internal
electronics, if the device has an internal power supply. With an internal power supply, the voltage may
equal (24v + 24v = 48v). Most electronic components are rated for 32 to 42 volts max.

321
Sinking and Sourcing Devices

What is the difference between PNP and NPN?

Most industrial proximity sensors (inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, and photo electric) are solid state. The
term solid state refers to the type of components used within the sensor. Solid state electronic
components, such as transistors, are used to switch the output of the sensor upon detection of an object.

Two specific types of three-wire sensors are available; PNP and NPN. The difference is a result of the
internal circuit design and type of transistors used. A key point to observe is that PNP and NPN has
nothing to do with whether the sensor is normally open (N.O.) or normally closed (N.C.).

Example: A PNP sensor may be either (N.O.) or (N.C.) as can an NPN be either (N.O.) or (N.C.).

Note: The application of sinking and sourcing also applies to analog input and output wiring. It is
an important concept to understand completely before ordering your analog cards and devices!

322
PNP Sensor verses NPN Sensor

The selection of a PNP sensor verses an NPN sensor is determined by the nature of the circuit the device
is to be used in. When used in a traditional relay type control circuit, it is normally possible to use either
the PNP or the NPN type of sensor as shown below. PNP sensors tend to be more commonly used.

Traditional relay type control circuit:

Use with a programmable logic controller (PLC)

When selecting a sensor to be used with a PLC, it is very important that the sensor matches the type of
PLC input card or switching device to be used. Two types of input cards exist, those that sink current
(positive is applied to the load and the control device switches current flow to ground) and those that
source current (The load is connected to ground and the positive is applied to the control device which
switches current flow to the load). It is worth mentioning, that while the terms sinking / sourcing and
positive / negative logic are well known in some industries, they are not always commonly used terms. It is
therefore important to identify the type of sensor to be used with the PLC card based on the PLC
manufacturer's documentation and / or wiring diagrams.

Most common in Europe is the sinking type of input; these will be used with the PNP sensor as shown
below. Less common now days are input cards that source, these were popular in Asia and require the
NPN type of sensor in order to operate correctly. Many modern PLC input cards can be configured and
wired to be either sinking or sourcing although it will usually necessitate all inputs on a particular input
card being configured the same.

Note: The dashed lines may be needed for the card electronics to work. The PNP sensor sources current
to the card and the card completes the circuit to ground and the NPN sensor receives current from the
card and completes the circuit by sinking the current to ground.

323
324
 Overview of Motion Controller Applications

Motion Control Systems

The basic architecture of a motion control system contains:

 A motion controller, to move something to a desired position or set and maintain the velocity of a
system component or fluid. Motion controllers typically use closed loop feedback, but not always.
 A drive or amplifier to transform the control signal from the motion controller into a higher power
electrical current or voltage that is presented to the actuator.
 An actuator, such as a hydraulic pump, air cylinder, linear actuator, or electric motor, for output
of motion.
 One or more feedback sensors, such as optical encoders, resolvers, or Hall effect devices, to
return the position or velocity of the actuator to the motion controller in order to close the position
or velocity control loops.
 Mechanical components to transform the motion of the actuator into the desired motion, including:
gears, shafting, ball screw, belts, linkages, and linear and rotational bearings.

Common control functions include:

 Velocity control.
 Position (point-to-point) control: There are several methods for computing a motion trajectory.
These are often based on the velocity profiles of a move, such as a triangular profile, trapezoidal
profile, or an S-curve profile.
 Pressure or force control.
 Electronic gearing (or cam profiling).

Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that converts digital pulses into mechanical
shaft rotation.

Every revolution of the stepper motor is divided into a discrete number of steps, in many cases 200 steps,
and the motor must be sent a separate pulse for each step. The stepper motor can only take one step at
a time and each step is the same size. Since each pulse causes the motor to rotate a precise angle,
typically 1.8°, the motor's position can be controlled without any feedback mechanism. As the digital
pulses increase in frequency, the step movement changes into continuous rotation, with the speed of
rotation directly proportional to the frequency of the pulses. Stepper motors are used every day in both
industrial and commercial applications because of their low cost, high reliability, high torque at low
speeds, and simple, rugged construction that operates in almost any environment.

Closed-Loop Stepper Motor

Modern motion controllers can include the ability to run stepper motors with encoder feedback, resulting
in true closed-loop motion control. This mode of motor control is very similar to standard three-phase
brushless servo motor control, where the three phases are offset 120 electrical degrees. With steppers,
the motor has two phases offset by 90 electrical degrees. The benefits of closed-loop control with stepper
motors include greatly improved velocity smoothness and reduced power consumption compared to
open-loop steppers and much higher torque at low velocity compared with traditional three-phase
brushless servo motors.

325
Stepper motor advantages

1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
3. It has precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 to 5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore, the life of the step motor
is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
6. The stepper motor's response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to
the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency of
the input pulses.

Linear motion control

The rotary motion of a stepper motor can be converted to linear motion using a lead screw/worm gear
drive system. The lead, or pitch, of the lead screw is the linear distance traveled for one revolution of the
screw. If the lead is equal to one inch per revolution, and there are 200 full steps per revolution, then the
resolution of the lead screw system is 0.005 inches per step. Even finer resolution is possible by using the
step motor/drive system in microstepping mode.

Series vs. parallel connection

There are two ways to connect a stepper motor, in series or in parallel. A series connection provides a
high inductance and therefore greater torque at low speeds. A parallel connection will lower the
inductance which results in increased torque at faster speeds.

326
Servo motor systems

Another option is a servo system. A servo system is typically a low pole count motor that gives high speed
but has no inherent positioning capability. To make it a position device feedback is required, usually an
encoder or resolver, and control loops. The servo is essentially turned on and off until the resolver count
reaches a certain point. Therefore, the servo works based on error.

For example, the servo is commanded to move 100 revs. The resolver count reads zero and the motor is
turned on. When the resolver count reaches 100 revs, the motor is turned off. If the position deflects, the
motor is turned back on to bring it back to position.

How the servo responds to error depends on a gain setting. If the gain setting is high, the motor will
respond very quickly to any changes in error. If the gain setting is low, the motor will not respond as
quickly to changes in error. Any time gain settings are involved though, time delays are introduced into
the motion control system.

Advanced motion controls

Servo drives and amplifiers are used extensively in motion control systems where precise control of
position and/or velocity is required. The drive/amplifier simply translates the low-energy reference signals
from the controller into high-energy signals to provide motor voltage and current. In some cases, the use of
a digital drive replaces the controller/drive or controller/amplifier control system. The command signals
represent a motor torque, velocity, or position and can be either analog or digital in nature. Analog +/-10
VDC command is still the most common reference signal but it is quickly giving way to digital network
commands.

Position plus velocity system

327
Electro-hydraulic Servo System

Position and pressure/force control

Certain hydraulic equipment, such as presses or injection molding machines, can benefit from controlling
the pressure or force exerted by an actuator in addition to its position. The new generation of electro-
hydraulic motion controllers, combined with precise position feedback devices, such as magnetostrictive
linear displacement transducers (MLDTs), can achieve precise positioning of hydraulic actuators that was
not possible before. Methods for controlling position-to-pressure or position-to-force transitions have also
advanced significantly.

In the past, presses often used pressure relief valves to limit the pressure used to apply force, but there is
a flaw in this technique due to net force considerations. Pistons have two sides and a pressure relief
valve only reacts to the pressure on one side of the piston. Since there is pressure on both sides of the
piston, the applied force is not determined by the pressure on one side of the piston. A better method is to
mount pressure transducers on each end of the cylinder as shown below.

Position transducers
The best sensors for position feedback to the motion controller are MLDTs, which are typically mounted in
the cylinders. MLDTs are best because they use moving magnets that don’t come in contact with the
sensor tube, avoiding mechanical wear, and they provide an absolute position readout, requiring no
homing step before beginning to work with the position information from the MLDT. Advances in MLDT
technology have led to resolutions down to 1 μm, with fast signal processing of up to 1.5 MHz.

328
Fieldbus interfaces
Selecting motion controllers that can interface directly to the system’s PLC or human-machine interface
(HMI) makes the system simpler to design and lowers hardware costs. Likewise, a controller that
interfaces to a standard fieldbus, such as PROFIBUS or EtherNet/IP, frees you from being locked into a
single vendor’s control system offerings. You can also use serial interfaces that support standards, such
as RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485, to communicate with HMIs and PLCs. For simpler applications, not
requiring megabit data transfer rates, look for motion controllers that support serial communications.

Applications of servo systems

Soft Starter Applications

A reduced voltage soft starter helps protect the motor and connected equipment from damage by
controlling the terminal voltage. This limits the initial inrush of current and reduces the mechanical shock
associated with motor startup and provides a more gradual ramp up to full speed. Soft starters are also
beneficial to electrical systems with limited current capacity when they are used for motor starting to limit
the inrush current. By gradually increasing the motor terminal voltage, the soft starter produces a more
regulated motor acceleration up to full speed. Soft starters are also capable of providing a gradual ramp to
stop where sudden stopping may create problems in the connected equipment.

How does a soft starter work?

Solid state soft starters use semiconductor devices to temporarily reduce the motor terminal voltage. This
provides control of the motor current to reduce inrush and limit shaft torque. The control is based on
controlling the motor terminal voltage on two or three phases. By limiting the voltage to the motor, a
reduced torque is provided to start the load more gradually.

329
Benefits of choosing a soft starter
Soft starters are often the more economical choice for
applications that only require speed and torque control
during motor startup. Additionally, they are often the
ideal solution for applications where space is a
concern, as they usually take up less space than
compatible variable frequency drives.

When accelerating an AC motor to full speed using a

full voltage connection, a large inrush current may be
required. Additionally, the torque of the AC motor is
mostly uncontrolled and can shock the connected
equipment, potentially causing damage. Variable
frequency drives and reduced-voltage soft starters and
can both be used to reduce inrush currents and limit
torque; thereby protecting expensive equipment and
extending the life of the motor and coupling devices.

Choosing between a variable frequency drive and soft starter often depends on the type of application,
the mechanical system requirements, and cost (both for initial installation and over the lifecycle of the
system). SFC is the soft start controller in the image to the right.

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

The primary function of a variable frequency drive (VFD) is to vary the speed of a three-phase AC
induction motor. VFDs also provide nonemergency start and stop control, acceleration, and deceleration,
and overload protection. In addition, VFDs can reduce the amount of motor start-up inrush current by
accelerating the motor gradually (see image above – solid state). For these reasons, VFDs are suitable
for conveyors, fans, and pumps that benefit from reduced and controlled motor operating speed.

One of the little known benefits of a VFD, when used as the final control element of a process control loop,
is improved loop performance. The VFD can replace both a control valve and its electromechanical
positioner. Since most VFDs also have internal PID controller function blocks, they can often replace the
process loop controller as well. It is well known that stickiness in a process control valve is the single
biggest reason for poor control loop performance, and using a VFD to drive the pump motor for liquid flow
control can take advantage of better loop performance.

How does a variable frequency drive work?

The first stage of a variable frequency AC drive, or VFD, is the converter. The converter is comprised of six
diodes, which are similar to check valves used in plumbing systems. They allow current to flow in only one
direction; the direction shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-phase voltage
(voltage is similar to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C phase voltages, then that
diode will conduct or operate and allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than A-
phase, then the B-phase diode will conduct or operate and the A-phase diode will stop conducting or stop
(check) the current flow. The same is true for the three diodes on the negative side of the bus. Thus, we get
six current “pulses” as each diode conducts and stops conducting. This is called a “six-pulse VFD,” which is
the standard configuration for current VFDs.

Note: The VFD and UPS operate on basically the same architecture and principals.

330
Conversion from AC to DC to AC PWM

Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V rating is “rms” or root-mean-
squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As you can see, the VFD DC bus has a DC voltage with
an AC ripple. The voltage runs between approximately 580V and 680V.

331
We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor operates in a similar
fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system. This capacitor absorbs the AC ripple and
delivers a smooth DC voltage. The AC ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 volts. Thus, the voltage
on the DC bus becomes “approximately” 650 VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage level of
the AC line feeding the drive, the level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor load, the
impedance of the power system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the drive.

The diode bridge rectifier that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just referred to as a converter. The
converter that converts the DC back to AC is also a converter, but to distinguish it from the diode
converter, it is usually referred to as an “inverter”. It has become common in the industry to refer to any
DC-to-AC converter as an inverter.

Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.

When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is connected to the positive
DC bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive. When we close one of the bottom switches in
the converter, that phase is connected to the negative DC bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can
make any phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any frequency
that we want. So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero.

332
Notice that the output from the VFD is a “rectangular” wave form. VFDs do not produce a sinusoidal
output. This rectangular waveform would not be a good choice for a general purpose distribution
system, but is perfectly adequate for a motor.

The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does not generate this
sine wave.

If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the inverter output transistors
more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30 Hz, then we must also reduce the voltage to 240 V in
order to maintain the V/Hz ratio. How are we going to reduce the voltage if the only voltage we have is
650 VDC?

This is called pulse width modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the pressure in a water line
by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed. While this would not be practical for plumbing
systems, it works very well for VFDs. Notice that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the time
and OFF half the time. Thus, the average voltage is half of 480 V or 240 V. By pulsing the output, we can
achieve any average voltage on the output of the VFD.

333
Volts to Hertz Relationship

The volts to hertz relationship must be constant. The impedance of the motor is set by the frequency. The
relationship of inductive impedance (XL), motor impedance (Z), current (I), and power in kva (P) is:

Volts Volts
X L  2 fL Z  R2  XL2 I  P  I2  Z
R  XL
2 2 Z

It can be seen from the first formula that (XL) is directly proportional to the frequency. If the frequency of
the current and voltage into the motor increases, the impedance of the motor increases. The resistance of
a motor is almost negligible compared to the inductance, so we will just ignore the resistance for this
example.

Work is equal to power per time. We want to keep the HP (horsepower) constant even at low speeds. Let
say the motor draws 2 amps at a voltage of 240 volts: 240 volts/2 amps = 120 ohms of impedance at 60
Hz. We need to keep the V/Hz constant so at 30 Hz the voltage needs to be 120 volts. What is the
impedance, current, and the power per time at 30 Hz?

120ohms 120ohms
At 60Hx X L  2 fL so L    0.3183henries
2 f 2  60

V 240v
At 60Hz I    2amps
Z 120ohms

At 30Hz X L  2 fL so X L  2  30hz  0.3183H  60ohms

V 120v
At 30Hz I    2amps
Z 60ohms

Notice the impedance decreased proportionally to the frequency. It is now half the opposition to the
flow of current into the motor. Work equals power so:

At 60Hz W  I 2  Z  22  240  960kva

At 30Hz W  I 2  Z  22  120  480kva

We are going half the speed at 30 Hz compared to 60 Hz. It can be seen it takes twice the time to do the
same work over distance (60Hz/30Hz = 2), this is half the distance the motor shaft was turning in time.
The unit Hz is proportional to the RPM (rotations per minute). If we integrate the movement about the
motor shaft, we find the work done by a motor.

(RPM * 2π * M)= (RPM * 2π * Radius *Force). The work done about the shaft is Force * distance * time.

Force * distance equals work. Multiply this by time and we have work per unit of time.

The work being done by the motor is now half but at half the speed. So if the motor runs twice as long,
the work done at twice the time period is the same as that being done at the 60Hz frequency.

Work equals 906 kva at 60Hz = (2 * 480 kva) at 30Hz. The HP (horsepower) of the motor has not
changed with a change in speed as long as the volts to hertz (V/Hz) ratio is kept constant. If the frequency
is too high in the (V/Hz) setting, the impedance is too high and the motor starves for current to generate
magnetic flux and the motor slips. If the frequency is too low in the (V/Hz) setting, the impedance is too
low and too much current is generated and extra heat will be produced in the motor
334
windings. This current saturates the stator and the motor slips due to a weakening in the magnetic field
for the required amount of work needed. The slip means less work is being done in time, so the HP output
decreases.

Important Note about Low Frequency in VFDs

It is important to note that your motor must be capable of doing work at lower speeds (lower frequencies).
The internal fan is running slower and a lot less air is flowing over the motor to keep it cool inside. This is
very important in TEFC (Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled) motor used in hazardous locations. The motor may
exceed the temperature limit of the environment or the motor insulation breaks down in time due to the
increase in temperature and heat dissipation.

There are motors rated just for running at low frequencies and manufactures also make adaptive fan kits
to fit on the end of motors to help keep them cool.

Motors having ‘P’ leads may be used to protect the motor and the hazardous environment. ‘P’ leads are
connected to an internal temperature switch or thermistor and are in series with the motor control
shutdown circuit. TEFC motors with ‘P’ leads may be required by the NEC for certain operating
temperatures in classified locations (hazardous environments) per article 500.

VFDs put Noise into the Electrical System

It should be noted that VFDs generate harmonics and they are reflected back into the electrical system.
This is very apparent with large speed drive and phase angle fired speed and heating controllers.
Sometimes it is necessary to put harmonic filters on the drive or on your PLC/DCS power supplies and or
control cabinets. This higher RMS voltage due to the harmonics can damage equipment and cause
constant blowing of fuses and tripping of breakers, due to the extra heating effect of the odd harmonics.

Add EMI filters and reactors on the lines into the drive to cancel noise and limit current draw, which may
damage the drive unit. Add a harmonic neutralizing transformer for the controller power supply. See the
section Electrical Systems and Power Quality / Filtering Power and Harmonics for more information
harmonics.

335
PID Control with VFD or DC Drive

Closed loop control with drive electronics

This control is used for the applications that require high tension accuracy, such as an unwinding or
winding axis (for paper, film, etc.). This control feeds back the tension applied to the actual products to a
tension control device. The VFD with a built-in controller can control flow, level, and pressure applications
with proportional only or PID control.

The PID controller is available in most VFD inverter drives from ABB, Allen Bradley, Emerson, and others.
Skip frequency programming is usually available to skip over frequencies where resonance occurs in the
system.

Block diagram of PID control with feedback operation available on some VFDs

Drive with built-in PID tension control of web or winding reel operation

336
 Electrical Systems and Power Quality

Filtering Power and Harmonics

Harmonic distortion is caused by nonlinear devices in the power system. A nonlinear device is one in
which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage. The figure below illustrates this concept by the
case of a sinusoidal voltage applied to a simple nonlinear resistor in which the voltage and current vary
according to the curve shown. While the applied voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the resulting current is
distorted. Increasing the voltage by a few percent may cause the current to double and take on a different
wave shape. This is the source of most harmonic distortion in a power system.

Input for Power Supply or Drive Line Harmonics due to Nonlinear Resistance

The figure above illustrates that any periodic, distorted waveform can be expressed as a sum of
sinusoids. When a waveform is identical from one cycle to the next, it can be represented as a sum of
pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency of the distorted wave. This multiple is called a harmonic of the fundamental, hence the name of
this subject: non-linear harmonic power applications.

There are notable exceptions to this such as half-wave rectifiers and arc furnaces when the arc is random.
While they may cause interference with low-power electronic devices, they are usually not damaging to the
power system.

Harmonic Neutralizing Transformers

Odd harmonics generate heat and a much larger magnitude of RMS voltage compared to average
voltage. A 24 VAC control circuit transformer may output up to 32 or 45 VAC RMS, when connected to a
plant electrical grid that has very large SCR heat controllers. The harmonics are reflected in the voltage
and then re-induced in the output of the current from the transformer windings.

These harmonics cause annoying and troublesome breaker trips and the blowing of fuses in control
circuits due to the heating effect. Harmonics can also cause problems on control signal lines. A harmonic
neutralizing transformer can reduce and remove most harmonics through cancellation of the distorted
waveforms with waveforms 180 degrees out of phase. This results in a very clean waveform.

337
Filtering of a Harmonics in Power Systems

Passive Filter

Capacitor banks can be used combined with inductors in order to limit the effects of the harmonics on a
network. Actually, the combination capacitor-inductor constitutes a filter for harmonics. To avoid the
negative effects of resonance, it is necessary to insert an inductor in series with a capacitor. By attaching
an inductor and a capacitor in proper configuration to the electrical network, harmonics can be drained to
th
the grounding system or be canceled out in three phase configurations, at resonance frequency in the n
th
order of the current harmonic to be eliminated. The bandwidth of the n order of harmonic frequencies
(multiples) will be based on the quality of the filter components. This is a band stop filter for the 60 Hz
th
fundamental frequency and a band pass for the n order of harmonic frequencies.

In this way, the assembly (inductor-capacitor) presents a very low reactance in correspondence with the
harmonic (or harmonics) to be eliminated, which shall circulate in the filter assembly without affecting the
whole network. In a single phase circuit, the harmonics will be drained to ground through the current
limiting effect of the reactive components. In a three-phase system, the current will sum up to zero.

Passive filter - capacitor connected in series with an inductor

Therefore this filter, called a passive filter, consists of a capacitor connected in series with an inductor so
that the resonance frequency is altogether equal to the frequency of the harmonic to be eliminated.
Passive filters are a cost-effective solution and easily be connected to the electrical system. They are
designed on a case-by-case basis, according to a particular harmonic or harmonics to be filtered.

338
Active Filter

Active filters can automatically eliminate the current harmonics present in a network in a wide range of
frequencies. Exploiting power electronic technology, they can inject a system of harmonics able to
neutralize those harmonics present in the electrical network. The active filter has the advantage of filtering
dozens of harmonics simultaneously with the same piece of equipment.

Load current + Active filter current = Clean feeder current

339
The top bubbles show the waveform of the unfiltered load current with all its harmonic components riding
on the electrical bus.

The bottom bubbles show the waveform of the filtered load current of the electrical bus, after the current
harmonics are canceled out by the filter current. The load current has very little distortion and is easily
averaged out in the load impedance.

340
Proper Grounding Procedures

Everyone is fairly familiar with the standard electrical grounding system used in a home or building. In a
process or manufacturing plant, this type of ground system is referred to as an AC safety ground. It just
connects or bonds all objects that could possibly a carry fault current or objectionable current to ground or
the earth. The power source, a generator or a transformer, provides the power to the load. Under a faulty
condition the current may leave (escape) through the insulated conductor and flow to ground. This is the
wrong way to look at fault current; it does not flow to the ground or earth. Only lighting strikes and
electrical noises go into the earth.

In a battery circuit, the current leaves the battery and returns to the battery. This is also the case for the
transformer or generator. So if the circuit faults to ground, there must be a path to return the current back
to the source.

Study the grounding diagram below as we discuss how this can be applied to a plant grounding system.

341
The diagram shows the flow of fault current for an AC safety ground system and the “draining” of electrical
noise on an isolated ground system. This noise can be in the form of EMI (electromagnetic interference),
RFI (radio frequency interference) or static electricity. In an isolated ground system, the grounding
conductor must be treated as an insulated or “hot” conductor, as if it had voltage to ground. It cannot
touch any part of a grounded system, until it is connected to the “single point” of the ground system. This
is the point in which no current can flow to the plant earth ground grid expect through the isolated
(insulated) dedicated path to the final destination of earth. The isolated ground is bonded to the plant
grounding grid and only has one other single insulated path it can take, the return to the power source, the
transformer or generator neutral. Remember the current only flows to a lower potential.

NFPA 70—the NEC (national electrical code)—Article 250-A-5 "Effective Ground-Fault Current Path"
states: Electrical equipment and wiring and other electrically conductive material likely to become
energized shall be installed in a manner that creates a low-impedance circuit facilitating the operation of
the overcurrent device or ground detector for high-impedance grounded systems. It shall be capable of
safely carrying the maximum ground-fault current likely to be imposed on it from any point on the wiring
system where a ground fault may occur to the electrical supply source. The earth shall not he considered
as an effective ground-fault current path.

Important Note: Although the NEC allows conduit, tubing and cable trays to be the bonding conductor to
ground, a separate ground wire should be included with the current carrying conductors in industrial plant
environments. Industrial plants are subject to chemicals in the air which make them more susceptible to
corrosion and rust in the conduit system. This will cause the fault current to see a high impedance in the
return path and limit the flow of fault current. The low flow of fault current will not trip the breaker or
remove the overcurrent protective device to open the circuit. This also produces dangerous touch
potential voltages throughout the system, which could cause accidental deaths. Most plants require a low
impendence path to ground of one (1) ohm or less.

NFPA 70—the NEC (national electrical code)—Article 250-A-1 "Electrical System Grounding" states:
Electrical systems that are grounded shall be connected to earth in a manner that will limit the voltage
imposed by lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with higher-voltage lines and that will stabilize
the voltage to earth during normal operation. Lightning protection is discussed later in the code review
section of the book, NFPA 780 "Lightning Protection." You should recall that NFPA 780 and NFPA 77
were required by NFPA 30 for pressure relief of vessels, where possible ignition due to lightning and static
electric discharge can occur.

To the left shows a possible layout of

a typical plant ground grid. It is
designed to limit touch potential of
voltage between the earth and the
plant structure and equipment. For
more information see IEEE 80 for
calculations.

Important Note: For noise protection of data equipment and instrumentation cabinets and enclosures,
two grounding paths should be attached as single point ground to the grid from the enclosure, not just
one path. This technique is shown in the grounding diagram example. The conductors need to be
different lengths. This will ensure that one of the bonding conductor paths does not stop draining the
voltage noise signal to ground, due to resonance at an incoming frequency. This can cause an infinite
impedance in the bonding conductor and the current will not flow to ground. There will then be a standing
voltage on the cable or enclosure and it will act as a transmission antenna,
introducing noise into the controller or signal cables.

All grounding and bonding conductor connections in a plant should be

exothermally welded. The beam structures, tanks, cable trays, and
equipment should be connected to the grounding grid by CadWeld.
Mechanical connections are not as reliable as a CadWeld shown right.

342
 Emergency Standby Systems

Article 700 – Emergency Systems

The requirements of Article 700 apply only to the wiring methods for emergency systems that are
essential for safety to human life and are required by federal, state, or municipal governments or other
agencies having jurisdiction. When normal power is lost, emergency systems shall be able to supply
standby power in 10 seconds or less.

Article 701 – Legally Required Standby Systems

Legally required standby systems provide electric power to aid in firefighting, rescue operations, control of
health hazards, and similar operations. When normal power is lost, legally required systems shall be able
to supply standby power in 60 seconds or less, instead of the 10 seconds or less required of emergency
systems.

Article 702 – Optional Standby Systems

Optional standby systems are intended to protect public or private facilities or property where life safety
does not depend on the performance of the system. These systems are typically installed to provide an
alternate source of electric power for such facilities as industrial and commercial buildings, farms, and
residences, and to serve loads that, when stopped during any power outage, could cause discomfort,
serious interruption of the process, or damage to the product or process. Optional standby systems are
intended to supply on-site generated power to selected loads either automatically or manually.

UPS (uninterruptible power supply)

An uninterruptible power supply (also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery / flywheel backup) is an
electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a
load when the input power source, typically the main
power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or
emergency power system or standby generator in that it
will provide nearly instantaneous protection from input
power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in
batteries, super capacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery
runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is
relatively short, only a few minutes to a few hours
(maybe up to 8 hours), but sufficient to properly shut
down a system in an orderly manner or start a standby
power source, such as a backup generator.

A UPS is typically used to protect hardware, such as

computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment,
or other electrical equipment, where an unexpected
power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious
business disruption, or data loss. UPS units range in
size from units designed to protect a single computer
without a video monitor (around 200 volt-ampere rating)
to large units powering entire data centers or buildings.
The world's largest UPS, the 46-megawatt Battery
Electric Storage System (BESS), in Fairbanks, Alaska,
powers the entire city and nearby rural communities
during outages.

343
Note: This will probably not be on the CSE exam. It is just good information

UPS and Battery Bank Sizing

Calculation Methodology

The calculation procedure has four main steps:

1. Determine and collect the prospective AC UPS loads.
2. Construct a load profile and determine the UPS design load (VA) and design energy (VAh).
3. Calculate the size of the stationary battery (number of cells in series and Ah capacity).
4. Determine the size of the inverter, rectifier / charger, and static switch.

Step 1: Collect the AC UPS Loads

The first step is to determine the type and quantity of loads that the AC UPS system will be expected
support. For industrial facilities, this will typically be the critical instrumentation and control loads, such as
to
the DCS (distributive control system), ESD (emergency shutdown) and BSD (building shutdown) relays,
processors and marshalling hardware, critical workstations and HMI's, telecommunications equipment,
and sensitive electronics. If the electrical power engineer is doing the calculations, the necessary load
data should be available from the instrumentation and control engineers. For commercial facilities, UPS
loads will mainly be server, data / network, and telecommunications hardware.

Step 2: Load Profile, Design Load and Design Energy Demand

Refer to the Load Profile Calculation that follows, for details on how to construct a load profile. Calculate
the design load (Sd) and design energy (Ed). The autonomy method for constructing load profiles is
typically used for AC UPS systems. In this case autonomy means to function independently.

The autonomy time is often specified by the client (i.e., in their standards). Alternatively, IEEE 446, "IEEE
Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial
Applications" has some guidance (particularly Table 3-2) for autonomy times. Sometimes a single
autonomy time is used for the entire AC UPS load, which obviously makes the construction of the load
profile easier to compute.

Step 3: Battery Sizing

Refer to the Battery Sizing Calculation section that follows, for details on how to size the battery for the
AC UPS system. The following section on battery sizing calculations, provides additional information
specific to battery sizing for AC UPS applications. Note: These battery calculations can also be used for
125 VDC equipment and switchgear remote control power, such as charging and operating breakers.

Nominal Battery (or DC Link) Voltage

The nominal battery / DC link voltage is often selected by the AC UPS manufacturer. However, if required
to be selected, the following factors need to be considered:

DC output voltage range of the rectifier – The rectifier must be able to output the specified DC link
voltage. DC input voltage range of the inverter – The DC link voltage must be within the input voltage
tolerances of the inverter.

Note that the battery end of discharge voltage should be within these tolerances.

Calculate the number of battery cells required in series – This will affect the overall dimensions and size
of the battery rack. If physical space is a constraint, then fewer batteries in series would be preferable.

344
Calculate the total DC link current (at full load) – This will affect the sizing of the DC cables and intercell
battery links, obviously the smaller the better. In general, the DC link voltage is usually selected to be
close to the nominal output voltage.

Number of Cells in Series

The number of battery cells required to be connected in series must be between the two following limits:

Vdc 1  Vi ,max 
(1) N max 
Vf

Vdc 1  Vi ,min 
(2) N min 
Veod

Where:

Nmax = the maximum number of battery cells

Nmin = the minimum number of battery cells
Vdc = the nominal battery / DC link voltage (Vdc)
Vi,max = the inverter maximum input voltage tolerance (%)
Vi,min = the inverter minimum input voltage tolerance (%)
Vf = the nominal cell float (or boost) voltage (Vdc)
Veod = the cell end of discharge voltage (Vdc)

The limits are based on the input voltage tolerance of the inverter. With the maximum number of cells in
series, the battery at float voltage (or boost if applicable) cannot exceed the maximum input voltage range
of the inverter. Likewise at a minimum cell count, the battery at its end of discharge voltage must be
within the minimum input voltage range of the inverter. Select the number of cells for the battery bank
between these two limits (more or less somewhere in the middle of the min/max values would be
appropriate).

Step 4: UPS Sizing

Overall UPS Sizing

Most of the time, all you need to provide is the overall UPS kVA rating and the UPS vendor will do the
rest. Given the design load (Ed in VA or kVA) calculated in Step 2, select an overall UPS rating that
exceeds the design load. Vendors typically have standard UPS ratings, so it is possible to simply select
the first standard rating that exceeds the design load. For example, if the design load is 12 kVA, then the
next size unit (e.g., 15 kVA UPS) would be selected.

Rectifier / Charger Sizing

The rectifier / charger should be sized to supply the inverter at full load and also charge the batteries (at
the maximum charge current). The design DC load current can be calculated by:

S
I L ,dc 
Vdc

Where:

IL,dc = the design DC load current (full load) (A)

S = the selected UPS rating (kVA)
Vdc = the nominal battery / DC link voltage (Vdc)

345
The maximum battery charging current can be computed as follows:

C  kl
Ic 
tc

Where:

Ic = the maximum DC charge current (A)

C = the selected battery capacity (Ah) (Amps-Hour)
kl = the battery recharge efficiency / loss factor (typically 1.1) (pu)
tc = the minimum battery recharge time (hours)

The total minimum DC rectifier / charger current would be:

I dc  I L,dc  Ic

Select the next standard rectifier / charger rating that exceeds the total minimum DC current above.

A note about battery capacity

When batteries are cabled together in series, the voltage is additive. For example, if you put five 24 VDC,
100 Ah batteries in series to make a 120 VDC bank, the capacity of that bank would still be 100 Ah.

When batteries are connected in parallel, the voltage remains constant and the Ah capacity is additive.
For example if two 125 VDC, 100 Ah batteries are connected in parallel, the result would be a 125V VDC
system with a capacity of 200 Ah. If you parallel more than three strings of batteries, you risk shortening
the life of the batteries due to uneven charging.

Inverter Sizing

The inverter must be rated to continuously supply the UPS loads. Therefore, the inverter can be sized
using the design AC load current (based on the selected UPS kVA rating).

For a three-phase UPS:

S
I L , ac 
3 Vo

For a single-phase UPS:

S
I L ,ac 
Vo

Where:

IL,ac = the design AC load current (A) (full load)

S = the selected UPS rating (kVA)
Vo = the nominal output voltage (Vac) (line-to-line voltage for a three-phase UPS)

Select the next standard inverter rating that exceeds the design AC load current.

Static Switch Sizing

Like the inverter, the static switch must be rated to continuously supply the UPS loads. Therefore, the
static switch can be sized using the design AC load current (as above for the inverter sizing).

346
Load Profile Calculation
The load profile is constructed from the load list and is essentially a chart that shows the distribution of
the loads over time. The construction of the load profile will be explained by this simple example:

Suppose the following loads were identified based on the

autonomy method:

Description Load (VA) Autonomy (h)

DCS Cabinet 200 4

ESD Cabinet 200 4

Telecommunications Cabinet 150 6

Computer Console 90 2

The load profile is constructed by stacking "energy rectangles" on top of each other. An energy rectangle
has the load VA as the height and the autonomy time as the width and its area is a visual representation of
the load's total energy. For example, the DCS cabinet has an energy rectangle of height 200 (VA) and
width 4 (hours). The load profile is created by stacking the widest rectangles first; in this example it is the
telecommunications cabinet that is stacked first.

For the 24-hour method, energy rectangles are constructed with the periods of time that a load is
energized (i.e., the time difference between the ON and OFF times).

Calculate Design Load and Energy Demand

The design load is the instantaneous load for which the power conversion, distribution, and protection
devices should be rated, for example: rectifiers, inverters, cables, fuses, and circuit breakers. The design
can be calculated as follows:

Sd  Sp 1  kg  1  kc 

Where:

Sd = the design load apparent power (VA)

Sp = the peak load apparent power, derived from the load profile (VA)
kg = a contingency for future load growth (%)
kc = a design margin (%)

It is common to make considerations for future load growth (typically somewhere between 5 and 20%), to
allow future loads to be supported. If no future loads are expected, then this contingency can be ignored.
A design margin is used to account for any potential inaccuracies in estimating the loads, less-than-
optimum operating conditions due to improper maintenance, etc. Typically, a design margin of 10% to
15% is recommended, but this may also depend on client preferences.

Example: From our simple example above, the peak load apparent power is 640 VA. Given a
future growth contingency of 10% and a design margin of 10%, the design load is:

Sd  640  1  0.11  0.1  774.4 VA

347
Design Energy Demand

The design energy demand is used for sizing energy storage devices. From the load profile, the total
energy (in terms of VAh) can be computed by finding the area underneath the load profile curve (i.e.,
integrating instantaneous power with respect to time over the autonomy or 24-hour period). The design
energy demand (or design VAh) can then be calculated by the following equation:

Ed  Et 1  kg  1  kc 

Where:

Ed = the design energy demand (VAh)

Et = the total load energy, which is the area under the load profile (VAh)
kg = a contingency for future load growth as defined above (%)
kc = a design contingency as defined above (%)

Example: From our load profile tabulation for this simple example, the total load energy from the load
profile is 2,680 VAh. Given a future growth contingency of 10% and a design margin of 10%, the design
energy demand is:

Ed  2,680 1  0.11  0.1  3,242.8 VAh

Battery Sizing Calculation

The number of cells in a battery should be calculated to more accurately match the tolerances of the load.
The number of battery cells required to be connected in series must fall between the two following limits,
as explained earlier in the section.

Vdc 1  Vi ,max  Vdc 1  Vi ,min 

(1) Nmax  (2) Nmin 
Vf Veod

Determine Battery Capacity

The minimum battery capacity required to accommodate the design load over the specified autonomy
time can be calculated as follows:

Ed  k a  k t  k c 
Cmin 
Vdc  kdod  ke

Where:

Cmin = the minimum battery capacity (Ah)

Ed = the design energy over the autonomy time (VAh)
Vdc = the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)
ka = a battery aging factor (%)
kt = a temperature correction factor (%)
kc = a capacity rating factor (%)
ke = system efficiency (%)
kdod = the maximum depth of discharge (%)

348
An explanation of the different factors:

Aging factor captures the decrease in battery performance due to age. The performance of a lead-acid
battery is relatively stable but drops markedly at latter stages of life. The "knee point" of its life versus the
performance curve is approximately when the battery can deliver 80% of its rated capacity. After this point,
the battery has reached the end of its useful life and should be replaced. Therefore, to ensure that the
battery can meet capacity throughout its useful life, an ageing factor of 125% (i.e., 1 / 0.8 = 1.25) should be
applied. There are some exceptions, check with the manufacturer.

For Ni-Cd batteries, the principles are similar to lead-acid cells. Please consult the battery manufacturer
for suitable ageing factors, but generally, applying a factor of 1.25 is standard. For applications with high
temperatures and/or frequent deep discharges, a higher factor of 1.43 may be used. For more shallow
discharges, a lower factor of 1.11 can be used.

Temperature correction factor is an allowance to modify for capacity at the ambient installation
(operating) temperature. The capacity for battery cells is typically quoted for a standard operating
temperature of 25°C (77°F) and where this differs with the installation temperature, a correction factor
must be applied. IEEE 485 gives guidance for vented lead-acid cells (see figure next page), however for
sealed lead-acid and Ni-Cd cells, please consult the manufacturer's recommendations. Note that high
temperatures lower battery life irrespective of capacity and the correction factor is for capacity sizing only;
that is, you CANNOT increase battery life by increasing capacity.

Capacity rating factor accounts for voltage depressions during battery discharge. Lead-acid batteries
experience a voltage dip during the early stages of discharge followed by some recovery. Ni-Cds may
have lower voltages on discharge due to prolonged float charging (constant voltage). Both of these effects
should be accounted for by the capacity rating factor; please see the manufacturer's recommendations.

For Ni-Cd cells, IEEE 1115 Annex C suggests:

That for float charging applications, (Kt = rated capacity in Ah / discharge current in amps) for specified
discharge time and EODV (end of discharge voltage).

System efficiency is an allowance for losses in the battery (e.g., coloumbic efficiency) and power
electronics (e.g., inverter and/or charger).

Coloumbic efficiency of a battery is defined as follows:

Qout
c 
Qin

Where:

Ƞc = the coloumbic efficiency (pu)

Qout = the amount of charge that exits the battery during the discharge cycle (at °C)
Qin = the amount of charge that enters the battery during the charging cycle (at °C)

Coloumbic efficiency is not 100% because of losses in charge, largely because of secondary reactions,
such as the electrolysis of water or other redox reactions in the battery. The coloumbic efficiency of a
typical lead-acid battery is > 95%.

Worked Example – Sizing the Battery Bank

Step 1: Collect Battery Loads and Construct Load Profile

The loads and load profile from the simple example of Energy Load Profile Calculation will be used.
The design energy demand calculated for this system is Ed = 3,242.8 VAh.

349
Step 2: Number of Cells in Series

Vented lead acid batteries have been selected for this example. Suppose that the nominal battery voltage
is Vdc = 120 VDC, the cell charging voltage is Vc = 2.25 VDC/cell, the end-of-discharge voltage is Veod =
1.8 VDC/cell, and the minimum and maximum load voltage tolerances are Vl,min = 10% and Vl,max = 20%
respectively.

The most common number of cells in the battery for a specific voltage rating is shown in the chart below.

The maximum number of cells in series is:

Vdc 1  Vl ,max  120 1  0.2

Nmax    64 cells
Vc 2.25

The minimum number of cells in series is:

Vdc 1  Vl ,min  120 1  0.1
Nmax    60 cells
Vc 1.8

The selected number of cells in series is 62 cells.

Step 3: Determine Battery Capacity

Given a depth of discharge kdod = 80%, battery ageing factor ka = 25%, temperature correction factor for
vented cells at 30°C of kt = 0.956 and a capacity rating factor of kc = 10%, the minimum battery capacity
is:

Ed  ka  kc  kt 3,242.8  1.25  1.1 0.956

Cmin    44.4 Ah
Vdc  kdod 120  0.8

Temperature correction factors for vented lead-acid cells (from IEEE 485)
Electrolyte temperature Cell size Electrolyte temperature Cell size
(Lead-Acid nominal 1.215 s.g.) correction (Lead-Acid nominal 1.215 s.g.) correction
(°F) (°C) factor (°F) (°C) factor
25 -3.9 1.52 78 25.6
30 -1.1 1 430 79 26 1 3.987
35 1.7 1.35 80 26.7 0.980
40 4.4 1.3 81 27.2 0.976
45 7.2 1. 250 82 27.8 0.972
50 10 1.19 83 283 0.968
55 12.8 1.15 84 28.9 0.964
60 15.6 1.11 85 29.4 0.960
65 18.3 1.08 80 30.0 0.956
66 18.9 1.072 87 30.6 0.952
67 19.4 1.064 88 31.1 0.948
68 20 1.056 89 31.6 0.944
69 20.6 1.048 90 32.2 0.940
70 21.1 1.04 95 35.0 0.930
71 21.7 1.034 100 37.8 0.910
72 22.2 1.029 105 40.6 0.890
73 22.8 1.023 110 43.3 0.880
74 23.4 1.017 115 46.1 0.870
75 23.9 1.011 120 48.9 0.860
76 24.5 1.006 125 51.7 0.850
77 25 1. 000

350
Note: This will probably not be on the CSE exam. It is just good information

Backup Generator
The natural gas, propane, or diesel generator is the most widely used alternative source of power in
facilities today. Its ability to provide continuous power as long as it has a supply of fuel makes it well-
suited for providing both long- and short-term backup power.

Most generator-based systems are designed to automatically provide power to designated loads in the
event of an interruption in service. When power is lost, the generator automatically starts. Once the
generator comes up to speed, a switch automatically transfers the load from utility power to the output of
the generator. Depending on the size of the generator, this transfer typically takes place in 30 seconds or
less. Once utility company power is restored, the load is transferred back and the generator shuts down.

Note: The phase rotation of the utility power and backup generator must be observed. If the direction of
their rotations are not the same, pumps, fans, and other mechanical three-phase equipment may spin in
the wrong direction. With make-before-break switches this will cause a short circuit.

Permanently mounted generator Portable but can be installed in fixed location

Typical Electrical Standby System Instrumentation

 Touch-Screen PC/PLC Control

 Generator Paralleling
 Utility Paralleling
 Data Acquisition
 System Integration
 Instrumentation
 Status Annunciation
 Remote Monitoring

351
BMCS Implementation (Building Monitoring and Controls System)

The implementation of an advanced BMCS system incorporating fault tolerant design, system redundancy,
and system integration in data center infrastructure is critical to maintaining the goal of 100% uptime. Fault
tolerant encompasses designing the BMCS system to fail critical systems ON in the event of a control
system malfunction. Fault tolerant design ensures that the systems cooling capabilities are not lost
because the BMCS malfunctioned or lost power and shut essential mechanical equipment down.

System redundancy ensures that the BMCS will not be immobilized by a single component failure.
System redundancy includes redundant Ethernet backbones, self-healing communication buses, and
separate mechanical and electrical BMCS monitoring and control components.

System integration is the incorporation of separate systems into one control scheme. The sophisticated
BMCS, when implemented correctly can assimilate separate systems into one integrated solution. A brief
list of systems that can be integrated into the BMCS include computer room air conditioning/handling
units, chilled water plants, UPS systems, battery monitoring systems, standby generators, power
monitoring systems, electrical switchgear, DDC systems, lighting, and security systems.

Online Designations:

BMCS (Building Monitoring and Controls System) or (Building Management Control System)
CRAC (Computer Room Air Conditioning)
DDC (Direct Digital Control)
FCU (Fan Cooling Unit)
PQM (Power Quality Monitor)
RTU (Roof Top Unit)
UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply)

See the section Communications and Industrial Control Networks for more information on
controls and instrumentation in:

Plant Facility Monitoring and Control System (FMCS)

Building Management System / Building Automation System (BMS/BAS)

352
 Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Fluid Power Systems

Fluid power is the use of fluids under pressure to generate, control, and transmit power. Fluid power is
subdivided into hydraulics using a liquid, such as mineral oil or water, and pneumatics using a gas, such
as air or other gases. Compressed-air and water-pressure systems were once used to transmit power
from a central source to industrial users over extended geographic areas; fluid power systems today are
usually within a single building or mobile machine.

Hydraulic Systems

The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force that is applied at one point is
transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort.
The force is almost always multiplied in the process. The picture below shows the simplest possible
hydraulic system:

This simple hydraulic system consists of two pistons and an oil-filled pipe connecting them. If you apply a
downward force to one piston (the left one in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second
piston through the oil in the pipe. Since oil is incompressible, the efficiency is very good—almost all of the
applied force appears at the second piston.

The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting the two cylinders can be any length
and shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the two pistons. The pipe can also
fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more than one slave cylinder if desired.

In a hydraulic system, all you do is change the size of one piston and cylinder relative to the other, as
shown next. This called hydraulic multiplication. The piston on the right has a surface area nine times
greater than the piston on the left. When force is applied to the left piston, it will move nine units for every
one unit that the right piston moves, and the force is multiplied by nine on the right-hand piston.

353
To determine the multiplication factor, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that the piston
on the left is 2 inches in diameter (1-inch radius), while the piston on the right is 6 inches in diameter (3-
2
inch radius). The area of the two pistons is Pi * r . The area of the left piston is therefore 3.14, while the
area of the piston on the right is 28.26.

The piston on the right is 9 times larger than the piston on the left. What that means is that any force
applied to the left-hand piston will appear 9 times greater on the right-hand piston. So if you apply a 100-
pound downward force to the left piston, a 900-pound upward force will appear on the right. The only
catch is that you will have to depress the left piston 9 inches to raise the right piston 1 inch.

354
Pneumatic Systems

Pneumatics is a section of technology that deals with the study and application of pressurized gas to
produce mechanical motion. Pneumatic systems used extensively in industry are commonly powered by
compressed air or compressed inert gases. A centrally located and electrically powered compressor
powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through
manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, or safer
alternative to an electric motors and actuators.

Typical Pneumatic System (This Type May be Found in a Manufacturing or Chemical Plant)

Mechanical Flow Diagram of a Large Compressor

Instrumentation Air Header (Fluid Distribution Header or Manifold)

355
Pneumatic Schematic of Valve Controller

I/P Current to Pneumatic Positioner

356
Instrument Air Cost - Engineering Economics

Note: This will probably not be on the CSE exam. It is just good information

Instrument air consumption shall be calculated during detail design to

determine the plant utility air requirement by pneumatic operated instruments
and equipment. Consider the required air for its utilities, such as purging or
other purposes. The instrument air consumption calculation will be the basis
to size the instrument air utility system which consists of the air compressor,
air drier, and air receiver.

Actuated valves (such as a shutdown valves, blowdown valves, and control

valves) are instruments that require instrument air for their operation.
Instrument air requirements of each valve in the plant, depends on its
actuator size, I/P scfm consumption, and its operation (such as a booster).
Shutdown valves and blowdown valves may be considered working
intermittently, while control valves are working continuously. It should be
noted that the instrument air required by control valves during steady
condition is much less than during its transient condition.

Assumption
To determine the instrument air consumption, some assumptions should be made (please note that these
assumptions are for example only, not as standard reference, and may differ on each project):
Normal air consumption demand:

1) Control valves
a) From total number of control valves,
i) 90% of control valves operates in stable condition hence requires steady state air
consumption only.
ii) 10% could be in unstable condition, hence requiring transient air consumption.

2) Shutdown valves / blowdown valves

a) Shutdown valves and blowdown valves only require instrument air when they are operating, which
is predominantly during start up after shutdown, so it is considered intermittent consumption and
one can assume that only some numbers of the valves are working simultaneously.
b) It could be assumed that 10% of the valves will operate simultaneously for normal air demand
calculation.

Peak Air Demand

From total number of control valves:

 70% of control valves operate in stable condition hence requiring steady state air consumption only.
 30% are in unstable condition hence requiring transient air consumption.

Shutdown valves / blowdown valves:

Let’s say 100% of the valves will operate simultaneously for normal air demand calculation. *Note that the
number of percentage, stated here, is assumption only and may differ among each project.

Vendor Data
The next step is to gather data from the vendor's/manufacturer's catalog that provides
information on instrument air consumption. The following is data taken from the catalog:

Control valve in stable condition 0.3 scfm

Control valve in unstable condition 7 scfm

357
For actuated valves, the instrument air consumption depends on the size of actuator (swept volume),
which could be obtained from a vendor catalog. The required opening or closing time of the main valve will
also influence the air consumption rate.

Include Total Demand

For the instrument air consumption calculation, simply multiply the number of valves in the plant by the air
consumption data from the vendor catalog.
Then sum up the air requirements for all
instruments. Do the calculation tabulation for
both normal and peak condition. In addition,
other packaged equipment that may require
instrument air shall also be included, such as a
number of purged and pressurized enclosures
and air motors for pumps, equipment, and
production lines.

Instrument Air Piping and Cost

A common error seen in compressed air
systems, in addition to poor piping practice, is
line sized too small for the desired air flow.
This isn’t limited to the interconnecting piping
from compressor discharge to dryer to header.
It also applies to the distribution lines
conveying air to production areas and within
the equipment found there. Undersized piping
restricts the flow and reduces the discharge
pressure, thereby robbing the user of
expensive compressed air power. Small piping
exacerbates poor piping practices by
increasing the air velocity and turbulence-
induced backpressure is created.

Pipe size and layout design are the most

important variables in moving air from the
compressor to the point of use. Poor systems
not only consume significant energy dollars,
but also degrade productivity and quality. How
do you properly size compressed air piping for
the job at hand? You could ask the pipefitter,
but the answer probably will be, “What we
always do,” and often that’s way off base.

Another approach is matching the discharge

connection of the upstream piece of equipment
(filter, dryer, regulator, or compressor). A 150-
HP, two-stage, reciprocating, double-acting,
water-cooled compressor delivers about 750
cfm at 100 psig through a 6-in. port. But most
150-HP rotary screw compressors, on the
other hand, deliver the same volume and
pressure through a 2-in. or 3-in. connection.
So, which one is right? It’s obvious which is
cheaper, but port size isn’t a good guide to
pipe size.

358
Pipe sizing is just like sizing electrical lines

We want to eliminate wasted energy; this means lots of lost dollars over the years. Just like limiting the
voltage drop of the electrical line, we want to limit the pressure head drop in the line. Remember, in power
2 2
loss: (W = I * R) and in Head loss… (H = F * R). By making the pipe bigger we lower the energy loss in
the system. Make the pipe as big as possible and know if you need to plan for future expansion.

Caution Using Charts and Graphs

Many people use charts that show the so-called standard pressure drop as a function of pipe size and
fittings, which sizes the line for what is referred to as an acceptable pressure drop. This practice, too, can
be misleading because the charts can’t accommodate velocity and flow-induced turbulence. Think about
it. According to the charts, a short run of small-bore pipe exhibits a low total frictional pressure drop, but
the high velocity causes an extremely large, turbulence-driven pressure drop. Then, there’s the question
of the meaning of acceptable pressure drop. The answer to this question often isn’t supported by data,
such as the plant’s electric power cost to produce an additional psig.

Unit cost of air for positive displacement compressors runs from several hundred dollars per psig per year
to several thousand dollars per psig per year. At current energy costs, you don’t want the pipe to be a
source of pressure drop. Not knowing the energy cost of lost pressure as a function of line size can lead
to a costly decision. Use these guidelines to design new piping systems and to analyze existing system
performance and opportunities for improvement.

Interconnects and Headers

The interconnecting piping is a critical element that must deliver air to the distribution headers with little
pressure loss, if any. This isn’t only an energy question. It also ensures the capacity controls will have
sufficient effective storage to allow them to react to real demand and translate less air usage to a
comparable reduction in input electrical energy.

The main distribution headers not only move air throughout the plant, they also supply the appropriate
local storage that ensures the process feeds have adequate entry pressure and flow. The main header
system represents storage that supports the operating pressure band for capacity control. You want the
pressure drop between the compressor discharge and the point of use, to be significantly less than the
normal operating pressure control band (10 psig maximum).

The Target Objectives

The objective in sizing interconnecting piping is to transport the maximum expected volumetric flow from
the compressor discharge, through the dryers, filters and receivers; to the main distribution header with
minimum pressure drop. Contemporary designs that consider the true cost of compressed air target a
total pressure drop of less than 3 psi.

Beyond this point, the objective for the main header is to transport the maximum anticipated flow to the
production area and provide an acceptable supply volume for drops or feeder lines. Again, modern
designs consider an acceptable header pressure drop to be 0 psi.

Finally, for the drops or feeder lines, the objective is to deliver the maximum anticipated flow to the work
station or process with minimum or no pressure loss. Again, the line size should be sized for near zero
loss. Of course, the controls, regulators, actuators, and air motors at the work station or process have
requirements for minimum inlet pressure to be able to perform their functions. In many plants, the size of
the line feeding a work station often is selected by people who don’t know the flow demand and aren’t
aware of how to size piping.

For a system that doesn’t meet the criteria, the cost of modification must be weighed against the energy
savings and any improvements in productivity and quality. Obviously, the lower the pressure drop in

359
transporting air, the lower the system’s energy input. Lower header pressure also reduces unregulated air
flow (including leaks) by about 1% per psi of pressure reduction.

Eliminate the Pressure Drop

Most charts show frictional pressure drop for a given flow at constant pressure. Wall friction causes most
of this loss, which is usually denominated as pressure drop per 100 ft. of pipe. Similar charts express the
estimated pressure loss for fittings in terms of additional length of pipe. When added to the length of
straight pipe, the sum is called total equivalent length.

These charts reflect the basic calculations for pressure loss, which include:

 Air density at a given pressure and temperature

 Flow rate
 Velocity at pipeline conditions
 The Reynolds number

Other factors, including a friction factor based on the size and type of pipe, the calculations, and chart
data help to identify only the probable minimum pressure drop. Internal roughness and scaling
dramatically affect the pipe’s resistance to flow (friction loss). Resistance increases with time as the inner
wall rust, scales, and collects more dirt. This is particularly true of black iron pipe.

Pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity. Any high-volume, intermittent demand
produces dramatic pressure drop during peak periods. Ignoring this fact affects every process connected
to the header.

For a given size pipe:

 At constant pressure, the greater the flow, the greater the loss per foot of pipe.
 At constant flow rate, the lower the inlet pressure, the greater the loss per foot of pipe.
 At any condition, smooth-bore pipe (copper, stainless steel) exhibits lower friction losses.

Air Velocity
The most overlooked idea in piping layout and design is air velocity. Excessive velocity can be a root
cause of backpressure, erratic control signals, turbulence and turbulence-driven pressure drop.

The British Compressed Air

Society suggests that a velocity of
20 fps or less prevents carrying
moisture and debris past drain
legs and into controls. A velocity
greater than 30 fps is sufficient to
transport any water and debris in
the air stream. So the
recommended design pipeline
velocity for interconnecting piping
and main headers is 20 fps or
less, and never to exceed 30 fps.
Field testing reveals that, under
these conditions, air stream
turbulence is generally negligible.
Line drops, feed lines, or branch
lines less than 50 ft. long work
well at a velocity of 30 fps, but
velocity here should not exceed
50 fps.
Cost of pressure drops over a 10-year period

360
Crunching the Numbers

First, look at the velocity at maximum anticipated flow conditions using the following equation:
2
V = 3.056 * Q/D (Equation P1)

Where:
V = air velocity (in ft/sec)
Q = volumetric flow rate (in cfm)
D = conduit inside diameter (in inches)

Although this method of determining the minimum pipe size on the basis of air velocity is easy, you also
must consider that the compressed air volume is expressed in cubic feet per minute of free air, which is
the air volume at ambient atmospheric conditions, not the compressed volume. To adjust the inlet air
volumetric flow rate to actual pipeline conditions, you’ll need to divide the volume of free air by the
compression ratio using the following equation:

CR = (P+PAVG)/ PAVG (Equation P2)

Where:
P = line pressure (in psig)
PAVG = average atmospheric pressure at your elevation (in psi)

At higher elevations, the average atmospheric pressure drops and the compression ratio rises. For
example, Flagstaff, Ariz., at a 7,000-ft. elevation, has an average atmospheric pressure of about 11 psi. At
100 psig, the compression ratio is equal to 10, for example: (100 +11)/11.

To determine the pipeline velocity at conditions, merely divide the velocity given in Equation P1 by the
compression ratio given in Equation P2. After selecting the minimum pipe size on the basis of velocity,
check any long runs for excessive pressure drop using an appropriate drop chart.

For example, a velocity of 25 fps in black iron pipe represents about 0.25 psi loss per 100 ft. of run.
Although this is a little above the recommended minimum of 20 fps and, depending on the layout, would
probably be acceptable from a turbulence standpoint, a high total frictional loss may dictate using a larger
pipe. After carefully selecting a conduit size that eliminates unnecessary loss, be sure to pay the same
attention to downstream items, such as quick disconnects, regulators, filters, controls, fittings, number of
drops from a given header, and number of connections per header, so as not to offset the gains made
with the pipe.

361
Recover Wasted Heat to Save Money

Use a heat reclamation unit with a bypass loop to recover wasted heat energy from the compressor
system.

362
 Fluid Power Schematic Symbols

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Circuit Design

Connecting Pressure Lines (usually representing plastic tubing

Lines for pneumatic [air] lines with low pressures, metal piping for
hydraulic [fluid] lines with high pressure)

-continuous line (for) flow line

-dashed line (for) pilot, drain

-envelope (for) long and short dashes around two or more
component symbols

Circular

-large circle - pump, motor

-small circle - measuring devices

-semicircle - rotary actuator

Square
-one square - pressure control function
-two or three adjacent squares - directional control

Diamond
-diamond - fluid conditioner (filter, separator, lubricator, heat
exchanger)

Miscellaneous symbols
-spring

-flow restriction

Triangle
-solid - direction of hydraulic fluid flow

-open - direction of pneumatic flow

363
Pumps and Compressors (Turn rotary torque from an AC or DC electric
motor into pressure in a hydraulic or pneumatic
system)

Fixed displacement hydraulic pump symbols

-unidirectional

-bidirectional

Variable displacement hydraulic pump symbols

-unidirectional

-bidirectional

Compressor symbol

Motors

Fixed displacement hydraulic motor symbol

-unidirectional

-bidirectional

Variable displacement hydraulic motor symbol

-unidirectional

-bidirectional

Pneumatic motor symbol

-unidirectional

-bidirectional

Rotary actuator symbol

-hydraulic

-pneumatic

Cylinders

364
 Single acting cylinder symbols

-returned by external force

-returned by spring or extended by spring force

Double acting cylinder symbols

-single piston rod (fluid required to extend and retract)

-double ended piston rod

Cylinders with cushions symbols

-single fixed cushion

-double fixed cushion

-single adjustable cushion

-double adjustable cushion

Directional Control Valve Symbols

Directional control valve (2 ports / 2 positions)

-normally closed directional control valve with 2 ports and 2 finite
positions

-normally open directional control valve with 2 ports and 2 finite

positions

Directional control valve (3 ports / 2 positions)

-normally closed directional control valve with 3 ports and 2 finite

positions

-normally open directional control valve with 3 ports and 2 finite

positions

Directional control valve (4 ports / 2 positions)

-directional control valve with 4 ports and 2 finite positions

Directional control valve (4 ports / 3 positions)

-directional control valve with 4 ports and 3 finite positions
*(center position can have various flow paths)

365
Directional control valve (5 ports / 2 positions)
Normally a pneumatic valve

-directional control valve with 5 ports and 2 finite positions

Directional control valve (5 ports / 3 positions)

Normally a pneumatic valve

-directional control valve with 5 ports and 3 finite positions

Proportional directional control valve

Electro-hydraulic servo valve (same symbol)
The spool position on these valves is variable allowing for variable flow conditions.

-single-stage direct operation unit which accepts an analog signal and

provides a similar analog fluid power output

-two-stage with mechanical feedback indirect pilot operation unit

which accepts an analog signal and provides a similar analog fluid
power output

Control Method
Operator Symbols for Valves

Manual control
-general symbol of a valve's manual operator (without showing the
control type)
-push button

-lever

-foot pedal

Mechanical valve control

-plunger or tracer

-spring (used on one side of a valve to hold it in the normally open or

normally closed state)

-roller

-roller (one direction only)

Electrical/solenoid valve control

-solenoid (the one side's winding shown)

366
 Pilot operation
(uses pressure to actuate valve)

-pneumatic actuated pilot

-hydraulic actuated pilot

Pilot operated two-stage valve

(uses a second lesser force to actuate the pilot actuation of the valve)

-pneumatic: solenoid first stage

-pneumatic: air pilot second stage

-hydraulic: solenoid first stage

-hydraulic: hydraulic pilot second stage

Pressure Control Valves

Pressure relief valve (safety valve) normally closed

-line pressure is limited to the setting of the valve, secondary part is

directed to the tank

Proportional pressure relief valve

-line pressure is limited to and proportional to an electronic signal

Sequence valve
-when the line pressure reaches the setting of the valve, valve opens
permitting flow to the secondary port. The pilot must be externally
drained to tank.

Pressure reducing valve (hydraulic pressure regulator)

-pressure downstream of valve is limited to the setting of the valve

Flow Control Valves

Throttle valve
-adjustable output flow

367
 Flow control valves

-flow control valve with fixed output (variations in inlet pressure do not
affect rate of flow)
-flow control valve with fixed output and relief port to reservoir with relief
for excess flow (variations in inlet pressure do not affect rate of flow)

-flow control valve with variable output

-flow control valve with fixed orifice

-flow control valve with metered flow toward right free flow to left

-flow control valve with pressure compensated flow control fixed output
flow regardless of load
-flow control valve with pressure and temperature compensated

-flow control valve with variable output and relief port to reservoir

Flow dividing valve

-flow is divided equally to two outputs

Shut-off valve
-shut-off valve simplified symbol

Tanks

Accumulator

-accumulator symbol (stores pressure)

Reservoir (Tank)
-reservoir symbol (holds fluid medium of your system)

Filters, Water Traps, Lubricators and

Miscellaneous Apparatus

Filter or strainer

-with manual drain

368
 Water Trap

-with manual drain

-with automatic drain

Filter with water trap

-with manual drain

-automatic drain

Air dryer
-refrigerant, or chemical removal of water from compressed air
line

Lubricator

-oil vapor is injected into air line

Conditioning unit (FRL, pressure regulator)

-compound symbol of filter, regulator, lubricator unit (FRL symbol)

-simplified symbol

Heat Exchangers

-air or water cooled unit designed to remove heat from oil

returning to reservoir

369
370
 Overview of Conveying Technologies

Some common types of conveying systems are as follows:

 Gravity roller conveyor

 Wire mesh conveyors
 Plastic belt conveyors
 Bucket conveyors
 Spiral conveyors
 Vibrating conveyors
 Pneumatic conveyors
(positive and negative pressure)
 Chain conveyor
 Screw conveyor or auger conveyor
 Overhead conveyors

These types of conveyors are used every day in most

manufacturing plants and in petrochemical, paper, pulp,
and power plants to control the flow and transport of
materials for the many processes and produced end
products. Examples would be the flow of material into a
reactor or cars off the assembly line.

Heavy Duty Roller Conveyors

Heavy duty roller conveyors are used for moving items that are
at least 500 lbs. This type of conveyor makes the handling of
such heavy equipment/products easier and more time effective.
Many of the heavy duty roller conveyors can move as fast as
75 feet/minute.

Other types of heavy duty roller conveyors are gravity roller

conveyor, chain driven live roller conveyor, pallet accumulation
conveyor, multi-strand chain conveyor, and chain and roller
transfers.

Gravity Roller Conveyors

Gravity roller conveyors are extremely easy to use and are used in many different types of industries, such
as automotive and retail. Chain driven live roller conveyors are used for single or bidirectional material
handling. Large heavy loads are moved by chain driven live roller conveyors. Pallet accumulation
conveyors are powered through a mechanical clutch. This is used instead of individually powered and
controlled sections of conveyors. Multi-strand chain conveyors are used for double pitch roller chains.
Products that cannot be moved on traditional roller conveyors can be moved by a multi-strand chain
conveyor. strand chain Chain and roller conveyors are short runs of two or more strands of double pitch
chain conveyor built into a chain-driven line roller conveyor. These pop up under the load and move the
load off of the conveyor.

Flexible Conveyors
The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminum or
stainless steel, with low friction slide rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing
chain. Products to be conveyed travel directly on the conveyor or on
371
pallets/carriers. These conveyors can be worked around obstacles and keep production lines flowing.
They are made at varying levels and can work in multiple environments. They are used in food packaging,
case packing, and pharmaceutical industries but also in retail stores, such as Walmart and Kmart.

Vertical Conveyors and Spiral Conveyors

Vertical conveyors also commonly referred to as freight lifts and material
lifts are conveyor systems used to raise or lower materials to different
levels of a facility during the handling process. Examples of these
conveyors applied in the industrial assembly process include
transporting materials to different floors. While similar in look to freight
elevators, vertical conveyors are not equipped to transport people, only
materials.

Vertical lift conveyors contain two adjacent, parallel conveyors for

simultaneous upward movement of adjacent surfaces of the parallel conveyors. One of the conveyors
normally has spaced apart flites for transporting bulk food items. The dual conveyors rotate in opposite
directions, but are operated from one gear box to insure equal belt speed. One of the conveyors is
pivotally hinged to the other conveyor for swinging the pivotally attached conveyor away from the
remaining conveyor for access to the facing surfaces of the parallel conveyors.

Spiral Conveyors
In similarity to vertical conveyors, spiral conveyors raise and lower materials to different levels of a facility.
In contrast, spiral conveyors are able to transport material loads in a continuous flow.
Industries that require a higher output of materials—food and beverage, retail case
packaging, pharmaceuticals—typically incorporate these conveyors into their systems
over standard vertical conveyors due to their ability to facilitate high throughput. Most
spiral conveyors also have a lower angle of incline or decline (11 degrees or less) to
prevent sliding and tumbling during operation.

Spiral conveyors provide a space saving means to cool or freeze products in a

continuously flow production line. Examples would be products, such as pizza or frozen
dinners, that must go through a blast freezer before packaging the product.

Vertical Conveyor with Forks

Just like spiral conveyors also a vertical conveyor that use forks are able to
transport material loads in a continuous flow. With these forks the load can be
taken from one horizontal conveyor and put down on another horizontal conveyor
on a different level. By adding more forks more products can be lifted at the same
time. Conventional vertical conveyors have the restriction that the input and output
of material loads must have the same direction. By using forks many combinations
of different input- and output levels in different directions are possible and can do
vertical sorting.

Vibrating Conveyors
A vibrating conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is turned up on the side to form a
trough. They are used extensively in food grade applications where sanitation, wash down, and low
maintenance are essential. Vibrating conveyors are also suitable for harsh, very hot, dirty, or corrosive
environments. They can be used to convey newly cast metal parts which may reach upwards of 1,500 °F
(820 °C). Due to the fixed nature of the conveying pans, vibrating conveyors can also perform tasks, such
as sorting, screening, classifying, and orienting parts.

372
Vibrating conveyors have been built to convey material at angles exceeding 45° from horizontal using
special pan shapes. Flat pans will convey most materials at a 5° Incline from horizontal line. Examples of
vibrating conveyors are shown below: In the middle image, the vibrating conveyor actually moves the
parts up the incline from the bottom of the tub, to be dispensed for installation on the assembly line, such
as nuts on wheels.

Pneumatic and Vacuum Conveyors

Pneumatic Tube Conveyor Systems

Pneumatic tube conveyor systems work with cylindrical containers (called carriers) propelled through a
single tube line or a network of tube lines with positive air pressure or a vacuum. These systems are
used for transporting items (such as cash, pharmaceuticals, lab samples, production samples, and many
other items) to either a single or multiple locations.

Tube systems are greatly utilized in market applications including hospitals, auto dealerships, distribution
facilities, industrial plants, movie theatres, and batch plants. Pneumatic tubes can be also used to
transport bottles, caps, cans, pellets, documents, etc.

Systems can reach average speeds of 25 ft. per second, with some systems achieving speeds up to 33 ft.
per second depending on the application. Some systems are computer-controlled, allowing in brief: the
tracking of any specific transaction, performing remote maintenance diagnostics, and assisting in
pinpointing any errors within the system. System design allows carriers to travel the system with minimal
vibration and to reach the destination with air cushioned soft delivery allowing for the transport of delicate
or fragile contents without breakage or disruption of sensitive lab samples.

Depending on the type of pneumatic conveyers used for the application, pneumatic tube systems can
reach average speeds of 25 ft. per second with supplementary air injectors used in Dilute phase systems,
and Dense phase systems can achieve speeds up to 33 ft. per second.

373
Large Complex Pneumatic Conveying Systems

In many manufacturing plants, the plant compressed air is used for pneumatic conveying of many types
of materials, such as cement, fly ash,
starch, sugar, salt, sand, plastic
pellets, oats, feeds, etc. Often these
are systems that use high-pressure
air (100 psig class) reduced to lower
pressures (15 psig and 45 psig). This
reduction in pressure creates an air
savings opportunity.

These processes are often complex

and engineered by the manufacturer
to utilize high-pressure inlet air. To
convert them to low pressure may
sometimes be a challenging job,
which requires significant changes in
controls, valves, piping, regulators,
orifices, etc., so plants are often
resistant to approach these costly
opportunities as a serious project.

Typical Plant Pneumatic Conveying System

HMI for Pneumatic Conveying System

374
Dilute Phase Systems
The two most distinct categories of pneumatic conveying are low-pressure or high-pressure systems
(there are other names “in between,” such as medium phase, lean phase, positive pressure, etc.). The
first category is low-pressure systems, also referred to as dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems.
These systems utilize entry air pressure under 15 psig and either positive or negative pressure to push or
pull materials through the conveying line at relatively high velocities and volume. They are described as
low pressure/high velocity systems and have a high air-to-material ratio.

A typical low-pressure system using a rotary air lock feeder will use a high pick-up velocity of around
2,500 fpm at the beginning of the system, and about 6,000 fpm at the end. The conveying line pressure is
under 15 psig at the beginning and near atmospheric pressure at the end.

Low-pressure systems should use a low-pressure positive displacement blower as the primary
compressed air source. Often, the abrasive nature of the product being transported precludes the use of
dilute phase systems and the associated very high velocities, which will create significant system piping
and valve erosion.

Dense Phase Systems

The second category is known as a dense phase system, which operates at high pressure. These
systems utilize air pressure above 15 psig (up to 50 psig) in the pipe and positive pressure to push
materials through the conveying line at relatively low velocities (from 100 fpm to a maximum of 1,000 fpm)
much like extruding. They are described as high pressure/low velocity systems and have a low air-
to-material ratio. Dense phase conveying uses smaller amounts of air to move large amounts of bulk
solid material in slugs through the conveying line.

The product being transported is often abrasive in nature. The dense phase system is selected to
eliminate or minimize transfer pipe erosion, by maintaining moderate velocities, and to still deliver the
appropriate pounds per hour of production. Generally, this type of system requires an air compressor of
the appropriate size and pressure (35 – 100 psig)
375
A Dense Phase Conveying System

Dense phase conveying systems, if not already utilizing a dedicated lower pressure air supply, may be
able to be taken off the high pressure systems and an appropriate single-stage reciprocating rotary
screw or centrifugal (single or two-stage) compressor can be dedicated to this scenario. The electrical
energy cost per scfm of this air will be much lower than the high pressure and the unit can easily be shut
off when not in use.

These flow volumes will vary greatly depending on the product and the system design, but they will always
be lower than a similar dilute phase system. Often these systems will have small booster pulsers along
the transport path, to keep the product moving as the material losses energy or momentum.

Conveying Phase Diagram

376
Pressure Distance Relationships

Vacuum Conveying
Vacuum pneumatic conveying has some inherent advantages compared to positive pressure pneumatic
conveying:

Dust Control – Systems can be completely sealed from entry to discharge. Any leakage in the systems
will be internal, not into ambient work area.

Minimum Maintenance – Fewer moving parts mean a simpler design.

Economical to Operate – Often a properly applied vacuum system with an electric motor-driven vacuum
pump will utilize significantly less electrical energy operating cost than a simpler operating positive
pressure system.

As is always the case, each proposed process should be evaluated with total annual electrical energy
operating cost as a key ingredient in the selection process.

Although vacuum is most often used in dilute phase transport, it can also be used in dense phase systems
when economics and conditions dictate. Careful evaluation should be given to the optimal power drives
particularly if a compressed air-driven central vacuum pump is planned to be used. With a vacuum
conveying system, an electric motor driven, central vacuum pump should always be used from an energy
efficiency standpoint. An air driven, central vacuum pump starts out already “deep in the hole” with regard
to energy efficiency.

377
A typical vacuum product transportation system

Vacuum conveying systems and HMI display

Vacuum conveying system HMI display

378
Blower operating cost of pneumatic systems

With a PD (pressure differential) blower (roots blower),

the airflow decreases as line pressure increases,
reducing velocity in the conveying system.

Screw conveying systems

A screw conveyor (or auger conveyor) is a mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called a
"flighting," usually within a tube, to move liquid or granular materials. Screw conveyors play a major role
in a wide variety of industrial operations that involve the handling of bulk solids. Modern screw conveyors
allow bulk materials to be conveyed over a range of elevation angles from horizontal to vertical—screw
conveyors can be operated with the flow of material inclined upward. When space allows, this is a very
economical method of elevating and conveying. As the angle of inclination increases, the capacity of a
given unit rapidly decreases. Screw conveyors provide an efficient way to move semi-solid materials,
including food waste, wood chips,
aggregates, cereal grains, animal feed,
boiler ash, meat and bone meal,
municipal solid waste, and many
others.

1. Feed Tank (dosage or additive)

2. Rotary Air lock Valve
(top - inlet to mill for grinding)
(bottom - feed to system)
3. Screw Conveyor for Flow Control
4. Load Cell (weight measurement)
5. Product Mill
6. Filter System
(delta pressure switch to measure
plugging, solenoid actuated air
hammers to blow back
on filter socks to stop buildup of
material that cause plugging of the
system)

7. Blower
8. Exhaust System

379
Screw conveyors usually consist of a trough or tube containing either a spiral blade coiled around a shaft,
driven at one end and held at the other, or a "shaftless spiral," driven at one end and free at the other. The
rate of volume transfer is proportional to the rotation rate of the shaft. In industrial control applications, the
device is often used as a variable rate feeder by varying the rotation rate of the shaft to deliver a
measured rate or quantity of material into a process

Screw conveyor instruments

1. Bearing temperature
2. Surface temperature
3. Inductive proximity switch (for metal detection)
4. Speed switch or velocity feedback sensor
5. Blockage and backup sensor (normally falls over the sensor shield, but fills up when blockage)

Mass or Bulk Flow Measurement

Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate

The radiometric belt weigher is noncontacting, with a scintillation detector installed beneath and a shielded
source mounted above the conveying system. Radiation is directed through the measurement point and
attenuated as it passes through the conveyor. The extent to which it is attenuated depends on the
conveyor load. When combining the measured conveyor load with a velocity signal, the mass flow rate
can be determined very accurately and without any influence of dust, temperature, vibrations, varying
particle sizes, or chemical properties of the measured material.

The basic element of radiometric (also known as nucleonic) measurement is a radioactive preparation
that emits gamma rays. A Cesium-137 or a Cobalt-60 isotope is usually used as the radiation source. A
special detector mounted on the opposite side of the tank picks up the radiation. This scintillator is able to
convert the radiation received into flashes of light that are counted and evaluated. Because gamma rays
are attenuated by changes to the process medium, this technology can calculate the level, the limit level,
the density or mass flow from the intensity of the incoming radiation, that is, from the number of light
flashes.

Load cell measurement for mass flow rate

The measurement principle is based on Newton’s second law, which states that force is equal to mass
times acceleration. The useful form of Newton’s equation for a body at rest is: weight equals mass times
gravity or W = Mg. Since local gravity is a constant, gravity can be readily and precisely accounted for
during calibration. Rearranging, Mass = W/g or mass is linearly proportional to weight.

Double cantilevered shear beams are a high performance subset of a class of force transducers
generically referred to as “load cells.” It is frequently convenient to view force transducers as “ideal linear
springs.”

380
Mass flow control of conveying system

Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate

Load Cell (Strain Gauge) measurement for mass flow rate

Weigh screw conveyors and feeders are suitable for dusty and hazardous products and require only
limited space.

381
Typical scale systems used on manufacturing lines and in plants

382
 Chemical Process Technology and Equipment

Process Technologies

Process technology involves every aspect

of chemical processing, including extracting
chemicals (such as oil and natural gas)
refining them, and carefully monitoring the
process that makes it happen.

Special instrumentation, pumps, turbines,

and compressors are designed to monitor
and separate the chemicals that make up
countless products we use every day.

Fuel, building materials, metals, cosmetics,

medicine, and plastics are all are products
of process technology.

Process technology spans many industries.

Power plants depend on it to maximize
their output and minimize emissions. Waste
and water-treatment plants use it to clean
and monitor industrial waste; there is also
environmental impact, and human health
and safety.

The following is a list of the basic and most popular process technologies you may encounter as a CSE.
You will need a basic understanding of these processes in order to be able to control them. You cannot
control the process if you do not understand the underlying principles.

Process solutions for industrial separation processes based on the following unit operations
• Distillation, absorption, and reactive distillation • Wastewater and vent gas treatment
• Film evaporation • Food and beverage
• Liquid-liquid extraction • Biofuels and biochemicals
• Crystallization • Reaction technology
• Membrane separation • Polymer production, including polystyrene (PS),
• Solvent recovery expandable polystyrene (EPS) and poly lactic
• Product purification acid (PLA) production

Industries include the following segments

• Fine and specialty chemical industry • Polymer production industry
• Chemical and petrochemical industry • Food and beverage industry
• Pharmaceutical industry • Biofuels and biorefinery industry

383
Separation Processes

In chemical engineering, a separation process is a method to achieve any mass transfer phenomenon
that converts a mixture of substances into two or more distinct product mixtures (which may be referred to
as fractions), at least one of which is enriched in one or more of the mixture's components. In some
cases, a separation may fully divide the mixture into its pure components.

Mass transfer equipment includes distillation, absorption, stripping, evaporation, phase separation, liquid-
liquid extraction, crystallization, and membrane separation.

Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. The refining process splits
this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures, such as natural gas, gasoline and chemical feedstocks,
none of which are pure substances. Each product component must be separated from the raw crude. In
both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products. In the case
of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual distillation steps, each of which produces a
different product or intermediate product which can be further distilled and separated again.

A Typical Horizontal Three-Phase Separator

Industrial Distillation

Distillation is extremely common in industry. (See the picture on the next page of a common distillation
unit found in a typical plant.) The feed may be vapor, liquid, or a mixture, but is most commonly a liquid.
Its composition is usually variable. Liquid in the bottom of the column (also called a tower), is boiled up
through the column and vapor leaving the top is condensed and returned as reflux.

The product component flows must equal the feed flow (sum of the components) or the process won’t
operate very long. So, the liquid level in the bottom of the column and the liquid level in the reflux
accumulator are controlled by manipulating product flows out or sometimes by manipulating heat to the
reboiler or reflux to the column.

Commercially, distillation has many applications. For example:

In the fossil fuel industry, distillation is a major class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for
fuels and for chemical feedstocks. Distillation permits separation of air into its components notably
oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for industrial use. In the field of industrial chemistry, large ranges of crude
liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, or from
impurities.

384
A Typical Industrial Distillation Process

A Typical Distillation Unit

385
The key to distillation is to control the temperature and pressure in the column. These variables control the
phase change in the product components. Each component will flash or change phase from liquid to
vapor at a different temperature at a specified pressure. The temperature is changed by adding energy to
the product fluid.

This is typically done by a unit called a reboiler. A reboiler is a heat exchanger. Steam into the reboiler is
controlled and manipulated, by use of energy balance calculations, to cause the flashing of the product.
The heat energy of the product travelling up the column is then further manipulated by the return of a
lighter fractioned product component called reflux. When the lighter fractioned product component exits
the top of the column, the component is cooled by a heat exchanger with cooling water, this is called a
condenser. This causes the vapor product to condense back into a liquid. Part of the lighter fractioned
product component is then sent back into the column to manipulate the pressure and temperature of the
column fluid. This also allows for the component to be further fractioned into a more pure component as
the liquid flows down the column and then travels back up the column again as a vapor fraction.

Under large upsets, it may be necessary to remove energy quickly by reducing the pressure on the
column to lower the temperature. This is done by using a bypass valve around the condenser to control
the flow of the product going to the reflux tank. This fluid will be two-phase flow and the valve needs to be
calculated for this extra capacity of flow now containing both vapor and liquid. The area of the valve needs
to be larger to accommodate the extra volume of the vapor at a high flow rate with minimal pressure drop.

The level of the feedstock product in the column must be held fairly constant for the BTU energy
calculation to do its job. The energy to the reboiler and into the column will fluctuate with the flow rate and
the temperature of the feedstock. The split of the product components out of the column will also need to
be controlled. The components out the top are called the light products and the components out the
bottom are called the heavy products or bottom products.

Analyzers may be used in the top and bottom streams. This is fairly common today due to the cost
savings and the need for higher quality (higher purity) of products. This may be a requirement of ISO 9002
specifications for traceability of products.

Industrial Furnaces (Fired Heaters)

Industrial Furnaces
An industrial furnace or direct fired heater is equipment used to provide heat for a process. Furnace
designs vary in function, heating duty, type of fuel and method of
introducing combustion air.

Fuel flows into the burner and is burnt with air provided from an air blower.
There can be more than one burner in a furnace which can be arranged in
cells which heat a set of tubes. Burners can also be floor mounted, wall
mounted, or roof mounted depending on design. The flames heat up the
tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of the furnace which
is known as the radiant section or firebox.

In this chamber where combustion takes place, the heat is transferred

mainly by radiation to tubes around the fire in the chamber. The heating fluid
passes through the tubes and is thus heated to the desired temperature. The
gases from the combustion are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves
the firebox, most furnace designs include a convection section where more
heat is recovered before venting it to the atmosphere through the flue gas
stack.

386
Fired Heater Control Scheme
The control strategy typically involves
maintaining the desired outlet temperature at
the desired charge rate, while being as
energy efficient as possible through the full
range of operation. The safety system’s role
is to take the fired heater to a safe state in
the event of an unsafe condition or process
state.

Fuel must not be allowed to accumulate in

the firebox, where an ignition could be
catastrophic. Beyond the combustion risks,
there are risks on the process side that must
be addressed. Overheating/over firing can
lead to ruptured tubes, which can threaten
lives, destroy equipment and property, and
cause environmental damage. Very costly
extended downtime may also result.

See the section in this manual Process

Analyzers / Combustion and Analyzers for
more information on control of an industrial
furnace and fired heaters using O2 and CO2
analyzer measurements and a cross limiting
control scheme.

Expansion Tanks and Heat Transfer Fluid

Industries commonly use their furnaces to heat a special secondary fluid, heat transfer fluid (HTF), with
special additives like anti-rust and high-heat transfer efficiency. This heated fluid is then circulated around
the whole plant to heat exchangers to be used wherever heat is needed instead of directly heating the
product line.

The expansion tank is critical to

the operation of the system. Its
main purpose is to allow some
place for the HTF to go when it
expands in the system. The
expanded fluid is absorbed by
the expansion tank when the
fluid is heated. When the
process is cooled (such as in a
batch system), the expansion
tank provides a source to draw
fluid from and keep the system
full. The HTF expands about 5%
to 6% for every 100°C.

The expansion tank also acts as

a built-in reserve tank for your
system. Just in case you have a
leak, it keeps your system full.
That is why it is important to keep an eye on the level in your expansion tank daily. If the level drops from
its normal position, that means you have developed a leak somewhere. Some general rules of thumb are
to fill the expansion tank 25% full when the system is cold. When the system is running hot, it should be
75% full.
387
There are usually two pipes or legs that run to an expansion tank and when running, one leg needs to be
closed to prevent thermal currents from running into the expansion tank and heating the fluid in that tank.
If the operating temperature of the expansion tank is less than 140°F (60°C), it helps to prevent oxidation
from the air inside the tank. If you have no choice and need to have your expansion tank run hotter than
140°F (60°C), then you need to install a nitrogen blanket on the head of the tank to remove any oxygen
molecules and prevent oxidation. The nitrogen blanket should be 5 to 15 inches of water.

Ideally, the expansion tank should be located at the highest point in the system to allow for the most
effective collection and purge of noncondensable gases
and to provide the most suction head to the circulation
pumps. Pump suction head also is optimized when the
tank is connected to the main circulation loop, close to the
suction of the circulating pump. There are several different
expansion tank designs, but a preferred design is a tank
with a double-drop-leg arrangement, where the diameter
of the drop-leg piping is as close to the same size as the
return header as possible. This design allows for full fluid
flow through the expansion tank during startups and
during times when moisture or low boilers must be vented
from the system. It also allows for pass-by flow during
normal operations. A simple schematic of an expansion
tank design is shown in the figure to the right.

Look at the figure below. When first starting the system, hand valve “E” should be opened to vent any
moisture out of the system. The back pressure valve just above it should have a slightly higher pressure
relief setting than the nitrogen blanket regulator so we don’t waste gas constantly venting. This regulator
will release system pressure under upset. The upset can be from topping the hot system with cold HTF
which could have a substantial amount of moisture in the fluid, after being stored on site or from a heat
exchanger leaking through a cracked pipe and the water then flashing and causing expansion of the fluid.
The pressure relief valve is for safety. The nitrogen nozzle (inlet pipe) should be at the end opposite the
venting valve. This helps force the moisture out of the expansion tank and system.

Management of the small amount of residual water in the system typically involves circulating the heat
transfer fluid through the expansion tank at a temperature just above 212°F (100°C) while venting to a
safe location (by temporarily opening valve “E”) until all signs of excess moisture subside.

The low level alarm (LAL) can be used to tell if the system is leaking and the high level alarm (HLA) used
to tell if there is moisture or water being flashed in the system, possibly a leak from a heat exchanger.
Excessive flashing can cause the pump to cavitate and there will be loss of pump head pressure. This
can be monitored and alarmed using a Rosemount 3150S with advanced diagnostic. This is discussed in
the section Flow Measurement and Calibration.
388
Vapor Pressure, Boiling and Cavitation in Equipment

Vaporization in Equipment

A fluid vaporizes when its pressure becomes too low, or its temperature too high. As seen previously in
industrial distillation, a typical fractional distillation of a liquid mixture is heated at the proper temperature
and flashed into a vapor and the resulting vapor rises up the fractionating column. The vapor is then
condensed into the liquid product we wanted to separate from the feed stock.

By increasing the temperature enough, the product will flash or by lowering the pressure enough, the
product will flash. Flashing or boiling of a product does not always occur at atmospheric pressure and
212°F or 100°C. This why we can use a vacuum column to distill or fractionate a feed stock product at
lower temperature. This uses less energy to flash the fractions from the feed stock.

Control Valve Applications

As discussed previously in the section on control valves, vaporization occurs in control valves if the ΔP
across the valve is too great. The fluid will accelerate through the valve too fast, causing a great pressure
drop and possibly even drop below vapor pressure. This leads to flashing and cavitation of the liquid
product. See the section in this manual Process Control Valves and Actuators / Maximum ΔP and
Maximum Flow for detailed information.

Pumping Applications

Vaporization in pumping systems

All centrifugal pumps have a required head (pressure) at the suction side of the pump to prevent this
vaporization. This head requirement is supplied to us by the pump manufacturer and is calculated with the
assumption that fresh water at 68°F (20 °C) is the fluid being pumped.

Since there are losses in the piping leading from the source to the suction of the pump, we must
determine the head after these losses are calculated. Another way to say this is that a Net Positive
Suction Head is Required (N.P.S.H.R.) to prevent the fluid from vaporizing. We take the Net Positive
Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) subtract the vapor pressure of the product we are pumping, and this
number must be equal to or greater than the Net Positive Suction Head Required.

Pump suction cavitation

When a pump is under low pressure or high vacuum conditions, suction cavitation occurs. The pump is
being "starved" or is not receiving enough flow. When this happens, bubbles or cavities will form at the
eye of the impeller. As the bubbles carry over to the discharge side of the pump, the fluid conditions
change, compressing the bubble into liquid and causing it to implode against the face of the impeller.

An impeller that has fallen victim to suction cavitation will have large chunks or very small bits of material
missing, causing it to look like a sponge.

Possible causes of suction cavitation:

 Clogged filters or strainers
 Blockage in the pipe
 Pump is running too far right on the pump curve
 Poor piping design
 Poor suction conditions (NPSH requirements)

389
Pump impeller discharge cavitation

When a pump's discharge pressure is extremely high, or runs at less than 10% of its best efficiency point
(BEP), discharge cavitation occurs. The high discharge pressure makes it difficult for the fluid to flow out
of the pump, so it circulates inside the pump. Liquid flows between the impeller and the housing at very
high velocity, causing a vacuum at the housing wall and the formation of bubbles.

As with suction cavitation, the implosion of those bubbles trigger intense shockwaves, causing premature
wear of the impeller tips and pump housing. In extreme situations, discharge cavitation can cause the
impeller shaft to break.

Possible causes of discharge cavitation:

 Blockage in the pipe on discharge side
 Clogged filters or strainers
 Running too far left on the pump curve
 Poor piping design

Video of Vaporization and Cavitation Phenomenon

You can view this vaporization and cavitation video in any MP4 player, click the button below to run the
MP4 video from the official website: http://learncontrolsystems.com/cavitation.mp4.

390
Heat Exchangers

A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer

from one medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid
wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact.

They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning,

power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum
refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment.

The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal

combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant
flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the
coolant and heats the incoming air.

Flow Arrangement
There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In
parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to
one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from
opposite ends. The counter current design is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from
the heat (transfer) medium per unit mass due to the fact that the average temperature difference along
any unit length is higher. See countercurrent exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel
roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger.

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two
fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can
also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface
area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.

The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate mean
temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this is the Log Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the Number of Transfer Units
(NTU) or The Effectiveness method is used.

391
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most common type of heat
exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is suited for higher-pressure
applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel)
with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes
(through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, which
may be composed of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

Two fluids of different starting temperatures flow through the

heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side)
and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell (the
shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other
through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or
vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either
the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a
large heat transfer area should be used, leading to the use of
many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is
an efficient way to conserve energy.

Heat exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each

side can be called one-phase or single-phase heat
exchangers. Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to heat
a liquid and boil it into a gas (vapor), sometimes called boilers,
or cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid, called condensers,
with the phase change usually occurring on the shell side. Boilers in steam engine locomotives are
typically large, usually cylindrically-shaped shell-and-tube heat exchangers. In large power plants with
steam-driven turbines, shell-and-tube surface condensers are used to condense the exhaust steam
exiting the turbine into condensate water which is recycled back to be turned into steam in the steam
generator.

Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger

Another type of heat exchanger is called (dynamic) scraped surface heat exchanger. This is mainly
used for heating or cooling with high-viscosity products, crystallization processes, evaporation and high-
fouling applications. Long running times are achieved due to the continuous scraping of the surface, thus
avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the process.

Phase-change heat exchangers

In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat exchangers can be used either
to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid.
In chemical plants and refineries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers are often
heat exchangers.

Distillation setups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid. Power plants
that use steam-driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam. Heat exchangers
or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers or steam generators.
Reboiler as seen on a distillation column

392
Heat Exchanger BTU Calculation and Control
The BTU (British thermal unit) is universally accepted as a unit of heat transfer measurement. The BTU
is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1°F. The
equation for the heat transfer for water and the conditions for our example calculation is as follows:

Q=W (T2-T1) Cp
Where:

Q=Heat transfer per unit time (BTU/hr)

W=Mass flow rate (lb/hr)
T2=Outlet temperature (°F)
T1= Inlet temperature (°F)
Cp=Specific heat capacity (1.0 BTU/lb for water)

Conditions:
Steam: 1173 BTU/LB @ 30 psig
Product: Water at 60°F
Flow rate of product: 50 gpm

Example of how to control the heat exchanger:

The FT (flow transmitter) of the liquid line coming into the heat exchanger will calculate the gallons per
minute of product. We will then assume a gain of 1 at the temperature controller TIC ( m is the
manipulated variable). We will then
calculate the delta temperature
between the inlet and outlet of the
product at FY (∆, m-T1). We want
the product to be at an operating
temperature of 150°F: ∆T = 150 –
60 = 90⁰. This calculation will be
done in real time based on the inlet
temp and the set point of the TIC
controller. Remember, we are
assuming a gain of 1 without tuning
of the TIC controller.

We will now multiply the ∆T by the

weight in pounds per minute (not
gpm) to get the BTU per minute
required to raise the temperature of the product to steady state operating conditions. Note that BTU is
measured in BTU per hour and power is measured by Watts per hour. (There are 3.412 watts per BTU if
electric heat is being used.) We need to change gpm (gallons per minute) into pounds per hour, to have a
direct relationship to our inlet steam in BTU per hour.

The multiplier for the FY (f(t)) above the liquid product transmitter will be:

8.33 lb 1 gallon 60 min 499.8 lb

× × 
1 gallon 1 min 1 hour hour

Now calculate our BTU per hour: Q=W (∆T) Cp

The multiplier for the FY(X) BTU calculation

499.8 lb 1 BTU 90F 44982 BTU

× × 
hour lb  F 1 hour

The pounds of steam per hour needed for each gallon per minute
393
44982 BTU 1 lb (steam) 38.35 lb (steam)
× 
hour 1173 BTU hour

The 38.35 is multiplied times the product flow rate of 50 gpm. The call for pounds of steam per hour for
the flow rate of 50 gpm at a ∆T of 90⁰ is:

38.35 lb 50 gpm 1917.5 lb (steam)

 
gpm  hour 1 hour

Important Note:

To flash 218⁰F water into 218⁰F steam, 972 BTU/lb of latent heat must be added to each pound of
water plus the 1 BTU/LB to raise the temperature of the water up to the boiling point.

Condenser (Heat Transfer)

In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its
gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance,
and will transfer to the condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers that have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very large industrial-scale units
used in plant processes.

For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the
outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes (such as distillation),
steam power plants, and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the
coolant is common in many condensers. A fin fan cooler is shown below; it uses air to cool the product.

394
Evaporation Processes

What is evaporation?
Evaporation is the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state that only impacts the surface of the liquid.
On the other end, if boiling temperature (different for each specific liquid and pressure connected) is
exceeded, the constancy of the temperature and pressure parameters let the boiling process happen.
Both processes fall under the name of vaporization.

What is latent heat?

To make the change of state, called
evaporation latent heat, first heat
(energy) needs to be provided. The
quantity depends on the type of liquid
and on its mass and temperature. For
instance, the latent heat for one kilo of
water at 373 K (100°C) is about 2300
kJ (550 kcal, 640 Wh) at atmospheric
pressure (about 100 kPa). The same
heat quantity is released by water
during the vapor phase, when
condensation phenomenon occurs.

What is the boiling point?

It is the temperature point where vapor pressure reaches the external pressure value (fixed), vaporization
therefore occurs in a tumultuous way (boiling) that not only impacts the surface of the liquid, but its entire
mass.

Boiling temperature point depends on the liquid type and varies according to pressure. Water boiling point
occurs at 373 K (100°C) with an atmospheric pressure of about 100 kPa. But at high altitudes (on top of
the mountains for instance, where pressure value is lower than the sea level) water boils with a lower
temperature. When pressure is definitely low (vacuum) and equal to about 4 kPa (40 mbar), boiling
temperature is reached at 302 K (29°C). Different liquids have different boiling points: ethyl alcohol, for
instance, has a boiling point equal to 351.4 K (78.4°C) at 75 kPa (760 mbar).

Note: This will probably not be on the CSE exam. It is just good information

Various Types of Evaporators and Their Working Principles

Vertical Falling Film Evaporator

The process fluid to be vaporized is feed to the
evaporator at the top of the tube sheet. A suitable
distribution unit is necessary in order to achieve
an even liquid distribution. It is paramount that the
for this process minimal wetting rate is achieved.
In general, the process liquid flows at the tube
inside. But there are also applications where the
liquid is applied on the tube outside.

Due to gravity, the liquid forms a continuous liquid

film with hydrodynamic characteristics which are
determined by the film Reynolds number and
Kapitza number. In general, steam is used as a
heating source. The steam condenses on the
outside of the tube and flows, gravity controlled, to
the bottom of the unit inside the

395
tubes; the two-phase flow is separated by means of a separator at the bottom of the unit.

In multi-effect falling film evaporators the vapor produced is used to heat a so called second effect
on a lower temperature and pressure level. This is possible due to the very low required mean
temperature difference between the heating medium and the process liquid. In seawater desalination,
up to 12 effects are possible in order to evaporate most efficiently. The left side of the picture below
shows how the heat (e.g., by means of condensation) is transferred through the wall to the process
liquid to be evaporated.

Horizontal Film Evaporator

In the case of horizontal film
evaporation the liquid to be vaporized is
distributed evenly on the top of a
horizontal tube bundle. For this
purpose, perforated plates and special
designed jet nozzles are applied. A
minimum recirculation rate is required in
order to maintain a minimum wetting
rate. The liquid characteristics between
the tubes are determined by the Film
Reynolds number and Kapitza number.
The fluid can be encountered between
the tubes as droplets, jet, or continuous sheet. Due to the liquid impingement, the heat transfer in
horizontal units is, in general, higher compared to vertical evaporators

Atmospheric Forced Draft Evaporator

Where the quantity of wastewater is small and difficult to treat, an atmospheric forced draft evaporator is
the ideal choice. Various models from 100 to 5,000 liters per day capacities are standard.

Advantages and Features

 Low capital cost
 Ease of operation and maintenance
 No addition of chemicals
 Very small quantity of sludge
 Can handle difficult-to-treat wastewaters

Working Principle

An atmospheric evaporator consists of a feed pump, evaporator tank with an electrical or diesel
heater, circulation pump, blower, mixing tube, mist eliminator, and humid air outlet. The wastewater
from the wastewater tank is pumped by the feed pump to the evaporator tank. The electric or diesel
heater heats the effluent in
the evaporator tank.

The hot effluent is pumped

into the mixing tube,
through which air is blown
from atmosphere by the
blower. The air and
wastewater are thoroughly
mixed in the mixing tube
and passes to the
evaporator tank, before
getting out through the mist
eliminator and humid air
outlet. Electrical controls
limit the operation of feed
pump, circulation pump
396
and blower depending on thelevels in the evaporator tank and wastewater tank. A control system with
automatic ON/OF, safety shut off, and switch gears with a control panel is provided with the system.
Applications:

 Concentration of drag outs in electroplating

 Machine coolants
 Rinse waters
 Tumbling and vibratory solutions
 Die cast solutions
 Photographic solutions
 RO / UF concentrates
 Phosphatizing compounds
 Steam cleaner water
 Pressure washer effluents
 Auto garage effluents
 Ink and chemicals wash up

Low Temperature Vacuum Evaporator

The low temperature vacuum evaporator vaporizes water at lower temperature (around 40°C)
than normal (100°C) due to vacuum. Hence vacuum evaporators are useful for:

 Recovery of heat sensitive chemicals, such as cyanide plating baths

 Recovery of chemicals sensitive to air oxidation, such as cyanide plating bath and Stannous tin
bath
 Recovery of solutions containing volatile components

Working Principle

The low temperature vacuum evaporator mainly consists of:

Evaporator tank (2)
Evaporator heat exchanger (4)
Process water circulation pump (3)
Refrigerant compressor (8)
Condenser heat exchanger (7)
Distillate tank (11)
Vacuum producing venture (13)
Distillate circulating pump (12)

397
The feed water enters the evaporator tank (2), and the feed water is circulated by the pump (3) to
evaporator heat exchanger (4), where the feed water is heated by high pressure refrigerant from the
refrigerant compressor (8). The hot water flashes as water vapor into the evaporator tank at the top. This
water vapor passes through the mist eliminator (16) and the condenser heat exchanger (7).

The refrigerant from the evaporator heat exchanger passes through the air cooler and expansion valve
and becomes cool liquid. The cool refrigerant cools the hot water vapor to distillate. The distillate is
collected in the distillate tank. The distillate is circulated by the distillate circulation pump through a
venture, which produces a vacuum in the evaporator tank.

The vacuum produced by the venturi in the evaporation tank causes process water boils between 40 to
50°C. The concentrated process water from the evaporator tank and the distillate from the distillate tank
are automatically drained by the electrical controls. All necessary controls and switch gears are part of the
system.

Advantages and features

 Independent of solution heating requirements

 Less or no air pollution
 Can handle heat sensitive compounds
 Carbonates do not build up scales as with other evaporators

Applications

 Concentration of liquids from finishing processes

 Concentration of oily emulsions
 Concentration of wash baths
 Recovery of metals from rinse waters (chromium, nickel, copper)
 Concentration of contaminated baths from degreasing and pickling
 Recovery of tempering salts
 Purification of wash waters
 Recovery of gold from the residue of the treatment process
 Concentration of working liquids in die casting units a (detaching product, glycol, lubricants)
 Recovery of food additives from different industrial process liquids
 Recovery of proteins from whey
 Recovery of solvents utilized for extraction process
 Concentration of phosphoric degreasing baths
 Recovery of vulcanizing salts

Mechanical Vapor Recompression Evaporators

This includes MVR (mechanical vapor recompression)

and multiple effect evaporators for large volumes and
energy economy. MVR is very energy efficient, since the
latent heat of vaporization is fully utilized through vapor
recompression and condensation. A typical layout of a
MVR evaporator is shown in the figure.

Advantages and applications

The major advantage of MVR is the energy economy.

Typical MVR energy requirement is 0.05 to 0.15 kwh
per kg of water evaporated. Water evaporation for a
triple effect evaporator to 120 kcal for a six effect
evaporator. As the operating cost of MVR is low, large
flow system favors its application in all sectors of
industry and also desalination of sea and brackish
water.
398
 Using the Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometry is the study of moist air and the changes in its conditions. The psychrometric chart
graphically represents the relationship between air temperature and moisture content and is a basic
design tool for mechanical engineers and designers.

You can represent psychrometric processes (that is, any changes in the condition of the atmosphere) on
the psychrometric chart. Common processes include:

 Sensible cooling/sensible heating

 Cooling and dehumidification/heating and humidification
 Humidification/dehumidification
 Evaporative cooling/chemical dehydration

Wet bulb (WB) is the lowest temperature achievable by evaporating water into the air to bring the air to
saturation. The wet bulb line is on the diagonal lines in the graph above. Relative humidity (RH) is on the
curved lines. Dry bulb (DB) is air temperature as measured by an ordinary thermometer. The dry bulb is
on the vertical lines.

The following sections explain using a psychrometric chart to calculate how much you can reduce dry
bulb temperature using direct, indirect, indirect/direct, and indirect/indirect evaporative cooling.

Calculate the Dry Bulb Temperature

Using a psychrometric chart to calculate the dry bulb temperature is possible with direct evaporative
cooling. Note: With direct evaporative cooling, the dry bulb temperature is reduced while the web bulb
temperature remains constant.

1. Start with the dry bulb (DB) and wet bulb (WB) design conditions for the location you are interested in.
For example, Portland’s 1% design conditions are 86 degrees DB and 66 degrees WB.

2. Find where 86 degrees on the dry bulb line intersects with 66 degrees on the wet bulb line, see the
figure Psychrometric Chart 1 below. That is the starting point.

399
 Figure Psychrometric Chart 1 - Starting point

3. Calculate the temperature drop achievable using the following formulas. Figure Psychrometric Chart
3 graphically represents the process.

Temperature drop achievable = (dry bulb - wet bulb) x (efficiency of the media, e.g., 0.9)
Example: (86 degrees - 66 degrees) x 0.9 = 18 degrees

Achievable temperature = dry bulb - temp drop achievable

Example: 86 degrees - 18 degrees = 68 degrees DB

Because cooling is achieved by adding moisture to the supply air stream, the new dry bulb/wet bulb
temperatures are found on the wet bulb gradient.

4. Starting temperatures: 86 degrees DB/66 degrees WB

5. Ending temperatures: 68 degrees DB/66 degrees WB

Using a Psychrometric Chart to Calculate the Dry Bulb Temperature

Figure Psychrometric Chart 3 - Direct evaporative cooling

400
Cooling Towers

Cooling Tower Calculations

The cooling tower must be properly designed

and sized to meet the requirements for the
HVAC and refrigeration application. Cooling
towers are characterized by two terms: the
approach and the range.

The PE/CSE must understand the principles

of cooling towers in order to control them. The
control scheme of a large cooling tower is
fairly complicated and may require some study
to completely understand the P&ID that will be
presented in this module.

The range of the cooling tower is the

difference between the entering and exiting
temperatures of the cooling tower water.

Range = T(water,in) - T(water,out)

401
The approach or approach to wet bulb, is the temperature difference between the water out and the wet
bulb temperature of the air.

Approach = T(water,out) - T(air in,WB)

The approach is important because it describes the level of performance of the cooling tower. The smaller
the approach, the better the cooling tower is at providing cooling. The wet bulb temperature of the
entering air is the lowest the temperature of the exiting water can reach. If a cooling tower has a 0 degree
approach, then the cooling tower is using all of the available heat exchange from the air to cool the water.
Typical approaches are in the range of ~10°F.

Approach also leads to another important term in determining the performance of cooling towers, called
effectiveness. Effectiveness is a term used to describe how effective the cooling tower is at cooling the
water or how close the actual temperature difference between the water temperatures in and out is to the
maximum temperature difference. The maximum temperature difference that a cooling tower can produce
is the difference between the water temperature in and the air wet bulb temperature.

Effectiveness = Range/(Range+ Approach)

The range is important because when used in conjunction with the water flow rate, the capacity of the
cooling tower can be found. The capacity and the amount of cooling provided by the cooling tower are
found by multiplying the flow rate of the cooling water by the difference in temperature at the inlet and
outlet of the cooling tower, using the equation Q = m·cp·∆T and, for a simplified equation to use during the
test, follow the derivation below.

 Btu   lbm   Btu 

Q  Btuh or   m•  • cp   • T F 
 hr   hr   lbm * F 

Where, m = mass flow rate, cp = heat capacity of water, and ΔT = the difference in temperature.
Substituting volumetric flow rate [gpm] and density of water for mass flow rate, results in the following
equation.

• Twater  F ,in - Twater  F ,out 

8.33lbm gallon 60min 1.00 btu
Q  Btuh  • • •
1gallon min 1hr lbm  F

Simplifying the constants, results in the following equation.

 gal  1.00 Btu

Q  Btuh  500 • flow rate  • • Twater  F ,in - Twater  F ,out 
 min  lbm * F

Cooling Tower Water Loss and Make-up

In a cooling tower, water is lost due to multiple sources, such as evaporation, drift, and blow-down. The
first term, evaporation, is calculated through the following equation, where the assumption is made that
the total heat loss is due to the heat loss through evaporation.

 lbm   Btu 
Water Heat loss  Q  Btuh  m •   • cp   • T F 
 hr   lbm * F 
 lbm   Btu 
Heat Gain through Evaporation  Q  Btuh   mvp •   • Hv p  
 hr   lbm 

 Btu 
Where, Hv p   is equal to the latent heat of vaporization
 lbm * F 

402
  lbm   Btu   lbm   Btu 
mwater   • cp   • Twater  F ,in - Twater  F ,out   mvp   • H vp  
 hr   lbm * F   hr   lbm 

 gal   gal   Btu 

500 • cooling tower flow rate   • Tin F  Tout  F   500 • evaporation rate   •1,060  
 min   min   lbm 

 gal   gal 
0.000943• cooling tower flow rate   • Twater  F ,in - Twater  F ,out   evaporation rate  
 min   min 

With a 10°F difference between entering and existing temperature, the evaporation rate is approximately
1% of the cooling tower flow rate.

The second water loss is due to drift. Drift is the amount of water that is carried out through the airstream.
Drift eliminators provided prior to the discharge are best described as a maze of baffles that the air must
travel through before exiting to atmosphere. The drift eliminator traps the water droplets that get picked up
by the exiting air and send the droplets back to the fill material. Typical water loss due to drift is less than
0.2%.

The third major source of water loss is due to blow-down. Blow-down is required because as water is
evaporated it leaves behind the total dissolved solids (TDS), which increases the concentration of the
TDS in the water. In order to bring the concentration of the TDS back to normal conditions so that it may
be used safely with the equipment, the high concentrated TDS water is drained regularly; this is what is
referred to as blow-down. The water is then replaced with fresh water, which is referred to as make-up
water.

See the section in this manual Process Analyzers / Control of pH Values in Processes for more
information on pH and conductivity correction and control systems used in cooling tower operations.

403
Cooling tower control scheme and operating cost

The cooling tower control scheme of operation is as follows. First subtract the water outlet temperature
from the evaporating wet bulb temperature as the feedback signal for the approach temperature controller
TDIC-1. This sets the speed of the draft fan (M1) on the cooling tower through the (VFD) SIC-1.

Then subtract the water inlet temperature from the water outlet temperature as our feedback signal for the
range controller TDIC-2. This sets the speed of the chill water pump (M2) through (VFD) SIC-2, for the
flow rate of chilled water through the entire cooling system.

Next we will look at our cooling demand of the system. To keep our system fail safe, we will make the
temperature control valves to the heat exchangers fail open (FO). As the demand for product cooling
deceases, the temperature controller TIC-4 will close the valve, increasing the output signal. We only
need enough cooling water flowing through the heat exchanger to cool the product to the desired
operating temperature. All of the temperature controller outputs, for control of the heat exchanger cooling
valves, are summed in the computer function block TY-4.

The average of all the temperature control valve outputs are summed as a percent of demand for cooling.
The percent demand from TY-4 then becomes the feedback signal for VPC-4 (valve position controller).
The output of VPC-4 becomes the set point for PDIC-3.

PDIC-3 will measure the pressure differential between the pump output pressure to the cooling systems
and the pressure of the return line to the cooling tower (see the section in this manual Applications of
Fluid Mechanics in Process Control for more information). As the heat exchangers near their desired
set point temperatures, the temperature valves close down, due to the reduced demand for cooling. This
means the flow rate through the cooling system slows down and the pressure drop across the system
increases, as the flow of the chilled water approaches stopped flow (this can deadhead the pump).
404
At a reduced need for cooling chilled water, we have a reduced need for flow rate of chilled water, so let’s
slow down the pump to prevent wasting energy over the years. The tower will run 24 hours, 7 days a
week.

The PDIC-3 controller sends a reverse acting output signal to the pump to slow it down and stop wasting
energy (as the ΔP increases the 4-20 mA output decreases). Both the TDIC-1 and PDIC-3 cannot control
the pump at the same time, so we will use a high-select function block and send its output to control the
SIC-2 on the chilled water pump.

As the flow slows down, the temperature will start to increase in the chilled water due to low flow through
the cooling tower. There will be less evaporation and less heat removed. So TDIC-2, the range controller,
will increase its output and the high select will let it control the pump through SIC-2 to cool the chilled
water down. The pump will speed up increasing flow through the system and the chill water temperature
will start to drop again, until equilibrium of the systems is reached.

If a faster response is need for equipment like reactors, a bypass valve can be installed across the heat
exchangers piping system. The bypass valve would receive its signal from the PDIC-3 controller. This will
allow for increased flow through the system without the extra pressure drop across the heat exchanger
piping system, due to faster flow rates through the valves and through the exchangers. This will allow the
cooling tower chilled water to decrease its temperature to the desired temperature of the set point of the
TDIC-2 controller. At a lower temperature of the chilled water, the heat it can be absorb from the reactors
more quickly allowing for a quicker response to upsets.

Typical pH Correction System

Remember, the cooling tower will need pH correction of the water and possibly even control of
conductivity, to control the buildup of corrosion in the chilled water system. The conductivity will be based
on the amount of blowdown water from the tower.

For more information on pH and conductivity control of cooling towers and their effect on the system
components, see the paper: Basic Cooling Water Management II.pdf or a similar article.

From http://www.prochemtech.com/

Title:
Cooling Water Management
Basic Principles and Technology

By: Timothy Keister, CWT

Fellow, American Institute of Chemists
Certified Water Technologist, Certificate #90

405
Chemical Reactors and Control

What is a Reactor?
In chemical engineering, chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions. One
example is a pressure reactor. The design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical
engineering. Chemical engineers design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction.
Designers ensure that the reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired output
product, producing the highest yield of product while requiring the least amount of money to purchase and
operate. Normal operating expenses include energy input, energy removal, raw material costs, labor, etc.
Energy changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, frictional
pressure loss (such as pressure drop across a 90° elbow or an orifice plate), or agitation.

Types of Reactors

There are a couple of main basic vessel types:

 A tank
 A pipe or tubular reactor (laminar flow reactor (LFR))

Both types can be used as continuous reactors or batch reactors, and either may accommodate one or
more solids (reagents, catalyst, or inert materials), but the reagents and products are typically fluids. Most
commonly, reactors are run at steady-state, but can also be operated in a transient state. There are three
main basic models used to estimate the most important process variables of different chemical reactors:

 Batch reactor model (batch)

 Continuous stirred-tank reactor model (CSTR)
 Plug flow reactor model (PFR)

Furthermore, catalytic reactors require separate treatment, whether they are batch, CST, or PF reactors,
as the many assumptions of the simpler models are not valid.

Key process variables include

 Residence time (τ, lower case Greek tau)

 Volume (V)
 Temperature (T)
 Pressure (P)
 Concentrations of chemical species (C1, C2, C3, ... Cn)
 Heat transfer coefficients (h, U)

A chemical reactor, typically a tubular reactor, could be a packed bed. The packing inside the bed may
have catalyst to catalyze the chemical reaction. A chemical reactor may also be a fluidized bed. Chemical
reactions occurring in a reactor may be exothermic, meaning giving off heat, or endothermic, meaning
absorbing heat. A chemical reactor vessel may have a cooling or heating jacket or cooling or heating coils
(tubes) wrapped around the outside of its vessel wall to cool down or heat up the contents.

406
Basic Control Scheme for a Reactor

CSTR (Constant Stirred Tank Reactor)

Note: AM-21 (agitator motor) and PM01 (pump motor) are not standard ISA nomenclature

Hydrocracking Reactor Controls

407
Chemical Scrubbers

Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some
particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred
to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the
term is also used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to
"wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions,
especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue gas
condensation.

Wet exhaust gas cleaning

A wet scrubber is a simple method to clean exhaust air or exhaust gas and remove toxic or smelly
compounds. In the flue gas scrubber, the gas gets in close contact with fine water drops in a co-current or
counter current flow. This method is more effective when the water drop size gets smaller and the total
surface between water or washing fluid and the gas gets larger. The water or washing fluid is recirculated
normally in order to save water and reduce the amount of waste water.

The result is decontamination, detoxification, dedusting or dust removal, and dehumidification, as

well as removal of smell for the benefit of our environment.

Especially water soluble components can be removed very well from the gas. By dissolving those
components, the water or washing liquid will be contaminated in many cases. The dissolved components
are frequently acid or basic chemicals like hydrogen chloride HCl, nitric / nitrogen oxide NO / NO2, or
ammonia NH3. By installing an optional neutralization unit, in the wet scrubber, it is possible to keep the
pH value of the washing liquid and the waste water at a neutral level. Furthermore absorption of acid
components is improved by using basic washing liquid, and removal of basic chemicals is more effective
by using acid washing liquid.

408
Wet gas scrubber
The wet scrubber on the left uses high-energy liquid spray to remove fumes and toxic gases from the
area. It consist of packing media, a vessel, recirculation system, and a demister pad to correct air velocity,
neutralize the air, and prevent solutions from entering the exhaust stack. The packed media absorbs gas
contents with minimum drop in pressure and saturates the media with the help of a spray nozzle.

The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered harmful to the environment, and
the scrubber may remove or neutralize those. A wet scrubber is used to clean air, fuel gas or other gases
of various pollutants, and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or
particulate matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions may simply be water (for dust) or solutions of
reagents that specifically target certain compounds. Process exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble
toxic and/or corrosive gases like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or ammonia (NH3). These can be removed very
well by a wet scrubber.

Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time in the scrubber or by the
increase of surface area of the scrubber solution by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers, or an
aspirator. Wet scrubbers may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack
plume, if the gas is sent to a stack. Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by
flue gas condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from the scrubber drain is
circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of the scrubber. The hot gas enters the scrubber at
the bottom. If the gas temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially cooled by evaporation of
water drops. Further cooling causes water vapors to condense, adding to the amount of circulating water.

The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature heat (more than 2 gigajoules
[560 kWh] per ton of water) that can be recovered by the cooler for district heating purposes, for example.
Excess condensed water must continuously be removed from the circulating water. The gas leaves the
scrubber at its dew point, so even though significant amounts of water may have been removed from the
cooled gas, it is likely to leave a visible stack plume of water vapor.

Wet Gas Scrubber Dry Gas Scrubber

409
Dry scrubbing
The dry scrubber on the right of the previous page, generally does not have a stack steam plume or
wastewater handling or disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases
(such as SO2 and HCl) primarily from combustion sources. All consist of two main sections or devices: a
device to introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas stream and a particulate matter control
device to remove reaction products, excess sorbent material, and any particulate matter already in the flue
gas.

A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not saturate the flue gas stream that is
being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is added, while in others only the amount of
moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers
generally do not have a stack steam plume or wastewater handling/disposal requirements.

There are a number of dry type scrubbing system designs. However, all consist of two main sections or
devices: a device to introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas stream and a particulate matter
control device to remove reaction products, excess sorbent material, and any particulate matter already in
the flue gas.

Dry scrubbing systems can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSIs) or as spray dryer absorbers
(SDAs). Spray dryer absorbers are also called semi-dry scrubbers or spray dryers.

Dry scrubbing systems are often used for the removal of odorous and corrosive gases from wastewater
treatment plant operations. The medium used is typically an activated alumina compound impregnated
with materials to handle specific gases, such as hydrogen sulfide. The media used can be mixed together
to offer a wide range of removal for other odorous compounds, such as methyl mercaptans, aldehydes,
volatile organic compounds, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide.

Scrubber waste products

One side effect of scrubbing is that the process only moves the unwanted substances from the exhaust
gases into a liquid solution where solid pastes or powders form. This must be disposed of safely, if it
cannot be reused.

For example, mercury removal results in a waste product that either needs further processing to extract
the raw mercury, or must be buried in a special hazardous wastes landfill that prevents the mercury from
seeping out into the environment.

As an example of reuse, limestone-based scrubbers in coal-fired power plants can produce a synthetic
gypsum of sufficient quality that can be used to manufacture drywall and other industrial products.

Bacteria spread
Poorly maintained scrubbers have the potential to spread disease-causing bacteria. The problem is a
result of inadequate cleaning. For example, the cause of the 2005 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in
Norway was just a few infected scrubbers. The outbreak caused 10 deaths and more than 50 cases of
infection.

410
Dehydration Processes

When large gas volumes are transported, dehydration is the most efficient and economical means of
preventing hydrate formation in the trunk pipeline. The existing methods for gas dehydration in the field fall
into two main groups: absorption (dehydration by liquid media) and adsorption (dehydration by solid
media).

The theme of natural gas (NG) dehydration is closely linked with

storage of natural gas. There are two basic reasons why NG storage
is important. Firstly, it can reduce dependency on the NG supply.
With this in mind, national strategic reserves are created. Secondly,
NG storage enables the maximum capacity of distribution lines to be
exploited. NG is stored in summer periods, when there is lower
demand for it, and is withdrawn in the winter periods, when
significant amounts of NG are used for heating. Reserves smooth
seasonal peaks and also short-term peaks of NG consumption.
underground gas storages (UGS) are the most advantageous option
for storing large volumes of gas.

A disadvantage of UGSs is that during storage, the gas become

saturated by water vapors. In the case of depleted oil field UGSs,
vapors of higher hydrocarbons also contaminate the stored gas. The
directive for gas distribution sets the allowable concentration of water
and concentration of higher hydrocarbons. In the US and Canada,
the amount of allowable water in the gas is specified in units: pounds
of water vapor per million cubic feet (lbs/MMcft)

Terms used in the dehydration process:

 Wet gas - A mixture of a dry gas and water vapor.

 Hydrates - Crystalline substances formed by associated molecules of hydrogen and water and
having a crystalline structure. Natural gas hydrates look like wet pressed snow turning into ice.
Having accumulated in the gas pipeline, they can choke or completely block the pipe and cause
damage to the system's operating conditions.

The dehydration is aimed at the depression of the water dew point below the minimal temperature that
can be expected in the gas pipeline. Gas dehydration by liquid media is most widely used in the gas
industry.

The liquid sorbents used for the dehydration of natural and petroleum gases should have high solubility in
water, have a low cost, and should show high corrosion resistance. They must also be chemically neutral
towards the gas components and, if regeneration is used, they should be easily regenerated, be of low
viscosity, and so on. Diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG) and, to a lower extent,
monoethylene glycol (MEG) satisfy most of these requirements.

Absorption
The most widely-used method for industrial dehydration of NG is absorption. Absorption is usually
performed using triethyleneglycol sorbent (TEG). The liquid sorbents used for the dehydration of natural
and petroleum gases should have high solubility in water, be low cost, and should show high corrosion
resistance. They must also be chemically neutral towards the gas components and, if regeneration is
used, they should be easily regenerated, be of low viscosity, and so on. Diethylene glycol (DEG),
triethylene glycol (TEG) and, to a lower extent, monoethylene glycol (MEG) satisfy most of these
requirements.

Absorption is accomplished at low temperatures and the absorbed water is boiled out from TEG during
regeneration in a reboiler at high temperatures. The industrial absorption dehydration process proceeds
in a glycol contactor (a tray column or packet bed). In a contactor, a countercurrent flow of wet NG and

411
TEG is arranged. During the contact, the TEG is enriched by water and flows out of the bottom part of the
contactor. The enriched TEG then continues into the internal heat exchanger, which is incorporated at the
top of the still column in the regeneration section of the absorption unit. It then flows into the flash drum,
where the flash gases are released and separated from the stream. The TEG is filtered then runs to the
cold side of the TEG/TEG heat exchanger. Just afterwards, the warmed TEG then runs into the
regeneration section, where is it sprayed in the still column. From there, the TEG runs into the reboiler. In
the reboiler, water is boiled out of the TEG.

The regeneration energy is around 282 kJ per liter of TEG. The temperature inside should not exceed
208°C, due to the decomposition temperature of TEG. Regenerated (lean) TEG is then pumped back
through the hot side of the TEG/TEG and NG/TEG heat exchanger into the top of the contactor. The
entire method is depicted in the figure above. A plant model of a similar dehydration process is shown
below.

412
Joule-Thompson effect

Joule-Thomson (J-T) plants prepare gas for pipeline transmission by removing hydrocarbon liquids that
provide an additional revenue stream. Employing the
Joule-Thomson effect, named for the men who discovered
it in 1854, the J-T plant is a self-refrigeration system that
uses a drop in gas pressure, which allows the gas to
expand, to create a cooling effect. The unit condenses
heavy hydrocarbons out of the gas to meet required gas
pipeline specifications. Excess liquids that may condense
and cause problems in transmission are recovered and
stored for fractionation into sellable hydrocarbon
components. The heavier the hydrocarbons contained in
the gas, the higher the GPM value.

NG can be advantageously cooled using the Joule-Thompson effect (J-T effect). The J-T effect describes
how the temperature of a gas changes with pressure adjustment. For NG, thanks to expansion, the
average distance between its molecules increases, leading to an increase in their potential energy (Van
der Waals forces). During expansion, there is no heat exchange with the environment and no work
creation. Therefore, due to the conservation law, the increase in potential energy leads to a decrease in
kinetic energy and thus a temperature decrease of NG.

However, there is another phenomenon connected with the cooling of wet NG. Attention should be paid to
the formation of methane hydrate. Hydrates formed by cooling may plug the flow. This is usually
prevented by injecting methanol or monoethylenglycol (MEG) hydrate inhibitors before each cooling. The
figure above depicts an industrial application of dehydration method utilizing the J-T effect and MEG
hydrate inhibition.

The wet NG is throttled in two steps inside the flash tanks. The lower temperature (due to the J-T effect)
of the gas stream in the flash tanks leads to partial condensation of the water vapors. The droplets that
are created are removed from the gas stream by a demister inside the flashes. In cases where cooling by
the J-T effect is insufficient (the usable pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the gas is
insufficient), the air pre-cooler and the external cooler are turned on.

Since dehydration is normally applied to large volumes of NG, the external coolers need to have high
performance, so this type of cooling is very energy expensive. For dehydration of low pressure NG, the
external coolers consume up to 80% of the total energy of the dehydration unit. However, if the usable
pressure difference is high, the J-T effect inside the flashes is so strong that internal heating of the flashes
is required to defreeze any methane hydrate or ice that may form. A condensation method is applied
when suitable conditions for the J-T effect are available.

413
Crystallization Technology

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of solid crystals precipitating from a solution
or melt or, more rarely, deposited directly from a gas. Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid
separation technique, in which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline
phase occurs. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer. Crystallization is therefore an
aspect of precipitation, obtained through a variation of the solubility conditions of the solute in the solvent,
as compared to precipitation due to chemical reaction.

The technology is a new type of chemical separation technology, widely used in chemical intermediates,
pharmaceutical intermediates, and fine purification of biochemical products. Crystallization is divided into
two different types of technology: dynamic suspension crystallization and melting, and crystallization
method.

Static Crystallization

Static crystallization is a process using vertical plates, heated or cooled by an internal circulation of heat
transfer medium (HTM). The plates are suspended in the molten feed. Slow cooling of the HTM below the
freezing point of the stagnant melt causes a layer of crystals to grow on the plates.

Falling Film Crystallization

Falling film crystallization is the leading melt crystallization technology for high-purity applications. In
general, evaporation takes place inside vertical tubes, but there are also applications where the process
fluid evaporates on the outside of horizontal or vertical tubes. In all cases, the process fluid to be
evaporated flows downwards by gravity as a continuous film.

Suspension Crystallization

Besides static and falling film, suspension crystallization is an industrially used melt crystallization
technology. The specific advantages of this technology include a compact layout, high purity in one step,
low energy consumption, and low installation costs.

Freeze Concentration

The quality of freeze concentrated products cannot be achieved by any other concentration technology.
Industrial applications include concentration of juices and coffee extracts.

Static Crystallization

Static crystallization is a process using vertical plates, heated or

cooled by an internal circulation of heat transfer medium (HTM). The
plates are suspended in the molten feed. Slow cooling of the HTM
below the freezing point of the stagnant melt causes a layer of
crystals to grow on the plates.

This process offers high flexibility and a wide operating range. A high
yield can be achieved, even for viscous products.

Main Benefits

 Easy operation, since there is no crystal slurry handling and no

filtration
 Reports of high reliability and low operation costs
 Environmentally safe process due to inert gas blanketing and the absence of solvents

414
Process Steps in Static Crystallization

Crystallization

 Loading of the crystallizer and pre-cooling of the

product to be purified
 Further controlled cooling and beginning of
crystallization with optimal and uniform crystal
growth, which contributes to building up an
optimized crystalline network
 During this step, impurities are concentrated in
the liquid phase surrounding the pure crystals
 Final crystals are obtained with low specific
surface area

Slow cooling of the heat transfer medium below the

freezing point of the melt causes a structure of
crystals to build up on the outer surface of the plates.
Impurities are rejected from the growing crystals and
are concentrated in the remaining melt. After the
desired fraction has been crystallized, the remaining
liquid phase is drained from the crystallizer. The
purer crystalline layer remains adhered to the plates.

Draining

 Flow-out by gravity of the liquid fraction (reject or mother liquor) containing the concentrated
impurities
 If higher recovery yield is needed, this fraction can be further concentrated at a lower temperature
level

Sweating or partial melting

This layer is further purified by sweating (partial melting), that is, by gently heating close to its melting
point. Trapped and adherent melt, which contains the impurities, drains off. This partial melting step
serves to further purify the crystalline product. Partial melting also rinses the equipment free of impure
melt, preventing back-mixing and contamination of the final purified fraction.

Melting

After sweating, the purified crystal layer is totally melted and drained to the purified liquid product storage.
In general, crystallization is often the best alternative when distillation performs poorly, or if your product
cannot be purified or separated by distillation due to close boiling points, or azeotropes between the
components. In addition to static crystallization, our portfolio of melt crystallization technologies is
completed by falling film and suspension crystallization. The chance that any of these work for your
applications is high.

Melt crystallization is an appealing option for heat-sensitive products, because of low operating
temperatures around the melting point.

Typical applications include the purification of:

 Monomers
 Carboxylic acids
 Aromatic isomers
 Tar chemicals
 Waxes
 Organic and inorganic chemicals at high purities

415
Falling Film Crystallization

Process Falling Film Crystallization Process

The crystallizer consists of a system of vertical
tubes. The collecting vessel below the tube
sheet contains the liquid product.

The product and the heat transfer medium

(HTM) both flow as a falling film. The product
flows down on the inside surface of the tubes,
whereas the liquid used for cooling and heating
is distributed to wet the external surface of the
Step 1 Step 2
tubes. During crystallization, cold HTM is used
to chill the tubes. Crystallization Sweating

Partial melting, also called sweating, is induced

by slightly raising the temperature of the HTM,
and the final melting to provide the purified
liquid is achieved by applying more energy to
achieve higher temperatures. The product and
HTM distribution systems are designed to
equalize flow through the tubes. Optimum
performance is achieved through accurate Typical acrylic Step
Falling film 3
control of the heating and cooling profiles. acid
crystallizer Melting
crystallization
Falling film crystallization is often combined with static crystallization. This
plantsetup improves the yield and
recovery of product.

Crystallization

For some applications, a high purity and separation yield are difficult to achieve using a single separation
technology. In this case, it is suggested to apply a hybrid process, which is a combination of various
separation technologies, for example crystallization and distillation. In this way, the separation is carried
out in the most efficient concentration range of each unit operation. This improves the efficiency and
flexibility of the plant and saves energy costs.

Suspension Crystallization

Besides static and falling film, suspension crystallization is an industrially used melt crystallization
technology. The specific advantages of this technology include a compact layout, high purity in one step,
low energy consumption, and low installation costs.

Process

The advantages of suspension crystallization must be balanced against a higher mechanical complexity
when compared with the layer technologies.

The process can be divided in two blocks. Crystallization: production of the crystals. This block consists
of at least one scraped surface crystallizer for removal of the crystallization heat, and a growth vessel
where the produced crystals have time to grow to a separable size. Separation: separation of the crystals
from the mother liquor. This block consists of at least one wash column with peripherals, such as a melt
loop with a heat exchanger to melt the crystals. For certain applications, delivery of a skid-mounted unit
may be an option.

416
Process flow diagram suspension crystallization

Freeze Concentration

Freeze concentration is a food processing technic that keeps concentration, by reducing the temperature
of the food to freezing. The quality of freeze concentrated products cannot be achieved by any other
concentration technology. Industrial applications include concentration of juices and coffee extracts.

Operating temperatures below 0°C and the absence of gas-liquid interfaces ensure top quality of your
food and beverage products. The concentrate retains 100% of the flavor, color, and aroma that is present
in the fresh feed. Freeze concentration is the special application of suspension crystallization in the food
industry.

The concentration process can have these features:

 Skid-mounted units
 Fully automated control
 Low maintenance cost
 Serializable units available as option

The process can be divided in two blocks:

Crystallization: production of ice crystals

This block consists of at least one scraped crystallizer

for removal of the crystallization heat and a growth
vessel where the ice crystals have time to grow to a
separable size.

Separation: separation of the ice crystals from the mother liquor

This block consists of at least one wash column with peripherals, such as a melt loop with a
heat exchanger to melt the ice.

417
Overview of a small crystallization plant to control

Flare and Vent Disposal Systems

Flares are used extensively in the hydrocarbon and petrochemical industries as a way to achieve safe
and reliable vapor release during a plant upset or emergency situation. Flares deal with a variety of waste
gas compositions, depending on the type of plant. The material released into a flare system is usually a
hydrocarbon, or a mixture of constituents that can range from hydrogen to heavy hydrocarbons. These
gases may contain harmful and potentially toxic vapors that must be burned completely in order to
prevent damage to the environment and human health.

A flare or vent disposal system collects and discharges gas from atmospheric or pressurized process
components to the atmosphere to safe locations for final release during normal operations and abnormal
conditions (emergency relief). In vent systems, the gas exiting the system is dispersed in the atmosphere.
Flare systems generally have a pilot or ignition device that ignites the gas exiting the system because the
discharge may be either continuous or intermittent. Gas-disposal systems for tanks operating near
atmospheric pressure are often called atmospheric vents or flares, and gas-disposal systems for pressure
vessels are called pressure vents or flares. A flare or vent system from a pressurized source may include
a control valve, collection piping, flashback protection, and a gas outlet. A scrubbing vessel should be
provided to remove liquid hydrocarbons.

Types of flares
Three types of flares are used in the hydrocarbon and petrochemical industries: single-point flares, multi-
point flares, and enclosed flares. Single-point flares can be designed without smoke suppression, or with
steam- or air-assisted smoke-suppression equipment. They are generally oriented to fire upward, with the
discharge point elevated above the surrounding grade and nearby equipment (Flare Control System
illustration). This is the most common type of flare for onshore refining facilities that operate at low
pressure (<10 psig).
418
Flare Control Systems
A flare system requires many Flare Control System
different types of controls.
Controls are required for the
ignition and monitoring of flare
system pilots, control of fluid
levels in knockout and liquid
seal drums, control of steam or
air or water or gas injection for
control of smoke, measurement
of the oxygen, measurement of
lower heating value, adjustment
of assist gas injection,
adjustment of blower speed for
control of smoke, flame ignition
staging controls, and purging
and snuffing system controls
and pump packages.

The PLC control scheme can

become fairly complicated on
the operation of a large flare.
The EPA requires monitoring
and recording of any fugitive
emissions and the ignition of the
flare. You may need a telemetry
system to contact maintenance
personnel during failures if the
site is unmanned.

Quality Control Standards for Production of Products

A family of standards (guidelines) for quality control assurance in the manufacturing, product and service
industries exist from the International Organization for Standardization ISO). ISO 9000 defines the criteria
for what should be measured.

The ISO 9001 standard covers both design and development. The ISO 9002 standard covers production,
installation, and service; and ISO 9003 covers the final testing and inspection. Obtaining ISO 9000
certification does not guarantee any product quality. It ensures that the processes used to develop the
product are well documented and performed in a quality manner.

Compare ISO 9001 to ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001

OHSAS 18001 Occupational Health & Safety Management System was intentionally developed to be
compatible with the ISO 9001 (Quality) and ISO 14001 (Environmental) management systems standards
for easier integration of quality, environmental, and occupational health and safety management systems
by organizations. OHSAS 18001 outlines requirements for an occupational health and safety (OH&S)
management system, to enable an organization to control its OH&S risks and improve its performance.
Like ISO 14001, it does NOT state performance criteria or dictate the design of a management system.

Integrating an IMS (Integrated Management System) can be more effective and efficient than maintaining
individual systems. Whichever method you choose, here is some information:

419
There are seven common elements in ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001

1. Structure and responsibility

2. Training, awareness, and competence
3. Document control
4. Records
5. Corrective and preventive action
6. Internal audits
7. Management review

ISO 14000 and 18000 are very similar to each other but differ from ISO 9001

 Structure
o ISO 14000 and 18000 contain 4 clauses with 6 elements
o ISO 9001 contains 5 clauses with 23 elements
 Despite a common systems approach, they differ in content.
 In addition, ISO 14000 contains the following unique requirements:
o Environmental Aspects and Impacts (4.3.1)
o Legal and Other Requirements (4.3.2)
o Environmental Programs (4.3.4)
o Communication (4.4.3)
o Emergency Preparedness and Response (4.4.7)

More Comparisons between ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001

ISO 9001 is a Quality Management System (QMS) which gives organizations a systematic approach for
meeting customer objectives.

ISO 14001 is an Environmental Management System (EMS) which provides a system for measuring and
improving an organization's environmental impact.

OHSAS 18001 is an Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) which provides a
system for measuring and improving an organization's health and safety impact.

One important difference between OHSAS 18001, ISO 14001, and other international standards is that an
organization can self-declare their compliance. Because ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 are very similar,
the management systems can be effectively combined and integrated, and a self-declaration made (a cost
savings option).

420
 ISA Standards for Documentation

ISA Instrument or Function Symbol

PRIMARY AUXILIARY BEHIND THE

LOCATION LOCATION PANEL
FIELD
NORMALLY NORMALLY NORMALLY
MOUNTED
ACCESSIBLE ACCESSIBLE INACCESSIBLE
TO OPERATOR TO OPERATOR TO OPERATOR

DISCRETE
INSTRUMENT

SHARED DISPLAY,
SHARED CONTROL

COMPUTER
FUNCTION

PROGRAMMABLE
LOGIC CONTROL

INSTRUMENTS CONVERT
INSTRUMENT
SHARING INTERLOCK SUCH AS
WITH LONG
COMMON LOGIC CURRENT TO
TAG NUMBER
HOUSING PRESSURE

MORE
COMMON
SYMBOLS

421
ISA Line Type Symbols

Standard Line Types

1. INSTRUMENT SUPPLY OR CONNECTED

TO PROCESS
2. UNDEFINED SIGNAL

3. PNEUMATIC SIGNAL

4. ELECTRIC SIGNAL

5. HYDRAULIC SIGNAL

6. CAPILLARY SIGNAL
7. ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIGNAL
(GUIDED)
8. ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIGNAL
(NOT GUIDED)
9. INTERNAL SYSTEMS LINK
(SOFTWARE OR DATA LINK)
10. MECHANICAL LINK

11. PNEUMATIC BINARY

12. ELECTRICAL BINARY

422
ISA Identification Letters

First-Letter (4) Succeeding-Letters (3)

Initiating Readout
or or
Measured Passive Output
Variable Modifier Function Modifier Function
A Analysis (5,19) Alarm
Burner,
B User's Choice (1) User's Choice (1) User's Choice (1)
Combustion
C User's Choice (1) Control (13)
D User's Choice (1) Differential (4)
E Voltage Sensor
(Primary Element)
F Flow Rate Ratio (Fraction) (4)
G User's Choice (1) Glass, Viewing
Device (9)
H Hand High (7, 15, 16)
I Current (Electrical) Indicate (10)
J Power Scan (7)
Time, Time
K Time Rate of Control Station (22)
Schedule
Change (4, 21)

L Level Light (11) Low (7, 15, 16)

M User's Choice (1) Momentary (4) Middle,
Intermediate (7,15)
N User's Choice (1) User's Choice (1) User's Choice (1) User's Choice (1)
O User's Choice (1) Orifice, Restriction
P Pressure, Vacuum Point (Test)
Connection
Integrate, Totalize
Q Quantity
(4)
R Radiation Record (17)
S Speed, Frequency Safety (8) Switch (13)
T Temperature Transmit (18)
U Multivariable (6) Multifunction (12) Multifunction (12) Multifunction (12)
Vibration,
V Valve, Damper,
Mechanical
Louver (13)
Analysis (19)
W Weight, Force Well
X Unclassified (2) X Axis Unclassified (2) Unclassified (2) Unclassified (2)
Y Event, State or Y Axis Relay, Compute,
Presence (20) Convert (13, 14, 18)
Z Position, Z Axis Driver, Actuator,
Dimension Unclassified Final
Control Element

423
ISA P&ID Identification (Controllers and Readouts)

Controllers Readout Devices

Initiating Self-
or Actuated
Measured First Control
Variable Letter Recording Indicating Blind Valves Recording Indicating
Analysis A ARC AIC AC AR AI
Burner, Combustion B BRC BIC BC BR BI
Users Choice C
Users Choice D
Voltage E ERC EIC EC ER EI
Flow Rate F FRC FIC FC FCV / FICV FR FI
Flow Quantity FQ FQRC FQIC FQR FQI
Flow Ratio FF FFRC FFIC FFC FFR FFI
Users Choice G
Hand H HIC HC HR HI
Current (Electrical) I IRC IIC IR II
Power J JRC JIC JR JI
Time K KRC KIC KC KCV KR KI
Level L LRC LIC LC LCV LR LI
Users Choice M
Users Choice N
Users Choice O
Pressure, Vacuum P PRC PIC PC PCV PR PI
Pressure Differential PD
Quantity Q QRC QIC QR QI
Radiation R RRC RIC RC RR RI
Speed, Frequency S SRC SIC SC SCV SR SI
Temperature T TRC TIC TC TCV TR TI
Temperature
TD TDRC TDIC TDC TDCV
Differential
Multivariable U UR UI
Vibration, Mechanical
V VR VI
Analysis
Weight, Force W WRC WIC WC WCV WR WI
Weight, Force
WD WDRC WDIC WDC WDCV WDR WDI
Differential
Unclassified X
Event, State or
Y YIC YC YR YI
Presence
Position, Dimension Z ZRC ZIC ZC ZCV ZR ZI
Gauging Deviation ZD ZDRC ZDIC ZDC ZDCV ZDR ZDI

Note: The letter “Z” can be used as a second modifier to indicate an SIS (safety instrumented
system) function.

Examples: BZIC (burner SIS indicating controller) or PZIT (pressure SIS indicating transmitter)

424
ISA P&ID Identification (Transmitters, Switches, and Alarms)

Initiating or Measured Variable Switches and Alarm Devices Transmitters

First
Letter High Low Comb Recording Indicating Blind
Analysis A ASH ASL ASHL ART AIT AT
Burner, Combustion B BSH BSL BSHL BRT BIT BT
Users Choice C
Users Choice D
Voltage E ESH ESL ESHL ERT EIT ET
Flow Rate F FSH FSL FSHL FRT FIT FT
Flow Quantity FQ FQSH FQSL FQIT FQT
Flow Ratio FF FFSH FFSL
Users Choice G
Hand H HS HRT HIT HT
Current (Electrical) I ISH ISL ISHL IRT IIT IT
Power J JSH JSL JSHL JRT JIT JT
Time K KSH KSL KSHL KRT KIT KT
Level L LSH LSL LSHL LRT LIT LT
Users Choice M
Users Choice N
Users Choice O
Pressure, Vacuum P PSH PSL PSHL PRT PIT PT
Pressure Differential PD PDSH PDSL PDRT PDIT PDT
Quantity Q QSH QSL QSHL QRT QIT QT
Radiation R RSH RSL RSHL RRT RIT RT
Speed, Frequency S SSH SSL SSHL SRT SIT ST
Temperature T TSH TSL TSHL TRT TIT TT
Temperature Differential TD TDSH TDSL TDRT TDIT TDT
Multivariable U
Vibration, Mechanical Analysis V VSH VSL VSHL VRT VIT VT
Weight, Force W WSH WSL WSHL WRT WIT WT
Weight, Force Differential WD WDSH WDSL WDRT WDIT WDT
Unclassified X
Event, State or Presence Y YSH YSL YT
Position, Dimension Z ZSH ZSL ZSHL ZRT ZIT ZT
Gauging Deviation ZD ZDSH ZDSL ZDRT ZDIT ZDT

425
ISA P&ID Identification (Compute, Relay, and Elements)

Initiating Solenoids,
or Relays, Well Viewing
Measured First Computing Primary Test of Device, Safety Final
Variable Letter Devices Element Point Probe Glass Device Element
Analysis A AY AE AP AW AV
Burner, Combustion B BY BE BW BG BV
Users Choice C
Users Choice D
Voltage E EY EE EZ
Flow Rate F FY FE FP FG FV
Flow Quantity FQ FQY FQE FQV
Flow Ratio FF FE FFV
Users Choice G
Hand H HY HV
Current (Electrical) I IY IE IZ
Power J JY JE JV
Time K KY KE KV
Level L LY LE LW LG LV
Users Choice M
Users Choice N
Users Choice O
Pressure, Vacuum P PY PE PP PSV, PSE PV
Pressure Differential PD PDY PE PP PDV
Quantity Q QY QE QZ
Radiation R RY RE RW RV
Speed, Frequency S SY SE SV
Temperature T TY TE TP TW TG TSE TV
Temperature
TD TDY TE TP TW TDG TDV
Differential
Multivariable U UY UV
Vibration, Mechanical
V VY VE VW VG VZ
Analysis
Weight, Force W WY WE WW WG WZ
Weight, Force
WD WDY WE WDW WDG WDZ
Differential
Unclassified X
Event, State or
Y YY YE YW YG YZ
Presence
Position, Dimension Z ZY ZE ZW ZG ZV
Gauging Deviation ZD ZDY ZDE ZDW ZDG ZDV

426
Piping and Equipment Symbols

427
Standard P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram)

This is a standard ISA P&ID (piping and instrument diagram) as might be seen on the CSE examination.
The exam may ask questions related to symbols and connections. Familiarize yourself with the
ISA-5.1-2009 Instrumentation Symbols and Identification standard for the exam.

I SA Standard P&ID as Might be Seen on the CSE Exam

P&ID Sample 1 (Functions)

428
ISA Standard P&ID as Might be Seen on the CSE Exam (Continued)

P&ID Sample 2 (Alarms)

P&ID Sample 3 (Separator)

429
A More Complex P&ID as Might be Seen in a Plant or on the CSE Exam

EM (Equipment Modules) as in the ISA-88 Standard

Cross Limiting Control of Furnace

430
ISA Simplified P&ID as Might be Seen on the CSE Exam

Simplified P&ID Sample 1

Simplified P&ID Sample 2

431
ISA Standard PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) or MFD (Mechanical Flow Diagram)

This is a standard ISA PFD (piping flow diagram) as might be seen on the CSE examination. The exam
may ask questions related to symbols and connections. The PFD is usually used to show the flow of the
system as well as energy and material balances.

PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) or MFD (Mechanical Flow Diagram) as Might be on the CSE

PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 1

432
PFD or MFD as might be on the CSE C(ontinued)

PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 2

433
BFD (Block Flow Diagram)

BFD Sample 1

BFD Sample 2

434
ISA Standard Loop Diagram

This shows a standard ISA instrument loop diagram as might be seen on the CSE examination. The exam
may ask questions related to terminals, symbols, and connections. Familiarize yourself with the ISA-5.4-
1991 Standard Instrument Loop Diagrams standard for the exam.

A typical ISA loop diagram of a DCS controller in a cabinet (it could look the same for a PLC).

A typical ISA loop diagram of a single loop controller in a control cabinet or panel.

435
ISA Standard Loop Sheet, Be Able to Read the Terminal Connection Designations
for the CSE
Familiarize yourself with this type of loop diagram. Notice the redundant output models.

Familiarize yourself with the pneumatic designations for tubes and bulkhead connections.

436
Instrument Location and Elevation Plan Drawing

437
Instrument Index Sheet

A typical instrument index sheet, showing instrument tag number, P&ID, loop diagram, etc. This will be a
compiled list of all the instruments installed on a project. It is very useful for cross referencing prints.

Blowup of left side of the sheet

Blowup of the middle of the sheet

438
DCS or PLC I/O List (A List of Inputs and Outputs with Tags and Calibration Data)

A typical Instrument I/O list showing instrument tag number, P&ID, loop diagram, etc.

Blowup of left side of the sheet

Blowup of right side of the sheet

439
ISA Standard (HMI) Graphical Display Symbols and Designations

This shows a standard process plant graphical display. Questions relating to the colors and functions of
the on-screen switches and text may be asked on the exam. Familiarize yourself with the ISA-5.3-1983
Graphic Symbols For Distributed Control/ Shared Display Instrumentation, Logic, and Computer
Systems standard for the exam.

HMI Sample 1

440
HMI Sample 2

NFPA 79 Colors for Graphical Displays (Industrial Machinery)

Purposes
Safety of
Persons or Condition of State of
Colors Environment Process Equipment
RED Danger Emergency Faulty
YELLOW (AMBER) Warning/ Caution Abnormal Abnormal
GREEN Safe Normal Normal
BLUE Mandatory action
CLEAR WHITE
Mandatory action
GRAY BLACK

441
Battery Limits of the Plant

A battery (naval or military) refers to a grouping of artillery or ships for a common purpose to facilitate
command and control. The physical and communication limits became known as battery limits. The term
was first used in oil refineries to designate grouping the plant, equipment, and systems with a common
purpose, such as crude distillation, reforming, etc.

Many capital projects are divided into two parts, inside the battery limits (ISBL) and outside the battery
limits (OSBL). ISBL is typically the process units and the focus of the project, whether it is a grassroots
facility or a revamp of an existing unit. OSBL consists of all connections necessary to make ISBL function:
feed and product streams, utilities, waste streams, etc.

442
 Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems

Overview of Process Safety and Shutdown

On the CSE exam, there will be questions on SIS (safety instrumented systems) and SIL (safety integrity
levels). We will discuss some of the calculations and data you may encounter on the test.

SIS (Safety Instrumented Systems)

OSHA law incorporates as the guideline that “good engineering practice” will be used in evaluating and
engineering SISs. This means that the program follows the codes and standards published by such
organizations as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Petroleum Institute, American
National Standards Institute, National Fire Protection Association, American Society for Testing and
Materials, National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, and ISA. Other countries have similar
requirements.

ANSI/ISA-84.00.01-2003, (IEC 61511 Mod), Application of Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process
Industries, (called IEC 61511 / ISA-84 here) addresses the application of SISs to take a process to a safe
state when predetermined conditions are violated, such as set points for pressure, temperature, level, etc.
Its objective is to define requirements for SISs. SISs are also called Emergency Shutdown Systems,
Safety Shutdown Systems, and Safety Interlock Systems. SISs provide safety control functions and
complement the Basic Process Control System (BPCS) which provides normal process control. The IEC
61511 / ISA-84 standard address the entire lifecycle for SISs and compliance with the standard requires a
significant effort.

Complying with IEC 61511 / ISA-84

OSHA has endorsed IEC 61511 / ISA-84 as a "national consensus standard" in a March 23, 2000 OSHA
letter to ISA. This letter states that the standard is considered "a recognized and generally accepted good
engineering practice" for SIS. Paragraph (d)(3)(ii) of the Process Safety Management (PSM) standard
specifies, "The employer shall document that equipment complies with recognized and generally accepted
good engineering practices." The letter states that in evaluating whether an employer's engineering
practices with respect to SISs comply with PSM, OSHA would consider, among other factors, whether the
employer meets the requirements of IEC 61511 / ISA-84.

In the letter, OSHA states that it is also important to note that there are a large percentage of processes
that are not covered by PSM which may include SISs covered by the standard. OSHA states that the
employer may be in violation of the General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, if SISs are
utilized, which do not conform with IEC 61511 / ISA-84, and hazards exist related to the SISs, which could
seriously harm employees. Consequently, this means that companies must comply with IEC 61511 /
ISA-84, not only for PSM-covered processes, but also for other processes that use SISs where hazards to
personnel may be present.

Regardless of regulatory requirements, IEC 61511 / ISA-84 are an internationally recognized standard
and represents good engineering practice.

NOTE: OSHA states that the employer may be in violation of the General Duty Clause, Section
5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, if SISs are utilized, which do not conform with IEC 61511 / ISA-84.

443
Other codes related to SIS systems

 NFPA 85 – Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazard Code

 NFPA 86 – Standard for Ovens and Furnaces
 IEC 61508 - Functional Safety: Safety-Related Systems
 IEC 61511 - Functional Safety: Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry Sector
 ANSI / ISA S84.01 – Application of Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process Industries

ISA and OSHA letter defining the requirements of the implementation of SIS systems

• Standard Number: 1910.119

This letter constitutes OSHA's interpretation only of the requirements discussed and may not be
applicable to any situation not delineated within the original correspondence.

November 29, 2005

Ms. Lois M. Ferson

Manager of Standards Services
ISA
67 Alexandria Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

Dear Ms. Ferson:

Thank you for your October 25, 2004 letter to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
on behalf of the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA), regarding a consensus
standard jointly issued by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and ISA that may be applied
under OSHA's Process Safety Management (PSM) standard, 29 CFR 1910.119. We apologize for the
delay in our response.

Background: ISA is an ANSI accredited organization. In March 2000, OSHA issued a letter to ISA, in
which OSHA responded to questions pertaining to ANSI/ISA 84.01-1996, "Application of Safety
Instrumented Systems for the Process Industries." Since then, based on experience gained from its use
and the availability of newer technology, ISA has updated and modified ANSI/ISA 84.01-1996. This new
standard — ANSI/ISA-84.00.01-2004 Parts 1-3 (IEC 61511 Mod), "Functional Safety: Safety
Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry Sector," has been approved by ISA and by ANSI. With
this background, ISA is again requesting a response to the following questions:

Question 1: Does the modification of corporate standards to comply with ANSI/ISA- S84.00.01-2004
Parts 1-3 (IEC 61511 Mod) ensure compliance with related areas of 29 CFR 1910.119?

Response: As stated in our March 23, 2000 response, the PSM standard contains a number of
requirements for equipment associated with a covered process, which may include Safety Instrumented
Systems (SIS). OSHA considers the revised ANSI/ISA - S84.00.01-2004 Parts 1-3 (IEC 61511 Mod) to be
recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices for SIS. Therefore, if an employer
chooses to use S84.00.01-2004 Parts 1-3 as a basis ("code or standard employed") for SIS, and meets
all S84.00.01-2004 Parts 1-3 requirements and other OSHA PSM requirements related to SIS, the
employer will then be considered in compliance with OSHA PSM requirement for SIS.

Question 2: We are interested if your agency views ANSI/ISA-S84.01 as the benchmark OSHA will use
to measure compliance with 29 CFR 1910.119?

444
Response: As stated in our previous response, the PSM standard is a performance-oriented standard.
Therefore, employers have the flexibility in complying with the requirements of PSM, including, among
other aspects, the use of recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices. With respect to
SIS, as stated in our previous response, OSHA does not specify or benchmark S84.00.001-2004, Parts 1-
3, as the only recognized and generally accepted good engineering practice. Additionally, it is important
to note that an employer not covered under the PSM standard may be in violation of the General Duty
Clause, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, if the employer's use of SIS results in a serious, recognized
hazard to employees. In support of a Section 5(a)(1) citation, industry consensus standards, such as
ANSI/ISA - S84.00.01-2004, can be used as evidence that a hazard is recognized and can feasibly be
abated.

Thank you for your interest in occupational safety and health. We hope you find this information helpful.
Please be aware that OSHA's enforcement guidance is subject to periodic review and clarification,
amplification, or correction. Such guidance could also be affected by subsequent rulemaking. In the
future, should you wish to verify that the guidance provided herein remains current, you may consult
OSHA's web-site at www.osha.gov. If you have any further questions, please feel free to contact the
Office of General Industry Compliance Assistance at (202) 693-1850.

Sincerely,

Richard E. Fairfax,
Director
Directorate of Enforcement Program

Initiating Events of Safety Instrumented Systems

Initiating Event Examples

External Events  High wind

 Seismic event
 Flooding
 Lightning
 Vehicle impact
 Fire or explosion in an adjacent area

Equipment Failures  BPCS (basic process control system) component failure.

 Utility failure.
 Vessel/Piping failure due to wear, fatigue, or corrosion.
 Vessel/Piping failure caused by specification, design, or
manufacturing defect.
 Vessel/Piping failure caused by over or under pressurization.
 Vibration induced failure (e.g., rotating equipment)
 Failures caused by inadequate maintenance/repair.
 Failures caused by temperature extremes.
 Failures resulting from

Human Failures  Failure to properly execute a task, by omitting steps, or improperly

sequencing steps of a task.
 Failure to observe or respond appropriately to conditions or
prompts by the system or process.

445
The difference between BPCS and SIS systems

A basic process control system (BPCS), used for everyday control of the process plant and a safety
instrumented system (SIS) is used for emergency response to dangerous conditions or loss of control in
the process plant’s control system.

PLC/DCS is used for the Plant PES/Logic Solver for the

Basic Process Control System Safety Instrument System

Safety instrumented systems (SIS) are the systems responsible for the operating safety of the plant and
ensuring the emergency stop of the systems within the limits considered as safe, whenever the operation
exceeds such limits. The main objective is to avoid accidents inside and outside plants, such as fires,
explosions, equipment damages, protection of production and property, and, more than that, avoiding life
risk or personal health damages and catastrophic impacts to community. It should be clear that no system
is completely immune to failures and even in case of failure; it should provide a safe condition.

446
For several years, the plant safety systems were designed according to the German standards (DIN V
VDE 0801 and DIN V 19250), which were well accepted for years by the global safety community and
which caused the efforts to create a global standard, IEC 61508, which now works as a basis for all
operational safety regarding electric, electronic systems and programmable devices for any kind of
industry. Such standard covers all safety systems with electronic nature.

Products certified according to IEC 61508 should basically cover 3 types of failures:

 Random hardware failures

 Systematic failures
 Common causes failures

IEC 61508 mandatory and guidelines

IEC 61508 is divided in 7 parts, where the first 4 are mandatory and the other 3 act as guidelines

 Part 1: General requirements

 Part 2: Requirements for E/E/PE safety-related systems
 Part 3: Software requirements
 Part 4: Definitions and abbreviations
 Part 5: Examples of methods for the determination of safety integrity levels
 Part 6: Guidelines on the application of IEC 61508-2 and IEC 61508-3
 Part 7: Overview of techniques and measures

The standard systematically covers all activities of a SIS lifecycle and focuses on the performance
required from a system. Once the desired SIL is reached, the redundancy level and the test intervals are
at the discretion of who specified the system.

IEC61508 aims at potentializing the improvements of PES (Programmable Electronic Safety, where the
PLCs, microprocessor based systems, distributed control systems, sensors, and intelligent actuators, etc.
are included) so as to standardize the concepts involved.

International standard IEC 61511 was published in 2003 to provide guidance to end-users on the
application of safety instrumented systems in the process industries. Other industry sectors may also have
standards that are based on IEC 61508, such as IEC 62061 (machinery systems), IEC 62425 (for railway
signaling systems), IEC 61513 (for nuclear systems).

447
SIF and SIL

Safety instrumented function (SIF) is designed to minimize process risks to a tolerable level (or ALARP).
Each SIF is assigned a SIL during the SIL analysis / risk assessment
 SIL 0/none – lowest risk
 SIL 1 – 95% of the SIFs
 SIL 2 – 5% of SIFs
 SIL 3 – < 1% (not likely in refineries, but possible in off-shore platforms or nuclear)
 SIL 4 – highest risk (only seen in nuclear industry)

Risk analysis and protection layers

448
Designing a SIS System

SIL (Safety Integrity Level) – Unit for Functional Safety

Functional safety is part of the overall safety that depends on a safety instrumented system (SIS), made
up of equipment, such as fire and gas detection systems that execute safety instrumented functions (SIF).
A safety function is designed to ensure or maintain a safety state of the SIS when a dangerous event
occurs.

Each safety function has a SIL. The SIL is the probability for the system to execute the safety functions
required in all specified input conditions within a specified time interval. The 61508 standard details the
requirements necessary to achieve each safety integrity level.

Obtaining the SIL is done by:

• Guaranteeing the integrity of the cycle of development of the system in the fields of specification,
design and testing, with the goal of avoiding and eliminating systematic failures.

• Guaranteeing the robustness of the design by measurements allowing the systematic fault tolerances
(diagnostics, access control, environment, etc.).

• Respecting the constraints on the equipment architecture for the rate of diagnostic coverage to
determine the Safe Failure Fraction (SFF).

• By guaranteeing a probability of failures on demand (PFD), as a function of the failure rate and the test
interval, or as failure rate per hour (PFH).

• If software is included, by guaranteeing the integrity and robustness of the design concerning
only systematic failures.
449
If concluded that an SIS is required, then ANSI/ISA-84.00.01 (IEC 61511 modified) and IEC 61508 require
that a target SIL be assigned. The assignment of a SIL is a corporate decision based on risk management
and risk tolerance philosophy. Safety regulations require that the assignment of SILs should be carefully
performed and documented. A qualitative view of SIL has slowly developed over the last few years as the
concept of SIL has been adopted at many chemical and petrochemical plants. This qualitative view can be
expressed in terms of the impact of the SIS failure on plant personnel and the public or community.

 “4” - Catastrophic Community Impact.

 “3” - Employee and Community Protection.
 “2” - Major Property and Production Protection. Possible injury to employee.
 “1” - Minor Property and Production Protection.

SFF – Safe Failure Fraction

The SFF, as mentioned previously, is one parameter that is necessary to assess the SIL capability of SIF
functions. The SFF is the percentage of safe failures, that is those that are safe or detected.

The calculation is based on the architecture of each SIF and on a functional analysis by carrying out a
FMEDA, Failure Mode Effect and Diagnostic Analysis.

Example: To be rated SIL2, a simple non-

redundant control unit that will not ensure
the safety function in the event of 1
hardware fault, must have a Safe Failure
Fraction between 90% and 99% (i.e., the
percentage of undetected dangerous failures
shall not be greater than 10%).

The table above taken from IEC 61508-1 gives the SIL levels, in relation to the Safe Failure Fraction
(SFF) and the tolerance for hardware fault.

450
 The qualitative parameter SFF (Safe
Failure Fraction) is not enough. As
such undetected dangerous failures
exist, their probability to occur during
the testing interval should be
determined. IEC 61508 describes two
modes of operation for a safety
function:

1) Low demand mode of operation

2) High demand or continuous mode

A safety function operating in demand

mode is only performed when required
(i.e., on demand) in order to transfer
the Equipment Under Control (EUC)
into a specified state. The safety-
related system that performs the
safety function has no influence on the
EUC until there is a demand for the
safety function to be performed. This
type of system can be as simplistic as
a gas detection system in a boiler
room that cuts the gas supply in the
event of gas leakage.

A safety function operating in continuous mode operates to retain the EUC within its normal safe state.
That is, the safety-related system continuously controls the EUC, and a dangerous failure of the safety-
related equipment will lead to a hazard. A simple example is a gas concentration measurement by gas
detector system associated with control ventilation and heating to regulate the concentration of gas in a
tank.

Probability of Failures on Demand (PFD)

Probability of Failures per Hour (PFH)

Depending of the timing between the demand and the test proof, IEC 61508 defines:

 Low demand mode is where the frequency of demand for operation made on a safety-related system
is no greater than one per year and no greater than twice the proof test frequency.
 High demand or continuous mode is where the frequency of demand for operation made on a safety-
related system is greater than once per year or greater than twice the proof test frequency.

In the context of this definition, continuous is regarded as very high demand. In relation with these two
modes of operation, IEC 61508 relates the safety integrity level of a safety function to:

 The PFD, the average probability of failure to perform its design function on demand, in the case of
low demand mode or,

 The PFH, the probability of a dangerous failure per hour, in the case of high demand or continuous
mode. The probability of a dangerous failure per hour is sometimes referred to as the dangerous
failure rate (i.e., dangerous failures per hour).

451
For a simple safety system:
1
PFDAVG  du TP  MTTR 
2
This means that statistically, a dangerous failure will remain undetected during half of the proof test
interval Tp.

SIL Capability and Safety System

Each component of a SIS involved in the safety function has a SIL value. The overall SIL of a safety
function is determined by calculation based of the failure rate probability of each component. Each
component contributes its part to the final SIL. The weakest link of the chain reflects the maximum
achievable SIL. It is useless to request a SIL3 controller if the sensor is only SIL1 and the actuator has no
SIL capability. The figure below shows that the weakest component is often the actuator.

452
SIF (Safety Instrumented Function)

The Safety Instrumented Function (SIF) sheet includes the following information:
 Input
o Type
o Redundancy
o Voting Architecture
o Testing Interval
 Logic Solver Type
 Actuator
o Type
o Redundancy
o Voting Architecture
o Test Interval
 Final Element
o Type
o Redundancy
o Voting Architecture
o Testing Interval
o Diagnostic Requirements For All Devices
 Alarms
 Maintenance Provisions
 Bypass Requirements
 Manual ESD Requirements
 SIL Verification
 Predicted Spurious Trip Rate

A typical P&ID of the (SIF) Instrumentation

453
Voting or (Polling of the System)

Calculations of the risk of failure of the instruments and system components must be evaluated. A Logic
Solver with a VOTING system and redundant instrumentation are used to try to control the process plant
disaster due to failure.

A typical voting system and its instrumentation for the above P&ID

It is also important to understand the voting systems, (polling systems), of SIS/SIL-rated PLC controllers
(Logic Solvers). The following is read X out of X.

Types of Voting (X out of X)

1oo1 = one out of one 1oo1D = one out of one with diagnostics
1oo2 = one out of two 1oo2D = one out of two with diagnostics
2oo2 = two out of two 2oo2D = two out of two with diagnostics
2oo3 = two out of three 2oo3D = two out of three with diagnostics

454
Voting Probabilities

Types of Voting Probabilities (Safe) Probabilities (Dangerous)

1oo1 = one out of one 0.01 0.02
1oo2 = one out of two 0.02 0.0004
2oo2 = two out of two 0.0001 0.04
2oo3 = two out of three 0.0003 0.0012

The SIS calculations

The correct operation of an SIS requires a series of equipment to function properly. It must have sensors
capable of detecting abnormal operating conditions, such as high flow, low level, or incorrect valve
positioning. A logic solver is required to receive the sensor input signal(s), make appropriate decisions
based on the nature of the signal(s), and change its outputs according to user-defined logic. The logic
solver may use electrical, electronic or programmable electronic equipment, such as relays, trip
amplifiers, or programmable logic controllers. Next, the change of the logic solver output(s) results in the
final element(s) taking action on the process (e.g., closing a valve) to bring it to a safe state. Support
systems, such as power, instrument air, and communications, are generally required for SIS operation.
The support systems should be designed to provide the required integrity and reliability.
In addition, it is necessary to:

 Understand the common mode failures, know which types of safe and non-safe failures are
possible in a specific system, how to prevent them and, also, when, how, where and which
redundancy level is more appropriate for each case.

 Define the preventive maintenance level appropriate for each application.

The simple use of modern, sophisticated or even certified equipment does not absolutely ensure any
improvement on reliability and safety of operation, when compared with traditional technologies, except
when the system is deployed with criteria and knowledge of advantages and limitations inherent to each
type of technology available. In addition, the entire SIS lifecycle should be in mind.

Typical examples of safety systems:

 Emergency Shutdown System

 Safety Shutdown System
 Safety Interlock System
 Fire and Gas System

Quantification of Reliability in almost absolute terms

Reliability essentially has a probability nature and can be quantified in almost absolute terms by mean
time between failures (MTBF) and mean time to failure (MTTF). Importantly, those two times are usually
the mean values calculated using an identical number of instruments and, therefore, for any particular
instrument, its values may be different from the average.

The MTBF is a parameter expressing the mean time between failures occurring in an instrument,
calculated in a specific period of time. In cases where the equipment has high reliability, in practice, it will
be difficult to count the number of failures occurrences and non-precise number may be generated for the
MTBF and, then, using the manufacturer's value is recommended.

455
The MTTF is an alternative mode to quantify reliability. It is normally used for devices, such as
thermocouples, as they are discharged when they fail. MTTF expresses the mean time before the failure
occurs, calculated in an identical number of devices.

The final associated reliability in terms of importance to the measurement system is expressed by the
mean time to repair (MTTR), that is, the mean time to repair an instrument or even the mean time to
replace a piece of equipment. The combination of MTBF and MTTR shows the availability:

Availability = MTBF/ (MTBF+MTTR)

The availability measures the proportion of time in which the instrument works without failures. The
objective with measurement systems is to maximize the MTBF and minimize the MTTR and
consequently, maximize the Availability.

Failure Models – The Bathtub Curve

The failure mode in a device may change throughout its lifecycle. It may remain unchanged, decrease or,
at least, increase. In electronic devices, it is common to have a behavior according to figure F1 below,
also known as the bathtub curve.

Figure F1 - Typical curve of reliability variation of an electronic component

Manufacturers usually apply burn-in tests in a way to eliminate the phase until T1, until products are
placed in the market. But the mechanical components will have a higher failure rate in the end of their
lifecycle, as per figure F2 below.

Figure F2 - Typical curve of reliability variation of a mechanical component

In practice, where systems are electronic and mechanical compositions, the failure models are complex.
The more components, the higher the incidents and probabilities of failures.

456
Reliability Laws

In the practice of controls engineering, we usually will have several components, and the measurement
system is complex. We may have components in series or in parallel. Reliability of components in series
should take into consideration the probability of individual failures in a time period. For a measurement
system with n components in series, reliability Rs is the product of individual reliabilities: Rs =
R1xR2...Rn.

Imagine we have a measurement system composed by a sensor, a conversion element and a circuit of
signal processing, where we have the following reliability: 0.9, 0.95 and 0.099, respectively. In such a
case, the system reliability will be:

0.9x0.95x0.009 = 0.85.

The reliability can be increased by placing components in parallel, this means that the system fails if all
components fail. In such case, reliability Rs is demonstrated by:

Rs = 1 – Fs, where Fs is the non-reliability of the system.

The non-reliability is Fs = F1xF2...F3.

For example, in a safe measurement system, there are three identical instruments in parallel. The
reliability of each one is 0.95 and that of the system is:

Rs = 1 – [ (1-0.95)x(1-0.95)x(1-0.95)] = 0.999875

Improving the reliability of a measurement system

What we look for, in the practice, is to minimize the level of failures. An important requirement is to ensure
action to prevent failures and act before T2 (see figures 1 and 2), when the statistical frequency of failures
increases. The idea is to make sure T (time period or life cycle) is equal to T2 and, then, maximizing the
period without failures.

There are several ways to increase the reliability of a measurement system:

 Choice of instruments: One should always be aware to the instruments specified, its influences
regarding the process, materials, environment, etc.

 Protection of instruments: protecting the instruments with appropriate protections may help to
improve and ensure a higher level of reliability. For example, thermocouples should be protected
in adverse operating conditions.

 Regular calibration: Most of the failures may be caused by drifts that may change and generate
incorrect outputs. Therefore, according to the good instrumentation practices, we recommend that
the instruments are periodically checked and calibrated.

 Redundancy: In such case, there is more than one equipment working in parallel and locked with
a key, sometimes, automatically. Here the reliability is significantly improved.

457
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) and Availability

A SIL is a statistical representation of the safety availability of an SIS at the time of process demand. It
is at the heart of acceptable SIS design and includes the following factors:

• Device integrity
• Diagnostics
• Systematic and common cause failures
• Testing
• Operation
• Maintenance

Sample of SIL Evaluation

Acronyms
EUC = equipment under control
Ft = tolerable risk level
Fnp = present risk level
MTBF = mean time between failures
MTTF = mean time to failure
PFD = probability of failure on demand
RRF = risk reduction factor
RRF = Fnp/Ft
PFD = 1/ RRF

IEC 61508 contains guidance on using both qualitative and quantitative methods to determine the SIL for
a system based on risk frequency and consequence tables and graphs. The following steps illustrate
application of the general guidelines contained in IEC 61508:

1. Set the target tolerable risk level (Ft), where Ft is the risk frequency, often determined as
hazardous event frequency x consequence of hazardous event expressed numerically

2. Calculate the present risk level (Fnp) for the EUC, which is the risk frequency with no protective
functions present (or unprotected risk)

3. The ratio Fnp/Ft gives the risk reduction factor (RRF) required to achieve the target tolerable risk

4. Determine the amount of RRF to be assigned to the SIS (RRF). The reciprocal of RRF gives the
target average probability of failure on demand (PFD) the SIS must achieve.

5. Translate the PFD value into a SIL value (using guidance tables)

458
Metrics used in the reliability engineering field involving SIS

1. Reliability R(t)

Reliability is a metric developed to determine the probability of success of an operation in a specified

period of time.

1
MTTF =
λ

R  t  = exp  -λt 

When (failure rate) is too low, the non-reliability function (F(t)) or the probability of failure (PF) is
shown by: PF(t) = t

2. MTTR = Mean Time to Repair

The reliability measurement requires that a system has success in an operation during a time interval. In
this sense, appears the MTTR metrics, which is the time in which a failure is detected and its repair occurs
(or the reestablishment of operating success).

The reestablishment of the operating success is shown by: µ = 1/MTTR

In practice, it is not simple to estimate that rate, mainly when periodic inspection activities occur, as the
failure may occur just after an inspection.

3. MTBF – Mean Time Between Failures

The MTBF is a basic measure of the reliability in repairable items of a piece of equipment. It may be
expressed in hours or years. It is commonly used in systems reliability and sustainability analysis and can
be calculated by the following formula:

MTBF = MTTR + MTTF

Where:

MTTR = mean time to repair

MTTF = mean time to failure = the inverse of the sum of all failures rates

As the MTTR is too low in practice, it is common to assume the MTBF = MTTF

459
4. Availability A(t) and Unavailability U(t)

Another very useful metric is the availability. It is defined as the probability of a device being available
(without failures) when a time (t) requires it to operate within the operating conditions to which it was
designed.

Unavailability is given by: U(t) = 1 – A(t)

Availability is not only a reliability function, but it is also a maintenance function. The table below shows
the relationship between reliability, maintenance, and availability. Note in this table that an increase in the
maintenance ability implies a decrease in the time necessary to conduct the maintenance actions.

Reliability Maintenance Availability

Continual Decreases Decreases

Continual increases increases

Increases Continual increases

Decreases Continual Decreases

Relationship between Reliability, Maintenance and Availability

Reliability, Availability and Costs

5. Probability of Failure on Demand (PFDavg) and Periodic Test and Inspection

PFDavg is the probability of failure that a system (for failure prevention) has when a failure occurs. The
SIL is related to this probability of failure on demand and with the factor of risk reduction (how much needs
to be protected to ensure an acceptable risk when a failure event occurs).

PFD is the indicator of reliability appropriate for the safety systems.

460
If it is not tested, the failure probability tends to 1.0 with the time. Periodic tests maintain the probability of
failure within the desired limit.

The figure below shows the architecture details versus the voting and PFD and the formula below shows
the correlation in PFD and Factor of Risk Reduction

Tolerable frequency of an accident 1

PFD Avg  
Accident frequency with no protection Risk Reduction Factor

Correlation between PFDavg and Factor of Risk Reduction

The Failure Probability may be calculated using the following equation:

PFAvg = (Cpt x x TI/2) + ((1-Cpt) x x L xT/2)

Where:

du = : failure rate:
Cpt: percentage of failures detected by a test (proof test)
TI: test interval period
L: life period of a process unit

Example:

Let’s suppose that a valve is used in a safety instrumented system and has an annual failure rate of
0.002. Every year a verification and inspection test is conducted. It is estimated that 70% of failures are
detected in such tests. The valve will be used for 25 years and its usage demand is estimated as once
every 100 years. What is the average probability of failure?

Using the previous equation we have:

 : 0.002
 Cpt: 0.7
 TI: 1 year
 L: 25 years

PFDavg = (0.7) x 0.002 x ½ + (1-0.7) x 0.002 x 25/2 = 0.0082

461
SIS Calculations - worked example

Consider a system with EUC that has an unprotected risk frequency (Fnp) of 1 hazardous event per 5
years (Fnp = 0.2/year), [0.2 = 1/5], with a consequence classified as “Critical,” Tables B1 and B2 show
examples of guidance tables used for risk classification and class interpretation of accidents from IEC
61508-5.

Risk Classification of Accidents (Ft): Table B1 of IEC 61508-5

Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible

Frequency 1 death or
> 1 death Minor injury Production Loss
injuries
1 per year I I I II
1 per 5 years I I II III
1 per 50 years I II III III
1 per 500 years II III III IV
1 per 5000 years III III IV IV
1 per 50000 years IV IV IV IV

Risk Classification of Accidents: Table B2 of IEC 61508-5

Risk Class Interpretation

I Intolerable risk

Undesirable risk, tolerable only if risk reduction

II is impracticable or if cost are grossly
disproportionate to the improvement gained

Tolerable risk if the cost of risk reduction would

III
exceed the improvement gained

IV Negligible risk

Using tables B1 and B2, the unprotected risk is determined as class I. The target is to reduce this risk to a
tolerable risk of class III, i.e., 1 hazardous event per 500 to 5000 years.

If we consider the safest target, Ft = 1 hazardous event in 5000 years, this represents a frequency of
0.0002 events/year.

This gives a target risk reduction factor RRF of Fnp/Ft = 0.2/0.0002 = 1000

If there are no non-SIS protective layers assigned to the system, the SIS must fulfill the total RRF of
1000.
-3
Now PFD = 1/ RRF = 1/1000 = 0.001 = 1 x 10

462
 -3
Using the SIL assignments in the following table, this gives a SIL target 2 for a PFD = 10 .

SIL Availability PDF (avg) MTBF

-5 -4
4 > 99.99% 10 to < 10 100000 to 10000
-4 -3
3 99.9% 10 to < 10 10000 to 1000
-3 -2
2 99-99.9% 10 to < 10 1000 to 100
-2 -1
1 90-99% 10 to < 10 100 to 10

Calculating PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand)

1 ( system FR)(Test interval)

PFD  or
RRF 2

(Note: This will probably be useful on the test.)

Calculating MTTF (Mean Time to Failure) Based on Failure Rates…

number of failures
Failure Rate (FR) 
total time (hours or years)
Note: 1 year = 8,760 hours

MTTF (is normally expressed in years): 10 years

1 failure in 10 years is
1 failure 1
Failure Rate (FR)    1.14 x10-5 / hr
(10 years) * (8,760 hours) 87,600 hours

1
MTTF 
FR1  FR2  FR3  ...FRn

Calculating MTBF Based on Failures

MTBF 
 start date of last failure - start date of first failure 
 number of failures - 1

MTBF 
 number of pieces of equipment * time period 
 number of failures during that time

463
SIS and SIL – worked examples

These are sample SIS problems as might be seen on the CSE exam

Example 1: Pump Failure Rate (FR)

1200 Pumps fail 387 times over a one year period. What is the mean time between failures (MTBF)?
(1200 X 12 months) /387 = 37 months

The MTBF is 37 months

For a single item, it is just the (time period / number of failures).

Example: Pump failed twice in one year, the MTBF would be (12 months/2 failures) = 6 months
MTBF

What is the failure rate (FR) of the previous example problem per year?
387 failures
FR   387 / year
1 year

What is the failure rate in 10 years?

387 failures 387 failures * 10
FR    3870 / 10 years
1  1 year
  years
 10 

What is the failure rate in hours for the above failure rate of 10 years?
Note 1 year = 8760 hours (24 hr x 365 days)

3870 failures 1 year 3870

FR= * = = 4.418 x 10-2 / hour
10 years 8760 hours 87600 hours

Example 2: MTBF over 10 years

What is the mean time between failures (MTBF) for the previous example over a 10 year period?
The failure rate was 3870 in 10 years:

The failure rate was 3870 in 10 years:

1 1
MTBF    2.58 x 10-4 years
FR 3870

464
 Example 3: PFD and Test Interval

A SIL 3 interlock with a RRF = 1175, is required to mitigate a Category I hazard to Category III. If the
covert failure rates of the SIS loop components are as follows, recommend a test frequency:
–5
Inputs = 1.2 x 10 /per hr
–10
Logic solver = 7.0 x 10 /per hr
–5
Valves = 2.75 x 10 /per hr

number of failures
Failure Rate (FR) 
total time (hours or years)

1 ( system FR)(Test interval)

PFD  or
RRF 2

FR= Failure Rate (Dangerous)

TI = Proof Test Interval

The PFDAVG can be calculated for each component of the system and then summed together.
(e.g., S – Sensor, LS – Logic Solver and FE – Final Element)

1 FR S (TI ) FR LS (TI ) FR FE (TI )

PFDAVG  or  
RRFAVG 2 2 2

PFDAVG 
1
or
 FR S +FR LS +FR FE  *TI
RRFAVG 2

8.51*10  PFDAVG  
-4 1
or
1.2*10-5 +7.0*10-10 +2.75*10-5  *TI
1175  RRFAVG  2

 2 1.2*10 -5
+0.00007*10-5 +2.75*10-5  *TI  2
 2  8.51*10 -4
 or *
1175 1  2

1.702*10-3  1.0*10-5 +0.00007*10-5 +3.0*10-5 *TI

170.2*10-5 170.2*10-5
TI    43.09 hours
1.2*10-5 +0.00007*10-5 +2.75*10-5  3.95007*10-5

465
Recommended SIS Study Material

For a more expanded yet simple study of SIS safety systems see the following publication:

Rockwell Automation’s - Safebook 1

Functional Safety in the Process Control Industry - Principles, standards and implementation
http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/studymaterials/Rockwell Automation SIS Safebook 1.pdf

Rockwell Automation’s - Safebook 4

Safety related control systems for machinery - Principles, standards and implementation
http://www.learncontrolsystems.com/studymaterials/Rockwell Automation SIS Safebook 4.pdf

It contains realistic design criteria and examples of how to implement SIS systems with detailed P&IDs of
the process equipment and their applications. The following page is a preview of applications in the
Process Safebook 1 from Rockwell Automation.

Excerpts from Process Safebook 1 – Rockwell Automation

IEC 61508 covers the safety management of electrical, electronic and programmable electronic systems
throughout their lives, from concept to decommissioning. It brings safety principles to the management of
systems, and safety engineering to their development. At its core is the principle that, in safety planning,
safety goals based on risk assessment should be set, and then that the rigor of management and
processes should be appropriate to meeting them. This makes the standard goal-based rather than
prescriptive, and means that compliance with the standard does not exonerate users of any blame in the
event of a safety problem.

Example HAZOP for this separator vessel

The following example shows a simplified schematic of a process separator vessel. The vessel takes in
the process liquid which is heated by a gas burner. Vapor is separated from the process liquid and
released for export. The remaining concentrated liquid is drawn off from the bottom of the vessel when the
reaction is complete (see figure below). The vessel has a distributed control system.

466
Example of a Demand Mode Safety Function

The figure shows a gas pipeline which provides a feed to a power station. The gas passes from left to
right, through a shutdown valve, before it reaches the Pressure Control Valve (PCV). The PCV is
controlled by a Pressure Controller (PC) which maintains the pressure of the gas to below 48bar, the safe
rating of the export pipeline. Failure of this pressure control function could lead to over pressurization of
the downstream pipeline, possible rupture, ignition and fatality and so a safety function has been
engineered to safeguard against this scenario.

The safety function consists of a separate Pressure Transmitter (PT), some Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
Logic and a Shutdown Valve (SDV) which is actuated by a hydraulic Solenoid Operated Valve (SOV) to
shut off the gas supply in the event of the downstream pressure exceeding a pre-set trip level.

Example of a Continuous Mode Safety Function

Demand mode safety functions include

Process Shutdown (PSD), Emergency
Shutdown (ESD), and High Integrity
Pressure Protection Systems (HIPPS).
It is often a point of confusion that the
PT that forms part of the safety function
is providing continuous monitoring of
process pressure but that does not
preclude it from being demand mode.
The term demand mode relates to the
frequency of demands for executive
active; for example, the frequency of
high pressure excursions.

467
468
 Overview of NEC / NFPA and Other Codes

CFR (Federal Government) Public Safety Standards of the United States

Standards incorporated by reference into law by action of the Executive Director of the Office of the
Federal Register. (Click on link below in the Standard column to view the code online from
https://law.resource.org/)

Standard Year Organization Title CFR

Authority

AGA 3.1 1990 American Gas Orifice Metering of Natural Gas and 40 CFR 75,
Association Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids: Appendix D
Part 1
AGA 2001 American Gas Purging Principles and Practices 49 CFR
Association 193.2615
ANSI B20.1 1957 American National Safety Code for Conveyors, 29 CFR 1926
(pdf) Standards Institute Cableways, and Related Equipment

ANSI B20.1
(html)
API 6D 2008 American Specification for Pipeline Valves 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute 195.116(d)
API RP 14C 2001 American Recommended Practice for Analysis, 30 CFR
Petroleum Institute Design, Installation, and Testing of 250.1628(c)
Basic Surface Safety Systems for
Offshore Production Platforms
API RP 14F 2008 American Recommended Practice for Design 30 CFR
Petroleum Institute and Installation of Electrical Systems 250.114(c)
for Offshore Production Platforms
API 80 2000 American Guidelines for the Definition of 49 CFR 192.8(a)
Petroleum Institute Onshore Gas Gathering Lines
API 510 2006 American Pressure Vessel Inspection Code 30 CFR
Petroleum Institute 250.803(b)(1)
API 620 2002 American Design and Construction of Large 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute Welded Low Pressure Storage Tanks 195.264(e)(3)
API 650 2007 American Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage 195.132(b)(3)
Petroleum Institute
API 651 1997 American Cathodic Protection of Aboveground 49 CFR 195.565
Petroleum Institute Petroleum Storage Tanks
API 2000 1998 American Venting Atmospheric and Low- 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute Pressure Storage Tanks 195.264(e)(2)
API 2003 1998 American Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents 195.405(a)
API 2350 2005 American Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute Petroleum Facilities 195.428(c)

469
API 2510 2001 American Design and Construction of LPG 49 CFR
Petroleum Institute Installations 195.205(b)(3)
ASHRAE 15 1994 American Society Safety Code for Mechanical 49 CFR
of Heating, Refrigeration 173.306(e)(1)(i)
Refrigerating and
Air Conditioning
Engineers
ASHRAE 1993 American Society Fundamentals 10 CFR
of Heating, 434.402.2.2.5(a)
Refrigerating and
Air Conditioning
Engineers
ASME B30.2 2005 American Society Safety Requirements for Overhead 29 CFR 1926
(pdf) of Mechanical and Gantry Cranes
Engineers
ASME B30.2
(html)
ASME B31.4 2002 American Society Pipeline Transportation Systems for 49 CFR
of Mechanical Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other 195.110(a)
Engineers Liquids
ASME B31.8 2003 American Society Gas Transmission and Distribution 49 CFR
of Mechanical Piping Systems 192.619(a)(1)(i)
Engineers
ASME UPV 1943 American Society Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels 49 CFR
of Mechanical 173.32(c)(4)
Engineers
ASSE 1001 1990 American Society Performance Requirements for Pipe 24 CFR
of Sanitary Applied Atmospheric Type Vacuum 3280.604(b)(2)
Engineering Breakers
ASTM F1273 1991 American Society Standard Specification for Tank Vent 46 CFR 32.20-10
for Testing and Flame Arresters
Materials
CGA S-1.1 2005 Compressed Gas Pressure Relief Device Standards 49 CFR
Association 173.301(c)
CGA S-1.2 1980 Compressed Gas Safety Release Device Standard-- 49 CFR
Association Cargo and Portable Tanks for 178.277(e)(4)(iv)
Compressed Gases
CGA S-7 2005 Compressed Gas Method for Selecting Pressure Relief 49 CFR
(pdf) Association Devices for Compressed Gas Mixtures 173.301(c)
in Cylinders
CGA S-7
(html)
CI 57 2009 Chlorine Institute Emergency Shut-Off Systems for Bulk 49 CFR
Transfer of Chlorine 177.840(u)
CI 101-7 1993 Chlorine Institute Excess Flow Valve with Removable 49 CFR
Seat 178.276(c)(7)(i)
CI 104-9 2002 Chlorine Institute Standard Chlorine Angle Valve 49 CFR 178.337-
Assembly 9(b)(8)
CI 106-6 1993 Chlorine Institute Excess Flow Valve with Removable 49 CFR
Baskets 178.276(c)(7)(ii)
CI 166 2002 Chlorine Institute Angle Valve Guidelines for Chlorine 49 CFR 178.337-
Bulk Transportation 9(b)(8)

470
 CI H50155 1996 Chlorine Institute Pressure Relief Device for Chlorine 49 CFR
Service 173.315(i)(13)
CI H51970 1996 Chlorine Institute Safety Valve for Chlorine Service 49 CFR
173.315(i)(13)
IEEE C2 2007 Institute of National Electrical Safety Code (2007) 7 CFR
Electrical and 1755.901(b)
Electronics
Engineers
NFPA 30 2003 National Fire Flammable and Combustible Liquids 49 CFR 192
(pdf) Protection Code
NFPA 30 Association
(html)

NFPA 54 2002 National Fire National Fuel and Gas Code 24 CFR 3280
(pdf) Protection
Association
NFPA 54
(html)
NFPA 58 2001 National Fire Standard for Liquefied Petroleum 49 CFR 173
(pdf) Protection Gases
Association
NFPA 58
(html)
NFPA 58 2004 National Fire Standard for the Storage and Handling 49 CFR
Protection of Liquefied Petroleum Gases 192.11(b)
Association
NFPA 59 2004 National Fire Standard for the Storage and Handling 49 CFR
Protection of Liquefied Petroleum Gases at Utility 192.11(b)
Association Gas Plants
NFPA 70 2005 National Fire National Electrical Code 49 CFR
(pdf) Protection 192.189(c)
Association
NFPA 72 2002 National Fire National Fire Alarm Code 29 CFR 1915
(pdf) Protection
Association
NFPA 72
(html)
NFPA 99 2005 National Fire Standard for Health Care Facilities 38 CFR
Protection 51.200(b)(4)
Association
NFPA 101 2000 National Fire Life Safety Code 59 CFR 130
(pdf) Protection
Association
NFPA 101
(html)
UL 50 1995 Underwriters Standard for Enclosures for Electrical 46 CFR 111.81-
Laboratories Equipment 1(d)
NFPA 54 2002 National Fire National Fuel and Gas Code 24 CFR 3280
(pdf) Protection
Association
NFPA 54
(html)

471
List of NFPA codes (be familiar with these codes)

The CSE exam will cover code questions. We have covered ASME, API, and OSHA codes in the section
on pressure relief valves and safety rupture disks. We will now talk about the codes for the installation,
maintenance and operation of control systems in manufacturing and process plants. Our focus will be on
the installation of electrical systems.

Here are the major codes the CSE exam may cover:

NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (be familiar with this code)
NFPA 70 NEC – National Electrical Code (be extremely familiar with this code)
NFPA 70E – Standards for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
NFPA 77 Static Electricity (very import in the application of loading stations)
NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery (electrical code specifically focusing on industrial controls for machinery)
NFPA 407 Aircraft Fuel Servicing
NFPA 780 Lightning Protection (protection of equipment and tanks from damage and explosion)
NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems (this is used extensively in petrochemical production)

All of the above listed standards (expect for NFPA 497), are referred to and may be required by the word
‘SHALL’ to meet the federally required compliance. 49 CFR 195.405(a) – (API 2003 Protection Against
Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents) and 49 CFR 192 - (NFPA 30 Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code). Both require the NEC, NFPA 70.

NFPA 70 – NEC (National Electrical Code)

Being familiar with the NEC – National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) Handbook, or a book of equal
information. Most if not all the information and tables required for performing the calculations on the CSE
exam should be in this manual. The book contains information needed for motors, hazardous locations,
NEMA classifications, and temperature group ratings. The NEC handbook contains information about
group classifications and autoignition temperature ratings of flammable gases and vapors (reprints from
NFPA 497M).

Most states require an inspection of the plant installations by a local electrical inspector (AHJ). In Article
100 of the 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC), the term Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) is defined as
“An organization, office, or individual responsible for enforcing the requirements of a code or standard, or
for approving equipment, materials, an installation, or a procedure.”

 Table 310-16 Conductor ampacities in raceways, cable or earth

 Table 430-147 Motor currents for single phase motors
 Table 430-150 Motor currents for three phase motors
 500-2 List of TYPE X,Y, Z purging of enclosures (in handbook only)
 500-3 Special precautions, group classifications of gases and vapors
 500-3 List of gases and vapors, with their group ratings (in handbook only)
 504-X Intrinsically Safe Systems (review this section)
 504-50 Handbook, diagrams of intrinsically safe barriers
 725 Class 1, Class 2 Class 3 Remote Control Circuits
 800 Communications Circuits
 Chapter 9-Table 8 Conductor properties and DC resistance
 Chapter 9-Table 9 AC resistance for 600 volt cables

472
Voltage Drop Calculations

Voltage drop will also probably be on the test. Voltage drop is just Ohm’s Law.

 2 L 
VD     I  R(from nec table); for dc
 1000 
 2 L 
VD     I  Z e ; for ac {Z e with P.F. = 100 is equal to dc=R} [ for single phase]
 1000 

 3L
VD     I  Z e ; for ac {Z e with P.F. = 100 is equal to dc= R} [for three phase]
 1000 

 2 L   2 L  3  3L
Note:    I  Z e  Cos30     I  Ze     I  Ze
 1000   1000  2  1000 

Substitute specific resistance (k) for resistance (R) of wire

k = 10.37; the specific resistance of copper for, 1 cm of one foot in length (for 20  C )

 kL
R ο
 ;substitute specific resistance for resistance from NEC, k = 12.9 (for 75 C)
 cm 

cm = circular mils of copper

I * R = VD

2* L * R 2* L * k
Next Substitute in for R:  , then multiply by the current of the circuit for VD.
1000 cm

Wire and cable sizing formulas for voltage drop

 2 L I k   2 L I k 
Vd    ; cm    ; [For single phase]
 cm   VD 

 3LI k   3LI k 
Vd    ; cm    ; [For three phase]
 cm   VD 

473
Voltage drop calculations – worked examples

Sample problem Transmitter: What is the voltage drop for AWG 18 stranded wire in a steel
conduit 565 feet long, if the wire is a coated cable? Wire carries 20 mA of direct current. Note:
Coated (wires are jacketed); uncoated (wires are not jacketed).

Find the resistance for AWG 18 stranded wire (coated) in NEC Table 8.
Refer to Table A17 – NEC Table 8 Conductor Properties for a reproduction of NEC Table 8
Look under the DC resistance column.

Resistance per 1000ft = 8.45 ohms

 2* L   2 * 565 
V 
d  1000 
* I * R;   * 0.020mA * 8.45ohms  0.191 volts or 191mV
 1000 

Sample problem Motor: A 480 volt three phase 50 HP motor draws 65 amps and is 600 feet
away.

a) What is the voltage drop

b) What size wire should we use for a 3% voltage drop?

a) Find the voltage drop first.

V
%  d ; V  V %  480  0.03  14.4 volts drop maximum
drop V d source drop
source

b) Find the wire size from the maximum allowable voltage drop.

 3 * L * I * k   3 * 600 * 65 *12.9 
cm      60,514cm
 V   14.4 
 d 

Find the cm (area circular mils) of stranded wire (uncoated) in NEC Table 8.
Refer to Table A17 – NEC Table 8 Conductor Properties for a reproduction of NEC Table 8
Look under circular mill (area) column.

AWG 3 = 52,620 cm
AWG 2 = 66,360 cm
We need 60,514 cm …so use AWG 2

Proof of voltage drop, resistance for AWG 2 stranded wire (uncoated) in NEC Table 8.
Resistance per 1000ft = 0.194 ohms

 3L  3  600 
V        65*0.194 13.1or 13 volts dropped along the wire.
e  1000 
 I Z
d
 1000   

The wire size gives less than the required maximum of 3% voltage drop.

474
 Sample problem: A fieldbus cabinet is being installed for a critical system 1000 feet from the 24
VDC supply. The load requirement is 10 amps at a minimum operating voltage of 22.5 VDC. What
size wire or cable will be used to power the fieldbus cabinet?

(Note: This is not a typical branch circuit or feeder. We will not be using the standard 2% for feeders
and 3% for branch circuits voltage drop allowed by the NEC. This would be minimum operating
voltage required by the manufacture.)

The allowable voltage drop is 24 - 23.5 = 0.5 VDC

The wire size in circular mils will be: (Note: k=12 for 131°F)

2* L * I * k 2*1000*10*12
cm    160,000 cm
VD 1.5

AWG 3/0 is required. (3/0 awg = 167,800, 2/0 awg = 133,100cm)

Sample problem: A 125 VDC panelboard for critical systems is being installed 1200 feet from the
battery rack. The load requirement is 60 amps at a minimum operating voltage of 2% voltage drop on
the feeder per NEC. What size wire or cable will be used to power the panelboard?

The allowable voltage drop is 125 * 0.02 = 2.5 VDC drop The
wire size in circular mils will be: (Note: k=12 for 131°F)

2* L * I * k 2*1200*60*12
cm    691,200 cm
VD 2.5

The wire is so large we will make parallel runs of cable.

250 kcmil *3 =750 kcmil or 300 kcmil *2 = 600 kcmil or 400 kcmil * 2 =800 kcmil

Three sets of 250 kcmil cables is the best solution.

475
NEC Article 500 Explosion Proof Installations

(Hazardous Locations per NFPA 70 - NEC)

What does explosion proof mean?

To understand what is meant by explosion proof, we must look at the context of the term and the
organization that defined it. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) began publishing the
National Electric Code (NEC®) in 1897. The NEC is also known as NFPA 70 and ANSI/NFPA 70 from its
inclusion in the body of NFPA codes.

The NEC includes definitions for several types of protection techniques acceptable when designing
products for use in hazardous (classified) locations: Explosion proof, dust ignition proof, dust tight,
purged/pressurized, intrinsically safe, and hermetically sealed. These definitions set the criteria that must
be met by all components installed in hazardous (classified) locations. Referred to as simply (HAZLOC).

To meet the criteria for the explosion proof rating, an enclosure must be able to contain any explosion
originating within its housing and prevent sparks from within its housing from igniting vapors, gases, dust,
or fibers in the air surrounding it. Therefore, explosion proof, when referring to electrical enclosures, does
not mean that it is able to withstand an exterior explosion. Instead, it is the enclosures ability to prevent
an internal spark or explosion from causing a much larger blast.

Additionally, the NEC states that equipment must meet the temperature requirements of the specific
application in which it is to be installed. This means that the operating temperature of the motor (and its
enclosure) or other component cannot be greater than the lowest ignition/combustion temperature of the
gases or dusts in the atmosphere where the component is to be installed.

Whenever electrical equipment is installed within a hazardous area, one or more protection techniques
must be employed to ensure that life and property are not endangered. The principal protection
techniques include:

 Explosion proof equipment  Intrinsic safety

 Dust ignition proof equipment  Nonincendive circuit
 Dust tight  Oil immersion
 Purged and pressurized equipment  Combustible gas detection system

Class I Hazardous Location NEC Article 501

Class I Location Definition

According to the NEC, there are three types of hazardous locations. The first type of hazard is one which
is created by the presence of flammable gases or vapors in the air, such as natural gas or gasoline vapor.
When these materials are found in the atmosphere, a potential for explosion exists, which could be
ignited if an electrical or other source of ignition is present. The Code writers have referred to this first
type of hazard as Class I. So, a Class I Hazardous Location is one in which flammable gases or vapors
may be present in the air in sufficient quantities to be explosive or ignitable. Some typical Class I
locations are:

 Petroleum refineries, and gasoline storage and dispensing areas;

 Dry cleaning plants where vapors from cleaning fluids can be present;
 Spray finishing areas;
 Aircraft hangars and fuel servicing areas; and
 Utility gas plants and operations involving storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gas or
natural gas.

All of these are Class I, gas or vapor, hazardous locations. All require special Class I hazardous location
equipment.
476
Class I Division Definitions

The Class I location discussed earlier, is further subdivided into two Divisions, Division 1 or Division 2.
The Division defines the likelihood of the hazardous material being present in a flammable concentration.

Division Definitions

Division In which ignitable concentration of flammable gases or vapors:

1
 Exists under normal operating conditions
 Exists frequently because of: Repair operations, Maintenance operations,
Leakage
 Are released through breakdown or faulty operation of equipment or
processes in which the breakdown causes electrical equipment to become a
source of ignition

Division In which ignitable concentration of flammable gases or vapors:

2
 Are normally confined within closed containers when: Handled,
Processed, Used
 Are normally prevented by positive mechanical ventilation
 Are adjacent to a Class I, Division 1 location

Class I Group Definitions

Combustible and flammable gases and vapors are divided into four Groups. The classification is based
on maximum explosion pressures, and maximum safe clearance between parts of a clamped joint in an
enclosure per NEC section 500.

Class I Groups

Class Division Group Flammable Material

Class I Division 1 and 2 A Acetylene

Class I Division 1 and 2 B —

Hydrogen Ethylene Oxide
Butadiene Propylene Oxide

Class I Division 1 and 2 C Ethylene

Cyclopropane
Ethyl Ether

Class I Division 1 and 2 D Propane Ethanol

Acetone Gasoline
Ammonia Methanol
Benzene Natural Gas
Butane

477
Class I Temperature Definition

The temperature marking specified shall not exceed the ignition temperature of the specific gas
or vapor to be encountered.

Temp Code T1 T2 T2A T2B T2C T2D T3 T3A T3B T3C T4 T4A T5 T6

Degree C 450 300 280 260 230 215 200 180 165 160 135 120 100 85

Degree F 842 572 536 500 446 419 392 356 329 320 275 248 212 185

Class II Hazardous Location NEC Article 502

Class II Location Definition

The second type of hazard listed by the National Electrical Code are those areas made hazardous by the
presence of combustible dust. These are referred to in the Code as "Class II Locations." Finely pulverized
material suspended in the atmosphere can cause a powerful explosion, such as might occur at a
processing or manufacturing facility. Some typical Class II locations are:

 Grain elevators;
 Flour and feed mills;
 Plants that manufacture, use or store magnesium or aluminum powders;
 Producers of plastics, medicines and fireworks;
 Producers of starch or candies;
 Spice-grinding plants, sugar plants and cocoa plants; and
 Coal preparation plants and other carbon handling or processing areas.

Class II Division Definitions

The Class II location discussed earlier is further subdivided into two Divisions, Division 1 or Division 2.
The Division defines the likelihood of the combustible dust being present in an ignitable concentration.

Division Definitions

Division 1 In which combustible dusts:

 Exists under normal conditions

 Exists because of mechanical failure or abnormal operation of equipment
and machinery. This might also provide a source of ignition through
simultaneous failure of electric equipment, operation of protection
devices or from other causes.
 Present in hazardous quantities of electrically conductive nature

Division 2 In which combustible dusts:

 Are not normally in the air

 Accumulations are not sufficient to interfere with normal operation
 Are suspended in the air as a result of infrequent malfunctioning of:
Handling equipment, Processing equipment
 Accumulations may be sufficient to interfere with the safe dissipation of
heat from electrical equipment

Accumulation may be ignitable by abnormal operation or failure of electrical

equipment.

478
Class II Group Definitions

Class Division Group Combustible Dust

Class II Division 1 and 2 E Aluminum Commercial Alloys

Magnesium

Class II Division 1 and 2 F Coal Charcoal

Black Carbon Coal Dust

Class II Division 1 and 2 G Flour Plastic

Grain Chemical
Wood

Class II Temperature Class

The temperature marking specified shall not exceed the ignition temperature of the specific gas or
vapor to be encountered. For organic dusts that may dehydrate or carbonize, the temperature marking
shall not exceed the lower of either the ignition temperature or 165°C (329°F).

Class III Hazardous Location NEC Article 503

Class III Location Definition

Class III hazardous locations, according to the NEC, are areas where there are easily-ignitable fibers or
flyings present, due to the types of materials being handled, stored, or processed. The fibers and flyings
are not likely to be suspended in the air, but can collect around machinery or on lighting fixtures and
where heat, a spark or hot metal can ignite them. Some typical Class III locations are:

 Textile mills, cotton gins;

 Cotton seed mills, flax processing plants; and
 Plants that shape, pulverize or cut wood and create sawdust or flyings.

Class III Division Definitions

The Class III location discussed earlier, is further subdivided into two Divisions, Division 1 or Division 2.
The Division defines the likelihood of the combustible dust being present in an ignitable concentration.

Division Definitions

Division 1 In which easily ignitable fibers or materials producing combustible flyings are:

 Handled  Manufactured.  Used

Division 2 In which easily ignitable fibers or materials producing combustible flyings are:

 Stored  Handled  Process other than manufacture

479
Class III Group Definitions

There are no specific groups for Class III

Combustible Dust

Industry Type of Materials

Textile mills Rayon

Combustible Fiber Cotton
Manufacturing and processing plants Sisal or Henequen
Cotton plants Hemp
Clothing manufacturing plants Cocoa fiber
Woodworking plants Oakum
Similar hazardous industry Spanish moss
Other materials of similar nature

Use of Zone Classifications

Classification Comparison (Zone/Division) for a Class I Location

Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2

Where ignitable Where ignitable Where ignitable concentrations of

concentrations of concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, or
flammable gases, flammable gases, vapors, liquids:
vapors, or liquids or liquids:
 Are not likely to exist under normal
are present
 Are likely to exist operating conditions
continuously or for
under normal
long periods of time  Occur for only a short period of time
operating conditions
under normal
 Become hazardous only in case of an
operating conditions.  May exist frequently
accident or some unusual operating
because of repair,
condition
maintenance
operations, or leakage

Division 1 Division 2

Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, Where ignitable concentrations of

vapors, or liquids: flammable gases, vapors, or
liquids:
 Are likely to exist under normal operating
conditions  Are not likely to exist under normal
operating conditions
 Exist frequently because of maintenance/repair
work or frequent equipment failure  Are normally in closed containers
where the hazard can only escape
through accidental rupture or
breakdown of such containers or in
case of abnormal operation of
equipment

Note: Per NEC Article 505-10(b)(1), a Division classified product may be installed in a Zone classified
location but the reverse is not true. Typically, a Zone classified product provides protection utilizing a
protection method not available in the Class/Division scheme.

480
Group Comparison (Zone/ Division) for a Class I Location

Zone Class/Division

IIC — Acetylene and Hydrogen A — Acetylene

B — Hydrogen

IIB — Ethylene C — Ethylene

IIA — Propane D — Propane

Protection Methods Comparison Class

Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2

• Explosion-proof  Encapsulation, “m”  Energy limited, “nC”

• Intrinsically safe (2  Flame-proof, “d”  Hermetically sealed, “nC’
fault)  Increased safety, “e”  Nonincendive, “nC”
• Purged/Pressurized  Intrinsically safe, “ib” (1 fault)  Non-sparking, “nA”
(Type X or Y)1 (U.S.  Powder-filled, “q”  Restricted breathing, “nR”
only)  Purged/Pressurized, “p”  Sealed device, “nC”
 Any Class I, Lone 0 method  Any Class I, Lone 0 or 1
 Any Class I, Division I method method
(U.S. only)  Any Class I, Division 1 or 2
method (U.S. only)

Division 1 Division 2

• Explosion-proof  Hermetically sealed

• Intrinsically safe (2 fault)  Nonincendive
• Purged/Pressurized (Type X or Y)  Non-sparking
 Oil immersion
 Sealed device
 Purged/Pressurized (Type
L)
 Any Class I, Lone 1 or 2
method (U.S. only)
 Any Class I, Division 1
method

481
Designation of NEC/CEC Classification

Hazardous Location Classification

The following chart explains the classification and rating of equipment for HAZLOC on equipment label.

Classifications per NEC Article 500

Class I Division 2 Group D T6

Type of Flammable Substance

Class I - Approved for the strictest Class, therefore can

be used for all Classes
Class I - Flammable gas, vapors, and liquids
Class II - Combustible dusts
Class III - Ignitable fibers and flyings

Area Classification

Division 1 - Approved for the strictest Division, therefore can

be used for both Divisions
Division 1 - Flammable substances are continually present or
are likely to exist under normal operating conditions
Division 2 - Flammable substances are not likely to exist
under normal operating conditions

Gas Group

Group B — Approved for Group B; therefore also approved

for Groups C and D, but not Group A.
If no Groups are listed, the equipment is approved for
all Groups. The gases are grouped according to certain
physical characteristics on their explosive behavior

Temperature Code

If no temperature code is listed, it must meet the strictest

temperature code, (T6).
This is the maximum temperature that the equipment is
allowed to emit without causing an explosion/fire.

Example:

This will probably be on the CSE exam. Let's illustrate our Code "translation" with an example. How would
we classify a storage area where LP gas (liquid propane) is contained in closed tanks? LP gas is a Class
I substance (gas or vapor). It's Division 2 because it would only be in the atmosphere if an accidental
rupture or leakage occurred, and it is Group D material.

Note: this is for a storage system, separate from the process unit location. If the electrical equipment were
in the area of processing vessels and process piping system (the process unit), the equipment would be
rated for a division 1 location.

482
Summary the various hazardous (classified) locations.

Summary of Class I, II, III Hazardous Locations

Class Groups Division

1 2

I A: Acetylene Normally Not normally present in

Gases, explosive and an explosive
vapors, B: Hydrogen, etc. hazardous concentration (but may
and accidentally exist)
liquids C: Ether, etc.

(Art. D: Hydrocarbons, fuels, solvents,

501) etc.

E: Metal dusts (conductive,* and Ignitable Dust not normally

explosive) quantities of suspended in an
dust normally ignitable concentration
II Dusts
F: Carbon dusts (some are are or may be (but may accidentally
conductive,* and all are explosive) in exist). Dust layers are
(Art.
suspension, present.
502)
G: Flour, starch, grain, combustible or conductive
plastic or chemical dust (explosive) dust may be
present

III Textiles, wood-working, etc. (easily Handled or Stored or handled in

Fibers ignitable, but not likely to be used in storage (exclusive of
and explosive) manufacturing manufacturing)
flyings

(Art.
503)

483
Hazardous Location Wiring Methods

Class Division Methods Permitted by the NEC

 Any suitable type of wire or cable if installed in threaded metallic conduit with
approved termination fittings (end seals)
 Type MI (mineral insulated) cable installed with approved termination fittings
 Any suitable type of wire or cable if installed in nonmetallic conduit encased in
concrete and buried under at least 2 feet of earth
1
 In certain industrial establishments, Type MC-HL or Type ITC-HL continuously
corrugated welded armor (CCW) sheathed cable with approved termination
fittings.
I  Optical fiber cable types (OFN, OFC, etc.) installed in raceways in accordance
(Article with NEC 501.10 and 501.15.
501)  All wiring methods permitted for Class I Div 1
 Type PLTC or PLTC-ER cables installed in accordance with Article 725
including cable trays. Cables need to be installed with approved termination
fittings.
 Type ITC or ITC-ER installed as permitted in Article 727.4 and terminated with
2 approved fittings
 Type MC, MV, TC, or TC-ER cables installed in cable trays with approved
termination fittings (end seals)
 Optical fiber cable types (OFN, OFC, etc.) installed in raceways in accordance
with NEC 501.10(A) and 501.15.

 Any suitable type of wire or cable if installed in threaded metallic conduit with
approved termination fittings (end seals)
 Type MI (mineral insulated) cable installed with approved termination fittings
1
 In certain industrial establishments, Type MC-HL continuously corrugated
aluminum cable having an overall jacket and Listed for use in hazardous
locations with approved termination fittings
 Optical fiber cable types (OFN, OFC, etc.) installed in raceways in accordance
with NEC 501.10(A) and 501.15.
II
 All wiring methods permitted for Class II Div 1
(Article
502)  Any suitable type of wire or cable if installed in metallic conduit with approved
termination fittings (end seals)
 Type MC or MI cables if installed with approved termination fittings (end seals)
 Type PLTC or PLTC-ER cables installed in accordance of Article 725 including
2
cable trays. Cables need to be installed with approved termination fittings.
 Type ITC or ITC-ER installed as permitted in Article 727.4 and terminated with
approved fittings
 MC, MI, TC or TC-ER cables installed in cable trays
 Optical fiber cable types (OFN, OFC, etc.) installed in raceways in accordance
with NEC 501.10(A) and 501.15.

 Any suitable type of wire or cable if installed in metallic or PVC conduit with
approved termination fittings (end seals)
 Type PLTC or PLTC-ER cables installed in accordance of Article 725 including
III cable trays. Cables need to installed with approved termination fittings.
1 and 2
(Article  Type ITC or ITC-ER installed as permitted in Article 727.4 and terminated
503) with approved fittings
 Type MC, MI, TC, or TC-ER cables installed in cable trays with approved
termination fittings (end seals)

484
Purged and pressurized systems

Purged and pressurized enclosures are referred to in the NEC article 500, but for purging buildings you
must refer NFPA 496 purged and pressurized systems for installation details.

See the NFPA 496 standard for more details.

Intrinsically safe systems

Zener diode barrier (configurations)

Isolated circuit barriers

The grounding requirement, maintenance, and testing can be considerably reduced by using isolated
barriers, that don’t require a maintained IS (isolated) ground.

The circuits are floating ground systems, and are usually equipped with three transformers (input,
output, and power). Below, you can see a comparison of wiring methods using isolated barriers.

Conventional passive IS Zener barriers

1. A good ground connection must be provided and maintained

2. Field devices must be isolated from ground
3. Voltage drop across the barriers can make some applications difficult
4. Improper connection or voltage surges could blow the fuse
5. Poor common mode rejection values

Active (powered) IS isolation barriers

1. Ground connection not required

2. Field devices can be grounded
3. Full voltage is available to field devices
4. Reverse polarity protected and surge arrestors incorporated
5. Tolerates high common mode voltage
6. Signal conditioning and circuit protection are combined
7. Simple installation with elimination of ground loops

485
NEC Article 409 and UL 508A

What is NEC 409 and UL 508A?

The 2005 Edition of the National Electrical Code© (NEC®), NFPA 70 contained a new Article 409 on
Industrial Control Panels. UL 508A is the UL standard for the construction of Industrial Control Panels.
This section gives guidelines on panel building with various issues including proper component selection,
wiring methods and calculation of short circuit current ratings. If a customer follows UL’s
recommendations, they can apply to have their panel listed by UL. Upon successful inspection, the panel
would bear the UL label. It is important to ask your customer if they are building to this standard, as many
panel builders choose to skip this step, and many only list their panel if specifically required by the end
customer. See NEC Article 725 for more information on requirements for building control panels.

SCCR (Short-circuit current rating) of industrial control panels

 Calculate the SCCR of individual components (identify lowest rating in power circuit)
 Identify where the rating of these components are increased because they are used in
combination with current limiting devices (circuit breakers, fuses, etc.)
 Compare the two SCCR calculations and see what is the lowest rated (SCCR) devices including
in combination (Step 2) – this yields the panel SCCR for UL508A labeling

There are three simple steps to calculating the SCCR

Step 1: Determine the individual short circuit current rating of each individual component in the system.
You can exclude transformers, dry-type capacitors, resistors, varistors and voltmeters. If the device is not
marked with a fault current withstand rating, UL provides a table (SB4.1) of standard SCC ratings in the
UL 508A guideline.

Step 2: Calculate the available short circuit current when taking into account current limiting components
like control power transformers, fuses and circuit breakers.

Step 3: Compare the values obtained in steps one and two to determine the overall short circuit current
rating of the panel.

The NFPA 70: National Electrical Code includes Article 409 on the Construction of Industrial Control
Panels operating at 600 volts or less.

Section 409.2 defines an industrial control panel as: An assembly of two or more components
 In the power circuit, such as motor controllers, overload relays, fused disconnect switches, and
circuit breakers
 In the control circuit, such as pushbuttons, signal lamps, selector switches, time-delay
switches/relays, switches, and control relays
 Or in a combination of the two circuits

These components are mounted in an enclosure or panel with the associated wiring and terminals. The
industrial control panel does not include the controlled equipment.

NEC Article 409 requires short-circuit current rating (SCCR) to be marked on all industrial control
panels. This rating must be based on the rating of a listed and labeled assembly or on another approved
method for determining the rating. It also includes a fine print note (FPN) reference to UL 508A
Supplement SB as an example of an approved method for determining the SCCR that may be marked on
the panel.

Components in the power circuit

UL508A is the safety standard for industrial control panels. NEC Article 409 references UL508A
Supplement SB as an approved method for determining the SCCR of an industrial control panel. The
specific method is outlined in Section SB4. The SCCR of the control panel is based on the SCCR of each

486
component in the power circuit. The component with the lowest SCCR limits the SCCR of the entire
panel.

Paragraph SB4.2.1 and Table SB4.1 list the following components as part of the power circuit:

Disconnect switches Motor overload relays Current meters

Branch circuit protective devices Receptacles Current shunts
Fuse holders Supplementary protectors Switch units
Load controllers Busbars Terminals or power distribution blocks

Paragraph SB3.2.1 states that the primary short-circuit protective device for the control circuit is also
included in the calculation for the SCCR for the power circuit. Therefore, the SCCR of the overcurrent
protective devices (except for supplementary protectors recognized according to UL1077 or sets of
supplemental fuses recognized according to UL248-13) are included in calculation of the SCCR of the
control panel. Control circuit components on the load side of these devices are not included in calculation
of the SCCR. The following two examples per UL489 is used as the feeder circuit protective device.

SCCR calculations – worked examples

Sample problem: 50kA Limitation of symmetrical current (SC) rating rms

SCCR value equals 50 kA Fuse Example:

Fuse is current limiting:
The SCCR rating is because the Rated current 20A,
circuit breaker does not have a Prospective SC = 50kA / 480V
current limiting capacity that is lower Let-through current 3kA Class
than that of the fuse. The fuse will (per UL508A; Table SB4.2)
limit all let-through fault or short BCPD BCPD, circuit breaker per UL4
circuit current to the system. Circuit breaker Rated current 15A / 480V
3RV17 Break capacity 50kA / 480V
The contactor and overload relay are
protected by the fuse in the feeder 3RT contactor Contactor / overload relay
circuit. This is because 5kA (the Rated current 10A / 460V
SCCR of the contactor and overload Max. short-circuit current
relay) > 3kA (the let-through current 3RB overload capacity 5kA / 480V
of the fuse). relay

Note: When selecting the fuse, the

let-through current cannot be greater Motor
than 5kA and still protect the starter!

487
Sample problem: 35kA Limitation of symmetrical current (SC) rating rms

SCCR value equals 35 kA Fuse Example:

Fuse is current limiting:
The SCCR rating is because the Rated current 20A,
circuit breaker is only suitable for a Prospective SC = 50kA / 480V
fault current withstand rating of 35kA. Let-through current 3kA Class
The fuse will only limit all let-through (per UL508A; Table SB4.2)
fault or short circuit current of the BCPD BCPD, circuit breaker per UL4
system to 50kA, which would destroy Circuit breaker Rated current 15A / 480V
the control system components. 3RV17 Break capacity 35kA / 480V

The contactor and overload relay are 3RT contactor Contactor / overload relay
protected by the use in the feeder Rated current 10A / 460V
circuit. This is because 5kA (the Max. short-circuit current
SCCR of the contactor and overload 3RB overload capacity 5kA / 480V
relay) > 3kA (the let-through current relay
of the fuse).
Note: When selecting the fuse, the
let-through current cannot be greater Motor
than 5kA and still protect the starter!!

NEC Articles for Remote Control and Signaling

Article Categories
Remote control and signaling circuits are covered in
general within the following five articles of the NEC,
NFPA 70.

Article 725 covers Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3

remote control and signaling cables as well as
power-limited tray cable. Power-limited tray cable
can be used as a Class 3 or Class 2 cable. Cable
listed multi-purpose, communications, or power-
limited fire protective can be used for Class 2 and
Class 3 applications. A Class 3 listed cable can be
used as a Class 2 cable.

Article 727 covers the use, installation, and construction of instrumentation tray cable (ITC) installed for
instrumentation and control circuits. Type ITC cable is defined as two or more insulated conductors, with
or without a grounding conductors, enclosed in a nonmetallic sheath. It is limited to operation at not more
than 150 volts and 5 amperes.

Article 760 covers power-limited fire protective cable. Cable listed as power-limited fire protective cable
can also be used as Class 2 and Class 3 cable. Cable listed as communications and Class 3 can be used
as power-limited fire protective cable with restrictions to conductor material and type, gauge size and
number of conductors.

Article 770 covers fiber optic cable. This article covers three general types: non-conductive, conductive,
and composite. Non-conductive type refers to cable containing no metallic members and no other
electrically conductive materials. Conductive type refers to cable containing non-current carrying
conductive members, such as metallic strength members, etc. Composite type refers to cable containing
optical fibers and current carrying electrical conductors. Composite types are classified according to the
type of electrical circuit that the metallic conductor is designed for.

Article 800 covers multi-purpose and communication cable. Multi-purpose cable is the highest listing for
a cable and can be used for communication, Class 2, Class 3, and power-limited fire protective cable.

488
Communication cable can be used for Class 2 and Class 3 cable and also as a power-limited fire
protective cable with restrictions.

Article 820 covers community antenna television and RF cable. CATV cable may be substituted with
multi-purpose or communication listed coaxial cable.

Cabling Installations and Applications (Types and Ratings)

Cabling Designation

Type CATV- Community Antenna Television Systems

Type CL2 and CL3 - Class 2 and Class 3 Remote-Control
Type CM, CMR and CMP - Communication Wires and Cables
Type FPL- Power Limited Fire-Alarm Cables permitted to be used in place
Type ITC - Instrumentation Tray Cables
Type MC - Metal-Clad Cables
Type MI – Mineral Insulated Cables
Type MP - Multipurpose Cables
Type PLTC - Power Limited Tray Cables
Type TC - Tray Cables

Cables Selection for Installation per NEC Code

See the section, NEC Article 500 Explosion Proof Installations - Hazardous Location Wiring Methods, for
all allowable cabling installations methods in hazardous locations.

NEC ARTICLE 336

Power and Class 1 rated 600 volt

Cable Cable Gauge National Electric Code Rules for Installation

Type 2011 Compliance
TC 18 AWG – 8 NEC Article 336 Permitted in cable trays, raceways, in outdoor
AWG NFPA 79 locations supported by a messenger wire, for Class 1
circuits as permitted in Parts II and III of NEC Article
Uses permitted: For 725, for non-power limited re alarm circuits if
power, lighting, control, conductors comply with the requirements of 760.49.
and signal circuits. NEC Article 336.10 (1) – (6). Cable must not be
installed where it will be exposed to physical damage
or outside a raceway or cable tray system unless it is
outdoor in supported by a messenger wire or Type
TC-ER (Article 336.12 Uses Not Permitted) Cables.

TC-ER 18 AWG – 8 NEC Article 336.10(7) In industrial establishments where qualified persons
AWG NFPA 79 service the installation. Cable is continuously
supported and protected against physical damage
using mechanical protection, such as struts, angles,
or channels permitted between a cable tray and the
utilization equipment or device secured at intervals
not exceeding 1.8m (6’). Permitted to transition
between cable trays and between cable trays and
utilization equipment or devices for a distance not to
exceed 1.8m (6’) without continuous support.

489
 NEC ARTICLE 725
Class 3 rated 300 Volt – Class 2 rated 150 Volt

Cable Type Cable Gauge National Electric Rules for Installation

Code
2011 Compliance
PLTC 22 AWG -12 NEC Article 725 Allowed in raceways (300.17) and Cable Trays (392).
AWG NFPA 79 Article
725 is complex: read carefully for any specific
application.
Also allowed in Hazardous (Classified) Locations per
Article
500-616 and Article 517 Part IV.

PLTC-ER 22 AWG -12 NEC Article 725 .154 In industrial establishments where qualified persons
AWG NFPA 79 service the installation and where cable is
continuously supported and protected against
physical damage using mechanical protection, such
as struts, angles, or channels permitted between a
cable tray and the utilization equipment or device
secured at intervals not exceeding 1.8m (6’).
Permitted to transition between cable trays and
between cable trays and utilization equipment or
devices for a distance not to exceed 1.8m (6’) without
continuous support.

CL3P, CL3P 28-10 NEC Article 725.154 For use in a duct, plenum, or other space used to
CL2P AWG 725.154 transport environmental air. Permitted in cable trays
Plenum CL2P 30- 6 NFPA 262 installed indoors.
AWG
CL3R, CL3R 28-10 NEC Article 725.154 Cables installed in vertical runs and penetrating more
CL2R AWG 725.154 than one floor or vertical runs in a shaft. Must be used
Riser CL2R 20- 6 UL 1666 in listed riser signaling raceways and listed plenum
AWG signaling raceways. Permitted in cable trays installed
indoors.
CL3, CL2 CL3 28-10 AWG NEC Article 725.154 Permitted in one and two family dwellings. Raceway
Commercial CL2 20- 6 AWG 725.154 is not required but cables may be pulled into conduit
or other raceway.
CL3X, CL3X 28-10 NEC Article 725.154 Must be used with protection, such as a raceway.
CL2X AWG 725.154 May be exposed in unconcealed spaces if cable does
Limited Use CL2X 20- 6 not exceed 10’ or 3.05m.
AWG

490
 NEC ARTICLE 727
Instrumentation and Control at or less than 150 volts and 5 amps

Cable Cable Gauge National Electric Code Rules for Installation

Type 2011 Compliance
ITC 22 AWG -12 NEC Article 727 Permitted in industrial establishments where only
AWG NFPA 79 qualified persons service the installation. Permitted
in cable trays and raceways, also in hazardous
locations per Article 501.10, 502,10, 503.10, 504.20,
504.30, 504,80 and 505.15. May be used as aerial
cable on a messenger. May be used under raised
floors in rooms containing industrial process control
equipment and rack rooms where arranged to
prevent damage to the cable and under raised
floors in IT equipment rooms in accordance with
645.5.

ITC-ER 22 AWG -12 NEC Article 727, In industrial establishments where qualified persons
AWG Especially 727.4 service the installation and where cable is
NFPA 79 continuously supported and protected against
physical damage using mechanical protection, such
as struts, angles, or channels permitted between a
cable tray and the utilization equipment or device
secured at intervals not exceeding 1.8m (6’).

NEC ARTICLE 800

Cable Type Cable Gauge National Electric Code Rules for Installation
2011 Compliance
CMP 22 AWG -12 NEC Article 725 For use in a duct, plenum, or other space used to
Plenum AWG NFPA 79 transport environmental air. Permitted in cable trays
installed indoors.
CMR Cables installed in vertical runs and penetrating
Riser more than one floor or vertical runs in a shaft. Must
be used in listed riser signaling raceways and listed
plenum signaling raceways. Permitted in cable trays
installed indoors.
CL3, CL2 CL3 28-10 AWG NEC Article 725.154 Permitted in one and two family dwellings. Raceway
Commercial CL2 20- 6 AWG 725.154 is not required but cables may be pulled into conduit
or other raceway.
CL3X, CL3X 28-10 NEC Article 725.154 Must be used with protection, such as a raceway.
CL2X AWG 725.154 May be exposed in unconcealed spaces if cable
Limited Use CL2X 20- 6 does not exceed 10’ or 3.05m.
AWG

Article 725 - Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, Remote-control Circuits

A class 1 circuit is the portion of the wiring system between the load side of the overcurrent protection
device (OCPD) or the power-limited supply and the connected load. For example, Class 1 power-limited
circuits are supplied by a power supply with an output that does not exceed 30 volts and 1,000 volt-amps.
Also, Class 1 remote control circuits are limited up to 600 volts with no other power limitations.

However, Article 725 distinguishes between the two types of circuits with the rules for installation being
basically the same. Article 725.21 points out that a Class 1 power-limited circuit is not restricted to specific
uses, but a Class 1 non-power-limited remote control circuit is restricted to remote control operations.
Article 725 shows the proper uses of these two circuits.

491
The classification of instrumentation circuits and other remote control, signaling, and power limited circuits
is a common source of problems for users of the NEC. WE will attempt to clarify some of the confusion
that surrounds Article 725.

Power sources

Section 725-41: Requires listed power sources in most cases, but it also provides information on how
some common circuits are to be classified. 725-41(a)(1) and (2) simply require transformers or power
supplies to be listed as Class 2 or Class 3. 725-41(a)(3) and (4) provide for other acceptable sources.
Fine Print Notes that are new in the 1996 code also provide examples of common circuit types that are
considered to be Class 2 or Class 3. For example, a circuit card in a controller or PLC may be listed as a
Class 2 or Class 3 source. Also, data circuits used to interconnect computers are typically treated as
Class 2 circuits. Such circuits are sometimes supplied by equipment marked "Listed ITE Power Supply."
("ITE" stands for Information Technology Equipment.)

Class 1 methods and materials

Class 1 circuits are required to be installed using ordinary wiring methods of Chapter 3 in accordance with
Section 725-25. This means that ordinary raceways and wire or cable assemblies, such as NM cable, MC
cable, or AC cable, must be used. However, smaller conductors are permitted. Conductors are allowed
to be No. 16 or No. 18 protected by 10 A and 7 A overcurrent devices respectively. In addition,
according to 725-23 Exception No. 3(725-24 Exception No. 4 in 1999), No. 14 and larger conductors may
be protected by overcurrent devices rated at up to 300% of the conductor rating. Because loads are
relatively small and overloading is unlikely, the required overcurrent protection is essentially only short-
circuit and ground-fault protection. These overcurrent protection requirements nearly match the
requirements for similar motor control circuits as covered in Section 430-72 Exception No. 2. For sizes
No. 16 and No. 18, fixture wires are permitted to be used for Class 1 circuits. The permissible insulation
types are listed in Section 725-27.

Section 725-28: Class 1 conductors in a raceway, the derating factors of Note 8 to the ampacity tables of
310 can be disregarded for circuit conductors as long as the load on the conductors does not exceed
10% of the ampacity of the Class 1 conductors. For example, imagine a three wire control circuit for a
motor that is derived from a central control panel rather than being tapped from the motor branch circuit.
The three Class 1 conductors may share a raceway with the branch circuit power conductors to the
motor. If the control circuit current is 1 A and the conductors are No. 16, the control conductors need not
be counted in applying Note 8 to the ampacity of the power conductors.

Section 725-26: Conductors of Class 1 circuits are permitted to share a raceway or other enclosure with
power or lighting circuit conductors only where the Class 1 circuit is functionally associated with the
powered equipment. This permission is found in Section 725-26. Exceptions apply to control centers and
underground installations.

If a Class 1 circuit is limited to 150 V and 5 A, and the installation is in an industrial establishment
maintained and supervised by qualified persons, Type ITC (Instrumentation Tray Cable) may be used as
a wiring method. Type ITC cable is not permitted to be installed with power, lighting, or nonpower-
limited circuits. Article 727 covers Type ITC. Article 727 is another article that modifies the provisions of
Chapters 1 through 4. It permits a wiring method that would not be appropriate in other circumstances.

Class 1 conductors that extend beyond one building are required by Section 725-29 to meet the
requirements for outside branch circuits as provided in Article 225. Article 225 covers such things as
clearances from ground or roofs, wiring methods, circuit entries to buildings, and so on.

Class 2 and Class 3 methods and materials

Unlike Class 1 circuits, Class 2 and Class 3 circuits are permitted to utilize special wiring methods in lieu
of the usual methods of Chapter 3. This general permission is found in Section 725-52. The specific
methods are listed in Sections 725-61 and 725-71. Section 725-51 and Figure 725-41 provide a reminder
that Class 2 or 3 circuits begin at the output of the Class 2 or 3 power source and that the supply side of

492
the power supply is still an ordinary circuit that requires ordinary wiring methods. Separate overcurrent
protection is not required for Class 2 and 3 circuits because of the power-limited sources.

The wiring methods of Sections 725-61 and 725-71 are special cable types. Section 725-61 lists the cable
types and their permitted uses along with acceptable substitutions. For instance, type CL3 cable may be
used as CL2 cable, but the reverse is not permitted. As another example, Type PLTC may be used
for any Class 2 or 3 circuits except for riser and plenum applications. Listing and marking
requirements for the various cable types are given in 725-71.

Class 2 and Class 3 cable types differ from ordinary conductors and wiring methods in the size of the
wires and the insulation ratings. Most ordinary conductors and wiring methods have 600 V or higher rated
insulation. Class 3 cables are rated at 300 V. Class 2 cables may be rated less than 300 V. Class 2 and
Class 3 cables usually use conductors sized No. 14 or smaller, size Nos. 18, 20, and 22 being quite
common.

Separation from power and lighting circuits is required for Class 2 and Class 3 circuits. Class 2 and 3
circuits are not permitted in the same raceway or enclosure with power, lighting, Class 1 or nonpower-
limited fire alarm circuits. Exceptions provide for cases where the Class 2 and 3 conductors are separated
by barriers, installed in separate raceways, or other separation is provided. Outside enclosures or
raceways, a separation of at least two inches is generally required between Class 2 or Class 3
circuits and nonpower-limited circuits.

Class 2 and Class 3 circuits are permitted in the same enclosures or raceways with other power-limited
circuits, communications circuits, or jacketed cables of some other systems. Some restrictions are
provided. For example, Class 2 circuits may be mixed with Class 3 circuits only if the insulation on the
Class 2 circuits is equal to that required for the Class 3 circuits. If Class 2 or 3 circuits are mixed with
communications circuits, the Class 2 or 3 circuits must be reclassified as communications circuits. In
addition, Class 2 and 3 circuits that extend beyond one building may be required to meet certain
requirements of Article 800. The restrictions on mixing of Class 2 and Class 3 circuits with circuits of
other systems are found in Section 725-54.
The required separation of Class 2 and Class 3 circuits from other circuits is commonly violated. Often
such violations are justified on the basis of Section 300-3(c)(1). This section permits circuits of different
systems to be mixed if all the circuits are 600 V or less and all insulation is equal to the maximum voltage
applied to any of the circuits. However, Section 300-1(a) Exception No. 2 prohibits the application of 300-
3(c)(1) to Article 725 circuits because 300-3(c)(1) is not referenced in Article 725. (This rule explains the
applicability of Article 300 to Article 725-3 in the 1999 NEC) A common violation is installing a CL2
cable in a raceway with power conductors supplying rooftop HVAC equipment. Separation is
important because inadvertent contact between power-limited and nonpower-limited circuits can bypass
the limited energy power supply and subject the power-limited circuit to unsafe voltages and currents.

As noted for Class 1 circuits, Type ITC cable may be used in certain industrial facilities. Type ITC cable is
essentially the same as Type PLTC. (Compare the descriptions of Sections 725-71(e) and 727-4.) In fact,
a proposal has been accepted for the 1999 code that would permit Type PLTC to be substituted for Type
ITC. Thus, under the 1999 NEC, Type PLTC could be used for Class 1 circuits that meet the
requirements of Sections 727-2 and 727-3, as well as for Class 2 and Class 3 circuits. In such a
case, all three circuit types could be installed in the same cable tray if suitable barriers were provided.

Article 800 - Communications Circuits

Installation of standalone network systems and infrastructure remains under the jurisdiction NEC, Article
800. This regulates the permitted traditional networking products in a dedicated communications
environment. The primary objective in ensuring communications cable safety has less to do with electrical
safety and more to do with fire and burn performance, assuming that sufficient energy is not present to
necessitate the mechanical performance of a 600V or 300V industrial cable.

With the convergence of Ethernet into industrial machinery and industrial environments, it is now a
practical necessity to install Ethernet cables into the 600V environment regulated by NFPA 79 and the
NEC. In these environments, electrical safety must become a design consideration.

493
Although information technology equipment systems are often used for or with communications systems,
Article 800 does not cover wiring of this equipment. Instead, Article 645 provides requirements for wiring
contained solely within an information technology equipment (computer) room. (See 645.4 for a
description of the type of information technology equipment room to which Article 645 applies.) Article 725
provides requirements for wiring that extends beyond a computer room and also covers wiring of local
area networks within buildings. Article 760 covers wiring requirements for fire alarm systems.

Summary

Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 circuits are distinguished from power and lighting circuits by use and power
limitations. Because of the limited power provided by the source, Class 2 and Class 3 circuits can use
wiring methods that would not be suitable for other uses. All three classes of circuits can use conductors
smaller than would be permitted for branch circuits.

Overcurrent protection may not include overload protection, and in the case of Class 2 or 3 circuits
overcurrent protection is provided by the power source. Although Class 1 circuits can be produced from
ordinary power sources and appropriate overcurrent devices, Class 2 and Class 3 circuits are defined
primarily by listed power supplies.

Since Class 1 circuits are allowed to use small conductors and different overcurrent protection, they must
be kept from contact with power and lighting circuits unless the power and lighting circuits are functionally
associated. Finally, because of the differing wiring methods and insulation requirements, Class 2 and
Class 3 circuits must be kept separated by distance or barriers from power, lighting or Class 1 circuits.

Examples of Article 725, 727 and 800 in instrumentation and controls

1. 4-20 mA signals derived from 24-28 VDC power supplies. The circuits are typically fused at 0.10 A to
0.25 A. Such circuits may be Class 2 or Class 3, but the classification is dependent on a listed power
supply, circuit card, or similar equipment. Circuits installed prior to 1996 may have been determined
to be Class 2 or 3 based on the information now in NEC Tables 11(a) or 11(b). Under the current
code, without a listed power supply, Class 1 is most appropriate. Some such circuits may be fed
through the associated apparatus of intrinsically safe systems, in which case Article 504 would apply.

2. DC voltage signals of 0-10 V or 0-1 V. These are probably Class 2, but again, the power
source determines the classification. The discussion in item 1 applies here as well.

3. 120 VAC discrete voltage signals derived from 15 A or 20 A branch circuits, but fused at 1 ampere or
less. These are Class 1 circuits.

4. 24 VDC discrete voltage signals fused at 0.25 amp or below. These fall into the same general
category and are subject to the same issues as Items 1 and 2.

5. 120 VAC and 24 VDC discrete control signals used to operate relays, solenoids, valves, and so on.
Again, these could be Class 2 or 3 circuits with listed power supplies, but the 120 VAC circuits are
more likely Class 1.

6. Digital Signals less than 25 volt like RS-232, RS-422, and similar communication circuits. These are
most likely derived from some form of information technology equipment and are likely Class 2,
although some proprietary or customized equipment may not carry a listing.

7. Thermocouples. The power source in this case is the bimetallic junction, which is considered to be a
Class 2 power source.

In all of the above, cable selection may be a major issue. As noted previously, for large industrial facilities,
Types PLTC and ITC may be good choices for Class 2 and 3 and some Class 1 circuits. Class 1 circuits.
Other occupancies should use ordinary wiring methods, with MC cables being a common choice for
flexibility and range of available configurations.

494
CM (communications) or MP (multipurpose) cables may be substituted for Class 2 and 3 cables as
permitted in Section 725-61. Type MP cables were removed from all substitution tables in the 1999 code,
but CM types remain. CM type substitutions can be found for many other cable types. CM cables will
become the "master of substitutions," or the top of the hierarchy. Therefore, CM cable types are also
likely choices for Class 2 and 3 circuits that need coaxial or triaxial cable or some other specialized cable.

495
NEMA Electrical Enclosures Types and Uses

Definitions [from NEMA 250-2003]

This will probably be on the CSE exam. This is an overview of NEMA Enclosure Designations. The
following summary provides the essential information needed to choose the appropriate enclosure type
for a specific application. It is also recommended to double-check with the authority having jurisdiction
(AHJ) for each installation.

Non-hazardous location NEMA enclosure types

 Type 1: General purpose, indoor use. Provides a degree of protection against human
contact with electrically-charged, live parts and against ingress of solid foreign objects,
such as falling dirt.

 Type 2: Drip-proof, indoor use. Same protection as Type 1 but adds protection against
dripping and light splashing of water.

 Types 3R, 3RX: Rain-tight, sleet-resistant. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type
1, but adds a degree of protection against ingress of falling dirt, rain, sleet and snow; also
protects against damage due to external ice formation. Rust-resistant. The “X”
designation indicates corrosion-resistance.

 Types 3, 3X: Dust-tight, rain-tight, sleet-tight. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as
Type 3R but adds protection against windblown dust. The “X” designation indicates
corrosion-resistance.

 Types 3S, 3SX: Dust-tight, rain-tight, sleet-tight. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as
Type 3 but includes external mechanisms that remains operable when ice-laden. The “X”
designation indicates corrosion-resistance.

 Types 4, 4X: Water-tight, dust-tight, sleet-resistant. Indoor or outdoor use. Same protection
as Type 3 but adds protection against splashing and hose-directed water. The “X”
designation indicates corrosion-resistance.

 Type 5: Dust-tight. Indoor use. Same protection as Type 2 but adds gaskets to prevent
ingress of settling dust, lint, fibers and flyings.

 Types 6, 6P: Submersible, indoor or outdoor use. Same protection as Type 4, but adds
protection against occasional temporary submersion (Type 6) or prolonged submersion
(Type 6P) at limited depth.

 Types 12, 12K: General purpose, indoor use. Protects against falling dirt and circulating
dust, lint, fibers and flyings. Protects against ingress of dripping and splashing water.
Rust-resistant Type 12 enclosures do not include knockouts; Type 12K enclosures do
include knockouts.

 Type 13: General purpose, indoor use. Same protection as Type 12, but adds protection
against ingress of spraying, splashing or seeping oil and noncorrosive coolants.

496
Table 10 – Indoor Nonhazardous Locations

[From NEMA 250-2003]

Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures

Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Type of Enclosure

Following Conditions

1* 2* 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13

Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt) X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of water (Dripping and light splashing) ... X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Circulating ... ... X X ... X X X X X

dust, lint, fibers, and flyings **)

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Settling ... ... X X X X X X X X

airborne dust, lint, fibers, and flyings **)

Ingress of water (Hose down and splashing ... ... X X ... X X ... ... ...
water)

Oil and coolant seepage ... ... ... .. ... ... ... X X X

Oil or coolant spraying and splashing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X

Corrosive agents ... ... ... X ... ... X ... ... ...

Ingress of water (Occasional temporary ... ... ... ... ... X X ... ... ...
submersion)

Ingress of water (Occasional prolonged ... ... ... ... ... ... X ... ... ...
submersion)

* These enclosures may be ventilated.

** These fibers and flyings are nonhazardous materials and are not considered Class III type ignitable fibers or
combustible flyings. For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings see the National Electrical Code,
Article 500.

497
Table 11 - Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations

[From NEMA 250-2003]

Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures

Provides a Degree of Protection Against Type of Enclosure

the Following Conditions

3 3X 3R* 3RX* 3S 3SX 4 4X 6 6P

Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X

Ingress of water (Rain, snow, and sleet **) X X X X X X X X X X

Sleet *** ... ... ... ... X X ... ... ... ...

Ingress of solid foreign objects (Windblown X X ... ... X X X X X X

dust, lint, fibers, and flyings)

Ingress of water (Hose down) ... ... ... ... ... ... X X X X

Corrosive agents ... X ... X ... X ... X ... X

Ingress of water (Occasional temporary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X X
submersion)

Ingress of water (Occasional prolonged ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X
submersion)

* These enclosures may be ventilated.

** External operating mechanisms are not required to be operable when the enclosure is ice covered.
***External operating mechanisms are operable when the enclosure is ice covered.

Hazardous location NEMA enclosure types

Note that all equipment designed for use in hazardous locations must be certified by a nationally
recognized testing laboratory, such as UL. In addition to the NEMA type, look for the appropriate
hazardous location equipment markings.

 Type 7: Explosion proof, indoor use. Class I, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups A, B, C and D.
 Type 8: Explosion proof, indoor or outdoor use. Class I, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups A, B,
C and D.
 Type 9: Dust ignition proof, indoor use. Class II, Division 1 hazardous locations, Groups E, F and G.
 Type 10: MSHA. Meets the requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration, 30 CFR
Part 18.

498
Table 12 - Hazardous Locations

[From NEMA 250-2003]

Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures
Note: NEMA Type 7 and 9 are indoor use only, NEMA Type 8 is indoor and outdoor use

Provides a Degree of Protection Against Enclosure Types 7 Enclosure Type 9,

Atmospheres Typically Containing and 8, Class I Class II Groups
Groups **

(See NFPA 497M for Complete Listing)

Class A B C D E F G 10
Acetylene I X ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Hydrogen, manufactured gas I ... X ... ... ... ... ... ...

Diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I ... ... X ... ... ... ... ...

Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane, I ... ... ... X ... ... ... ...
acetone, toluene, isoprene

Metal dust II ... ... ... ... X ... ... ...

Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II ... ... ... ... ... X ... ...

Flour, starch, grain dust II ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...

Fibers, flyings * III ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...

Methane with or without coal dust MSHA ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X
* For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
** Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor, or dust, a product suitable for one Class or Group may not be suitable for
another Class or Group unless marked on the product.

Temperature Rise Calculation

First calculate the surface area of the enclosure and, from the expected heat load and the surface area,
2
determine the heat input power in watts/ft . Then the expected temperature rise can be read from the
Sealed Enclosure Temperature Rise graph. The enclosure can be cooled by a fan, air conditioner or a
vortex cooler.

Example:

What is the temperature rise that can be expected from a 48 x 36 x 16 in. painted steel
enclosure with 300 W of heat dissipated within it?
2
Surface Area = 2 [(48 x 36) + (48 x 16) + (36 x 16)] ÷ 144 = 42.67 ft.
2
Input Power = 300 ÷ 42.67 = 7.03 W/ft .
From the Sealed Enclosure Temperature Rise graph:
Temperature Rise = approximately 30 F (16.7 C)
Note: If outside temperature = 100°F, inside temperature = 130°F

499
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety

What is NFPA 70E?

NFPA 70E addresses requirements for safe work practices to protect personnel by reducing exposure to
major electrical hazards. Originally developed at OSHA's request, NFPA 70E helps companies and
employees avoid workplace injuries and fatalities due to shock, electrocution, arc flash, and arc blast, and
assists in complying with OSHA 1910 Subpart S and OSHA 1926 Subpart K.

The standard focuses on practical safeguards that also allow workers to be productive within their job
functions. Specifically, the standard covers the safety requirements for the following:

1. Electrical conductors and equipment installed within or on buildings or other structures, including
mobile homes, recreational vehicles, and other premises (yards, carnivals, parking lots, and
industrial substations)
2. Conductors that connect installations to a supply of electricity

Not covered are - electrical installations in marine, aircraft, auto vehicles, communications and electrical
utilities.

Key principles covered are shock protection boundaries, arc flash energies, Lockout-Tagout, PPE
(Personal Protective Equipment). While the various OSHA, ASTM, IEEE and NEC standard provide
guidelines for performance, NFPA 70E addresses practices and is widely considered as the de-facto
standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.

What is Arc Flash ?

Simply put, an arc flash is a phenomenon where a flashover of electric current leaves its intended path
and travels through the air from one conductor to another, or to ground. The results are often violent and
when a human is in close proximity to the arc flash, serious injury and even death can occur.

Arc flash can be caused by many things including:

 Dust
 Dropping tools
 Accidental touching
 Condensation
 Material failure
 Corrosion
 Faulty Installation

Three factors determine the severity of an arc flash injury:

 Proximity of the worker to the hazard
 Temperature
 Time for circuit to break

Typical Results from an Arc Flash

 Burns (Non FR clothing can burn onto skin)
 Fire (could spread rapidly through building)
 Flying objects (often molten metal)
 Blast pressure (upwards of 2,000 lbs. / sq.ft.)
 Sound Blast (noise can reach 140 dB – loud as a gun)
 Heat (upwards of 35,000°F)
 Metal melts at 1,800°F

500
Approach / Protection Boundaries
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has developed specific approach boundaries designed
to protect employees while working on or near energized equipment. These boundaries are:

 Flash Protection Boundary (outer boundary)

 Limited Approach
 Restricted Approach
 Prohibited Approach (inner boundary)

Flash Protection Boundary (outer boundary): The

flash boundary is the farthest established boundary
from the energy source. If an arc flash occurred, this
boundary is where an employee would be exposed to
a curable second degree burn (1.2 calories/cm2). The
issue here is the heat generated from a flash that
results in burns.

Limited Approach: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed live part where a shock hazard
exists.

Restricted Approach: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed live part which there is an
increased risk of shock.

Prohibited Approach (inner boundary): A distance from an exposed part which is considered the same
as making contact with the live part.

This distance is not common between equipment. Some equipment will have a greater flash protection
boundary while other equipment will have a lesser boundary.

Arc Flash Analysis

What are the available methods according to NFPA 70E of performing an arc flash hazard analysis?
There are two methods that the technical committee (TC) to NFPA 70E consider applicable (i.e., equally
valid). They are the incident energy (calculation) method and the hazard/risk category (table) method.
The technical committee (TC) to NFPA 70E considers the two methods identified in NFPA 70E of
performing arc flash hazard to be equally valid.

Required Arc Flash Warning Label

What information is required to be included on an arc flash boundary hazard warning label?

Items (1)a.b.c. apply when an incident energy

analysis is performed. Item (1)d. applies when the
hazard/risk category method is used. In accordance
with 130.5(C) is to include all of the following
information:

1) At least one of the following:

a. Available incident energy in cal/cm2
and the working distance
b. Minimum arc rating of clothing
c. Required level of PPE
d. Highest hazard/risk category (HRC) for
the equipment
2) Applicable nominal system voltage
3) Applicable arc flash boundary

501
NFPA 77 Static Electricity

NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code is required by federal regulation 29 CFR 1910.106.
The NFPA 30 refers the user to the NFPA 77 under these articles: A.4.3.2.5.4, A.4.5.3.4, A.7.6.10.4,
A.7.6.11.2 and A.7.9.4

NFPA 30 A.7.9.4 The prevention of electrostatic ignition in equipment is a complex subject. Refer to
NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity, for guidance.

The buildup of static electricity in flowing applications is a major concern. It is important that proper
grounding be implemented to protect personnel from shock and possible explosions due to sparks.

NFPA 77 covers proper grounding techniques for loading stations, where these hazards may occur.

Proper Protection Grounding Static Electric Generators

Important Articles

1.2 Purpose

The purpose of this recommended practice is to assist the user in controlling the hazards
associated with the generation, accumulation, and discharge of static electricity by providing the
following:

(1) Basic understanding of the nature of static electricity

(2) Guidelines for identifying and assessing the hazards of static electricity

(3) Techniques for controlling the hazards of static electricity

(4) Guidelines for controlling static electricity in selected industrial applications

8.1 General overview

This chapter discusses the assessment and control of static electricity hazards involved with the
storage, handling, and use of flammable and combustible liquids and their vapors and mists. While
focused on flammable and combustible liquids, the principles of this chapter also apply to
noncombustible liquids and vapors (e.g., wet steam) where their storage, use, and handling can cause
a static electricity ignition hazard. The chapter begins with a discussion of the combustion

502
characteristics of liquids and their vapors and mists, followed by a discussion of charge generation and
dissipation in liquids.

Emphasis is then given to processes involving the following:

1. Flow in pipe, hose, and tubing

2. Storage tanks
3. Loading of tank vehicles
4. Vacuum trucks
5. Railroad tank cars
6. Marine vessel and barge cargo tanks
7. Process vessels
8. Gauging and sampling
9. Tank cleaning
10. Portable tanks and containers
11. Vacuum cleaning

8.3.1 Charge generation

Charge separation occurs where liquids flow through pipes, hose, and filters; where splashing
occurs during transfer operations; or where liquids are stirred or agitated. The greater the area of
the interface between the liquid and the surfaces and the higher the flow velocity, the greater is the
rate of charging. The charges become mixed with the liquid and are carried to receiving vessels,
where they can accumulate. The charge is often characterized by its bulk charge density and its
flow as a streaming current to the vessel. (See Figure Below.)

503
G.1 Grounding diagrams

Figure G.1 (a) through Figure G.1 (k) are reprinted from National Paint and Coatings Association (NPCA),
Generation and Control of Static Electricity. Refer to this publication for additional diagrams.

FIGURE G.1 (d) Pipe Grounding Jumper. (Source: NPCA, Generation and Control of Static Electricity.)

FIGURE G.1 (k) Typical Grounding System for Tank Car or Tank Truck Loading/Unloading Station.
(Source: NPCA, Generation and Control of Static Electricity.)

504
NFPA 780 Lightning Protection (formerly NFPA 78)

This may not be mentioned on the CSE exam, but you should be familiar with surge protection devices
and applications for plant electrical systems and equipment. The lightning
strike can generate up to 300,000 volts and shoot through a concrete wall 2
feet thick. A direct lightning strike can cause an enormous amount of physical
damage. Lightning strikes that hit equipment and storage or process vessels
containing flammable materials can cause devastating accidents at refineries,
bulk plants, processing sites, and other facilities.

However, the indirect effects from a nearby strike can also cause damage by
inducing voltage surges onto electrical system main lines, feeders and data cables. Lightning-induced
voltage surges are often described as a "secondary effect" of lightning and there are three recognized
means by which these surges are induced in electrical system main lines, feeders or
data/telecommunications cables:

a) Resistive coupling
b) Inductive coupling
c) Capacitive coupling

NFPA 780 covers proper grounding techniques for lightning protection. Lightning surge arrestors and
lightning protection equipment should be used to protect the process control systems and ensure it
continues to function correctly.

NFPA 780 and NFPA 70 (NEC)

The NEC does not require a lightning protection system to be installed. However, if lightning protection is
installed, 250.60 and the fine print notes (FPNs), in addition to 250.106 and associated FPNs, refer users
to NFPA 780. Some state, county, or city government (AHJ) and/or facility owners usually insist on
installing a lightning protection system. In Article 100 of the 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC), the term
Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) is defined as “An organization, office, or individual responsible for
enforcing the requirements of a code or standard, or for approving equipment, materials, an installation,
or a procedure.”

Strike-termination devices
A lightning protection system consists of five main components, and they are as follows: air strike
terminations on the roof, roof conductors and down conductors, connecting means of conductors to
devices and electrodes, earth-grounding electrodes, and surge protection systems, where needed. When
installed correctly, these components will provide a safe continuous path to ground for dissipating
lightning current.

Starting at the roof and based on the type of roof, the number of strike--termination devices can be
determined. In Figure 4.1.2 of NFPA 780, the roof types are described and the minimum number of
devices recommended. The following styles are some roofs and roof-based supplementary items to
consider: flat or gently sloping roofs; dormers; domed roofs; and roofs with ridges, wells, chimneys or
vents. Most standards highly recommend that these striking devices be sized and positioned in
accordance with the design concept and theory of a 150-foot-radius that is known in the industry as a
rolling ball (sphere).

Connecting conductors to electrodes

In many installations, properly sized lightning system conductors are used to connect strike-termination
devices on the roof to the earth-grounding electrodes. However, it is not unusual to connect the strike
terminals to the structural steel columns or to concrete-reinforcing rebars. These metal items are then
used instead of conductors to provide the low-impedance path for dissipating the lightning current to the
earth electrodes. Designers and installers must remember that strike-termination devices can be
constructed using air terminals, metal masts and permanent metal parts of structures and overhead
ground wires as well as any combination of such.
505
Routing down conductors
To ensure a lightning strike current is safely carried to the earth-grounding electrodes. The conductors
must be run without shape bends and installed in a horizontal or sloping-downward direction. They must
be sized at least as large as required by Tables 4.1.1.1(A) and (B) of NFPA 780 based on the minimum
class of material used for construction purposes. The NEC and NFPA 780 require the appropriate
bonding of the down conductors and structural steel and other metal bodies to prevent side flashes.

Conductor and electrode connection

The down conductors must be attached permanently to the earth-grounding electrodes by bolding,
brazing, welding, or high-compression connectors listed for the purpose, and clamps that are suitable for
direct burial. If these connections are not performed efficiently, the integrity of the lightning protection
system is jeopardized. When selecting connectors and fittings, it is important that they be compatible for
terminating the conductors to the devices and electrodes and for meeting the condition in which they are
used.

Earth-grounding electrodes
Down conductors must be connected to earth-grounding electrodes that are dedicated to the lightning
protection system. In other words, the grounding-electrode system for the service equipment for the
facility, as well as that used for grounding telecommunications and cable television systems, must not be
used in lieu of lightning protection electrodes.

Electrodes that are suitable for lightning protection systems are ground rods, concrete-encased
electrodes, ground-ring electrodes, radial electrodes or plate electrodes. Installing multiple rods or driving
longer rods deeper into the soil of the earth can decrease resistance; long grounding conductors buried in
the earth can also be used. Note that other methods—such as salt, chemical, and other commercial type
techniques—are available and can be used to obtain a lower earth (soil) resistance.

Summary of lightning protection components

Air terminal height

The tip of an air terminal shall be not less than 254 mm (10 in.) above the object or area it is to protect.

Conductor bends

No bend of a conductor shall form an included angle of less than 90 degrees, nor shall it have a radius
of bend less than 203 mm (8 in.), as shown in the Figure below

506
Conductor size and material
4.1.1.1 Ordinary structures shall be protected according to 4.1.1.1(A) or 4.1.1.1(B).
(A) Ordinary structures not exceeding 23 m (75 ft) in height shall be protected with Class I materials as
shown in Table 4.1.1.1(A).

Table 4.1.1.1(A) Minimum Class I Material Requirements

Minimum Class I Material Requirements

Copper
Type of Conductor Parameter SI U.S.
Air terminal, solid Diameter 9.5 mm 3/8 in.
Air terminal, tubular Diameter 15.9 mm 5/8 in.
Wall thickness 0.8 mm 0.033 in.
Main conductor, cable Size each strand 278 g/m 17 AWG
Weight per length 29 mm2 187 lb/1000 ft
Cross section area 57,400 cir. mils

Bonding conductor, cable (solid or Size each strand 17 AWG

stranded) Cross section area 26,240 cir. mils
Bonding conductor, solid strip Thickness 1.30 mm
Width 12.7 mm 1/2 in.

Main conductor, solid strip Thickness 1.30 mm 0.051 in.

Cross section area 29 mm2 57,400 cir. mils

Neither NFPA 780 nor 70 implies that lightning strikes can be prevented, but injury to personnel and
damage to facilities and installation materials can certainly be reduced with a properly designed and
installed lightning protection system.

Transient Protection from Lightning Strikes

Definitions Used in Transient and Surge Protection

Suppressed voltage rating (SVR)
Surge protective devices (SPDs)
Transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS)

507
Transient protection is required by NFPA 780

NFPA 780 A.4.18.2.5 Most services to facilities will require discrete surge suppression devices installed
to protect against damaging surges. Occasionally, services will be located in an area or manner where
the threat from lightning-induced surges and overvoltage transients may be negligible. For example, the
requirements in 4.18.2.3 (also see A.4.18.6.1) exempt services less than 30 m (100 ft) in length that are
run in grounded metal conduit between buildings requiring surge protection. These are examples of
acceptable exceptions where SPDs may not be required on each service entrance. The standard
recognizes that there can be acceptable exceptions and consequently allows for such exceptions to the
requirements for surge suppression on electrical utility, data, and other signal lines, provided a competent
engineering authority has determined that the threat is negligible or that the system is protected in a
manner equivalent to surge suppression.

Allowance for the exemption of surge suppression at specific locations in this standard is not intended as
a means to provide a broad exemption simply because surge suppression may be considered
inconvenient to install. Rather, it recognizes that all possible circumstances and configurations,
particularly those in specialized industries, cannot be covered by this standard.

Determinations made by an engineering authority for exempting installation of SPDs should focus on the
likelihood of lightning activity in the region, the level of damage that may be incurred, and the potential
loss to human life or essential services due to inadequate overvoltage protection.

508
 NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery

The wire sizing and color codes for wires and buttons are covered in industrial machinery NFPA 79.
Conductor sizing

Conductors shall not be smaller than:

(a) Power circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #14 awg
(b) Lighting and Control circuits on machine and in raceways . . . . . . . . .#16 awg
Exception: in jacket multiconductor cable assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . #18 awg
(c) Control circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #18 awg
(d) Electronic, control conductors in raceways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .#24 awg
Conductor colors

Black - Line, load and control circuits at line voltage

Red - AC control circuits less than line voltage
Blue - DC control circuits
Yellow - Interlock control circuits powered from external power supply
Green - Equipment ground conductor where insulated or covered
Pushbutton functions for color

Red - Emergency stop, Stop, Off

Yellow - Return, Emergency return, Intervention — suppress abnormal conditions
Green - Start, On
Black - No specified function assigned
White - Any function not covered above
Clear - Any function not covered above
Blue - Any function not covered above
Grey - Any function not covered above

Colors for Machine Indicator Lights and Icons Table 10.3.2

NFPA 79 Code Excerpt Article 10.3.2 Color Purposes

. Safety of
Condition State of
Persons or
of Process Equipment
equipment

Indicator lights and icons of color graphic RED Danger Emergency Faulty
interface device shall be color coded with
respect to the condition (status) of the YELLOW / Warning /
Abnormal Abnormal
machine in accordance with table 10.3.2. (AMBER) Caution
Alternate purposes shall be permitted to GREEN Safe Normal Normal
indicate machine or process status
BLUE Mandatory Action
CLEAR
WHITE
No Specific Meaning Assigned
GREY
BLACK

509
NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems

Questions from this standard may be asked on the CSE exam. This standard shall apply to all purged and
pressurized enclosures. The standard’s intent is to provide information on the methods for purging and
pressurizing enclosures to prevent ignition of flammable atmospheres.

Refineries and similar facilities often have electrical control equipment and instrumentation located in
rooms that are within or near Class I hazardous locations. If you install a purging and pressurizing system
in these rooms, the NEC allows you to install general-purpose equipment (intended for use in an
unclassified location) in such locations.

Purging for Class I hazardous locations (NEC/NFPA):

Type X Purging - Reduces the classification from Division 1 to nonhazardous
Type Y Purging - Reduces the classification from Division 1 to Division 2
Type Z Purging - Reduces the classification from Division 2 to nonhazardous

Note: At least four volumes of purge gas must pass through the enclosure, while maintaining a minimum
pressure of 0.1 inches of water, before operation of the equipment inside. A minimum of 0.1 inches of
water pressure must be maintained in the enclosure when operating.

A warning label shall be mounted on the enclosure. On Type Y and Type Z purge failure, an alarm or
pressure switch can be used to remove power from the enclosure. With Type X purge, this power must be
removed with an explosion proof switch.

Overview of the NFPA 496 articles

Refineries and similar facilities often have electrical control equipment and instrumentation located in
rooms that are within or near Class I hazardous locations. If you install a purging and pressurizing system
in these rooms, the NEC allows you to install general-purpose equipment (intended for use in an
unclassified location) in such locations.

NEC Section 500-4 suggests you can reduce, limit, or even eliminate hazards by adequate positive-
pressure ventilation from a source of clear air, coupled with effective safeguards against ventilation
failure. The FPN (fine print note) in Section 500-4 in the NEC refers to NFPA 496 (Purged and
Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment) for requirements pertaining to the design of a purged
and pressurized room.

Requirements included in Chapter 5, NFPA 496, provide guidelines for preventing the entry of flammable
vapors or gases into the room housing electrical-related equipment.

Factors to consider (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-3)

As a designer or installer, you must consider many factors in the design and layout of the control room.
First, the number of people in the room is important when calculating the volume of air required as well as
the access requirements. An appendix in NFPA 496 states a control room located in a hazardous
(classified) location should have as few doors as possible so you can maintain positive pressure within
the room - while maintaining the need for egress of personnel per Appendix A-5-4.1.

A control room typically contains data processing, communications, HVAC, lighting, power, and electrical
equipment, as well as process-control instruments and panels. It's the designer and installer's job to
understand the varied needs for protection from flammable atmospheres. The volume of air introduced
must satisfy the need for cooling the electrical equipment and preventing heating problems as well.

Location of the control room (NFPA 496, Secs. 5-3.1(c) and 5-3.2)
You must also consider the location of the control room in relation to the source of flammable gases or
vapors. Pay particular attention to the direction of the prevailing wind. One side of the room may face a
location generally free from trace amounts of flammable vapors or gases, or the height of the fan intake
510
may be sufficient to provide a clean source of air. If you need ducting to reach an uncontaminated source,
it must be noncombustible material, free of leaks, and protected against damage or corrosion.

Positive pressure air systems (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.1)

You must maintain positive pressure of at least 0.1 in. of water column (25 Pascals) in the control room
with all openings closed. Sensitive pressure switches and other devices are available to measure these
low values. The Code permits this minimum air pressure to drop to a lower level when doors and other
apertures remain open, if a minimum air velocity of 60 ft/min. (0.3 m/sec) is maintained through the
openings.

Type X equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.4)

If you locate a control room in a Class I, Division 1 (or Zone 1) location, containing equipment that can
only function safely in an unclassified location, you must use a Type X purging system. Type X purging
systems reduce the hazards from Division I (or Zone 1) to unclassified. You must cut power off
immediately when the positive-pressure air system fails. You also must detect failure of the system at the
discharge end of the fan.

The Code does not consider an electrical interlock that indicates when the pressurizing fan motor is
running to be reliable for this purpose because of the possibility of a broken belt or other equipment
failure. The sensing device must start an audible or visual alarm located in a constantly attended position.
(See exception to Sec. 5-4.4 for a variance pertaining to this rule.)

You must take the electrical power circuit for the positive-pressure air system equipment off ahead of any
service disconnects feeding the control room. The airflow-monitoring switch, electrical disconnect, and
motor for the air system fan must be suitable for the area in question (as it would be classified if there was
no positive ventilation system). This provision allows for the re-pressurization of the room after the air
system fails.

One method to determine the degree of safety for such a situation involves the use of combustible gas
detectors. You can use these detectors to be sure the atmosphere around the electrical equipment is
nonflammable. As an alternative, you could also employ a purge timer to prevent reapplying power too
soon after the pressurizing air system restarts. The time period should be sufficient to allow at least four
air changes within the room.

Type Y equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5)

Type Y purging systems reduce the classification within a room from Division 1 (or Zone 1) to Division 2
(or Zone 2). If the control room location and/or equipment is suitable for these type of purges, then it's not
necessary to de-energize the power supply circuit to the control room equipment immediately upon a
positive pressure air system failure. However, for safety's sake, you should de-energize that equipment
as soon as possible after you detect air failure, or that some means of monitoring the atmosphere within
the room be started.

Type Z equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5)

Type Z purging systems reduce the classification from Division 2 (Zone 2) to unclassified. The design
conditions and requirements are the same as for Type Y equipment.

511
Examples of Purged and Pressurized Systems

Basic design of purged enclosures

Standard Explosion Proof Enclosure Example of Purged Electrical Enclosures (Designed per NFPA
496)

512
Basic design of purged buildings

The two main suppliers of purge and pressurized buildings are:

Bebco Industries, Incorporated

Physical Address: 5235 Delaney Road, Hitchcock, Texas 77563

Mailing Address: P.O. Box 128 Hitchcock. Texas 77563
Phone: (409)935-5743 | Fax: (409)938-4189
Office Hours: 8 AM to 5 PM CST, Monday - Friday

Specific Systems

Corporate Office
7655 East 41st Street, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74145
Phone: (918) 663-9321 | Fax: (918) 663-5498

Houston Branch Office

7107 Belgold Street, Unit C, Houston, Texas 77066
Phone (918) 663-9321
513
40 CFR and EPA - LDAR

Title 40 is a part of the United States Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40 arranges mainly
environmental regulations that were promulgated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
based on the provisions of United States laws (statutes of the U.S. Federal Code). Parts of the regulation
may be updated annually on July 1.

The Clean Air Act (CAA)

The Clean Air Act requires refineries to develop and implement a Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR)
program to control fugitive emissions. Fugitive emissions occur from valves, pumps, compressors,
pressure relief valves, flanges, connectors and other piping components. Comparison monitoring
conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Enforcement Investigation
Center (NEIC) shows that the number of leaking valves and components is up to 10 times greater than
had been reported by certain refineries. The EPA believes this great disparity between what refineries are
reporting and what the EPA is finding may be attributable to refineries not monitoring in the manner
prescribed in 40 CFR Part 60, Appendix A, Method 21.

Federal regulations require refiners to routinely monitor for leaks and to fix any equipment found leaking.
Failure to identify leaking equipment results in necessary repairs not being made and continuing fugitive
emissions of volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) and other hazardous chemicals. EPA estimates that the
failure to identify and repair leaks at petroleum refineries could be resulting in additional VOC emissions
of 80 million pounds annually. VOCs contribute to ground-level ozone, a principal component of smog,
which can cause significant health and environmental problems.

What the Law Requires

Specific requirements for refinery fugitive emissions are identified in 40 CFR Part 60, New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS), and 40 CFR Parts 61 and 63, National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). Many State and local air agencies incorporate federal requirements
but some have established more stringent requirements as authorized by law. The various regulations
require refineries to implement an LDAR program to reduce fugitive emissions from valves, pumps,
compressors, pressure relief valves, flanges, connectors, and other piping components.

Valves are usually the single largest source of fugitive emissions. Emissions from any single piece of
equipment are usually small. Based on the large number of equipment components that can leak and are
subject to LDAR requirements, however, cumulative emissions can be very large. To obtain a proper
reading of emissions from leaking components the monitoring equipment must be calibrated correctly and
held at the component interface where leakage could occur (e.g., at the seal between the valve stem and
housing) for a sufficient length of time to obtain a valid measurement.

60.482-8 Standards: Pumps and valves in heavy liquid service, pressure relief devices in light liquid
service or heavy liquid service and flanges and other connections
60.482-9 Standards: Delay of repair
60.482-10 Standards: Closed vent systems and control devices

For example, if a closed venting system is being used to reduce emissions and to comply with the
requirements of the standard, it must be capable of recovering (condensers, absorbers, etc.) or reducing
(flares, enclosed combustion devices, etc.) the VOC emissions at some defined level of efficiency. The
closed systems must be monitored to verify that they meet or exceed all the requirements of their design.

Any leaks, as indicated by an instrument reading greater than 500 parts per million (ppm) above
background, must be repaired as soon as practicable. The first attempt at repair must be made no later
than five calendar days after the leak is detected. [40 CFR 60.482-10].

Note: This may be on the CSE exam, valves will not be allowed to leak at seals more than 500 ppm!
See the section in this manual Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks / EPA Regulations for more
detailed information on the 40 CFR and pressure relief valve and rupture disk requirements.
514
 Putting It All Together

Define the Scope of the Plant

First a site will be chosen for the plant and the layout of the plant will be determined. The battery limits will
be assigned, separating the on-site ISBL (inside battery limits), which will be the critical control and
operations of the plant, from the off-site OSBL (outside battery limits) which is the noncritical operations,
such as connection to utilities and storage of material. Engineering plan drawings will be raised above the
surface of the page.

The plant will be divided into cells. These

cells can be noncontinuous processes,
such as batch processing with reactors,
or continuous processes, such as
distillation of crude oil.

The cells will be divided up into units of

operation. Each unit may have a specific
function, such as hydrocarbon cracking,
sulfur removal, or catalyst reforming.

Next a plant-wide control architecture will

be established as well as planning for the
infrastructure needed for operations of
the plant.

There will be electrical substations, MCC

(motor control center) buildings, pump
houses, steam generators and boiler
structures, cooling towers, and so on. All
of the infrastructure operations will
require controls and instrumentation
interfacing and interlocking to ensure that
plant runs a safe and reliable operation.

515
The requirements of the infrastructure are dependent upon the loads of the equipment for all combined
plant units. Each unit will have to be designed and the energy requirements for the equipment calculated.
A typical Distillation column is shown in units below. We will design the infrastructure required for the

operation of a typical unit. View the sample P&ID, plan and detail drawings that follow in this section.

Define the Control Systems Architecture

The architecture will pretty much be the same

for any plant DCS system installation of any
type.

There will be the field instruments connected to

a field distribution junction box in the local unit
(I). The process and control signals will travel
through a multi-conductor cable to a marshalling
cabinet located in the control room or DCS
building of the plant (II). There will be separate
set multi-conductor cables that will travel
between the marshalling cabinets (sometimes a
complete wall of terminal strips) to the
input/output cards of the DCS (III).

The I/O cards are typically located in the back of

the processor cabinets and have opened floors.
516
Some Typical Large DCS Architectures

For a DCS, such as the Honeywell TDC-3000 or Experion, the field process analog and discrete signal
cables will terminate in the marshalling cabinet or panel (shown below on the left). From the marshalling
cabinet the signal cables will continue to the back of the DCS and land on the DCS input/output cards
(shown in the middle). The I/O cards will typically be plugged into to the process controller in the front of
the DCS cabinet and then the processors networked to the HMI and operator and engineering stations.
On larger systems like the Honeywell TDC-3000 and similar systems, the cabinets below are sometimes
put on top of a computer room floor as shown below to the right.

A typical marshaling cabinet I/O termination cards in rear of DCS A Computer Room Floor

Important Note: All DCS systems should be installed in closed cabinets and not exposed to open
environments. The cabinet will act as a Faraday Shield blocking incoming RFI and EMI signals. These
signals create a standing voltage on the cabinets; therefore the voltage needs to be drained to the
instrumentation single point ground system, from two points with different lengths of grounding cables.
The signal drain wire (shield) in the cables will always terminate in the marshalling cabinet to the single
point ground system. The exception being a networked control system, such as FOUNDATION Fieldbus.

This also includes the computer room floor if one is used. The floor will become a “high frequency
reference grid” and the standing voltage should be drained to ground. The bottom of the DCS cabinet is
typically open to the floor for cable entry routing to the I/O cards. Typically two ground busses will be
mounted on the wall under the floor. One will be an AC safety ground bus bar and the other bus bar will
be on stand-off insulators and will be the “isolated” single point ground system. See the section in this
manual Electrical Systems and Power Quality / Proper Grounding Procedures for detailed
information.

The Experion LX C300 controller and I/O EHPM (Ethernet High-Performance Process Manager) from Honeywell

517
More on DCS Cabinets and I/O Distribution

With the DELTAV and Foxboro I/A systems, the marshalling cabinet and fieldbus I/O modules are typically
located in the process unit and then networked back to the controllers with fiber optic cables. Below are
two DCS systems.

Foxboro I/A Redundant Processors

Foxboro I/A Network Communications

Foxboro I/A FBM (Fieldbus Modules) Yokagawa CENTUM VP series DCS

The trend in the last 10 years

of DCS architecture, has been
to have the DCS controller
processing power located in
the control room building and
strategically locate all the I/O
cabinets throughout the
plant, rather than in just a
computer room, located in
the control room building or
sometimes its own building.

The newer DCS structures

like the Foxboro I/A and
Emerson DELTAV are usually
implanted in this fashion.

518
Distributing the Power and Control

The multi-conductor signal and control cables are routed through the plant in a cable tray system located
typically on the top of the pipe racks. Power cables for pumps, motor operated valves; heaters and
lighting are usually routed in a separate cable tray from MCC building to the plant units. The MCC
building is typically a pre-manufactured building and requires a purge system because it is usually located
in a Class I, Division 2 area of the plant. An alarm from the purge system pressure switch will have to be
interlocked to the DCS for an orderly shutdown in the case of building purge failure.

If the MCC building fills up with gas from

the plant, an explosion may occur. The
purge system usually has an air intake
stack of at least 25 feet up in the air to
take in fresh air or it has chemically
treated filter system for the intake of
clean air for the purging system of the
building.

The MCC building usually consist of low

voltage motor control center(s) and
switchgear and will also have lighting
panels and maybe an ESD (emergency
shutdown) system in it. You will probably put an interface panel on the wall, for the discrete control of the
starters and field switches and stop-start stations. You may also need analog control for frequency drives
in the MCC interface panel from the DCS. There may also be medium voltage switchgear and motor
starters in the MCC building. You will need 90 or 125 VCD for the operation of the medium voltage
starters. Protective relaying and power monitoring will also be required for the medium voltage motors in
the plant.

A medium voltage transformer (13.8 kv or 4160 volts to 480 volts) will typically be located outside near the
MCC building. You will need an interface for alarming of a ground fault of the system (IEEE 51G) and
sudden pressure in the transformer (IEEE 69) that may be caused by a fault. You may provide alarms for
overvoltage (IEEE 64), undervoltage(IEEE 27) and phase reversal or loss (IEEE 46).

The power cables typically enter the MCC building through the bottom, where removable plates can be
punched to install sealing fitting. The instrumentation and
control cables will typically enter near the top of the MCC
building. The entry will be though what is called “Nelson
Blocks”. It is modular system that has individual sealant bocks
which are split in halves and are made to fit the cable size.
The blocks are then compressed when all the wires are
through the wall. This is how a seal is achieved.

Remember the building has to maintain a minimum of 0.1

inches of water per the NEC which refers to NFPA 496
“purged and pressurized building” but is typically purged to 0.5
inches. The NEC also requires that a seal be placed within 18”
519
of the boundary when a hazardous location classification change occurs with conduit runs, such as to a
non-hazardous area.

Cable trays maybe installed near the top of the MCC and switchgear buildings, to distribute the power
cables to the equipment as shown below.

Routing the Cable Trays

The electrical or controls engineer or I&E designer must then plan the distribution and routing of the cable
trays throughout the plant. The power cables and the NEC Class 1 and 2 (low voltage) control and signal
cables must be separated. A metal divider can be installed in trays with low cable counts, to separate the
control and power, meeting the requirements of the NEC. The power and control conductors can be
installed in the same conduit from the cable tray to the motor or equipment, for control of associated
equipment, such as motor starters.

From the cable tray, the cables will be routed to the

equipment in conduits attached to the beam structure with
“KORN” clamps or underground though conduit. The
underground conduit can be PVC in a Class 1, Division 2
areas only, but must extend up out of the ground with a
minimum of two foot of ridged conduit under the ground
and must terminate with a grounding bushing.
A grounding (bonding conductor) is required to be installed
inside or along with the cable, even if it is just signal and
control cables. You must bond all equipment, instruments
and enclosures to the plant’s ground grid and structure per
the NEC. This will help protect the equipment from lightning
strikes. In the figure to the right, notice the supplemental
ground to the pumps to ensure a low impedance path to ground per the NEC.

520
Choose the Wiring Method

You must choose a wiring method to connect to the instruments and equipment. Today wireless
technology is gaining popularity, but most plants will still
want hard wired devices for the reliability and for a faster
response time of the process signal.

There are two methods to connect the field devices to the

distribution junction boxes, which are supplied by the multi-
conductor cables from the cable tray system. The devices
can be wired with individual wire and conduits from the
junction boxes or the latest trend is to use modular wiring
with IP67-rated quick connectors providing dust-tight and
water-tight connections. The modular wiring provides
flexibility and quick change out of the instruments if there is
a failure.

FOUNDATION Fieldbus segments that are installed in plants

are typically installed with the modular wiring method.

On the left side is a classical hard wired (screw terminated)

installation with conduit connected to a liquid tight flexible
conduit and terminating into instrument with an explosion
proof seal per the NEC. On the right side, the modular wiring
method, you just unscrew the cable to replace the device.
The electrical connector in the instrument meets the NEC
requirement of the minimum five (5) threads engaged for
cooling of the gases, if there is an explosion and the
minimum of 5/8 inch of sealant made of epoxy.

The modular wiring can be installed in the tubing tray with the pneumatics as shown above to the left.

To the right is a standard hard wired (terminal connected) conduit system with liquid tight tubing for the
installation of a FOUNDATION eldbus system segment. They do not have to be cable connected with IP67
connectors it is just a network cable.

Important Note: Let’s say you have a malfunctioning pressure

sensor and you decide to replace it with an older unit from your
inventory. Unfortunately, you will discover that it has an older device
description (DD) or the Capabilities File, aka Common File Format
(CFF) file which is different. Conversely, you may want to replace an
older unit with a newer model with a new DD of CFF file. Either
scenario can cause you problems, because if the files are different in
the host system and the device, then the device will not commission
or communicate and may not show up on the segment.

521
Field Distribution Systems

The junction boxes in hazardous locations can be the standard NEMA junction boxes, if non-incentive
devices are used. The device cannot be an arcing device and the operating temperature of the device
cannot exceed 80% of the auto-ignition temperature of the environment. If the relays, contactors and
switches are hermetically sealed or immersed in oil, they can be placed in NEMA 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12 or 13
enclosures.

The distribution multi-conductor cables will only terminate on a terminal strips. They are not considered an
arcing device by the NEC code. This applies to transformer as well, even for high voltage transformers
that ignite flares and the flame fronts for flares.

On the unit there may be contactor panels for lighting and heating in the units. Typically the heat tracing
power will come out of the MCC building, but the temperature control switch or thermostat will be
mounted on the pipe or near the tubing and transmitter, whichever is being heat traced with electric
tracing to prevent freezing. Electric heat tracing comes as constant wattage or self-regulating (variable
resistance) tape.

Below is a rack on a deck with an explosion proof enclosure which houses the lighting contactors. Beside
them are explosion proof switches for the lights on the deck. Notice the transformer to the right and the
gutter box in between are standard NEMA enclosures. You should take notice that all of the conduits
entering the explosion proof enclosure and switches have seals within 18 inches to meet the requirement
of the NEC code.

Any relays or contactors will have to be housed in a NEMA 7 or 8 enclosures inside or a NEMA 9 outside.
A standard NEMA enclosure can be used if it is purged as required by the NEC and NFPA 496.

Important Note: If the conduit system is in a Class I, Division 2 location, form 7 fitting with gaskets can be
used, but the explosion proof equipment will still require a seal. If the conduit system is in a Class I,
Division 1 location, all of the fitting must be explosion proof with five (5) threads fully engaged and seals
within 18 inches of each explosion proof switch, transmitter or enclosure. The conduit system is not to
522
keep the explosive (volatile) gases out, but to contain an explosion if it occurs. The milling of the mating
faces of the boxes and the threads allow for cooling of the internal gases as they pass through before
entering the atmosphere, due to pressure drop. This way, if there is an abundant quantity of volatile
gases in the air around the unit, the gas will not ignite.

Class I, Division 2 Installations

Remember volatile gases can slowly seep into the equipment and boxes as shown with this transmitter
below, where chemicals have seeped in causing excessive corrosion of the terminals. Recall from the
section on flow transmitters, that the Rosemount 3051S can detect this corrosion and send an alarm to
the control room or maintenance department. The image on the right shows a typical Class I, Division 2
conduit installation. Note: if Allen Bradley bulletin 800R hermetically sealed push buttons for Division 2 or
equivalents are used, then a seal in the conduit at the enclosure is not needed and NEMA type 4/4X/13
enclosures can be used.

Class I, Division 1 Installations

Below to the left show a typical installation of pump start-stop stations in a Class I, Division 1 location.
Notice the wiring to the right below. The modular cable entering the Class I, Division 1 conduit system
does not have a seal. This is because the factory modular connector on the instrument has five (5)
threads and the wiring passing through the connector is sealed with epoxy a minimum of 5/8 inch thick to
meet the NEC requirements for hazardous locations.

Below is an explosion proof “ganged” box with various operators and an explosion proof power
receptacle.

523
Below are explosion proof enclosures for motor control, logic control or for emergency shutdown systems

Modular Wiring Distribution Systems

Cable tray distribution system made of open wire tray for modular wiring throughout the process plant

Cable tray distribution system made of solid tray for cable drops from the tray system in the pipe racks

524
Modular wiring distribution junction box that provides signal and control wiring to the plant instrumentation

Instrument Air Supply and Pneumatic Tubing

The International Society of Automation (ISA) sets standards for instrument air quality in the ISA S7.3
standard.

Instrument Air Consumption

Refer to the section in this book “Hydraulics and Pneumatics, Instrument Air Cost – Engineering
Economics” for details of how to calculate air consumption loads.

In a medium to large sized chemical process facility, there might be hundreds of devices, or there also
may be control panels with banks of solenoids and distribution tubing. In either case, they will often be
concentrated in several areas or near specific unit operations, but they can also be fairly uniformly
distributed over a site of many acres. In either case, the designer needs to get a count of the number,
type and size of devices that might be actuated at any time or over a short span of time (a few seconds),
and provide for some diversity. (Note that rarely does every device actuate at any one time; and that often
when one valve pressurizes (to actuate), another may be spring loaded to reverse actuate, so that only
one charge of air addresses the requirement of two valves.) Then, the total air demand can be
determined (or at least properly estimated).

525
Compressor Types
Several distinct types of compressors are made for industrial use. The commonly used categories are
reciprocating, rotary vane, screw and centrifugal compressors.

Reciprocating Air Compressors (Sizes 100 PSIG - 1/2 HP and 1 CFM to 1,250 HP and 6,300 CFM)

Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement machines, which work through the action of
a piston in a cylinder. These types are most widely used type in the industry and are suitable for
applications that require low flow rates and/or high pressure. Single-stage compressors are generally
used for pressures in the range of 70 psig to 100 psig. Two-stage compressors are generally used for
higher pressures in the range of 100 psig to 250 psig.

Rotary Screw Compressors (Sizes 30 CFM to 3000 CFM)

Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. The most common rotary air
compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These
compressors consist of two rotors whose rotation causes the axial progression causing the
compression of air internally. There are no valves. These units are basically oil cooled where the oil
seals the internal clearances. The oil coolers in turn are either air or water-cooled.

Centrifugal Compressors (Sizes 400 CFM to 15,000 CFM)

The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor, which use high speed rotating impellors to
accelerate air. These are suitable for high gas volume applications, such as chemical process
industries, steel plants, oil refineries, and gas transmission systems. They are fairly efficient down to
about 60%of their design output.

Vane Compressors (Sizes 40 CFM to 800 CFM)

A Vane compressor is a positive displacement machine having a rotor with metallic sliding vanes
inside an eccentric housing. The vanes form pockets of air that are compressed as the rotor turns
until an exhaust port is exposed. This working principle is also widely used in air motors. The sliding
vane compressor normally is sold as a package and is available in the range of 10 hp to 200 hp and
discharge pressures from 80 psig to 125 psig.

Piping System and Manifold

Air Pipe Header
Steel pipe is typically used in airline distribution systems and is generally supplied in twenty-foot lengths.
There are several ways to connect these lengths. The cheapest way is to thread the ends of the pipe and
screw them together with threaded couplings. It is recommended to install pipe unions in between to allow
the piping to be readily disassembled for future maintenance or expansion. If unions aren’t installed at
appropriate places, it will be virtually impossible to tighten a leaking joint.

Threaded pipe unions are often not available in sizes above 2-1/2”. Four bolt forged steel ANSI flanges
are generally used from that point upward in size, though such flanges are manufactured beginning at
1/2”. A gasket seals the interface between these flanges. Anytime steel pipe is threaded, the potential for
leaks exist. It would be better to use welded, rather than threaded, connections and fittings.

Pneumatic Tubing
The tubing used for low flow rate consumption to instrumentation in plants, typically ranges from 1/8”
through 1/2” OD in size.

526
Air Distribution Manifold (Header)

You will need to install a manifold (header) throughout the plant in the

units for air distribution to instruments and valves. Most plants will have a twist lock connection at the
bottom of the manifold to connect a ½ inch air hose. They use the hose for blowing off the concrete slabs
(housekeeping), blowing out pipes and for blowing string through conduits to pull wire through the
conduits.

There may be pneumatic motors, Saunders Pumps and pneumatic jacks as well as other tools. Keep
these load consumptions in mind when sizing the plant capacity for the compressor.

Routing of Pneumatic Tubing

Tray is used for the routing of tubing from the air supply manifold to the valves and also for the routing of
impulse lines from the pipelines and tanks to the transmitters, for the measurement of flow, pressure and
level. The transmitters may all be grouped in a line in the walk way under the pipe rack or on a deck of a
structure. The transmitter is not always close to the pipe or tank. The pipe with the flow element may be
25 foot up in a pipe rack, while the transmitter is on the ground. Tubes may travel a couple of feet or up to
100 feet from these devices.

You will need to route tubing on equipment and compressor as well as tap into process streams for
analysis of the process fluid. These streams maybe gases or liquids. Tubes will also be used lubrication
systems and control signals for pneumatic systems.

527
Impulse lines from high temperature processes should be
put through a cooling bath or a syphon tube (“pigtail”)
should be used to prevent the high temperatures from
damaging the transmitter measurement cell.

Remember when grouping transmitters together, to leave

room for workers to troubleshoot and connect the
electrical and impulse tubing. Be sure the displays are
easy to read for the plant operators.

Heat Tracing Systems

Heat tracing systems are typically electrical or steam type. You will need to heat trace your valves, pumps
and transmitters, if the process fluids in the piping systems are operating at low temperatures. In the
northern parts of the United States, with the wind chill factor, these pipes can freeze when not flowing and
the impulse lines can freeze if exposed without hot fluids or during shut downs or in between cycles of
batch processes.

Electric Heat Tracing

Heat tracing tape comes in two types, either constant wattage or self-regulating. Below are some
examples of electric heat tracing. The electrical connection junction box for the heat tracing of the valves
and piping is in the upper left side of the image on the right and is typically controlled by a thermostat.
The transmitter below can use a heat blanket or you can also put the transmitter in a heated box with a
hinged enclosure.

You will probably only be responsible for the electrical tracing, though it to may be done by the electrical
engineer. Your responsibility as the I&E or controls engineer will be specifying what is heat traced and any
interlocks with control or alarms, such as low temperature or ground fault. You may need contactors in the
MCC building, but you will need an electrical panelboard dedicated for heat tracing. There may be 42 to
80 circuits for the entire heat tracing system. The wattage of heat trace loads will need to be calculated for
the electrical engineer to size the transformer or the electrical feeder to the MCC building.

Look at the images above to see the length of heat tracing tape used in typical installations for piping and
valves in most plant systems. These plants can be power, pulp, chemical, pharmaceutical and others.

528
The mechanical or process engineer will determine the wattage needed per lineal foot of pipe. The heat
tracing tape delivers a specific wattage per foot, so you will wrap the heat tracing tape back and forth over
the area of pipe, for that foot of pipe, to get the required wattage per foot length of pipe. This makes it
obvious that the lineal footage of heat trace tape needed is much greater than the length of the pipe itself.

A Typical Electrical Heat Tracing System

Steam Heat Tracing

Steam tracing will be the best choice for heating jacketed tanks and vessels. It has the limitation of
pressure drop on long runs with piping. So on long pipe runs, electrical will probably be your best choice.

Your requirements of energy from the steam and the boiler will be the responsibility of the mechanical
engineer. Again your responsibility as the I&E or controls engineer will be specifying what is heat traced
and any interlocks with control, such as solenoid valves, and alarms, such as low temperature.

Steam tracing may be used to maintain a temperature in a tank for processes that require fluids to be
warm, such as oils and greases used in the food processing industry. By warming the fluids they are
easier to pump and measure the mass flow or volumetric flow rate. The valves also have better control of
the flow.

Some plants will put tanks for these applications in a “steam room” where the room will be filled with
steam to control the temperature of the fluids in the tanks.

529
 A Typical Steam Heat Tracing Distribution System

Free Heat Tracing Software

Thermon has developed a sophisticated, yet easy-to-use software suite entitled CompuTrace® that
provides detailed design and performance information. Users of CompuTrace® are able to input
application-specific information into the program and obtain detailed electrical and thermal performance
information.

Included in the CompuTrace® software suite from Thermon is:

• CompuTrace ® Design Suite - Electric Heat Tracing Design Software for Piping
• CompuTrace VT ® ver.1.3.32 - Design Software for Electric and Steam Tank Heating Applications
• CompuTrace IT ® ver. 1.3 - Electric and Steam Heat Tracing Design Software for Heated Tubing
• CompuTrace ST ® ver.3.0 - Steam Heat Tracing Design Software for Steam Tracing on Pipes

Determine Scope of Design

Finding where to place the instrumentation

requires some thought. You must consider
the instruments function, reliability, access
for maintenance, and the accuracy of the
response of the process measurement.

Documentation must be provided showing

location, elevation, calibration data, wiring
connections, the routing through the junction
boxes and cabinets, cable routing through
the plant and interconnection diagrams of
control between the DCS, MCC and ESD
functions.

Looking at the image to the left, you will see

that the equipment and instruments that are
associated should be grouped in close approximation for any operation in the unit.
By grouping the equipment together, the installation cost is greatly reduced and the ease of
troubleshooting and monitoring the operation becomes less costly. Looking at the sample P&ID below, we
will do our scope of the initial design phase of the project.
530
Electrical Scope

 Determine requirements for control interlocks and ESD functions for all electrical pumps
 Determine interlocks and control for the fin fan coolers (such as speed and manipulating the
blades)
 Determine location for operator controls, such as DCS, HMIs, and motor stop-start stations
 Determine location of all ESD or SIS equipment (such as level, pressure and temperature
switches) and verify the SIL rating for the application of the instrument
 Assign all instruments a DCS I/O address and determine if interlocking is needed
 Determine cabling methods and routing to connect to the instruments

Instrumentation and Mechanical Scope

 Determine the control scheme and control action of all instruments for process control
 Divide the instruments up into associated loops and assign instrument loop number to them
 Determine the pressure and temperature ratings of each instrument and their calibration data
 Determine the instrument’s location and elevation as well as method for the type of connection
 Determine the size for the tubing and how it is to be routed to the instrument’s location

531
Design of Electrical Plans

 Determine how many field junction boxes will be needed

 Assign locations for the field junction boxes in the process units
 Determine if some field junction boxes need to be placed on decks for ease of distribution
 Determine segmentation of power and control cables, based on voltage rating and function
 Determine cable routing though junction boxes for the motor control and stop-start stations
 Determine what is needed for interlock and alarming of fire protection and safety equipment
 Verify that there is room for the cable trays to be routed with the piping in the pipe racks
 If locating combined I/O and marshaling cabinets in the units, verify equipment is Class 1,
Division 2 rated or provide a purging system for the cabinet with alarms per NFPA 496
 Verify voltage drop and cable size for all instruments, motors and heaters
 Determine maximum span and the size of cable tray need for load of the cables and snow

532
Sample of a possible design for the control network and communications in plant

533
Sample of a possible plan for routing of cable tray and conduit in plant

534
Sample of a possible layout for a MCC building with medium voltage switchgear installed

535
Sample of a possible one-line electrical diagram for the low voltage in the MCC building

536
Sample of a possible ladder diagram for the control of an Allen Bradley frequency drive

Frequency drives are often used for controlling the speed of fan coolers. Typically one fan will be on all
the time and the second fan will be controlled by the VFD. This method is more efficient and economical.

537
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram for the frequency drive

Note: If this were installed in a Class I, Division 2 area, the operators will have to be the hermetically
sealed type to use NEMA 4 and 4X boxes. If the operators are not sealed, they will have to be installed in
a gaged explosion proof enclosure as shown earlier.

538
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram for routing the analog instruments to the DCS

539
Continuation of a possible electrical field wiring diagram for routing the analog instruments

540
Locations of Instruments and Piping Design

It can be seen from the images below, that it can be difficult to find the location of the instruments in large
plants. You will have to work closely with the chemical or process engineer and the piping designer to
determine proper locations for the instruments. We will have to determine the location of instruments for
or from the piping detail prints as well.

There are pressure, level and temperature transmitters and switches all over the area. On the column on
the left, they will be located from the very top of column all the way down to the ground. From the P&ID,
we see the fin fan cooler and the condensers with associated control valves and pressure relief valves
located on the deck in front. There is also a reflux tank and pumps with level transmitters and flow control
valves below on the next deck down. There will also be pumps, level and flow transmitters with flow
control for the bottom products on the ground level of the column.

541
Sample of a possible elevations and locations of the instruments on the column

542
Sample of a possible plan views and elevation details for the installation of transmitters

543
The level transmitter type could be buoyancy or radar or capacitance (temperature limitations)

Typical temperature and pressure measurement connection techniques and locations

544
Typical elevations of instruments can be found from the landing deck detail prints

545
Typical layout, arrangement and elevation of the process equipment for a large column

546
Finding the location of an instrument in a plant

The elevation and location of an instrument can sometimes be found on the plan drawings or instrument
loop digrams. The elevation on the print is not always the at the elevation it would seem to be on the
drawing. The elevation may say it is at 125 feet, but the reference elevation of a plant may be 75 feet or
100 feet or 110 feet. A typical reference elevation of a plant is 100 feet. This is the base elevation that all
elevations are measured from. It is the same as a Live Zero in transmitter level measurements. So if the
instrument elevation said to be 125 feet, it could be only 25 feet off the concreate slab or ground.

Also there may be references to column locations to locate where the instrument is located, such as the
location (A10, elev 135 feet). This would be the structural beam A10 (usually the pipe rack column or
heater/boiler structure column) and at an elevation of 35 feet if the reference elevation was 100 feet or it
would be at 60 feet if the reference elevation was 75 feet. The reference elevation may be the feet above
sea level at the main survey pin used to layout the plot plan of the plant. The main survey pin is usually in
set in concreate so it cannot be moved or disturbed.

547
548
 Useful Equations for Pumping, Piping and Sizing Valves

Find pipe diameter with velocity of flow known

gpm * 0.4085
ID(inches ) 
velocity ( ft / sec)

scfm * 3.057
ID(inches ) 
velocity ( ft / sec)

Find flow velocity with pipe diameter known

gpm *0.4085
velocity( ft / sec) 
ID2 (inches)

scfm *3.057
velocity( ft / sec) 
ID2 (inches)

Find pipe diameter with temperature and pressure correction

scfm *3.057  14.7   460  Tdeg F 

ID(inches)    
velocity( ft / sec)  14.7  psig  520 

Find flow velocity with temperature and pressure correction

scfm *3.057  14.7   460  Tdeg F 

velocity( ft / sec)    
ID (inches)  14.7  psig 
2
520 

Find the Reynolds Number for the flow

3160 * flow rate( gpm) * Specific Gravity

Re = Note : for liquids
Pipe ID(inches) * Viscosity(cST )

7740*Velocity( ft / sec) * Pipe ID(inches)

Re = Note : for liquids
Viscosity(cST )

6.316 * Flow Rate( LB / Hr )

Re = Note : for gases and steam
Pipe ID(inches) * Viscosity(cST )

549
Calculate the Piping Head Losses to Size a Control Valve

The pump head needed for a piping system Note: Feet of head in system (hsys) = height + head loss in
pipe + head loss in fittings + head across meter element + head across control valve + head for
pressure in vessel.

The head for the pump is all in feet of head. This head must be in feet of head at the maximum operating
flow rate.

hsys = helevation + hpipe + hfitting + hmeter +hvalve + hvessle

Head losses for piping system (hp)

The Darcy-Weisbach equation for piping head loss in feet of head loss across the piping system.

 Length( feet )  V  ft / sec   Length( ft ) * 12  V  ft / sec 

2 2

hpipe  f   *  f   *
 Pipe ID( feet )  2* g  Pipe ID(inches)  64.34
O
friction factor for Darcy - Weisbach equation
Note : e  0.00015 for steel pipes
1
  e *12  6
10 3
f  0.0055  0.0055  20,000   
  Pipe ID(inches)  Re 


Head losses for hand valves and fittings (hf)

Use this formula to obtain head loss of fittings and hand valves. Then add this head loss to the piping
head loss obtained by the Darcy-Weisbach equation for the total piping system head loss as:
V 2  ft / sec  V 2  ft / sec 
h fitting  K *  K*
2* g 64.34

Where K is computed as:

K = f*(Le/D) Note: Le and D are in feet, so D = d”/12. This is already calculated for you.
Le = equivalent length (length of pipe with same resistance as the fitting/valve)
D = pipe diameter
f = friction factor

See Table A28 – Head Loss in Piping Systems for K factors for head loss in various piping fittings.

550
Find the pump motor size (break horsepower)

Total Dynamic Head

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) or (hsys) is sometimes also known as the “Total System Head” or “Total Head.”
The term TDH is more commonly used. It is the sum of the Total Discharge Head and the Total Suction
Head.

TDH = Hd discharge + Hs suction

TDH = [(z2 - zpump) + hf discharge + p2 /γ] - [(z1 - zpump) + hf suction + p1 /γ]
TDH = (p2 - p1) / γ = (z2 - z1) + (hf discharge + hf suction)

Calculating the Hydraulic Horsepower of pumps

Note: Feet of head in system (hsys) = height + head loss in pipe + head loss in fittings + head across
meter element + head across control valve + head for pressure in vessel.

Once the Total Dynamic Head is found, the power required to operate the pump can be determined.
The “Theoretical Horsepower,” also called the “Hydraulic Horsepower,” is defined as

hsys ( ft of head in the system) * gpm * 8.33 * specific gravity

HP  O
33,000

1 HP = 746 watts

Single phase motor amps

Amps = (HP * 746) / (Volts * P.F. * EFF.)

Three phase motor amps

Amps = (HP * 746) / (Volts * sqrt 3 * P.F. * EFF.)

551
Calculating the Brake Horsepower of pumps

Note: Feet of head in system (hsys) = height + head loss in pipe + head loss in fitting in equivalent
lengths + pressure in vessel.

Once the Total Dynamic Head is found, the power required to operate the pump can be determined.

This will be the approximate size of the pump motor. Verify with the manufacturer to get the actual size.

hsys ( ft of head in the system) * gpm * 8.33 * specific gravity

BHP  O
3,690 * efficiency of pump

552
Correct Pump Head and Flow Rate for Fluid Viscosity

We will be using the following conventional symbols in our formulas.

Qvis = Viscous capacity in gpm. (m3/hr). The capacity when pumping a viscous fluid
Hvis = Viscous head in feet (meters). The head when pumping a viscous fluid.
Nvis = Viscous efficiency in percent. The efficiency when pumping a viscous fluid
bhpvis = Viscous brake horse power. The horsepower (Kilowatts) required by the pump
for the viscous conditions.
Qw = Water capacity in gpm.(m3/hr) The capacity when pumping water.
Hw = Water head in feet (meters). The head when pumping water.
Nw = Water efficiency in percent. The efficiency when pumping water.
s.g. = Specific gravity.
Cq = Capacity correction factor.
Ch = Head correction factor.
Cn = Efficiency correction factor.
Qn = Water capacity at which maximum efficiency is obtained

The following equations are used for determining the viscous performance when the water performance
of the pump is known. As you can see they are not very hard to understand or calculate once you get the
terms straight.
Qw Hw H vis * Qvis * Specific Gravity
Qvis  H vis  N vis  N w * Cn bhpvis 
Cq Ch 3960 * N vis
The Head (Hvis) and Flow Rate (Qvis) will be way too small for the pump to operate correctly. They must
be converted to the new larger water equivalents Hw and Qw to size the pump. Cq, Ch and Cn are
determined from the correction charts below, which are based on water performance. On the chart they
are shown as CQ, CH (with a range of Qn correction factors) and CN

The formulas are really quite basic and require nothing more than the ability to multiply and divide simple
numbers. With all of that said, we will use this information to select a pump for a given head-capacity-
viscosity condition. The example will be in units of feet of head, gpm and SSU (kinetic viscosity).

We are looking for a pump to pump 750 gpm to a total head (this includes the static, pressure and friction
heads combined) of 100 feet with a liquid having a viscosity of 1000 SSU and a specific gravity of 0.90 at
the pumping temperature. Please take a look at the following 0-10,000 GPM chart:

At the bottom of the chart enter at 750 GPM go up to 100 Feet of Head, go right over to 1000 SSU and
then straight up to the correction factors shown below:

Cq = 0.95
Ch = 0.92 (go up to 1.0 x Qn water capacity)
Cn = 0.635
Qw = 750/0.95 = 790 gpm (see the last formulas shown above)
Hw = 100/0.92 = 108.8 or 109 feet head (see the formula above)
s.g. = 0.90

This means that you need a pump with a water capacity of 790 gpm. At a head of 109 feet, (NOT a head
of 100 and a flow of 750 gpm).
If the pump selected has an efficiency of 81% when it is pumping water, the efficiency of pumping the
viscous fluid will drop to Nvis = 81%*0.635 = 51.5% efficient.
The brake horsepower for the viscous fluid will become:

Qw 750 Hw 100
Qvis    790 gpm H vis    109 feet
Cq 0.95 Ch 0.92
H vis * Qvis * S .G. 109 * 790 * 0.90
N vis  N w * Cn  81% * 0.635  51.435 bhpvis    38.05 hp
3960 * N vis 3960 * 0.5143

553
Correct Pump Head and Flow Rate for Fluid Viscosity - 0 to 10,000 GPM

554
 Correct Pump Head and Flow Rate for Fluid Viscosity - 0 to 100 GPM

555
Piping Absolute Roughness Values

Absolute roughness and C-factors of common pipe materials

Pipe Roughness e [ft] C-Factor

Material
Surface Low High Design Low High Clean Design
welded and seamless 0.0001 0.008 0.0002 80 150 140 100
corroded 0.0005 0.0133
riveted 0.003 0.003 139 100
STEEL
Stainless 0.00005
galvanized, plain 0.0002 0.0008 0.0005
corrugated 60 60
concrete 0.001 0.01 0.004 85 152 120 100
cement 0.0013 0.004 0.003 140 160 150 140
MINERAL
vitrified clays 110
brick sewer 110
cast, plain 0.0004 0.0027 0.00085 80 150 130 100
cast, tar (asphalt)
0.0002 0.0008 0.0004 50 145 130 100
coated
IRON cast, cement lined 0.000008 0.000008 150 140
cast, bituminous lined 0.000008 0.000008 130 160 148 140
cast, centrifugally spun 0.00001 0.00001
wrought, plain 0.0001 0.0003 0.0002 80 150 130 100
fiber 150 140
copper and brass 0.000005 0.003 0.000005 120 150 140 130
wood stave 0.0006 0.003 0.002 110 145 120 110
MISC.
transite 0.000008 0.000008
lead, tin, glass 0.000005 120 150 140 130
plastic 0.000005 120 150 140 130

556
 Applications of Pumping Systems

Pump Basics

The affinity laws apply to pumps as they do to fans. To understand applications applied to pumps, it is a
good idea to review the basics of how pumps are applied in general.

Figure 1 to the right shows a pump curve relative to a

hydronic system curve. The pump curve describes the “head”
(or pressure) versus flow characteristics of a particular pump.
The curve shows that the pump will produce limited flow, at
point B, if it is applied to a system with a large differential
pressure required to lift the fluid and overcome resistance to
flow.

If most of the pump’s energy head is being used to lift the fluid
up in elevation, there is little head left over to do the work of
overcoming the resistance of the pipe when flowing.

Larger flow rates are achieved with this pump if pressure

differential is reduced as at point A. To determine where along
the pump curve the pump will operate requires information
provided by the system curve.

The system curve shows the characteristics of the piping system. It shows the piping system friction head
as it increases with flow. Friction head is the measure of resistance to flow provided by the pipe, valves,
elbows and other system components.

See the section in the manual Process Control Valves and Actuators / Understanding flow with
valve characteristics for detailed explanation of pump head and pressure drops in a system.

Static Head

The head required at zero flow is a called static head or lift.

Figure 2 shows the combined friction and static head curve for
the system. The static head is the amount of feet of elevation
the pump must lift the water regardless of flow. Another way to
look at is as the work needed to overcome gravity. The
intersection of the pump and system curves shows the natural
or design operating point for the system. At this point pump
pressure matches system losses. The intersection would
generally be chosen to ensure that the pump is operating at or
near its best efficiency.

The lower curve shows the friction loss of the system if static
head (elevation or lift) there were not required.

557
Applying Variable Frequency Drives to Pumps to Realize Savings

As with most HVAC and process systems, original pump designs may be based on worst case maximum
flow conditions for future expansion reasons, or the designer used the usual 15 to 20% over-sizing
criteria. When evaluating variable frequency drive (VDF) retrofit opportunities for energy savings, one
should look at the system and pump curves and review the existing method of modulating the flow (see
figure 1 above).

Until the future loads are connected to the system, energy needs to be reduced in the system. The
energy requirements are less, so the flow rate of energy needs to less. This means there needs to be less
flow in the piping system and there needs to be less pressure in the piping system. If the pressure is not
reduced the flow rate will still accelerate the fluid through the pipes. The only way to slow down the flow is
to install a valve in the piping and drop the pressure across the valve. The valve will burn up the excess
energy head the pump is producing. This is a costly waste of energy over the years. We can install a
variable frequency drive to lower the pump energy head and slow down the flow.

Pumps with Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)

Applying a variable frequency drive to a pump to reduce speed and therefore flow, causing the pump
curve to shift down as shown in figure 3 below. Since the operating point is still the new reduced pump
curve and the system curve, the reduced flow rate of 700 GPM from 1200 GPM is achieved as with a
valve. This flow is achieved with at a reduced pressure and reduced energy head (pump head).

Operating at reduced pressures can result in longer pump seal life, reduced impeller wear and less
system vibration and noise. Due to the affinity laws, power is greatly reduced at reduced flows thus
offering significant savings by use of a variable frequency drive.

Typical pump applications with variable frequency drive

 Chilled and Hot water Pumps

 Condenser Water Pumps
 Booster Pumps
 Pressure and Flow control
 Level Control

558
When Can you Save with a VFD?

Sometimes saving can be seen by using VFDs. The power bill is per KW per hour (KWH) of energy
usage. 746 watts equals one (1) HP for a motor or 33,000 foot-pounds a minute equals one (1) HP for a
motor. By way of the affinity laws we can see by reducing the speed of the motor in rpm, we can save a
substantial amount of energy.

3
 rpm2 
HP2  HP1  
 rpm1 
3
For a reduction in rpm to 80% of full speed, we only need 50% of the full speed HP. (HP * 0.8 ) = 0.5 HP
If only 80% of the flow rate of the pump or fan is needed, we can reduce our cost by 50% if we install a
VFD in place of a flow restriction (reducing) valve. This is perfect for oversized systems, which were
oversized for future expansion or where variable loads constantly need a lower flow rate, the pump can
run at lower speeds.

Many people think that if you reduce the speed to 80% you can save 50% on your energy cost. This may
not be true for many applications. If you slow the flow down to 80%, it will take 125% more time to fill the
tank at that flow rate. If you can wait this extra time you will save some money, but not 50%. The motor
has to run 125% longer to do the work required. 0.5 * 1.25 = 0.625%. You will be a savings of 37.5% not
50%.

But remember, if you need it there now, you need it there now and the motor speed cannot be slower.
Work is work, but by reducing the speed, we can save on the pump head used to do work across the
pipe, since the fluid flows slower through now. We also save the extra energy needed to produce the
extra head at a higher flow rate, which is an exponential function.

Don’t be confused, the head loss cannot be changed for a constant rate of flow and the work cannot be
less for the pressure drop across pipe, so you cannot reduce the horsepower of the pump. If you reduce
the horsepower by reducing the speed of the pump, you cannot achieve the flow rate you desire, it cannot
produce enough work. The only way to get around this is to increase the pipe size and reduce the head
losses in the pipe; this will give you the desired flow rate (volume) at less horsepower.

559
Sizing a Pump Head with Specific Gravity of the Pumped Fluid

As with flow and level measurements, the work that is needed to raise the fluid (give it lift), is proportional
to the weight of that fluid and the size of the motor. The work the pump motor does this in foot-pounds. If
the fluid weights less than water (it has a lower s.g.), the pump can raise the fluid higher and if the fluid
weight more than water (has a higher s.g.), the pump cannot raise the fluid as high.

As seen above the pump can produce less head to lift a light solvent with a specific gravity of 0.7 to 115.5
feet. It only needs 80.85 feet of head in water and it needs less horsepower or less speed. With brine you
will need more head in water, 138.6 feet, and more horsepower to lift the brine to an elevation of only
115.5 feet of lift.

As seen above the pump producing a constant head of 115.5 feet of water or H2O, at a constant
horsepower, will lift a light solvent much higher than that of water or brine. The solvent weights less and
requires less work, while the brine is much heavier and requires more work, therefore you will get much
less head or lift from your pump for the reference to head in water.

All pumps are purchased with the specification for head verses flow in feet of water only. For fluids other
than water. You must correct the head and flow rate for the specific gravity and viscosity of the fluid. See
the next section in this manual Useful Equations for Pumping, Piping and Sizing Valves for details on
how to do this.

560
How a Piping System Works

This was originally written by Ray Hardee, Engineered Software, Inc. creator of Pump-Flo Software. I
have modified the article for more clarity. This subsection will show the cost involved in operating a
control loop and the considerations needed in sizing the valve and elements.

Because pump systems touch many disciplines and departments within an operating plant, it is difficult for
everyone involved to clearly understand how a piping system operates. A piping system will be
discussed, including the individual items and how they work together as a total system. It will explain the
system’s operation so that everyone in the plant can visualize its function.

The figure below shows a demineralized water supply system consisting of a pump, two tanks, a water
treatment unit, pipelines and a control valve. The elements can be grouped into three general categories
based on how the energy is used in the piping system. The pump element is the only component that
adds hydraulic energy to the fluid in the system.

The process elements consist of the equipment required to create the product or provide the service.
Hydraulic energy is consumed when the fluid passes through the process element to make demineralized
water. The control valve regulates the flow rate through the system to improve the product quality and
system efficiency.

The system is designed to produce 600 gallons per minute (gpm) of demineralized water for use
throughout the plant. The figure above shows the elevations, levels and pressures in the raw water and
demineralized water tanks. The distribution piping to provide demineralized water to plant loads is not
shown because tanks and vessels make excellent locations to divide complex systems into more easily
understandable “subsystems.” The distribution system can be assessed separately. To understand how
the system operates, each element needs to be evaluated, starting with the pump.

The Piping Elements

The tanks provide a recognized system boundary and an easily determined value for the hydraulic energy
that remains fairly constant during operation. The locations, elevations and pressure of the tanks are
determined by the needs of the process along with the space constraints of the plant. In the figure above,
a 102 foot elevation difference between the liquid level in the raw water and demineralized water tanks
exists. The levels in the two tanks are controlled levels and do not change. This difference in elevation
(207 feet – 105 feet = 102 feet) must be overcome by the pump and is referred to as the elevation head.
561
In addition, a 10 psi difference in pressure between the top of the demineralized water tank and the top of
the demineralized water must be overcome. Converting the pressure value for feet of fluid results in an
additional 23 feet (10 feet * 2.3 psi/foot = 23 feet) required by the pump. This pressure in the tank referred
to as pressure head.

The elevation head and pressure head must be overcome regardless of the flow rate through the system.
As a result, the elevation head and pressure values are combined and referenced as static head. The
resulting static head for this system is 102 feet + 23 feet or 125 feet of H2O. The piping system will
require 2.6 feet of head and the water treatment plant will require 12.9 feet of head for pressure drops at
the 600 gpm flow rate of our system.

The Pump Element

The pump adds hydraulic energy to the piping system. The pump curve for the raw water pump (see the
figure below) shows the pump head, efficiency and power consumption for its range of operation. A pump
must always operate on its curve. Looking at the pump curve at a flow rate of 600 gpm, the pump
produces 209 feet of head. For this pump to achieve the flow rate of 600 gpm, the 209 feet of head
produced by the raw water pump must be accounted for in the process and control elements in the
system.

The Valve

The valve will receive the difference of the pump head and piping head + static head, which is 68.5 feet.
209 feet – (102 feet + 23 feet +2.6 feet + 12.9 feet) = 68.5 feet or 29.78 psi

Gaining a Clear Picture

The results determined that many detailed calculations were needed to understand this relatively simple
process. An electric motor is driving the pump, and the plant electrical engineer is familiar with the volts,
amps, power factor and motor efficiency needed to determine the motor power required to drive the
562
pump. The plant mechanical engineer is familiar with the pressure, head, flow and pump efficiency
required to calculate the power required by the pump. The process engineer understands the water
purification process along with the necessary pressure and flows required to make a quality product. The
plant engineer knows how much pressure and flow rate is needed by each load to meet the plant’s pure
water needs. However, a clear understanding of how the total system operates and how much this
system costs to operate and how efficiently it is operating is missing.

Using the system information calculations, the table below shows the hydraulic energy usage and
associated costs. Note the energy supplied by the pump is consumed by the process and control
elements. Notice that the differential pressure across the control valve represents approximately 33% of
the total energy developed by the pump. That appears to be a high percentage, but it is less than the 66%
consumed by the process. Those are interesting figures, but demineralized water is required for the plant
to make its products. Speaking in abstracts (feet of head), it is difficult to get a handle on what is
occurring.

Head
Element Item Cost
(feet)
Pump Process pump 209.0 $284, 400

Process Elevation head -102.0 $142,880

Pressure head -23.0 $31,300
Pipeline -2.6 $3,540
Water treatment -12.9 $17,550

Control Control valve -68.5 $93,210

Look what happens when the associated costs are considered. Using data from the pump curve, the
head, flow and efficiency of the raw water pump at 600 gpm can be determined. Then the horsepower
supplied to the pump shaft can be calculated. Using the efficiency of the electric motor, the amount of
electrical power consumed can be determined. With the pump running 8,000 hours per year (hrs/year)
and a power cost of $0.10 per kilowatt hour (kWh), the operating cost of the raw water pump is $284,400
per year. Now the energy usage for each item in the system and its associated cost can be seen.

The information in the table looks more like a balance sheet for the energy costs of the process. With this
information, everyone in the plant has a much better idea of how the system operates and the true costs
involved. With accurate cost data, management can evaluate this system like any other plant expense.
Questions can be asked and discussions started about ways to reduce operation costs and improve
system efficiency.

563
564
 Calculating Volume in Tanks
The following calculations are for obtaining the Volume of Cylindrical and Irregular Shaped Tanks.
See the section Level Measurement and Calibration for the level transmitter calibration.
This section is for information only. It will not be on the CSE exam.
Note: All measurements for calculations are in units of inches. Diameter “D” = “h” in these examples.
(Hint: multiply tank diameter “h” x % level signal to get “y”, then calculate formula)

Cylindrical Tanks Upright

y = h*s = height*0.00 to 1.00 (% of signal from transmitter)

V = (π*r 2 *y)/231 in 3
gallons

Cylindrical Tanks on Side

y = h*s = height * 0.00 to 1.00 (% of signal from transmitter)

  y 
V
gallons
= Length *  r 2 *cos -1 1-  +  2r-y  y *  y-r  / 231 in 3
  r 
-1
Important Note: The (cos ) or (arccos) or (acos) function must return radians, NOT degrees.
Note: All measurements for calculations are in units of inches.

565
Spherical Tanks

y = h*s = height * 0.00 to 1.00 (% of signal from transmitter)

1
V =   3r-y  y2 / 231 in 3
gallons 3

Bullet Tanks

y = h*s = height * 0.00 to 1.00 (% of signal from transmitter)

 
   y  1 
V =   Length * cos -1 1-  r 2 +
gallons  
 2r-y  y *  y-r 
+    3r-y  y 2   / 231 in 3
   r   3 
3
Note: All measurements are in inches. For volume in cubic feet (ft ), divide Vgallons by 7.4805
-1
Important Note: The (cos ) or (arccos) or (acos) function must return radians, NOT degrees.

Note: See the section in this manual Level Measurement and Calibration / Calculating the volume in
tanks for different end cap (tank head) calculations

566
 Examination Sample Questions

Sample Questions

1. At 433°F, a type J thermocouple with a 32°F reference junction (ice bath ) will produce an
output in millivolts that is most nearly to:

a. 9.04
b. 10.51
c. 12.05
d. 17.79

2. The flow of water in a 6-inch pipe is measured with an orifice plate and differential pressure
transmitter. At a flow rate of 200 GPM, the differential pressure is 35 inches of water. At a flow
rate of 312 GPM, the differential pressure will be approximately equal to:

a. 16.4 “ WC
b. 32.5” WC
c. 85.4” WC
d. 100” WC

3. A tank level is measured using a differential pressure transmitter and a bubbler tube. The tank is
vented to atmosphere. The bubbler tube is 1 foot from the bottom of the tank and the tank wall is
20 feet high. A 0-10 psig differential pressure gauge, accurate to .25 per cent of full scale is
connected to the bubbler tube connection at the high side of the transmitter. The low pressure
side is connected to the tank top. With the tank containing liquid with a specific gravity of 1.1 and
the level in the tank at 16 feet, the gauge reading in pounds per square inch (psi) is most nearly
equal to:

a. 4.80
b. 9.35
c. 13.00
d. 7.10

4. Which of the following practices is important in routing optic cable?

a. Laying cable in trays with high-horsepower motor wiring should be avoided.

b. Conduit fittings that require small radius bends should be avoided.
c. Overhead runs on messenger wires should be limited to 75 feet.
d. Underground fiber optic runs must be covered with concrete.

5. Compared to a control loop with no dead time (pure time delay), a control loop with an
appreciable dead time tends to require:

a. Less proportional gain and less integral action

b. More proportional gain and less integral action
c. More proportional gain and more integral action
d. Less proportional gain and more integral action

567
6. The definition and classification of hazardous areas for the purpose of wiring and electrical
equipment is found in codes published by:

a. National Fire Protection Association

b. ISA-The Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society
c. Electric Power Research Institute
d. Occupational Safety and Health Administration

7. Given the following data for liquid flow:

Flow rate: 0 to 200 gpm
Water at: 125°F and 75 psia
Pipe Size: 4 inch schedule 40

The orifice bore for a pressure differential range of 100 inches of water is most nearly equal to:

a. 2.33 inches
b. 3.50 inches
c. 1.50 inches
d. 0.75 inches

8. A control valve is to be sized for the following conditions:

Liquid flow: 50 GPM
Specific Gravity: 0.81
Inlet pressure: 240 psig
Delta pressure drop of across the valve: 10 psi

The required flow coefficient for the valve will most nearly be:

a. 10.4
b. 14.2
c. 22.0
d. 35.5

9. A control valve is to be sized for the following service conditions, Saturated steam:
Maximum flow rate: 30,000 pounds per hour
P1 (upstream pressure): 40 psia
P2 (downstream pressure): 30 psia

The required flow coefficient (Cv) for the valve will most nearly be:

a. 260
b. 540
c. 760
d. 198

568
10. The control algorithm for a flow control loop is under consideration. It is determined that the flow
must be maintained near set point with little or no offset and the signal will be rapid response and
noisy. The best choice of control modes for this loop will be:

a. Proportional mode
b. Integral plus derivative
c. Proportional plus integral
d. Proportional plus integral plus derivative

11. According to ANSI/ISA-5.1-2009, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification, the terms “record”
or “recording” can apply to which of the following:

I. Graphical data in a strip or circular chart

II. A table of numerical data in a computer memory
III. A listing of alarms by a control computer

a. I and II
b. II and III
c. I and III
d. I, II, and III

12. An orifice plate with an opening diameter of 2.324 inches is to be used to measure the flow of
water in a 4 inch, schedule 40 line. The flow rate is specified as 0 – 200 GPM at a pressure of 75
psia and a temperature of 125°F. What is the differential pressure in inches of water for the
transmitter measurement across the primary element, the head in inches of water column most
nearly equal to:

a. 98 “ WC
b. 100 “ WC
c. 110 “ WC
d. 108 “ WC

13. A SIL 1 interlock has an RRF of 42.76. The target RRF is 75. How can you increase the RRF to
meet or exceed the target RRF?

a. Add more field sensors.

b. Add dual solenoids to the one and only one block valve
c. Double the testing frequency
d. None of the above.

14. The plant has 3 pumps fail in 7 years. What is the failure rate (FR) of the pumps in hours?

a. 4.89 x 10-5
b. 4.29 x 10-1
c. 4.89 x 10-4
d. 1.14 x 10-3

15. Which of the following types of valves has the highest gain when the valve is nearly closed?
569
 a. Quick opening
b. Equal percentage
c. Fail open
d. Linear

16. Which of the following types of control systems is normally programmed in ladder logic?

a. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

b. Distributed control systems (DCSs)
c. Single loop digital controllers
d. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

17. What is the resistance of 2000 feet of copper wire (specific resistance = 10.37) given a cross
sectional area of 10370 cmil and a wire temperature of 20°C?

a. 1
b. 2
c. 10
d. 20

18. Which of the following protection techniques is acceptable for equipment located in a Class I,
Division 1 area of an industrial facility?

a. Explosion- proof apparatus and nonincendive equipment

b. Explosion-proof apparatus and intrinsically safe equipment
c. Dust ignition proof and nonincendive equipment
d. Hermetically sealed and intrinsically safe equipment

19. To minimize electrical interference when AC power and DC signal wiring meet in a control panel,
it is BEST to:

a. Use a different size wire

b. Cross the wires at 90 degrees
c. Run the wires parallel to each other
d. Twist the AC wires around the DC wires

570
20. In figure S-1, If only the open flow area (X) of the feedwater control valve increased, which of the
following best describes how the mass flow (F) would change?

Figure S-1
0.5
a. F2 = F1(X1/X2)
0.5
b. F2 = F1(X2/X1)
c. F2 = F1(X2/X1)
2
d. F2 = F1(X2/X1)

571
The following illustration is used for questions 21 through 25

Figure S-2

The following data is used for questions 21-25 , see figure S-2

Vessel Data:
Max Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP): 100 psig
Back pressure on relief valve : 5 psig
Flow rate: 150 gpm

Level Transmitter LT-1 Data:

Maximum fluid level: 10 feet (from bottom of tank)
Minimum fluid level: 1 feet (from bottom of tank)
Transmitter level: 2 feet (below minimum level)
Wet leg level: 12 feet (from bottom tank )
Wet leg (fill fluid) s.g.: 1.1
The fluid is water
Operating pressure: 80 psig
Operating temperature: 100°F

21. In figure S-2, what is the maximum vessel pressure (in psig) allowed by ASME Code Section VIII
when only PSV-1 is in service and relieving?

a. 100
b. 110
c. 120
d. 130

572
22. In figure S-2, what is the maximum vessel pressure (in psig) allowed by ASME Code Section VIII
when both PSV-1 and PSV-2 are in service and relieving?

a. 100
b. 116
c. 110
d. 120

23. In figure S-2, what is the calibration range for the level transmitter LT-1?
LVR (lower range value) to URV (upper range value) in inches of water.

a. -145.2 to –37.78
b. -145.2 to -37.2
c. -147.73 to -40.31
d. -147.6 to -39.6

24. In figure S-2, what is the orifice size of PSV-1 when only PSV-1 is in service and relieving?

a. G
b. E
c. F
d. H

25. In figure S-2, what is the span for the level transmitter LT-1 in inches of water?

a. 108
b. 107.42
c. 132
d. 131.29

26. A SIL 3 interlock with a RRF = 1250, is required to mitigate a Category I hazard to Category III. If
the covert failure rates of the SIS loop components are as follows, recommend a test frequency:
–5
Inputs = 1.0 x 10 /per hr
–10
Logic solver = 7.0 x 10 /per hr
–5
Valves = 3.0 x 10 /per hr

a. Once every 40 hours

b. Once every 80 hours
c. Once every 336 hours
d. Once every 600 hours

573
Answers to Examination Sample Questions

1. C
2. C
3. D
4. B
5. D
6. A
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. C
11. D
12. B
13. C
14. C
15. A
16. A
17. B
18. B
19. B
20. C
21. B
22. B
23. C
24. D
25. B
26. A

574
Explanations and Proofs of Examination Sample Questions

1. The correct answer is “C”:

Find the nearest temperature for 433 F⁰ in Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) in the
appendix of this guide.

The nearest temperature in the first column is 430. Look at the column headers at the bottom of
the chart. Find the column header labeled 3. Follow the column up to the row with the 430 value.
Where they meet is a total of 430°F + 3ºF = (433°F).

Read the value of mV. The answer is: 12.044 mV

The best answer is C = 12.05

2. The correct answer is “C”:

The change in head measurement can be defined as a ratio of the change in flow rate squared:
F 
2

h1 F  h2 F1
2
2 2
h2   2  h1
 F1 
2
 312 gpm 
85.176 inches    35 inches
 200 gpm 

The new head measurement for a flow rate of 312 gpm is: 85.175 inches of water

The best answer is C = 85.4” WC

3. The correct answer is “D”:

The bubbler measures the water column excerpting pressure back on it. The level in the tank is
16 feet. The end of the bubbler tube is 1 foot from the bottom of the tank. The head being
measured is 16-1 feet = 15 feet. The head is multiplied by the specific gravity (s.g.), then divided
by 2.3 feet per psi:

15 feet *1.1s.g .
7.1739 psi 
 feet 
 2.3 
 psi 

The best answer is D = 7.10

575
4. The correct answer is “B”:

Acceptable A. Electromagnetic fields from cables in trays do not affect optical cables.
Not Acceptable B. Small radius bends can cause the cable to crack or break.
Acceptable C. Overhead runs on messenger wires should be limited to 75 feet.
Acceptable D. Underground fiber optic runs must be covered with concrete.

The best answer is B = Conduit fittings that require small radius bends should be avoided

5. The correct answer is “D”:

Less proportional gain and less integral action should be chosen for the examination. It was
stated that the control loop has a large dead time.
Note: Looking at the Cohen–Coon tuning methods for a PI controller, it can be seen that a larger
the dead time in the equation gives a smaller controller gain and the larger integral time.

1 9    30  3  /  

KC     TI 
K P   10 12  9  20  /  

Note: Looking at the Ziegler–Nichols tuning methods for a PI controller, it can be seen that a
larger the dead time in the equation gives a smaller controller gain and the larger integral time.

0.9 TD
KC  TI 
K PTD 0.3

The best answer is D = Less proportional gain and more integral action

6. The correct answer is “A”:

The correct answer is: National Fire Protection Association

The NFPA 70 – NEC (national electrical code) is adopted into state law by most cities.
The NFPA 496 covers the installation of electrical system in hazardous locations.
The NFPA 79 covers the installation of electrical system for industrial machinery.

The best answer is A = National Fire Protection Association

576
 7. The correct answer is “A”:

First find the data needed for the calculation.

From Table A6 - Properties of Water the s.g. of water at 125⁰F = ?

Temp - s.g.
120⁰F = 0.9901
125⁰ F = ?
130⁰F = 0.9872
 125 -120  
0.98865  ( s.g .)     0.9872  0.9901   0.9901
 130  120  

From Table A15. Standard Pipe Dimensions and Data the internal diameter of 4 inch
schedule 40 pipe = 4.026 inches.

The equation for liquid flow through an orifice is:

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf

Solve for (S) the Spink factor, to find the orifice beta from Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S).

S .G. * gpm
S ( spink ) 
5.667 * D 2 * h

0.98865 * 200
0.2165 
5.667 * 4.0262 * 100

From Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S) the beta is as follows:

Beta - Spink factor
0.575 = 0.2144
? = 0.2165
0.600 = 0.2369

 0.2165 - 0.2144  
0.5773  (beta )     0.600  0.575    0.575
 0.2369  0.2144  

Find the orifice hole diameter:

d = Beta  pipe ID = hole size
d  0.5773  4.026  2.324inches

The best answer is A = 2.33 inches

8. The correct answer is “B”:

The equation for flow through a valve for liquid is:

P
gpm  CV
S .G.

577
 Solve for Cv in the equation:

S .G. * gpm
CV 
P

0.81 *50
14.23 
10

The best answer is B = 14.2

9. The correct answer is “B”:

The equation for flow through a valve for steam is:

w   N1 N6 FpCvY  xP1 1 ; Note : N1  always equal to 1 for psia, N6  63.3

Set Fp = 1 and Y = 1, the pipe size was not given.

From Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam we can find the specific volume of the steam at
3
a pressure of 40 psia equals 10.498 ft /lb

1 lb
 1 =Specific weight is the reciprocal of specific volume  3
 ft / lb  ft
3

1 1 lb
 1 =Specific weight is the reciprocal of specific volume   0.09526 3
 ft / lb 
3
10.498 ft
P 10
0.25  x  
P 40

Find CV:
w (in lb / h) 30,000
Cv    485.58
63.3FpY xP1 1 63.311  0.25 50 0.09526
The best answer is B = 540

10. The correct answer is “C”:

The control loop is noisy. This means that there may be quick changes in the process variable
(PV). The derivative mode will provide quick changes in the manipulated variable (MV), due to
extreme changes in the error signal (e). This may cause the system to oscillate.

MV = e * Kc

e = SP- PV

The best mode for this type of control is proportional and integral modes only (PI).

The best answer is C = Proportional plus integral

578
 11. The correct answer is “D”:
All of the following types of data can be recorded by the process control system, a DCS, PLC,
SCADA, or DDC system.

I. Graphical data in a strip or circular chart

II. A table of numerical data in a computer memory
III. A listing of alarms by a control computer

The best answer is D = I, II, and III

12. The correct answer is “B”:

First find the data needed for the calculation.

From Table A6 - Properties of Water the s.g. of water at 125⁰F = ?

Temp - s.g.
120⁰F = 0.9901
125⁰ F = ?
130⁰F = 0.9872
 125 -120  
0.98865  ( s.g .)     0.9872  0.9901   0.9901
 130  120  

From Table A15 - Standard Pipe Dimensions and Data the internal diameter of 4-inch
schedule 40 pipe = 4.026 inches.

The equation for liquid flow through an orifice is:

h
Q( gpm)  5.667 SD 2
Gf

Find the beta ratio of the orifice:

2.324
0.5772 
4.026

Solve for (S) the Spink factor, to find the orifice beta from Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S).

From Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S) the beta is as follows:

Beta - Spink
0.575 = 0.2144
0.5772 = ?
0.600 = 0.2369

 0.5772  0.575  
0.2163  ( spink )     0.2369  0.2144    0.2144
 0.600  0.575  

Solve for the head in inches water column:

s.g. * Q( gpm)
h
5.667 SD 2

579
 2
 s.g. * Q( gpm) 
h
 5.667 SD 2 
 
2
 0.9887 * 200 
100.19   2 

 5.667  0.2163 4.026 

The best answer is B = 100 “ WC

13. The correct answer is “C”:

The RRF (risk reduction factor) is inversely related to the PFD (probability of failure on demand).
We will substitute the formula for PFD to derive the RRF.

Calculating PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand)

1 ( system FR)(Test interval)

PFD  or
RRF 2
It can be seen by increasing the testing frequency or testing interval, the time between tests
becomes smaller.

The best answer is C = Double the testing frequency

14. The correct answer is “C”:

number of failures
Failure Rate (FR) 
total time (hours or years)
Note: 1 year = 8,760 hours

MTTF (is normally expressed in years): 10 years

3 failures in 7 years is
3 failure * 10 years 30
Failure Rate (FR)    4.89 x10-4 / hr
7 years * 8,760 hours 61,320 hours

The best answer is C = 4.89 x 10-4 / hr

15. The correct answer is “A”:

It can be seen from the graph below, that the quick opening valve has the largest gain
with flow verses stem (spindle) travel for percent of open signal. The same is true for Cv
verses stem (spindle) travel for percent of open signal.

580
 The best answer is A = Quick opening

16. The correct answer is “A”:

The PLC (programmable logic controller) is typically the only controller programmed in RLL (relay
ladder logic).

The best answer is A = Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

17. The correct answer is “B”:


k = 10.37; the specific resistance of copper for, 1 cm of one foot in length (for 20 C )

cm = circular mils of copper

581
  kL
R 
 cm 

 10.37  2000 
2 
 10370 

The best answer is B = 2

18. The correct answer is “B”:

Although (explosion- proof apparatus and nonincendive equipment) is listed in NEC article 500, it
only applies to Class I Division 2 installations. Intrinsically Safe equipment can be used in any
Class and Division. The industrial standard for this application is intrinsically safe equipment.

The best answer is B = Explosion-proof apparatus and intrinsically safe equipment

19. The correct answer is “B”:

To reduce the effect of electromagnetic induction, also known as transformer action, in wires it is
necessary to separate the wires with a steel barrier. This is not always possible. By crossing the
wires at 90 degree angles when intersecting other wires, the magnetic field around the conductor
cannot induce a voltage into the other conductor.

The best answer is B = Cross the wires at 90 degrees

20. The correct answer is “C”:

The flow of the mass is proportional to the area multiplied by the velocity.

F1  V1 A1 and F2  V2 A2
F1 F
 V1 and 2  V2
A1 A2

If the velocity was constant:

F1 F2

A1 A2
A 
F2  F1  2 
 A1 

The best answer is C = F2 = F1(X2/X1)

582
 21. The correct answer is “B”:

The ASME VIII Code requires that when a pressure relieving device is used as the primary relief
device, it must be sized to prevent the pressure from rising above 110% of the MAWP (UG-
125(c)).

110( psig )  100( psig ) *1.10  allowable over pressure

The best answer is B = 110

22. The correct answer is “B”:

The ASME VIII Code requires that when a pressure relieving is used as the as a secondary relief
device or as multiple relief devices, the size must prevent the pressure from rising above 116%
of the MAWP (UG-125(c)(1)).

116( psig )  100( psig ) *1.16  allowable over pressure

The best answer is B = 116

23. The correct answer is “C”:

From Table A6 - Properties of Water the s.g. of water at 100⁰F is 0.9946

The transmitter maximum high side will be maximum vessel level height – lowest vessel level
height plus the transmitter height to the lower vessel line tap, multiplied by the specific gravity of
the water at 100⁰.

{(10feet-1foot)tank +(2 feet)transmitter }*0.9946

h(inches)  9 feet  vessel   2 feet  transmitter  *12inches  * 0.9946  s.g.

131.287  inches   11 feet *12inches  * 0.9946

The transmitter minimum high side will be lowest vessel level height plus the transmitter height to
vessel line tap, multiplied by the specific gravity of the water at 220⁰.

h(inches)  0 feet  vessel   2 feet  transmitter  *12inches  * 0.9946  s.g.

23.87  inches    2 feet *12inches  * 0.9946

The transmitter low side will be lowest vessel level height, plus wet leg height, plus the transmitter
height to the upper vessel line tap, multiplied by the specific gravity of the wet leg fluid with a
(s.g.) of 1.1.

h(inches)  12  1 feet  vessel   2 feet  transmitter  *12inches  *1.1 s.g.

171.60  inches   13 feet *12inches  *1.1

The lower range valve for the transmitter (LRV) is:

high side  low side
147.73( LRV inches )  23.87  high side inches   171.6(low side inches)

583
 The upper range valve for the transmitter (URV) is:
high side  low side
 40.313( LRV inches )  131.287  high side inches   171.6(low side inches)

The transmitter calibration is -147.73 to -40.313 inches of water.

The span of the transmitter is abs (-147.73) – abs(-40.31) = 107.42 inches or (8.95 feet)

Remember to set the elevate switch or variable in the transmitter.

The best answer is C = -147.73 to -40.31

24. The correct answer is “D”:

We will size a pressure relief valve for the following service, LIQUID. Size the orifice for the
following criteria. Application: (Primary Relief).

From Table A6 - Properties of Water the S.G. of water at 100⁰ is 0.9946

Use 10% over-pressure as permitted by ASME code. P1 = (1.10)MAWP + 14.7

K = 0.67
Kv = 1 (except for very viscous applications)
Ku = 38 for gpm application
P1 = (1.1)(100) + 14.7 = 124.7
P2 = 5 + 14.7 = atmospheric pressure

Q S .G. 150 0.9946

A   0.573in2
Ku KKv P1  P2 (38)  0.67 1 124.7  19.7

Use TABLE 5 – ASME STANDARD NOZZLE ORIFICE DATA to find the orifice size for the relief
valve.

2
G = 0.503 in
2
H = 0.785 in

The best answer is D = “H”

25. The correct answer is “B”:

From Table A6 - Properties of Water the s.g. of water at 100⁰F is 0.9946

The span of the vessel is:

span(inches )  10 feet maximum level - 1 foot minimum level  *12inches  * S .G
107.42(inches )  9feet *12inches  * 0.9946

The span of the level measurement in the vessel is: 103.31 inches or (8.61 feet)

The best answer is B = 107.42

The correct answer is “A”:

26. The equations used are as follows:

number of failures
Failure Rate (FR) 
total time (hours or years)

584
 1 ( system FR)(Test interval)
PFD  or
RRF 2

FR= Failure Rate (Dangerous)

TI = Proof Test Interval

The PFDAVG can be calculated for each component of the system (e.g., S – Sensor, LS –
Logic Solver and FE – Final Element) and then summed together.

1 FR S (TI ) FR LS (TI ) FR FE (TI )

PFDAVG  or  
RRFAVG 2 2 2

PFDAVG 
1
or
 FR S +FR LS +FR FE  *TI
RRFAVG 2

8.0*10-4  PFDAVG  
1
or
1.0*10-5 +7.0*10-10 +3.0*10-5 *TI
1250  RRFAVG  2

 2 1.0*10 -5
+0.00007*10-5 +3.0*10-5  *TI  2
 2  8.0*10 -4
 or *
1250 1  2

1.6*10-3  1.0*10-5 +0.00007*10-5 +3.0*10-5 *TI

160*10-5
T
1.0*10-5 +0.00007*10-5 +3.0*10-5  I
160*10-5
 40 hours
4.00007*10-5

The best answer is A = Once every 40 hours

585
586
 Preparing this Guide for the Exam

An Avery tab template is included with this guide

I have already included an Avery tab template for what I feel are important subject and reference material
need for passing the CSE examination. You will use Microsoft Word to print the tabs. You may of course
modify the tabs or add or remove to your preference. The tab for use of the template included in the
attachments is:

Avery® Printable Self-Adhesive Tabs 16281, 96 Tabs, 1-1/4" x 1"

http://www.avery.com/

Suggested tabbing the guide

Subject Title Page

Temperature Measurement and Calibration ........................................................................ 57

Pressure Measurement and Calibration .............................................................................. 65

Pressure change in a pipe or element .................................................................... 67

Level Measurement and Calibration .................................................................................... 69

Flow Measurement and Calibration ..................................................................................... 83

Flow meter applications chart ................................................................................. 84
The basic Spink equations ...................................................................................... 97
Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S) ............................................................................. 100

Weight Measurement and Calibration ................................................................................ 119

Process Analyzers ............................................................................................................. 121

Process Control Valves and Actuators .............................................................................. 129

Control valve application comparison chart .......................................................... 139
The Valve Sizing Equations .................................................................................. 151
Sizing Valves for Liquid ......................................................................................... 153
Sizing Valves for Gas ............................................................................................ 155
Sizing Valves for Vapor or Steam ......................................................................... 158
Sizing Valves for Two Phase Flow ........................................................................ 161
ΔP Valve Limitations - Very Important! ................................................................. 165

Sizing Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks ............................................................. 177

ASME VIII – Pressure relief requirements ............................................................ 193
Table 5 - ASME standard nozzle orifice data........................................................ 196
ASME VIII code equations USCS units ................................................................ 198

Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning ................................................................. 223

587
 Example of Filter Time Selection .......................................................................... 232
Closed Loop - Controller Tuning ........................................................................... 234
Open Loop - Controller Tuning ............................................................................. 236
Integral Criteria Method (Integrated Error) ............................................................ 239
Block Diagram Algebra ......................................................................................... 248

Communications and Industrial Control Networks ............................................................. 257

The Network Essentials ........................................................................................ 263

The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems .......................................................... 281

ISA Binary Logic .................................................................................................... 283
Relay ladder Logic ................................................................................................ 284

Motor Control and Logic Functions .................................................................................... 297

NEMA and IEC Terminal Designations ................................................................. 301
NEMA and IEC Comparisons .............................................................................. 305

The Application of Analog Circuits in Control Systems ...................................................... 313

Designing a Current loop System ........................................................................ 317

Overview of Motion Controller Applications ....................................................................... 325

Electrical Systems and Power Quality ............................................................................... 337

Hydraulics and Pneumatics................................................................................................ 353

Fluid Power Schematic Symbols ....................................................................................... 363

Overview of Conveying Technologies ................................................................................ 371

Chemical Processes Technology and Equipment ............................................................. 383

ISA Standards for Documentation ..................................................................................... 421

Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems ........................................................................ 443

Types of Voting (X out of X) .................................................................................. 454
SIS and SIL Worked examples ............................................................................. 464

Overview of NEC / NFPA and Other Codes ...................................................................... 469

CFR (Federal Government) Public Safety Standards ........................................... 469
List of NFPA codes (be familiar with these codes) .............................................. 469
Voltage Drop Calculations .................................................................................... 473
Explosion Proof Installations (NEC Article 500 Hazardous Locations) ................. 476
Electrical Enclosures Types and Uses .................................................................. 496

Putting it All Together ......................................................................................................... 549

Useful Equations for Pumping, Piping and Sizing Valves.................................................. 549

Appendix and Data Tables ................................................................................................. 593

Table A10 – Valve Selection-Material and Applications ....................................... 611
Table A11 – Valve Cv and Coefficients ................................................................ 625
Table A15 – Pipe Standard Dimension ................................................................. 631
Table A16 – NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16 .................................................... 633
Table A17 – NEC Conductor Properties and Impedance ..................................... 634
Table A18 – NEC Full Load Motor Currents ......................................................... 637
Table A26 – Metric Conversions Table ................................................................. 655
Table A28 – Head Loss in Piping Systems ........................................................... 658

588
 Guide to Using the Fisher Control Valve Handbook
The Fisher Control Valve Handbook, is a supplement with many worked examples.

Purchasing this book or printing it out is highly recommended.

The FCVH can help aid in study for the CSE examination. The information and tables in the Fisher
Control Valve Handbook will be constantly referenced. I have repeated the most common data from the
book needed for the CSE examination. The book is not required but is recommended and may be
downloaded in PDF format from the Fisher Controls public website at the following address:

http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.com/groups/public/documents/book/cvh99.pdf

If you wish to obtain a hard copy of the handbook, the FCVH can be acquired for free from your local
instrumentation supplier, or for about $20. The book is also available from Brown’s Technical Book Shop,
1517 San Jacinto, Houston, Texas, 77002. http://www.browntechnical.org

I suggest tabbing the FCVH for quick reference

Import Sections and Pages in the FCVH

Important Sections to Review

Chapter 3 – Valve and Actuator Types ................................................................................ 41

Chapter 5 – USA Regulatory Requirement for Fugitive Emissions ..................................... 53
Chapter 5 – Control Valve Selection (and sizing) ................................................................ 75

Important Pages to Tab

Valve and materials Selection

Chart for Test Frequency for Valves Leaking 500 ppm ....................................................... 54
Sliding Stem Valve Environmental Packing Selection ......................................................... 57
Rotary Valve Environmental Packing Selection ................................................................... 57
Designations for the High Nickel Alloys ............................................................................... 77
Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Standard Class ............................................................. 78
Cast Carbon Steel (ASTM A216 Grade WCC) ................................................................. 78
Cast Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (ASTM A217 Grade WC9) ....................................... 79
Cast Chromium-Molybdenum Steel (ASTM A217 Grade C5) .......................................... 80
Cast Type 304L Stainless Steel (ASTM A351 Grade CF3) .............................................. 81
Cast Type 316 Stainless Steel (ASTM A351 Grade CF8M) ............................................. 82
Cast Type 317 Stainless Steel (ASTM A479 Grade UNS S31700) ................................. 82
Cast Iron (ASTM A126)..................................................................................................... 84
Cast Bronze Valves (ASTM B61 and B62) ....................................................................... 85
Valve Trim Material Temperature Limits .............................................................................. 94
Ambient Temperature Corrosion information ...................................................................... 96
Elastomer Information ........................................................................................................ 101

(Selection of a suitable elastomer material for use in control valve applications requires knowledge of the
service conditions in which the material will be used, as well as knowledge of the general properties of the
material itself. Service temperature, pressure, rate of flow, type of valve action (throttling or on−off), and
chemical composition of the fluid should all be known. Usage ratings listed below (Excellent, VG=Very

589
Good, Good, Fair, Poor, VP=Very Poor) should be used as a guide only. Specific compounds within any
one material may vary, which could change the usage ratings.)

Fluid Compatibility ............................................................................................................. 104

(This table rates and compares the compatibility of elastomer material with specific fluids. Note that this
information should be used as a guide only. An elastomer which is compatible with a fluid may not be
suitable over the entire range of its temperature capability. In general, chemical compatibility decreases
with an increase in service temperature.
KEY: A+=Best Possible Selection A=Generally Compatible B=Marginally Compatible C=Not
Recommended −=no data
NOTE: These recommendations are to be used as a general guide only. Full details regarding pressure,
temperature, chemical considerations, and the mode of operation must be considered when selecting an
elastomer.)

Application of Valves for Liquid Level Systems ................................................................ 109

Application of Valves for Flow Control Processes ............................................................. 110

Actuator Sizing Methods

Typical Packing Friction Values ......................................................................................... 132
Actuator Force Calculations ............................................................................................... 133
Typical Rotary Shaft Valve Torque Factors (V−Notch Ball Valve) ..................................... 134
Typical Rotary Shaft Valve Torque Factors (High Performance Butterfly Valve) .............. 134
Packing Selection Guidelines for Sliding-Stem Valves (100 ppm) .................................... 145
Packing Selection Guidelines for Rotary Valves (500 ppm) .............................................. 145

Valve Sizing Methods

Valve Sizing Procedure ...................................................................................................... 110
Abbreviations and Terminology.......................................................................................... 112
Equation Constants ............................................................................................................ 113
Determining qmax (the Maximum Flow Rate) .................................................................... 114
Determining Pmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop) ................................................. 114
Liquid Sizing Sample Problem ........................................................................................... 117
Sizing Valves for Compressible Fluids ............................................................................... 119
Sizing Coefficients (Cv, Xt) for Single-Ported Globe Valve Bodies .................................. 126
Sizing Coefficients (Cv, Xt) for Rotary-Shaft Valve Bodies ................................................ 127
Actuator Sizing ................................................................................................................... 129

Electrical Apparatus
NEMA Enclosure Ratings and Definitions .......................................................................... 181
Hazardous Location Classification ..................................................................................... 186
IEC Temperature Codes (Temperature Ratings) ............................................................... 187
NEMA and IEC Enclosure Rating Comparison .................................................................. 187

Engineering Data
Standard Specifications for Valve Materials (Temperature Range and Harness) ............. 191
Valve Materials Properties for Pressure ............................................................................ 197
Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons ................................................................................. 200
Specific Heat Ratio (k) ....................................................................................................... 202
Physical Constants of Various Fluids ................................................................................. 203
Properties of Water ........................................................................................................... 211
Properties of Saturated Steam ........................................................................................... 212
Properties of Superheated Steam ...................................................................................... 219

Piping System Applications

Velocity of Liquids in Pipe .................................................................................................. 226
Flow of Water through Schedule 40 pipe .......................................................................... 228

590
Flow of Air through Schedule 40 pipe ................................................................................ 232
Calculations for Pipe Other than Schedule 40 ................................................................... 232
Flow Correction Formulas for Steam, Vapor, Temperature and Pressure ........................ 236
Pipe Data – Carbon and Alloy Steel – Stainless Steel ...................................................... 238

Conversions and Equivalents

Length Equivalents ............................................................................................................. 263
Whole Inch−Millimeter Equivalents .................................................................................... 263
Fractional Inches to Millimeters ......................................................................................... 264
Area Equivalents ................................................................................................................ 266
Volume Equivalents ........................................................................................................... 266
Volume Rate Equivalents ................................................................................................... 266
Mass Conversion—Pounds to Kilograms .......................................................................... 267
Pressure Equivalents ......................................................................................................... 268
Temperature Conversions.................................................................................................. 269

591
592
 Appendix and Data Tables

Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) Pg. 594

Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) Pg. 596
Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E) Pg. 599
Table A4 - Thermocouple Table (Type T) Pg. 601
Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms Pg. 602
Table A6 - Properties of Water Specific Gravity and LBs/HR to GPM Pg. 603
Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density Pg. 604
Table A8 - Properties of Water Kinematic Viscosity centistokes Pg. 605
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam Pg. 606
Table A10 - Valve Selection – Materials and Applications Pg. 611
Valve Terms Pg. 611
Selecting your Valve Pg. 611
Valve Types and Descriptions Pg. 612
Valve Selection Overview - Service Application Chart Pg. 614
Valve Selection Detailed - Service Application Chart Pg. 615
Valve Types - Advantages and Disadvantages Pg. 616
Standard Control Valve Body Materials Pg. 617
Valve Seat Leakage Bubbles per Minute Pg. 619
Valve Trim Material Temperature Limits Pg. 620
Valve Service Temperature Limits for Non-Metallic Materials Pg. 621
Valve Stem Packing Friction Values (Typical) Pg. 622
Valve Stem Packing Temperature - Pressure Pg. 622
Valve Seating Shutoff Pressure Pg. 623
Abbreviations and Terminology Pg. 624
Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients for Globe Valves Pg. 625
Table A12 - Properties and Sizing Coefficients for Rotary Valves Pg. 628
Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Control Valve Sizing Formulas Pg. 629
Table A14 - Critical Pressure & Temperature of Elements Pg. 630
Table A15 - Standard Pipe Dimensions and Data Pg. 631
Table A16 - NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16 Pg. 633
Table A17 - NEC Conductor Properties and Impedance Pg. 634
Table A18 - NEC Full Load Motor Currents Pg. 637
Table A19 - NEC Grounding & Bonding Conductors Pg. 638
Table A20 - Specific Gravity and Gas Constants for Some Common Gases Pg. 639
Table A21 - Specific Gravity Common Fluids Pg. 641
Table A22 - The kinematic viscosity common fluids Pg. 644
Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids Pg. 651
Table A24 - The absolute viscosity common gases Pg. 653
Table A25 - Density of Element in English and Metric Units Pg. 654
Table A26 - Metric Conversions Tables Pg. 655
Table A27 - Standard Conditions and Gas Laws Pg. 657
Table A28 - Head Loss in Piping Systems Pg. 658
Table A29 – Maximal Flow Velocity in Pipes Pg. 659
Table A30 – Pressure Vapor Chart of Common Liquids Pg. 660
References Pg. 661

593
 Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J)

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
-340 -8.095 -8.085 -8.074 -8.063 -8.052 -8.041 -8.030 -340 300 7.949 7.979 8.010 8.041 8.071 8.102 8.133 8.163 8.194 8.225 8.255 300
-330 -8.030 -8.019 -8.008 -7.996 -7.985 -7.973 -7.962 -7.950 -7.938 -7.927 -7.915 -330 310 8.255 8.286 8.317 8.347 8.378 8.409 8.439 8.470 8.501 8.532 8.562 310
-320 -7.915 -7.903 -7.890 -7.878 -7.866 -7.854 -7.841 -7.829 -7.816 -7.804 -7.791 -320 320 8.562 8.593 8.624 8.654 8.685 8.716 8.747 8.777 8.808 8.839 8.869 320
-310 -7.791 -7.778 -7.765 -7.752 -7.739 -7.726 -7.713 -7.699 -7.686 -7.672 -7.659 -310 330 8.869 8.900 8.931 8.962 8.992 9.023 9.054 9.085 9.115 9.146 9.177 330
-300 -7.659 -7.645 -7.632 -7.618 -7.604 -7.590 -7.576 -7.562 -7.548 -7.534 -7.519 -300 340 9.177 9.208 9.238 9.269 9.300 9.331 9.362 9.392 9.423 9.454 9.485 340
-290 -7.519 -7.505 -7.491 -7.476 -7.462 -7.447 -7.432 -7.417 -7.403 -7.388 -7.373 -290 350 9.485 9.515 9.546 9.577 9.608 9.639 9.669 9.700 9.731 9.762 9.793 350
-280 -7.373 -7.357 -7.342 -7.327 -7.312 -7.296 -7.281 -7.265 -7.250 -7.234 -7.219 -280 360 9.793 9.823 9.854 9.885 9.916 9.947 9.977 10.008 10.039 10.070 10.101 360
-270 -7.219 -7.203 -7.187 -7.171 -7.155 -7.139 -7.123 -7.107 -7.090 -7.074 -7.058 -270 370 10.101 10.131 10.162 10.193 10.224 10.255 10.285 10.316 10.347 10.378 10.409 370
-260 -7.058 -7.041 -7.025 -7.008 -6.991 -6.975 -6.958 -6.941 -6.924 -6.907 -6.890 -260 380 10.409 10.440 10.470 10.501 10.532 10.563 10.594 10.625 10.655 10.686 10.717 380
-250 -6.890 -6.873 -6.856 -6.839 -6.821 -6.804 -6.787 -6.769 -6.752 -6.734 -6.716 -250 390 10.717 10.748 10.779 10.810 10.840 10.871 10.902 10.933 10.964 10.995 11.025 390
-240 -6.716 -6.699 -6.681 -6.663 -6.645 -6.627 -6.609 -6.591 -6.573 -6.555 -6.536 -240 400 11.025 11.056 11.087 11.118 11.149 11.180 11.211 11.241 11.272 11.303 11.334 400
-230 -6.536 -6.518 -6.500 -6.481 -6.463 -6.444 -6.426 -6.407 -6.388 -6.370 -6.351 -230 410 11.334 11.365 11.396 11.426 11.457 11.488 11.519 11.550 11.581 11.612 11.642 410
-220 -6.351 -6.332 -6.313 -6.294 -6.275 -6.256 -6.236 -6.217 -6.198 -6.179 -6.159 -220 420 11.642 11.673 11.704 11.735 11.766 11.797 11.828 11.858 11.889 11.920 11.951 420
-210 -6.159 -6.140 -6.120 -6.101 -6.081 -6.061 -6.042 -6.022 -6.002 -5.982 -5.962 -210 430 11.951 11.982 12.013 12.044 12.074 12.105 12.136 12.167 12.198 12.229 12.260 430
-200 -5.962 -5.942 -5.922 -5.902 -5.882 -5.862 -5.842 -5.821 -5.801 -5.781 -5.760 -200 440 12.260 12.290 12.321 12.352 12.383 12.414 12.445 12.476 12.506 12.537 12.568 440
-190 -5.760 -5.740 -5.719 -5.699 -5.678 -5.657 -5.637 -5.616 -5.595 -5.574 -5.553 -190 450 12.568 12.599 12.630 12.661 12.691 12.722 12.753 12.784 12.815 12.846 12.877 450
-180 -5.553 -5.532 -5.511 -5.490 -5.469 -5.448 -5.426 -5.405 -5.384 -5.363 -5.341 -180 460 12.877 12.907 12.938 12.969 13.000 13.031 13.062 13.093 13.123 13.154 13.185 460
-170 -5.341 -5.320 -5.298 -5.277 -5.255 -5.233 -5.212 -5.190 -5.168 -5.146 -5.125 -170 470 13.185 13.216 13.247 13.278 13.308 13.339 13.370 13.401 13.432 13.463 13.494 470
-160 -5.125 -5.103 -5.081 -5.059 -5.037 -5.015 -4.992 -4.970 -4.948 -4.926 -4.903 -160 480 13.494 13.524 13.555 13.586 13.617 13.648 13.679 13.709 13.740 13.771 13.802 480
-150 -4.903 -4.881 -4.859 -4.836 -4.814 -4.791 -4.769 -4.746 -4.724 -4.701 -4.678 -150 490 13.802 13.833 13.864 13.894 13.925 13.956 13.987 14.018 14.049 14.079 14.110 490
-140 -4.678 -4.655 -4.633 -4.610 -4.587 -4.564 -4.541 -4.518 -4.495 -4.472 -4.449 -140 500 14.110 14.141 14.172 14.203 14.233 14.264 14.295 14.326 14.357 14.388 14.418 500
-130 -4.449 -4.425 -4.402 -4.379 -4.356 -4.332 -4.309 -4.286 -4.262 -4.239 -4.215 -130 510 14.418 14.449 14.480 14.511 14.542 14.573 14.603 14.634 14.665 14.696 14.727 510
-120 -4.215 -4.192 -4.168 -4.144 -4.121 -4.097 -4.073 -4.050 -4.026 -4.002 -3.978 -120 520 14.727 14.757 14.788 14.819 14.850 14.881 14.911 14.942 14.973 15.004 15.035 520
-110 -3.978 -3.954 -3.930 -3.906 -3.882 -3.858 -3.834 -3.810 -3.786 -3.761 -3.737 -110 530 15.035 15.065 15.096 15.127 15.158 15.189 15.219 15.250 15.281 15.312 15.343 530
-100 -3.737 -3.713 -3.688 -3.664 -3.640 -3.615 -3.591 -3.566 -3.542 -3.517 -3.493 -100 540 15.343 15.373 15.404 15.435 15.466 15.496 15.527 15.558 15.589 15.620 15.650 540
-90 -3.493 -3.468 -3.443 -3.419 -3.394 -3.369 -3.344 -3.320 -3.295 -3.270 -3.245 -90 550 15.650 15.681 15.712 15.743 15.773 15.804 15.835 15.866 15.897 15.927 15.958 550
-80 -3.245 -3.220 -3.195 -3.170 -3.145 -3.120 -3.095 -3.070 -3.044 -3.019 -2.994 -80 560 15.958 15.989 16.020 16.050 16.081 16.112 16.143 16.173 16.204 16.235 16.266 560
-70 -2.994 -2.969 -2.943 -2.918 -2.893 -2.867 -2.842 -2.817 -2.791 -2.766 -2.740 -70 570 16.266 16.296 16.327 16.358 16.389 16.419 16.450 16.481 16.512 16.542 16.573 570
-60 -2.740 -2.714 -2.689 -2.663 -2.638 -2.612 -2.586 -2.560 -2.535 -2.509 -2.483 -60 580 16.573 16.604 16.635 16.665 16.696 16.727 16.758 16.788 16.819 16.850 16.881 580
- 50 -2.483 -2.457 -2.431 -2.405 -2.379 -2.353 -2.327 -2.301 -2.275 -2.249 -2.223 -50 590 16.881 16.911 16.942 16.973 17.003 17.034 17.065 17.096 17.126 17.157 17.188 590
-40 -2.223 -2.197 -2.171 -2.145 -2.118 -2.092 -2.066 -2.040 -2.013 -1.987 -1.961 -40 600 17.188 17.219 17.249 17.280 17.311 17.341 17.372 17.403 17.434 17.464 17.495 600
-30 -1.961 -1.934 -1.908 -1.881 -1.855 -1.828 -1.802 -1.775 -1.749 -1.722 -1.695 -30 610 17.495 17.526 17.556 17.587 17.618 17.649 17.679 17.710 17.741 17.771 17.802 610
-20 -1.695 -1.669 -1.642 -1.615 -1.589 -1.562 -1.535 -1.508 -1.482 -1.455 -1.428 -20 620 17.802 17.833 17.863 17.894 17.925 17.955 17.986 18.017 18.048 18.078 18.109 620
-10 -1.428 -1.401 -1.374 -1.347 -1.320 -1.293 -1.266 -1.239 -1.212 -1.185 -1.158 -10 630 18.109 18.140 18.170 18.201 18.232 18.262 18.293 18.324 18.354 18.385 18.416 630
0 -1.158 -1.131 -1.104 -1.076 -1.049 -1.022 -0.995 -0.967 -0.940 -0.913 -0.886 0 640 18.416 18.446 18.477 18.508 18.538 18.569 18.600 18.630 18.661 18.692 18.722 640
0 -0.886 -0.858 -0.831 -0.803 -0.776 -0.749 -0.721 -0.694 -0.666 -0.639 -0.611 0 650 18.722 18.753 18.784 18.814 18.845 18.876 18.906 18.937 18.968 18.998 19.029 650
10 -0.611 -0.583 -0.556 -0.528 -0.501 -0.473 -0.445 -0.418 -0.390 -0.362 -0.334 10 660 19.029 19.060 19.090 19.121 19.152 19.182 19.213 19.244 19.274 19.305 19.336 660
20 -0.334 -0.307 -0.279 -0.251 -0.223 -0.195 -0.168 -0.140 -0.112 -0.084 -0.056 20 670 19.336 19.366 19.397 19.428 19.458 19.489 19.520 19.550 19.581 19.612 19.642 670
30 -0.056 -0.028 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.084 0.112 0.140 0.168 0.196 0.225 30 680 19.642 19.673 19.704 19.734 19.765 19.795 19.826 19.857 19.887 19.918 19.949 680
40 0.225 0.253 0.281 0.309 0.337 0.365 0.394 0.422 0.450 0.478 0.507 40 690 19.949 19.979 20.010 20.041 20.071 20.102 20.132 20.163 20.194 20.224 20.255 690
50 0.507 0.535 0.563 0.592 0.620 0.649 0.677 0.705 0.734 0.762 0.791 50 700 20.255 20.286 20.316 20.347 20.378 20.408 20.439 20.469 20.500 20.531 20.561 700
60 0.791 0.819 0.848 0.876 0.905 0.933 0.962 0.991 1.019 1.048 1.076 60 710 20.561 20.592 20.623 20.653 20.684 20.715 20.745 20.776 20.806 20.837 20.868 710
70 1.076 1.105 1.134 1.162 1.191 1.220 1.249 1.277 1.306 1.335 1.364 70 720 20.868 20.898 20.929 20.960 20.990 21.021 21.052 21.082 21.113 21.143 21.174 720
80 1.364 1.392 1.421 1.450 1.479 1.508 1.537 1.566 1.594 1.623 1.652 80 730 21.174 21.205 21.235 21.266 21.297 21.327 21.358 21.389 21.419 21.450 21.480 730
90 1.652 1.681 1.710 1.739 1.768 1.797 1.826 1.855 1.884 1.913 1.942 90 740 21.480 21.511 21.542 21.572 21.603 21.634 21.664 21.695 21.726 21.756 21.787 740
100 1.942 1.972 2.001 2.030 2.059 2.088 2.117 2.146 2.175 2.205 2.234 100 750 21.787 21.817 21.848 21.879 21.909 21.940 21.971 22.001 22.032 22.063 22.093 750
110 2.234 2.263 2.292 2.322 2.351 2.380 2.409 2.439 2.468 2.497 2.527 110 760 22.093 22.124 22.154 22.185 22.216 22.246 22.277 22.308 22.338 22.369 22.400 760
120 2.527 2.556 2.585 2.615 2.644 2.673 2.703 2.732 2.762 2.791 2.821 120 770 22.400 22.430 22.461 22.492 22.522 22.553 22.584 22.614 22.645 22.676 22.706 770
130 2.821 2.850 2.880 2.909 2.938 2.968 2.997 3.027 3.057 3.086 3.116 130 780 22.706 22.737 22.768 22.798 22.829 22.860 22.890 22.921 22.952 22.982 23.013 780
140 3.116 3.145 3.175 3.204 3.234 3.264 3.293 3.323 3.353 3.382 3.412 140 790 23.013 23.044 23.074 23.105 23.136 23.166 23.197 23.228 23.258 23.289 23.320 790
150 3.412 3.442 3.471 3.501 3.531 3.560 3.590 3.620 3.650 3.679 3.709 150 800 23.320 23.350 23.381 23.412 23.442 23.473 23.504 23.535 23.565 23.596 23.627 800
160 3.709 3.739 3.769 3.798 3.828 3.858 3.888 3.918 3.948 3.977 4.007 160 810 23.627 23.657 23.688 23.719 23.749 23.780 23.811 23.842 23.872 23.903 23.934 810
170 4.007 4.037 4.067 4.097 4.127 4.157 4.187 4.217 4.246 4.276 4.306 170 820 23.934 23.964 23.995 24.026 24.057 24.087 24.118 24.149 24.180 24.210 24.241 820
180 4.306 4.336 4.366 4.396 4.426 4.456 4.486 4.516 4.546 4.576 4.606 180 830 24.241 24.272 24.303 24.333 24.364 24.395 24.426 24.456 24.487 24.518 24.549 830
190 4.606 4.636 4.666 4.696 4.726 4.757 4.787 4.817 4.847 4.877 4.907 190 840 24.549 24.579 24.610 24.641 24.672 24.702 24.733 24.764 24.795 24.826 24.856 840
200 4.907 4.937 4.967 4.997 5.028 5.058 5.088 5.118 5.148 5.178 5.209 200 850 24.856 24.887 24.918 24.949 24.979 25.010 25.041 25.072 25.103 25.134 25.164 850
210 5.209 5.239 5.269 5.299 5.329 5.360 5.390 5.420 5.450 5.480 5.511 210 860 25.164 25.195 25.226 25.257 25.288 25.318 25.349 25.380 25.411 25.442 25.473 860
220 5.511 5.541 5.571 5.602 5.632 5.662 5.692 5.723 5.753 5.783 5.814 220 870 25.473 25.504 25.534 25.565 25.596 25.627 25.658 25.689 25.720 25.750 25.781 870
230 5.814 5.844 5.874 5.905 5.935 5.965 5.996 6.026 6.056 6.087 6.117 230 880 25.781 25.812 25.843 25.874 25.905 25.936 25.967 25.998 26.028 26.059 26.090 880
240 6.117 6.147 6.178 6.208 6.239 6.269 6.299 6.330 6.360 6.391 6.421 240 890 26.090 26.121 26.152 26.183 26.214 26.245 26.276 26.307 26.338 26.369 26.400 890
250 6.421 6.452 6.482 6.512 6.543 6.573 6.604 6.634 6.665 6.695 6.726 250 900 26.400 26.431 26.462 26.493 26.524 26.555 26.586 26.617 26.648 26.679 26.710 900
260 6.726 6.756 6.787 6.817 6.848 6.878 6.909 6.939 6.970 7.000 7.031 260 910 26.710 26.741 26.772 26.803 26.834 26.865 26.896 26.927 26.958 26.989 27.020 910
270 7.031 7.061 7.092 7.122 7.153 7.184 7.214 7.245 7.275 7.306 7.336 270 920 27.020 27.051 27.082 27.113 27.144 27.175 27.206 27.237 27.268 27.299 27.330 920
280 7.336 7.367 7.398 7.428 7.459 7.489 7.520 7.550 7.581 7.612 7.642 280 930 27.330 27.362 27.393 27.424 27.455 27.486 27.517 27.548 27.579 27.610 27.642 930
290 7.642 7.673 7.704 7.734 7.765 7.795 7.826 7.857 7.887 7.918 7.949 290 940 27.642 27.673 27.704 27.735 27.766 27.797 27.829 27.860 27.891 27.922 27.953 940
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

594
 Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) Continued

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
950 27.953 27.985 28.016 28.047 28.078 28.109 28.141 28.172 28.203 28.234 28.266 950 1600 50.060 50.095 50.130 50.165 50.200 50.235 50.271 50.306 50.341 50.376 50.411 1600
960 28.266 28.297 28.328 28.359 28.391 28.422 28.453 28.485 28.516 28.547 28.579 960 1610 50.411 50.446 50.481 50.517 50.552 50.587 50.622 50.657 50.692 50.727 50.762 1610
970 28.579 28.610 28.641 28.672 28.704 28.735 28.767 28.798 28.829 28.861 28.892 970 1620 50.762 50.797 50.832 50.867 50.902 50.937 50.972 51.007 51.042 51.077 51.112 1620
980 28.892 28.923 28.955 28.986 29.018 29.049 29.080 29.112 29.143 29.175 29.206 980 1630 51.112 51.147 51.181 51.216 51.251 51.286 51.321 51.356 51.391 51.425 51.460 1630
990 29.206 29.238 29.269 29.301 29.332 29.363 29.395 29.426 29.458 29.489 29.521 990 1640 51.460 51.495 51.530 51.565 51.599 51.634 51.669 51.704 51.738 51.773 51.808 1640
1000 29.521 29.552 29.584 29.616 29.647 29.679 29.710 29.742 29.773 29.805 29.836 1000 1650 51.808 51.843 51.877 51.912 51.947 51.981 52.016 52.051 52.085 52.120 52.154 1650
1010 29.836 29.868 29.900 29.931 29.963 29.995 30.026 30.058 30.089 30.121 30.153 1010 1660 52.154 52.189 52.224 52.258 52.293 52.327 52.362 52.396 52.431 52.465 52.500 1660
1020 30.153 30.184 30.216 30.248 30.279 30.311 30.343 30.375 30.406 30.438 30.470 1020 1670 52.500 52.534 52.569 52.603 52.638 52.672 52.707 52.741 52.776 52.810 52.844 1670
1030 30.470 30.502 30.533 30.565 30.597 30.629 30.660 30.692 30.724 30.756 30.788 1030 1680 52.844 52.879 52.913 52.947 52.982 53.016 53.050 53.085 53.119 53.153 53.188 1680
1040 30.788 30.819 30.851 30.883 30.915 30.947 30.979 31.011 31.043 31.074 31.106 1040 1690 53.188 53.222 53.256 53.290 53.325 53.359 53.393 53.427 53.462 53.496 53.530 1690
1050 31.106 31.138 31.170 31.202 31.234 31.266 31.298 31.330 31.362 31.394 31.426 1050 1700 53.530 53.564 53.598 53.632 53.667 53.701 53.735 53.769 53.803 53.837 53.871 1700
1060 31.426 31.458 31.490 31.522 31.554 31.586 31.618 31.650 31.682 31.714 31.746 1060 1710 53.871 53.905 53.939 53.973 54.007 54.041 54.075 54.109 54.143 54.177 54.211 1710
1070 31.746 31.778 31.811 31.843 31.875 31.907 31.939 31.971 32.003 32.035 32.068 1070 1720 54.211 54.245 54.279 54.313 54.347 54.381 54.415 54.449 54.483 54.516 54.550 1720
1080 32.068 32.100 32.132 32.164 32.196 32.229 32.261 32.293 32.325 32.358 32.390 1080 1730 54.550 54.584 54.618 54.652 54.686 54.719 54.753 54.787 54.821 54.855 54.888 1730
1090 32.390 32.422 32.455 32.487 32.519 32.551 32.584 32.616 32.648 32.681 32.713 1090 1740 54.888 54.922 54.956 54.990 55.023 55.057 55.091 55.124 55.158 55.192 55.225 1740
1100 32.713 32.746 32.778 32.810 32.843 32.875 32.908 32.940 32.973 33.005 33.037 1100 1750 55.225 55.259 55.293 55.326 55.360 55.393 55.427 55.461 55.494 55.528 55.561 1750
1110 33.037 33.070 33.102 33.135 33.167 33.200 33.232 33.265 33.298 33.330 33.363 1110 1760 55.561 55.595 55.628 55.662 55.695 55.729 55.762 55.796 55.829 55.863 55.896 1760
1120 33.363 33.395 33.428 33.460 33.493 33.526 33.558 33.591 33.624 33.656 33.689 1120 1770 55.896 55.930 55.963 55.997 56.030 56.063 56.097 56.130 56.164 56.197 56.230 1770
1130 33.689 33.722 33.754 33.787 33.820 33.853 33.885 33.918 33.951 33.984 34.016 1130 1780 56.230 56.264 56.297 56.330 56.364 56.397 56.430 56.464 56.497 56.530 56.564 1780
1140 34.016 34.049 34.082 34.115 34.148 34.180 34.213 34.246 34.279 34.312 34.345 1140 1790 56.564 56.597 56.630 56.663 56.697 56.730 56.763 56.796 56.829 56.863 56.896 1790
1150 34.345 34.378 34.411 34.444 34.476 34.509 34.542 34.575 34.608 34.641 34.674 1150 1800 56.896 56.929 56.962 56.995 57.028 57.062 57.095 57.128 57.161 57.194 57.227 1800
1160 34.674 34.707 34.740 34.773 34.806 34.840 34.873 34.906 34.939 34.972 35.005 1160 1810 57.227 57.260 57.293 57.326 57.360 57.393 57.426 57.459 57.492 57.525 57.558 1810
1170 35.005 35.038 35.071 35.104 35.138 35.171 35.204 35.237 35.270 35.304 35.337 1170 1820 57.558 57.591 57.624 57.657 57.690 57.723 57.756 57.789 57.822 57.855 57.888 1820
1180 35.337 35.370 35.403 35.437 35.470 35.503 35.536 35.570 35.603 35.636 35.670 1180 1830 57.888 57.920 57.953 57.986 58.019 58.052 58.085 58.118 58.151 58.184 58.217 1830
1190 35.670 35.703 35.736 35.770 35.803 35.837 35.870 35.903 35.937 35.970 36.004 1190 1840 58.217 58.249 58.282 58.315 58.348 58.381 58.414 58.446 58.479 58.512 58.545 1840
1200 36.004 36.037 36.071 36.104 36.138 36.171 36.205 36.238 36.272 36.305 36.339 1200 1850 58.545 58.578 58.610 58.643 58.676 58.709 58.741 58.774 58.807 58.840 58.872 1850
1210 36.339 36.373 36.406 36.440 36.473 36.507 36.541 36.574 36.608 36.642 36.675 1210 1860 58.872 58.905 58.938 58.971 59.003 59.036 59.069 59.101 59.134 59.167 59.199 1860
1220 36.675 36.709 36.743 36.777 36.810 36.844 36.878 36.912 36.945 36.979 37.013 1220 1870 59.199 59.232 59.265 59.297 59.330 59.363 59.395 59.428 59.460 59.493 59.526 1870
1230 37.013 37.047 37.081 37.114 37.148 37.182 37.216 37.250 37.284 37.318 37.352 1230 1880 59.526 59.558 59.591 59.623 59.656 59.689 59.721 59.754 59.786 59.819 59.851 1880
1240 37.352 37.386 37.420 37.454 37.488 37.522 37.556 37.590 37.624 37.658 37.692 1240 1890 59.851 59.884 59.916 59.949 59.982 60.014 60.047 60.079 60.112 60.144 60.177 1890
1250 37.692 37.726 37.760 37.794 37.828 37.862 37.896 37.930 37.964 37.999 38.033 1250 1900 60.177 60.209 60.242 60.274 60.307 60.339 60.371 60.404 60.436 60.469 60.501 1900
1260 38.033 38.067 38.101 38.135 38.169 38.204 38.238 38.272 38.306 38.341 38.375 1260 1910 60.501 60.534 60.566 60.599 60.631 60.663 60.696 60.728 60.761 60.793 60.826 1910
1270 38.375 38.409 38.444 38.478 38.512 38.546 38.581 38.615 38.650 38.684 38.718 1270 1920 60.826 60.858 60.890 60.923 60.955 60.987 61.020 61.052 61.085 61.117 61.149 1920
1280 38.718 38.753 38.787 38.822 38.856 38.890 38.925 38.959 38.994 39.028 39.063 1280 1930 61.149 61.182 61.214 61.246 61.279 61.311 61.343 61.376 61.408 61.440 61.473 1930
1290 39.063 39.097 39.132 39.166 39.201 39.235 39.270 39.305 39.339 39.374 39.408 1290 1940 61.473 61.505 61.537 61.570 61.602 61.634 61.667 61.699 61.731 61.763 61.796 1940
1300 39.408 39.443 39.478 39.512 39.547 39.582 39.616 39.651 39.686 39.720 39.755 1300 1950 61.796 61.828 61.860 61.893 61.925 61.957 61.989 62.022 62.054 62.086 62.118 1950
1310 39.755 39.790 39.825 39.859 39.894 39.929 39.964 39.998 40.033 40.068 40.103 1310 1960 62.118 62.151 62.183 62.215 62.247 62.280 62.312 62.344 62.376 62.409 62.441 1960
1320 40.103 40.138 40.173 40.207 40.242 40.277 40.312 40.347 40.382 40.417 40.452 1320 1970 62.441 62.473 62.505 62.537 62.570 62.602 62.634 62.666 62.699 62.731 62.763 1970
1330 40.452 40.487 40.522 40.556 40.591 40.626 40.661 40.696 40.731 40.766 40.801 1330 1980 62.763 62.795 62.827 62.860 62.892 62.924 62.956 62.988 63.020 63.053 63.085 1980
1340 40.801 40.836 40.872 40.907 40.942 40.977 41.012 41.047 41.082 41.117 41.152 1340 1990 63.085 63.117 63.149 63.181 63.214 63.246 63.278 63.310 63.342 63.374 63.406 1990
1350 41.152 41.187 41.222 41.258 41.293 41.328 41.363 41.398 41.433 41.469 41.504 1350 2000 63.406 63.439 63.471 63.503 63.535 63.567 63.599 63.632 63.664 63.696 63.728 2000
1360 41.504 41.539 41.574 41.610 41.645 41.680 41.715 41.751 41.786 41.821 41.856 1360 2010 63.728 63.760 63.792 63.824 63.856 63.889 63.921 63.953 63.985 64.017 64.049 2010
1370 41.856 41.892 41.927 41.962 41.998 42.033 42.068 42.104 42.139 42.174 42.210 1370 2020 64.049 64.081 64.113 64.146 64.178 64.210 64.242 64.274 64.306 64.338 64.370 2020
1380 42.210 42.245 42.281 42.316 42.351 42.387 42.422 42.458 42.493 42.528 42.564 1380 2030 64.370 64.402 64.435 64.467 64.499 64.531 64.563 64.595 64.627 64.659 64.691 2030
1390 42.564 42.599 42.635 42.670 42.706 42.741 42.777 42.812 42.848 42.883 42.919 1390 2040 64.691 64.723 64.756 64.788 64.820 64.852 64.884 64.916 64.948 64.980 65.012 2040
1400 42.919 42.954 42.990 43.025 43.061 43.096 43.132 43.167 43.203 43.239 43.274 1400 2050 65.012 65.044 65.076 65.109 65.141 65.173 65.205 65.237 65.269 65.301 65.333 2050
1410 43.274 43.310 43.346 43.381 43.417 43.452 43.488 43.524 43.559 43.595 43.631 1410 2060 65.333 65.365 65.397 65.429 65.461 65.493 65.525 65.557 65.590 65.622 65.654 2060
1420 43.631 43.667 43.702 43.738 43.774 43.809 43.845 43.881 43.917 43.953 43.988 1420 2070 65.654 65.686 65.718 65.750 65.782 65.814 65.846 65.878 65.910 65.942 65.974 2070
1430 43.988 44.024 44.060 44.096 44.131 44.167 44.203 44.239 44.275 44.310 44.346 1430 2080 65.974 66.006 66.038 66.070 66.102 66.134 66.166 66.199 66.231 66.263 66.295 2080
1440 44.346 44.382 44.418 44.454 44.490 44.525 44.561 44.597 44.633 44.669 44.705 1440 2090 66.295 66.327 66.359 66.391 66.423 66.455 66.487 66.519 66.551 66.583 66.615 2090
1450 44.705 44.741 44.777 44.812 44.848 44.884 44.920 44.956 44.992 45.028 45.064 1450 2100 66.615 66.647 66.679 66.711 66.743 66.775 66.807 66.839 66.871 66.903 66.935 2100
1460 45.064 45.099 45.135 45.171 45.207 45.243 45.279 45.315 45.351 45.387 45.423 1460 2110 66.935 66.967 66.999 67.031 67.063 67.095 67.127 67.159 67.191 67.223 67.255 2110
1470 45.423 45.458 45.494 45.530 45.566 45.602 45.638 45.674 45.710 45.746 45.782 1470 2120 67.255 67.287 67.319 67.351 67.383 67.415 67.447 67.479 67.511 67.543 67.575 2120
1480 45.782 45.818 45.853 45.889 45.925 45.961 45.997 46.033 46.069 46.105 46.141 1480 2130 67.575 67.607 67.639 67.671 67.703 67.735 67.767 67.799 67.831 67.863 67.895 2130
1490 46.141 46.177 46.212 46.248 46.284 46.320 46.356 46.392 46.428 46.464 46.500 1490 2140 67.895 67.927 67.959 67.991 68.023 68.055 68.087 68.119 68.150 68.182 68.214 2140
1500 46.500 46.535 46.571 46.607 46.643 46.679 46.715 46.751 46.786 46.822 46.858 1500 2150 68.214 68.246 68.278 68.310 68.342 68.374 68.406 68.438 68.470 68.502 68.534 2150
1510 46.858 46.894 46.930 46.966 47.001 47.037 47.073 47.109 47.145 47.181 47.216 1510 2160 68.534 68.566 68.597 68.629 68.661 68.693 68.725 68.757 68.789 68.821 68.853 2160
1520 47.216 47.252 47.288 47.324 47.359 47.395 47.431 47.467 47.503 47.538 47.574 1520 2170 68.853 68.884 68.916 68.948 68.980 69.012 69.044 69.076 69.108 69.139 69.171 2170
1530 47.574 47.610 47.646 47.681 47.717 47.753 47.788 47.824 47.860 47.896 47.931 1530 2180 69.171 69.203 69.235 69.267 69.299 69.330 69.362 69.394 69.426 69.458 69.490 2180
1540 47.931 47.967 48.003 48.038 48.074 48.110 48.145 48.181 48.217 48.252 48.288 1540 2190 69.490 69.521 69.553 2190
1550 48.288 48.324 48.359 48.395 48.430 48.466 48.502 48.537 48.573 48.608 48.644 1550
1560 48.644 48.679 48.715 48.750 48.786 48.822 48.857 48.893 48.928 48.964 48.999 1560
1570 48.999 49.034 49.070 49.105 49.141 49.176 49.212 49.247 49.283 49.318 49.353 1570
1580 49.353 49.389 49.424 49.460 49.495 49.530 49.566 49.601 49.636 49.672 49.707 1580
1590 49.707 49.742 49.778 49.813 49.848 49.883 49.919 49.954 49.989 50.024 50.060 1590
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

595
 Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K)

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
100 1.521 1.543 1.566 1.589 1.612 1.635 1.657 1.680 1.703 1.726 1.749 100
110 1.749 1.771 1.794 1.817 1.840 1.863 1.886 1.909 1.931 1.954 1.977 110
120 1.977 2.000 2.023 2.046 2.069 2.092 2.115 2.138 2.161 2.184 2.207 120
130 2.207 2.230 2.253 2.276 2.298 2.321 2.344 2.367 2.390 2.413 2.436 130
-450 -6.458 -6.457 -6.457 -6.456 -6.456 -450 140 2.436 2.459 2.483 2.506 2.529 2.552 2.575 2.598 2.621 2.644 2.667 140
-440 -6.456 -6.455 -6.454 -6.454 -6.453 -6.452 -6.451 -6.450 -6.449 -6.448 -6.446 -440 150 2.667 2.690 2.713 2.736 2.759 2.782 2.805 2.828 2.851 2.874 2.897 150
-430 -6.446 -6.445 -6.444 -6.443 -6.441 -6.440 -6.438 -6.436 -6.435 -6.433 -6.431 -430 160 2.897 2.920 2.944 2.967 2.990 3.013 3.036 3.059 3.082 3.105 3.128 160
-420 -6.431 -6.429 -6.427 -6.425 -6.423 -6.421 -6.419 -6.416 -6.414 -6.411 -6.409 -420 170 3.128 3.151 3.174 3.197 3.220 3.244 3.267 3.290 3.313 3.336 3.359 170
-410 -6.409 -6.406 -6.404 -6.401 -6.398 -6.395 -6.392 -6.389 -6.386 -6.383 -6.380 -410 180 3.359 3.382 3.405 3.428 3.451 3.474 3.497 3.520 3.544 3.567 3.590 180
-400 -6.380 -6.377 -6.373 -6.370 -6.366 -6.363 -6.359 -6.355 -6.352 -6.348 -6.344 -400 190 3.590 3.613 3.636 3.659 3.682 3.705 3.728 3.751 3.774 3.797 3.820 190
-390 -6.344 -6.340 -6.336 -6.332 -6.328 -6.323 -6.319 -6.315 -6.310 -6.306 -6.301 -390 200 3.820 3.843 3.866 3.889 3.912 3.935 3.958 3.981 4.004 4.027 4.050 200
-380 -6.301 -6.296 -6.292 -6.287 -6.282 -6.277 -6.272 -6.267 -6.262 -6.257 -6.251 -380 210 4.050 4.073 4.096 4.119 4.142 4.165 4.188 4.211 4.234 4.257 4.280 210
-370 -6.251 -6.246 -6.241 -6.235 -6.230 -6.224 -6.218 -6.213 -6.207 -6.201 -6.195 -370 220 4.280 4.303 4.326 4.349 4.372 4.395 4.417 4.440 4.463 4.486 4.509 220
-360 -6.195 -6.189 -6.183 -6.177 -6.171 -6.165 -6.158 -6.152 -6.146 -6.139 -6.133 -360 230 4.509 4.532 4.555 4.578 4.601 4.623 4.646 4.669 4.692 4.715 4.738 230
-350 -6.133 -6.126 -6.119 -6.113 -6.106 -6.099 -6.092 -6.085 -6.078 -6.071 -6.064 -350 240 4.738 4.760 4.783 4.806 4.829 4.852 4.874 4.897 4.920 4.943 4.965 240
-340 -6.064 -6.057 -6.049 -6.042 -6.035 -6.027 -6.020 -6.012 -6.004 -5.997 -5.989 -340 250 4.965 4.988 5.011 5.034 5.056 5.079 5.102 5.124 5.147 5.170 5.192 250
-330 -5.989 -5.981 -5.973 -5.965 -5.957 -5.949 -5.941 -5.933 -5.925 -5.917 -5.908 -330 260 5.192 5.215 5.238 5.260 5.283 5.306 5.328 5.351 5.374 5.396 5.419 260
-320 -5.908 -5.900 -5.891 -5.883 -5.874 -5.866 -5.857 -5.848 -5.840 -5.831 -5.822 -320 270 5.419 5.441 5.464 5.487 5.509 5.532 5.554 5.577 5.599 5.622 5.644 270
-310 -5.822 -5.813 -5.804 -5.795 -5.786 -5.776 -5.767 -5.758 -5.749 -5.739 -5.730 -310 280 5.644 5.667 5.690 5.712 5.735 5.757 5.779 5.802 5.824 5.847 5.869 280
-300 -5.730 -5.720 -5.711 -5.701 -5.691 -5.682 -5.672 -5.662 -5.652 -5.642 -5.632 -300 290 5.869 5.892 5.914 5.937 5.959 5.982 6.004 6.026 6.049 6.071 6.094 290
-290 -5.632 -5.622 -5.612 -5.602 -5.592 -5.581 -5.571 -5.561 -5.550 -5.540 -5.529 -290 300 6.094 6.116 6.138 6.161 6.183 6.205 6.228 6.250 6.272 6.295 6.317 300
-280 -5.529 -5.519 -5.508 -5.497 -5.487 -5.476 -5.465 -5.454 -5.443 -5.432 -5.421 -280 310 6.317 6.339 6.362 6.384 6.406 6.429 6.451 6.473 6.496 6.518 6.540 310
-270 -5.421 -5.410 -5.399 -5.388 -5.377 -5.365 -5.354 -5.343 -5.331 -5.320 -5.308 -270 320 6.540 6.562 6.585 6.607 6.629 6.652 6.674 6.696 6.718 6.741 6.763 320
-260 -5.308 -5.296 -5.285 -5.273 -5.261 -5.250 -5.238 -5.226 -5.214 -5.202 -5.190 -260 330 6.763 6.785 6.807 6.829 6.852 6.874 6.896 6.918 6.941 6.963 6.985 330
-250 -5.190 -5.178 -5.166 -5.153 -5.141 -5.129 -5.117 -5.104 -5.092 -5.079 -5.067 -250 340 6.985 7.007 7.029 7.052 7.074 7.096 7.118 7.140 7.163 7.185 7.207 340
-240 -5.067 -5.054 -5.042 -5.029 -5.016 -5.003 -4.991 -4.978 -4.965 -4.952 -4.939 -240 350 7.207 7.229 7.251 7.273 7.296 7.318 7.340 7.362 7.384 7.407 7.429 350
-230 -4.939 -4.926 -4.913 -4.900 -4.886 -4.873 -4.860 -4.847 -4.833 -4.820 -4.806 -230 360 7.429 7.451 7.473 7.495 7.517 7.540 7.562 7.584 7.606 7.628 7.650 360
-220 -4.806 -4.793 -4.779 -4.766 -4.752 -4.738 -4.724 -4.711 -4.697 -4.683 -4.669 -220 370 7.650 7.673 7.695 7.717 7.739 7.761 7.783 7.806 7.828 7.850 7.872 370
-210 -4.669 -4.655 -4.641 -4.627 -4.613 -4.599 -4.584 -4.570 -4.556 -4.542 -4.527 -210 380 7.872 7.894 7.917 7.939 7.961 7.983 8.005 8.027 8.050 8.072 8.094 380
-200 -4.527 -4.513 -4.498 -4.484 -4.469 -4.455 -4.440 -4.425 -4.411 -4.396 -4.381 -200 390 8.094 8.116 8.138 8.161 8.183 8.205 8.227 8.250 8.272 8.294 8.316 390
-190 -4.381 -4.366 -4.351 -4.336 -4.321 -4.306 -4.291 -4.276 -4.261 -4.246 -4.231 -190 400 8.316 8.338 8.361 8.383 8.405 8.427 8.450 8.472 8.494 8.516 8.539 400
-180 -4.231 -4.215 -4.200 -4.185 -4.169 -4.154 -4.138 -4.123 -4.107 -4.091 -4.076 -180 410 8.539 8.561 8.583 8.605 8.628 8.650 8.672 8.694 8.717 8.739 8.761 410
-170 -4.076 -4.060 -4.044 -4.029 -4.013 -3.997 -3.981 -3.965 -3.949 -3.933 -3.917 -170 420 8.761 8.784 8.806 8.828 8.851 8.873 8.895 8.918 8.940 8.962 8.985 420
-160 -3.917 -3.901 -3.885 -3.869 -3.852 -3.836 -3.820 -3.803 -3.787 -3.771 -3.754 -160 430 8.985 9.007 9.029 9.052 9.074 9.096 9.119 9.141 9.163 9.186 9.208 430
-150 -3.754 -3.738 -3.721 -3.705 -3.688 -3.671 -3.655 -3.638 -3.621 -3.604 -3.587 -150 440 9.208 9.231 9.253 9.275 9.298 9.320 9.343 9.365 9.388 9.410 9.432 440
-140 -3.587 -3.571 -3.554 -3.537 -3.520 -3.503 -3.486 -3.468 -3.451 -3.434 -3.417 -140 450 9.432 9.455 9.477 9.500 9.522 9.545 9.567 9.590 9.612 9.635 9.657 450
-130 -3.417 -3.400 -3.382 -3.365 -3.348 -3.330 -3.313 -3.295 -3.278 -3.260 -3.243 -130 460 9.657 9.680 9.702 9.725 9.747 9.770 9.792 9.815 9.837 9.860 9.882 460
-120 -3.243 -3.225 -3.207 -3.190 -3.172 -3.154 -3.136 -3.119 -3.101 -3.083 -3.065 -120 470 9.882 9.905 9.927 9.950 9.973 9.995 10.018 10.040 10.063 10.086 10.108 470
-110 -3.065 -3.047 -3.029 -3.011 -2.993 -2.975 -2.957 -2.938 -2.920 -2.902 -2.884 -110 480 10.108 10.131 10.153 10.176 10.199 10.221 10.244 10.267 10.289 10.312 10.334 480
-100 -2.884 -2.865 -2.847 -2.829 -2.810 -2.792 -2.773 -2.755 -2.736 -2.718 -2.699 -100 490 10.334 10.357 10.380 10.402 10.425 10.448 10.471 10.493 10.516 10.539 10.561 490
-90 -2.699 -2.680 -2.662 -2.643 -2.624 -2.605 -2.587 -2.568 -2.549 -2.530 -2.511 -90 500 10.561 10.584 10.607 10.629 10.652 10.675 10.698 10.720 10.743 10.766 10.789 500
-80 -2.511 -2.492 -2.473 -2.454 -2.435 -2.416 -2.397 -2.378 -2.359 -2.339 -2.320 -80 510 10.789 10.811 10.834 10.857 10.880 10.903 10.925 10.948 10.971 10.994 11.017 510
-70 -2.320 -2.301 -2.282 -2.262 -2.243 -2.223 -2.204 -2.185 -2.165 -2.146 -2.126 -70 520 11.017 11.039 11.062 11.085 11.108 11.131 11.154 11.176 11.199 11.222 11.245 520
-60 -2.126 -2.106 -2.087 -2.067 -2.048 -2.028 -2.008 -1.988 -1.969 -1.949 -1.929 -60 530 11.245 11.268 11.291 11.313 11.336 11.359 11.382 11.405 11.428 11.451 11.474 530
-50 -1.929 -1.909 -1.889 -1.869 -1.850 -1.830 -1.810 -1.790 -1.770 -1.749 -1.729 -50 540 11.474 11.497 11.519 11.542 11.565 11.588 11.611 11.634 11.657 11.680 11.703 540
-40 -1.729 -1.709 -1.689 -1.669 -1.649 -1.628 -1.608 -1.588 -1.568 -1.547 -1.527 -40 550 11.703 11.726 11.749 11.772 11.795 11.818 11.841 11.864 11.887 11.910 11.933 550
-30 -1.527 -1.507 -1.486 -1.466 -1.445 -1.425 -1.404 -1.384 -1.363 -1.343 -1.322 -30 560 11.933 11.956 11.978 12.001 12.024 12.047 12.070 12.093 12.116 12.140 12.163 560
-20 -1.322 -1.301 -1.281 -1.260 -1.239 -1.218 -1.198 -1.177 -1.156 -1.135 -1.114 -20 570 12.163 12.186 12.209 12.232 12.255 12.278 12.301 12.324 12.347 12.370 12.393 570
-10 -1.114 -1.094 -1.073 -1.052 -1.031 -1.010 -0.989 -0.968 -0.947 -0.926 -0.905 -10 580 12.393 12.416 12.439 12.462 12.485 12.508 12.531 12.554 12.577 12.600 12.624 580
0 -0.905 -0.883 -0.862 -0.841 -0.820 -0.799 -0.778 -0.756 -0.735 -0.714 -0.692 0 590 12.624 12.647 12.670 12.693 12.716 12.739 12.762 12.785 12.808 12.831 12.855 590
0 -0.692 -0.671 -0.650 -0.628 -0.607 -0.586 -0.564 -0.543 -0.521 -0.500 -0.478 0 600 12.855 12.878 12.901 12.924 12.947 12.970 12.993 13.016 13.040 13.063 13.086 600
10 -0.478 -0.457 -0.435 -0.413 -0.392 -0.370 -0.349 -0.327 -0.305 -0.284 -0.262 10 610 13.086 13.109 13.132 13.155 13.179 13.202 13.225 13.248 13.271 13.294 13.318 610
20 -0.262 -0.240 -0.218 -0.197 -0.175 -0.153 -0.131 -0.109 -0.088 -0.066 -0.044 20 620 13.318 13.341 13.364 13.387 13.410 13.433 13.457 13.480 13.503 13.526 13.549 620
30 -0.044 -0.022 0.000 0.022 0.044 0.066 0.088 0.110 0.132 0.154 0.176 30 630 13.549 13.573 13.596 13.619 13.642 13.665 13.689 13.712 13.735 13.758 13.782 630
40 0.176 0.198 0.220 0.242 0.264 0.286 0.308 0.330 0.353 0.375 0.397 40 640 13.782 13.805 13.828 13.851 13.874 13.898 13.921 13.944 13.967 13.991 14.014 640
50 0.397 0.419 0.441 0.463 0.486 0.508 0.530 0.552 0.575 0.597 0.619 50 650 14.014 14.037 14.060 14.084 14.107 14.130 14.154 14.177 14.200 14.223 14.247 650
60 0.619 0.642 0.664 0.686 0.709 0.731 0.753 0.776 0.798 0.821 0.843 60 660 14.247 14.270 14.293 14.316 14.340 14.363 14.386 14.410 14.433 14.456 14.479 660
70 0.843 0.865 0.888 0.910 0.933 0.955 0.978 1.000 1.023 1.045 1.068 70 670 14.479 14.503 14.526 14.549 14.573 14.596 14.619 14.643 14.666 14.689 14.713 670
80 1.068 1.090 1.113 1.136 1.158 1.181 1.203 1.226 1.249 1.271 1.294 80 680 14.713 14.736 14.759 14.783 14.806 14.829 14.853 14.876 14.899 14.923 14.946 680
90 1.294 1.316 1.339 1.362 1.384 1.407 1.430 1.453 1.475 1.498 1.521 90 690 14.946 14.969 14.993 15.016 15.039 15.063 15.086 15.109 15.133 15.156 15.179 690
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

596
 Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) Continued

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
700 15.179 15.203 15.226 15.250 15.273 15.296 15.320 15.343 15.366 15.390 15.413 700 1300 29.315 29.338 29.362 29.385 29.408 29.431 29.455 29.478 29.501 29.524 29.548 1300
710 15.413 15.437 15.460 15.483 15.507 15.530 15.554 15.577 15.600 15.624 15.647 710 1310 29.548 29.571 29.594 29.617 29.640 29.664 29.687 29.710 29.733 29.757 29.780 1310
720 15.647 15.671 15.694 15.717 15.741 15.764 15.788 15.811 15.834 15.858 15.881 720 1320 29.780 29.803 29.826 29.849 29.873 29.896 29.919 29.942 29.965 29.989 30.012 1320
730 15.881 15.905 15.928 15.952 15.975 15.998 16.022 16.045 16.069 16.092 16.116 730 1330 30.012 30.035 30.058 30.081 30.104 30.128 30.151 30.174 30.197 30.220 30.243 1330
740 16.116 16.139 16.163 16.186 16.209 16.233 16.256 16.280 16.303 16.327 16.350 740 1340 30.243 30.267 30.290 30.313 30.336 30.359 30.382 30.405 30.429 30.452 30.475 1340
750 16.350 16.374 16.397 16.421 16.444 16.468 16.491 16.514 16.538 16.561 16.585 750 1350 30.475 30.498 30.521 30.544 30.567 30.590 30.613 30.637 30.660 30.683 30.706 1350
760 16.585 16.608 16.632 16.655 16.679 16.702 16.726 16.749 16.773 16.796 16.820 760 1360 30.706 30.729 30.752 30.775 30.798 30.821 30.844 30.868 30.891 30.914 30.937 1360
770 16.820 16.843 16.867 16.890 16.914 16.937 16.961 16.984 17.008 17.031 17.055 770 1370 30.937 30.960 30.983 31.006 31.029 31.052 31.075 31.098 31.121 31.144 31.167 1370
780 17.055 17.078 17.102 17.125 17.149 17.173 17.196 17.220 17.243 17.267 17.290 780 1380 31.167 31.190 31.213 31.236 31.260 31.283 31.306 31.329 31.352 31.375 31.398 1380
790 17.290 17.314 17.337 17.361 17.384 17.408 17.431 17.455 17.478 17.502 17.526 790 1390 31.398 31.421 31.444 31.467 31.490 31.513 31.536 31.559 31.582 31.605 31.628 1390
800 17.526 17.549 17.573 17.596 17.620 17.643 17.667 17.690 17.714 17.738 17.761 800 1400 31.628 31.651 31.674 31.697 31.720 31.743 31.766 31.789 31.812 31.834 31.857 1400
810 17.761 17.785 17.808 17.832 17.855 17.879 17.902 17.926 17.950 17.973 17.997 810 1410 31.857 31.880 31.903 31.926 31.949 31.972 31.995 32.018 32.041 32.064 32.087 1410
820 17.997 18.020 18.044 18.068 18.091 18.115 18.138 18.162 18.185 18.209 18.233 820 1420 32.087 32.110 32.133 32.156 32.179 32.202 32.224 32.247 32.270 32.293 32.316 1420
830 18.233 18.256 18.280 18.303 18.327 18.351 18.374 18.398 18.421 18.445 18.469 830 1430 32.316 32.339 32.362 32.385 32.408 32.431 32.453 32.476 32.499 32.522 32.545 1430
840 18.469 18.492 18.516 18.539 18.563 18.587 18.610 18.634 18.657 18.681 18.705 840 1440 32.545 32.568 32.591 32.614 32.636 32.659 32.682 32.705 32.728 32.751 32.774 1440
850 18.705 18.728 18.752 18.776 18.799 18.823 18.846 18.870 18.894 18.917 18.941 850 1450 32.774 32.796 32.819 32.842 32.865 32.888 32.911 32.933 32.956 32.979 33.002 1450
860 18.941 18.965 18.988 19.012 19.035 19.059 19.083 19.106 19.130 19.154 19.177 860 1460 33.002 33.025 33.047 33.070 33.093 33.116 33.139 33.161 33.184 33.207 33.230 1460
870 19.177 19.201 19.224 19.248 19.272 19.295 19.319 19.343 19.366 19.390 19.414 870 1470 33.230 33.253 33.275 33.298 33.321 33.344 33.366 33.389 33.412 33.435 33.458 1470
880 19.414 19.437 19.461 19.485 19.508 19.532 19.556 19.579 19.603 19.626 19.650 880 1480 33.458 33.480 33.503 33.526 33.548 33.571 33.594 33.617 33.639 33.662 33.685 1480
890 19.650 19.674 19.697 19.721 19.745 19.768 19.792 19.816 19.839 19.863 19.887 890 1490 33.685 33.708 33.730 33.753 33.776 33.798 33.821 33.844 33.867 33.889 33.912 1490
900 19.887 19.910 19.934 19.958 19.981 20.005 20.029 20.052 20.076 20.100 20.123 900 1500 33.912 33.935 33.957 33.980 34.003 34.025 34.048 34.071 34.093 34.116 34.139 1500
910 20.123 20.147 20.171 20.194 20.218 20.242 20.265 20.289 20.313 20.336 20.360 910 1510 34.139 34.161 34.184 34.207 34.229 34.252 34.275 34.297 34.320 34.343 34.365 1510
920 20.360 20.384 20.407 20.431 20.455 20.479 20.502 20.526 20.550 20.573 20.597 920 1520 34.365 34.388 34.410 34.433 34.456 34.478 34.501 34.524 34.546 34.569 34.591 1520
930 20.597 20.621 20.644 20.668 20.692 20.715 20.739 20.763 20.786 20.810 20.834 930 1530 34.591 34.614 34.637 34.659 34.682 34.704 34.727 34.750 34.772 34.795 34.817 1530
940 20.834 20.857 20.881 20.905 20.929 20.952 20.976 21.000 21.023 21.047 21.071 940 1540 34.817 34.840 34.862 34.885 34.908 34.930 34.953 34.975 34.998 35.020 35.043 1540
950 21.071 21.094 21.118 21.142 21.165 21.189 21.213 21.236 21.260 21.284 21.308 950 1550 35.043 35.065 35.088 35.110 35.133 35.156 35.178 35.201 35.223 35.246 35.268 1550
960 21.308 21.331 21.355 21.379 21.402 21.426 21.450 21.473 21.497 21.521 21.544 960 1560 35.268 35.291 35.313 35.336 35.358 35.381 35.403 35.426 35.448 35.471 35.493 1560
970 21.544 21.568 21.592 21.616 21.639 21.663 21.687 21.710 21.734 21.758 21.781 970 1570 35.493 35.516 35.538 35.560 35.583 35.605 35.628 35.650 35.673 35.695 35.718 1570
980 21.781 21.805 21.829 21.852 21.876 21.900 21.924 21.947 21.971 21.995 22.018 980 1580 35.718 35.740 35.763 35.785 35.807 35.830 35.852 35.875 35.897 35.920 35.942 1580
990 22.018 22.042 22.066 22.089 22.113 22.137 22.160 22.184 22.208 22.232 22.255 990 1590 35.942 35.964 35.987 36.009 36.032 36.054 36.076 36.099 36.121 36.144 36.166 1590
1000 22.255 22.279 22.303 22.326 22.350 22.374 22.397 22.421 22.445 22.468 22.492 1000 1600 36.166 36.188 36.211 36.233 36.256 36.278 36.300 36.323 36.345 36.367 36.390 1600
1010 22.492 22.516 22.540 22.563 22.587 22.611 22.634 22.658 22.682 22.705 22.729 1010 1610 36.390 36.412 36.434 36.457 36.479 36.501 36.524 36.546 36.568 36.591 36.613 1610
1020 22.729 22.753 22.776 22.800 22.824 22.847 22.871 22.895 22.919 22.942 22.966 1020 1620 36.613 36.635 36.658 36.680 36.702 36.725 36.747 36.769 36.792 36.814 36.836 1620
1030 22.966 22.990 23.013 23.037 23.061 23.084 23.108 23.132 23.155 23.179 23.203 1030 1630 36.836 36.859 36.881 36.903 36.925 36.948 36.970 36.992 37.014 37.037 37.059 1630
1040 23.203 23.226 23.250 23.274 23.297 23.321 23.345 23.368 23.392 23.416 23.439 1040 1640 37.059 37.081 37.104 37.126 37.148 37.170 37.193 37.215 37.237 37.259 37.281 1640
1050 23.439 23.463 23.487 23.510 23.534 23.558 23.581 23.605 23.629 23.652 23.676 1050 1650 37.281 37.304 37.326 37.348 37.370 37.393 37.415 37.437 37.459 37.481 37.504 1650
1060 23.676 23.700 23.723 23.747 23.771 23.794 23.818 23.842 23.865 23.889 23.913 1060 1660 37.504 37.526 37.548 37.570 37.592 37.615 37.637 37.659 37.681 37.703 37.725 1660
1070 23.913 23.936 23.960 23.984 24.007 24.031 24.055 24.078 24.102 24.126 24.149 1070 1670 37.725 37.748 37.770 37.792 37.814 37.836 37.858 37.881 37.903 37.925 37.947 1670
1080 24.149 24.173 24.197 24.220 24.244 24.267 24.291 24.315 24.338 24.362 24.386 1080 1680 37.947 37.969 37.991 38.013 38.036 38.058 38.080 38.102 38.124 38.146 38.168 1680
1090 24.386 24.409 24.433 24.457 24.480 24.504 24.527 24.551 24.575 24.598 24.622 1090 1690 38.168 38.190 38.212 38.235 38.257 38.279 38.301 38.323 38.345 38.367 38.389 1690
1100 24.622 24.646 24.669 24.693 24.717 24.740 24.764 24.787 24.811 24.835 24.858 1100 1700 38.389 38.411 38.433 38.455 38.477 38.499 38.522 38.544 38.566 38.588 38.610 1700
1110 24.858 24.882 24.905 24.929 24.953 24.976 25.000 25.024 25.047 25.071 25.094 1110 1710 38.610 38.632 38.654 38.676 38.698 38.720 38.742 38.764 38.786 38.808 38.830 1710
1120 25.094 25.118 25.142 25.165 25.189 25.212 25.236 25.260 25.283 25.307 25.330 1120 1720 38.830 38.852 38.874 38.896 38.918 38.940 38.962 38.984 39.006 39.028 39.050 1720
1130 25.330 25.354 25.377 25.401 25.425 25.448 25.472 25.495 25.519 25.543 25.566 1130 1730 39.050 39.072 39.094 39.116 39.138 39.160 39.182 39.204 39.226 39.248 39.270 1730
1140 25.566 25.590 25.613 25.637 25.660 25.684 25.708 25.731 25.755 25.778 25.802 1140 1740 39.270 39.292 39.314 39.335 39.357 39.379 39.401 39.423 39.445 39.467 39.489 1740
1150 25.802 25.825 25.849 25.873 25.896 25.920 25.943 25.967 25.990 26.014 26.037 1150 1750 39.489 39.511 39.533 39.555 39.577 39.599 39.620 39.642 39.664 39.686 39.708 1750
1160 26.037 26.061 26.084 26.108 26.132 26.155 26.179 26.202 26.226 26.249 26.273 1160 1760 39.708 39.730 39.752 39.774 39.796 39.817 39.839 39.861 39.883 39.905 39.927 1760
1170 26.273 26.296 26.320 26.343 26.367 26.390 26.414 26.437 26.461 26.484 26.508 1170 1770 39.927 39.949 39.970 39.992 40.014 40.036 40.058 40.080 40.101 40.123 40.145 1770
1180 26.508 26.532 26.555 26.579 26.602 26.626 26.649 26.673 26.696 26.720 26.743 1180 1780 40.145 40.167 40.189 40.211 40.232 40.254 40.276 40.298 40.320 40.341 40.363 1780
1190 26.743 26.767 26.790 26.814 26.837 26.861 26.884 26.907 26.931 26.954 26.978 1190 1790 40.363 40.385 40.407 40.429 40.450 40.472 40.494 40.516 40.537 40.559 40.581 1790
1200 26.978 27.001 27.025 27.048 27.072 27.095 27.119 27.142 27.166 27.189 27.213 1200 1800 40.581 40.603 40.624 40.646 40.668 40.690 40.711 40.733 40.755 40.777 40.798 1800
1210 27.213 27.236 27.259 27.283 27.306 27.330 27.353 27.377 27.400 27.424 27.447 1210 1810 40.798 40.820 40.842 40.864 40.885 40.907 40.929 40.950 40.972 40.994 41.015 1810
1220 27.447 27.471 27.494 27.517 27.541 27.564 27.588 27.611 27.635 27.658 27.681 1220 1820 41.015 41.037 41.059 41.081 41.102 41.124 41.146 41.167 41.189 41.211 41.232 1820
1230 27.681 27.705 27.728 27.752 27.775 27.798 27.822 27.845 27.869 27.892 27.915 1230 1830 41.232 41.254 41.276 41.297 41.319 41.341 41.362 41.384 41.405 41.427 41.449 1830
1240 27.915 27.939 27.962 27.986 28.009 28.032 28.056 28.079 28.103 28.126 28.149 1240 1840 41.449 41.470 41.492 41.514 41.535 41.557 41.578 41.600 41.622 41.643 41.665 1840
1250 28.149 28.173 28.196 28.219 28.243 28.266 28.289 28.313 28.336 28.360 28.383 1250 1850 41.665 41.686 41.708 41.730 41.751 41.773 41.794 41.816 41.838 41.859 41.881 1850
1260 28.383 28.406 28.430 28.453 28.476 28.500 28.523 28.546 28.570 28.593 28.616 1260 1860 41.881 41.902 41.924 41.945 41.967 41.988 42.010 42.032 42.053 42.075 42.096 1860
1270 28.616 28.640 28.663 28.686 28.710 28.733 28.756 28.780 28.803 28.826 28.849 1270 1870 42.096 42.118 42.139 42.161 42.182 42.204 42.225 42.247 42.268 42.290 42.311 1870
1280 28.849 28.873 28.896 28.919 28.943 28.966 28.989 29.013 29.036 29.059 29.082 1280 1880 42.311 42.333 42.354 42.376 42.397 42.419 42.440 42.462 42.483 42.505 42.526 1880
1290 29.082 29.106 29.129 29.152 29.176 29.199 29.222 29.245 29.269 29.292 29.315 1290 1890 42.526 42.548 42.569 42.591 42.612 42.633 42.655 42.676 42.698 42.719 42.741 1890
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

597
 Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) Continued

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1900 42.741 42.762 42.783 42.805 42.826 42.848 42.869 42.891 42.912 42.933 42.955 1900 2250 50.006 50.026 50.046 50.066 50.086 50.106 50.126 50.146 50.166 50.186 50.206 2250
1910 42.955 42.976 42.998 43.019 43.040 43.062 43.083 43.104 43.126 43.147 43.169 1910 2260 50.206 50.226 50.246 50.266 50.286 50.306 50.326 50.346 50.366 50.385 50.405 2260
1920 43.169 43.190 43.211 43.233 43.254 43.275 43.297 43.318 43.339 43.361 43.382 1920 2270 50.405 50.425 50.445 50.465 50.485 50.505 50.525 50.545 50.564 50.584 50.604 2270
1930 43.382 43.403 43.425 43.446 43.467 43.489 43.510 43.531 43.552 43.574 43.595 1930 2280 50.604 50.624 50.644 50.664 50.684 50.703 50.723 50.743 50.763 50.783 50.802 2280
1940 43.595 43.616 43.638 43.659 43.680 43.701 43.723 43.744 43.765 43.787 43.808 1940 2290 50.802 50.822 50.842 50.862 50.882 50.901 50.921 50.941 50.961 50.981 51.000 2290
1950 43.808 43.829 43.850 43.872 43.893 43.914 43.935 43.957 43.978 43.999 44.020 1950 2300 51.000 51.020 51.040 51.060 51.079 51.099 51.119 51.139 51.158 51.178 51.198 2300
1960 44.020 44.041 44.063 44.084 44.105 44.126 44.147 44.169 44.190 44.211 44.232 1960 2310 51.198 51.217 51.237 51.257 51.276 51.296 51.316 51.336 51.355 51.375 51.395 2310
1970 44.232 44.253 44.275 44.296 44.317 44.338 44.359 44.380 44.402 44.423 44.444 1970 2320 51.395 51.414 51.434 51.453 51.473 51.493 51.512 51.532 51.552 51.571 51.591 2320
1980 44.444 44.465 44.486 44.507 44.528 44.550 44.571 44.592 44.613 44.634 44.655 1980 2330 51.591 51.611 51.630 51.650 51.669 51.689 51.708 51.728 51.748 51.767 51.787 2330
1990 44.655 44.676 44.697 44.719 44.740 44.761 44.782 44.803 44.824 44.845 44.866 1990 2340 51.787 51.806 51.826 51.845 51.865 51.885 51.904 51.924 51.943 51.963 51.982 2340
2000 44.866 44.887 44.908 44.929 44.950 44.971 44.992 45.014 45.035 45.056 45.077 2000 2350 51.982 52.002 52.021 52.041 52.060 52.080 52.099 52.119 52.138 52.158 52.177 2350
2010 45.077 45.098 45.119 45.140 45.161 45.182 45.203 45.224 45.245 45.266 45.287 2010 2360 52.177 52.197 52.216 52.235 52.255 52.274 52.294 52.313 52.333 52.352 52.371 2360
2020 45.287 45.308 45.329 45.350 45.371 45.392 45.413 45.434 45.455 45.476 45.497 2020 2370 52.371 52.391 52.410 52.430 52.449 52.468 52.488 52.507 52.527 52.546 52.565 2370
2030 45.497 45.518 45.539 45.560 45.580 45.601 45.622 45.643 45.664 45.685 45.706 2030 2380 52.565 52.585 52.604 52.623 52.643 52.662 52.681 52.701 52.720 52.739 52.759 2380
2040 45.706 45.727 45.748 45.769 45.790 45.811 45.832 45.852 45.873 45.894 45.915 2040 239052.759 52.778 52.797 52.817 52.836 52.855 52.875 52.894 52.913 52.932 52.952 2390
2050 45.915 45.936 45.957 45.978 45.999 46.019 46.040 46.061 46.082 46.103 46.124 2050 2400 52.952 52.971 52.990 53.010 53.029 53.048 53.067 53.087 53.106 53.125 53.144 2400
2060 46.124 46.145 46.165 46.186 46.207 46.228 46.249 46.269 46.290 46.311 46.332 2060 2410 53.144 53.163 53.183 53.202 53.221 53.240 53.260 53.279 53.298 53.317 53.336 2410
2070 46.332 46.353 46.373 46.394 46.415 46.436 46.457 46.477 46.498 46.519 46.540 2070 2420 53.336 53.355 53.375 53.394 53.413 53.432 53.451 53.470 53.490 53.509 53.528 2420
2080 46.540 46.560 46.581 46.602 46.623 46.643 46.664 46.685 46.706 46.726 46.747 2080 2430 53.528 53.547 53.566 53.585 53.604 53.623 53.643 53.662 53.681 53.700 53.719 2430
2090 46.747 46.768 46.789 46.809 46.830 46.851 46.871 46.892 46.913 46.933 46.954 2090 2440 53.719 53.738 53.757 53.776 53.795 53.814 53.833 53.852 53.871 53.890 53.910 2440
2100 46.954 46.975 46.995 47.016 47.037 47.057 47.078 47.099 47.119 47.140 47.161 2100 2450 53.910 53.929 53.948 53.967 53.986 54.005 54.024 54.043 54.062 54.081 54.100 2450
2110 47.161 47.181 47.202 47.223 47.243 47.264 47.284 47.305 47.326 47.346 47.367 2110 2460 54.100 54.119 54.138 54.157 54.176 54.195 54.214 54.233 54.252 54.271 54.289 2460
2120 47.367 47.387 47.408 47.429 47.449 47.470 47.490 47.511 47.531 47.552 47.573 2120 2470 54.289 54.308 54.327 54.346 54.365 54.384 54.403 54.422 54.441 54.460 54.479 2470
2130 47.573 47.593 47.614 47.634 47.655 47.675 47.696 47.716 47.737 47.757 47.778 2130 2480 54.479 54.498 54.517 54.536 54.554 54.573 54.592 54.611 54.630 54.649 54.668 2480
2140 47.778 47.798 47.819 47.839 47.860 47.880 47.901 47.921 47.942 47.962 47.983 2140 2490 54.668 54.687 54.705 54.724 54.743 54.762 54.781 54.800 54.819 54.837 54.856 2490
2150 47.983 48.003 48.024 48.044 48.065 48.085 48.105 48.126 48.146 48.167 48.187 2150 2500 54.856 54.875 54.894 2500
2160 48.187 48.208 48.228 48.248 48.269 48.289 48.310 48.330 48.350 48.371 48.391 2160
2170 48.391 48.411 48.432 48.452 48.473 48.493 48.513 48.534 48.554 48.574 48.595 2170
2180 48.595 48.615 48.635 48.656 48.676 48.696 48.717 48.737 48.757 48.777 48.798 2180
2190 48.798 48.818 48.838 48.859 48.879 48.899 48.919 48.940 48.960 48.980 49.000 2190
2200 49.000 49.021 49.041 49.061 49.081 49.101 49.122 49.142 49.162 49.182 49.202 2200
2210 49.202 49.223 49.243 49.263 49.283 49.303 49.323 49.344 49.364 49.384 49.404 2210
2220 49.404 49.424 49.444 49.465 49.485 49.505 49.525 49.545 49.565 49.585 49.605 2220
2230 49.605 49.625 49.645 49.666 49.686 49.706 49.726 49.746 49.766 49.786 49.806 2230
2240 49.806 49.826 49.846 49.866 49.886 49.906 49.926 49.946 49.966 49.986 50.006 2240
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

598
 Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E)

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -10 °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
100 2.281 2.316 2.351 2.385 2.420 2.454 2.489 2.524 2.558 2.593 2.628 100
110 2.628 2.663 2.698 2.733 2.767 2.802 2.837 2.872 2.907 2.942 2.977 110
120 2.977 3.012 3.048 3.083 3.118 3.153 3.188 3.224 3.259 3.294 3.330 120
130 3.330 3.365 3.400 3.436 3.471 3.507 3.542 3.578 3.613 3.649 3.685 130
-450 -9.835 -9.834 -9.833 -9.832 -9.830 -450 140 3.685 3.720 3.756 3.792 3.827 3.863 3.899 3.935 3.970 4.006 4.042 140
-440 -9.830 -9.829 -9.827 -9.825 -9.823 -9.821 -9.819 -9.817 -9.814 -9.812 -9.809 -440 150 4.042 4.078 4.114 4.150 4.186 4.222 4.258 4.294 4.330 4.366 4.403 150
-430 -9.809 -9.806 -9.803 -9.800 -9.797 -9.793 -9.790 -9.786 -9.782 -9.779 -9.775 -430 160 4.403 4.439 4.475 4.511 4.547 4.584 4.620 4.656 4.693 4.729 4.766 160
-420 -9.775 -9.771 -9.766 -9.762 -9.758 -9.753 -9.749 -9.744 -9.739 -9.734 -9.729 -420 170 4.766 4.802 4.839 4.875 4.912 4.948 4.985 5.021 5.058 5.095 5.131 170
-410 -9.729 -9.724 -9.718 -9.713 -9.707 -9.702 -9.696 -9.690 -9.684 -9.678 -9.672 -410 180 5.131 5.168 5.205 5.242 5.278 5.315 5.352 5.389 5.426 5.463 5.500 180
-400 -9.672 -9.666 -9.659 -9.653 -9.646 -9.639 -9.632 -9.625 -9.618 -9.611 -9.604 -400 190 5.500 5.537 5.574 5.611 5.648 5.685 5.722 5.759 5.796 5.833 5.871 190
-390 -9.604 -9.597 -9.589 -9.581 -9.574 -9.566 -9.558 -9.550 -9.542 -9.534 -9.525 -390 200 5.871 5.908 5.945 5.982 6.020 6.057 6.094 6.132 6.169 6.207 6.244 200
-380 -9.525 -9.517 -9.508 -9.500 -9.491 -9.482 -9.473 -9.464 -9.455 -9.446 -9.436 -380 210 6.244 6.281 6.319 6.356 6.394 6.432 6.469 6.507 6.544 6.582 6.620 210
-370 -9.436 -9.427 -9.417 -9.408 -9.398 -9.388 -9.378 -9.368 -9.358 -9.348 -9.338 -370 220 6.620 6.658 6.695 6.733 6.771 6.809 6.847 6.884 6.922 6.960 6.998 220
-360 -9.338 -9.327 -9.317 -9.306 -9.295 -9.285 -9.274 -9.263 -9.252 -9.241 -9.229 -360 230 6.998 7.036 7.074 7.112 7.150 7.188 7.226 7.264 7.302 7.341 7.379 230
-350 -9.229 -9.218 -9.207 -9.195 -9.184 -9.172 -9.160 -9.148 -9.136 -9.124 -9.112 -350 240 7.379 7.417 7.455 7.493 7.532 7.570 7.608 7.647 7.685 7.723 7.762 240
-340 -9.112 -9.100 -9.088 -9.075 -9.063 -9.050 -9.038 -9.025 -9.012 -8.999 -8.986 -340 250 7.762 7.800 7.839 7.877 7.916 7.954 7.993 8.031 8.070 8.108 8.147 250
-330 -8.986 -8.973 -8.960 -8.947 -8.934 -8.920 -8.907 -8.893 -8.880 -8.866 -8.852 -330 260 8.147 8.186 8.224 8.263 8.302 8.340 8.379 8.418 8.457 8.496 8.535 260
-320 -8.852 -8.839 -8.825 -8.811 -8.797 -8.782 -8.768 -8.754 -8.739 -8.725 -8.710 -320 270 8.535 8.573 8.612 8.651 8.690 8.729 8.768 8.807 8.846 8.885 8.924 270
-310 -8.710 -8.696 -8.681 -8.666 -8.652 -8.637 -8.622 -8.607 -8.591 -8.576 -8.561 -310 280 8.924 8.963 9.002 9.041 9.081 9.120 9.159 9.198 9.237 9.277 9.316 280
-300 -8.561 -8.546 -8.530 -8.515 -8.499 -8.483 -8.468 -8.452 -8.436 -8.420 -8.404 -300 290 9.316 9.355 9.395 9.434 9.473 9.513 9.552 9.591 9.631 9.670 9.710 290
-290 -8.404 -8.388 -8.372 -8.356 -8.339 -8.323 -8.307 -8.290 -8.273 -8.257 -8.240 -290 300 9.710 9.749 9.789 9.828 9.868 9.907 9.947 9.987 10.026 10.066 10.106 300
-280 -8.240 -8.223 -8.206 -8.189 -8.173 -8.155 -8.138 -8.121 -8.104 -8.087 -8.069 -280 310 10.106 10.145 10.185 10.225 10.265 10.304 10.344 10.384 10.424 10.464 10.503 310
-270 -8.069 -8.052 -8.034 -8.017 -7.999 -7.981 -7.963 -7.945 -7.928 -7.910 -7.891 -270 320 10.503 10.543 10.583 10.623 10.663 10.703 10.743 10.783 10.823 10.863 10.903 320
-260 -7.891 -7.873 -7.855 -7.837 -7.819 -7.800 -7.782 -7.763 -7.745 -7.726 -7.707 -260 330 10.903 10.943 10.983 11.024 11.064 11.104 11.144 11.184 11.224 11.265 11.305 330
-250 -7.707 -7.688 -7.670 -7.651 -7.632 -7.613 -7.593 -7.574 -7.555 -7.536 -7.516 -250 340 11.305 11.345 11.385 11.426 11.466 11.506 11.547 11.587 11.627 11.668 11.708 340
-240 -7.516 -7.497 -7.478 -7.458 -7.438 -7.419 -7.399 -7.379 -7.359 -7.339 -7.319 -240 350 11.708 11.749 11.789 11.830 11.870 11.911 11.951 11.992 12.032 12.073 12.113 350
-230 -7.319 -7.299 -7.279 -7.259 -7.239 -7.219 -7.198 -7.178 -7.157 -7.137 -7.116 -230 360 12.113 12.154 12.195 12.235 12.276 12.317 12.357 12.398 12.439 12.480 12.520 360
-220 -7.116 -7.096 -7.075 -7.054 -7.033 -7.013 -6.992 -6.971 -6.950 -6.928 -6.907 -220 370 12.520 12.561 12.602 12.643 12.684 12.724 12.765 12.806 12.847 12.888 12.929 370
-210 -6.907 -6.886 -6.865 -6.843 -6.822 -6.801 -6.779 -6.757 -6.736 -6.714 -6.692 -210 380 12.929 12.970 13.011 13.052 13.093 13.134 13.175 13.216 13.257 13.298 13.339 380
-200 -6.692 -6.671 -6.649 -6.627 -6.605 -6.583 -6.561 -6.539 -6.516 -6.494 -6.472 -200 390 13.339 13.380 13.421 13.462 13.504 13.545 13.586 13.627 13.668 13.710 13.751 390
-190 -6.472 -6.449 -6.427 -6.405 -6.382 -6.359 -6.337 -6.314 -6.291 -6.269 -6.246 -190 400 13.751 13.792 13.833 13.875 13.916 13.957 13.999 14.040 14.081 14.123 14.164 400
-180 -6.246 -6.223 -6.200 -6.177 -6.154 -6.130 -6.107 -6.084 -6.061 -6.037 -6.014 -180 410 14.164 14.205 14.247 14.288 14.330 14.371 14.413 14.454 14.496 14.537 14.579 410
-170 -6.014 -5.991 -5.967 -5.943 -5.920 -5.896 -5.872 -5.849 -5.825 -5.801 -5.777 -170 420 14.579 14.620 14.662 14.704 14.745 14.787 14.828 14.870 14.912 14.953 14.995 420
-160 -5.777 -5.753 -5.729 -5.705 -5.681 -5.656 -5.632 -5.608 -5.584 -5.559 -5.535 -160 430 14.995 15.037 15.078 15.120 15.162 15.204 15.245 15.287 15.329 15.371 15.413 430
-150 -5.535 -5.510 -5.486 -5.461 -5.436 -5.412 -5.387 -5.362 -5.337 -5.312 -5.287 -150 440 15.413 15.454 15.496 15.538 15.580 15.622 15.664 15.706 15.748 15.790 15.831 440
-140 -5.287 -5.262 -5.237 -5.212 -5.187 -5.162 -5.136 -5.111 -5.086 -5.060 -5.035 -140 450 15.831 15.873 15.915 15.957 15.999 16.041 16.083 16.125 16.168 16.210 16.252 450
-130 -5.035 -5.009 -4.984 -4.958 -4.932 -4.907 -4.881 -4.855 -4.829 -4.803 -4.777 -130 460 16.252 16.294 16.336 16.378 16.420 16.462 16.504 16.547 16.589 16.631 16.673 460
-120 -4.777 -4.751 -4.725 -4.699 -4.673 -4.647 -4.621 -4.594 -4.568 -4.542 -4.515 -120 470 16.673 16.715 16.758 16.800 16.842 16.884 16.927 16.969 17.011 17.054 17.096 470
-110 -4.515 -4.489 -4.462 -4.436 -4.409 -4.382 -4.355 -4.329 -4.302 -4.275 -4.248 -110 480 17.096 17.138 17.181 17.223 17.265 17.308 17.350 17.392 17.435 17.477 17.520 480
-100 -4.248 -4.221 -4.194 -4.167 -4.140 -4.113 -4.086 -4.058 -4.031 -4.004 -3.976 -100 490 17.520 17.562 17.605 17.647 17.690 17.732 17.775 17.817 17.860 17.902 17.945 490
-90 -3.976 -3.949 -3.922 -3.894 -3.867 -3.839 -3.811 -3.784 -3.756 -3.728 -3.700 -90 500 17.945 17.987 18.030 18.073 18.115 18.158 18.200 18.243 18.286 18.328 18.371 500
-80 -3.700 -3.672 -3.645 -3.617 -3.589 -3.561 -3.532 -3.504 -3.476 -3.448 -3.420 -80 510 18.371 18.414 18.456 18.499 18.542 18.585 18.627 18.670 18.713 18.756 18.798 510
-70 -3.420 -3.391 -3.363 -3.335 -3.306 -3.278 -3.249 -3.221 -3.192 -3.163 -3.135 -70 520 18.798 18.841 18.884 18.927 18.969 19.012 19.055 19.098 19.141 19.184 19.227 520
-60 -3.135 -3.106 -3.077 -3.048 -3.020 -2.991 -2.962 -2.933 -2.904 -2.875 -2.846 -60 530 19.227 19.269 19.312 19.355 19.398 19.441 19.484 19.527 19.570 19.613 19.656 530
-50 -2.846 -2.816 -2.787 -2.758 -2.729 -2.699 -2.670 -2.641 -2.611 -2.582 -2.552 -50 540 19.656 19.699 19.742 19.785 19.828 19.871 19.914 19.957 20.000 20.043 20.086 540
-40 -2.552 -2.523 -2.493 -2.463 -2.434 -2.404 -2.374 -2.344 -2.315 -2.285 -2.255 -40 550 20.086 20.129 20.172 20.216 20.259 20.302 20.345 20.388 20.431 20.474 20.517 550
-30 -2.255 -2.225 -2.195 -2.165 -2.135 -2.105 -2.074 -2.044 -2.014 -1.984 -1.953 -30 560 20.517 20.561 20.604 20.647 20.690 20.733 20.777 20.820 20.863 20.906 20.950 560
-20 -1.953 -1.923 -1.893 -1.862 -1.832 -1.801 -1.771 -1.740 -1.709 -1.679 -1.648 -20 570 20.950 20.993 21.036 21.080 21.123 21.166 21.209 21.253 21.296 21.339 21.383 570
-10 -1.648 -1.617 -1.587 -1.556 -1.525 -1.494 -1.463 -1.432 -1.401 -1.370 -1.339 -10 580 21.383 21.426 21.470 21.513 21.556 21.600 21.643 21.686 21.730 21.773 21.817 580
0 -1.339 -1.308 -1.277 -1.245 -1.214 -1.183 -1.152 -1.120 -1.089 -1.057 -1.026 0 590 21.817 21.860 21.904 21.947 21.991 22.034 22.078 22.121 22.165 22.208 22.252 590
0 -1.026 -0.994 -0.963 -0.931 -0.900 -0.868 -0.836 -0.805 -0.773 -0.741 -0.709 0 600 22.252 22.295 22.339 22.382 22.426 22.469 22.513 22.556 22.600 22.644 22.687 600
10 -0.709 -0.677 -0.645 -0.614 -0.582 -0.550 -0.517 -0.485 -0.453 -0.421 -0.389 10 610 22.687 22.731 22.774 22.818 22.862 22.905 22.949 22.993 23.036 23.080 23.124 610
20 -0.389 -0.357 -0.324 -0.292 -0.260 -0.227 -0.195 -0.163 -0.130 -0.098 -0.065 20 620 23.124 23.167 23.211 23.255 23.298 23.342 23.386 23.429 23.473 23.517 23.561 620
30 -0.065 -0.033 0.000 0.033 0.065 0.098 0.131 0.163 0.196 0.229 0.262 30 630 23.561 23.604 23.648 23.692 23.736 23.780 23.823 23.867 23.911 23.955 23.999 630
40 0.262 0.294 0.327 0.360 0.393 0.426 0.459 0.492 0.525 0.558 0.591 40 640 23.999 24.042 24.086 24.130 24.174 24.218 24.262 24.305 24.349 24.393 24.437 640
50 0.591 0.624 0.657 0.691 0.724 0.757 0.790 0.824 0.857 0.890 0.924 50 650 24.437 24.481 24.525 24.569 24.613 24.657 24.701 24.745 24.789 24.832 24.876 650
60 0.924 0.957 0.990 1.024 1.057 1.091 1.124 1.158 1.192 1.225 1.259 60 660 24.876 24.920 24.964 25.008 25.052 25.096 25.140 25.184 25.228 25.272 25.316 660
70 1.259 1.292 1.326 1.360 1.394 1.427 1.461 1.495 1.529 1.563 1.597 70 670 25.316 25.360 25.404 25.448 25.493 25.537 25.581 25.625 25.669 25.713 25.757 670
80 1.597 1.631 1.665 1.699 1.733 1.767 1.801 1.835 1.869 1.904 1.938 80 680 25.757 25.801 25.845 25.889 25.933 25.977 26.022 26.066 26.110 26.154 26.198 680
90 1.938 1.972 2.006 2.041 2.075 2.109 2.144 2.178 2.212 2.247 2.281 90 690 26.198 26.242 26.286 26.331 26.375 26.419 26.463 26.507 26.552 26.596 26.640 690
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -10 °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

599
 Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E) Continued

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
700 26.640 26.684 26.728 26.773 26.817 26.861 26.905 26.950 26.994 27.038 27.082 700 1300 53.466 53.510 53.555 53.599 53.643 53.687 53.732 53.776 53.820 53.864 53.908 1300
710 27.082 27.127 27.171 27.215 27.259 27.304 27.348 27.392 27.437 27.481 27.525 710 1310 53.908 53.952 53.997 54.041 54.085 54.129 54.173 54.218 54.262 54.306 54.350 1310
720 27.525 27.570 27.614 27.658 27.703 27.747 27.791 27.836 27.880 27.924 27.969 720 1320 54.350 54.394 54.438 54.482 54.527 54.571 54.615 54.659 54.703 54.747 54.791 1320
730 27.969 28.013 28.057 28.102 28.146 28.191 28.235 28.279 28.324 28.368 28.413 730 1330 54.791 54.835 54.879 54.924 54.968 55.012 55.056 55.100 55.144 55.188 55.232 1330
740 28.413 28.457 28.501 28.546 28.590 28.635 28.679 28.724 28.768 28.813 28.857 740 1340 55.232 55.276 55.320 55.364 55.408 55.453 55.497 55.541 55.585 55.629 55.673 1340
750 28.857 28.901 28.946 28.990 29.035 29.079 29.124 29.168 29.213 29.257 29.302 750 1350 55.673 55.717 55.761 55.805 55.849 55.893 55.937 55.981 56.025 56.069 56.113 1350
760 29.302 29.346 29.391 29.435 29.480 29.525 29.569 29.614 29.658 29.703 29.747 760 1360 56.113 56.157 56.201 56.245 56.289 56.333 56.377 56.421 56.465 56.509 56.553 1360
770 29.747 29.792 29.836 29.881 29.925 29.970 30.015 30.059 30.104 30.148 30.193 770 1370 56.553 56.597 56.641 56.685 56.729 56.773 56.816 56.860 56.904 56.948 56.992 1370
780 30.193 30.238 30.282 30.327 30.371 30.416 30.461 30.505 30.550 30.595 30.639 780 1380 56.992 57.036 57.080 57.124 57.168 57.212 57.256 57.300 57.344 57.387 57.431 1380
790 30.639 30.684 30.728 30.773 30.818 30.862 30.907 30.952 30.996 31.041 31.086 790 1390 57.431 57.475 57.519 57.563 57.607 57.651 57.695 57.738 57.782 57.826 57.870 1390
800 31.086 31.130 31.175 31.220 31.264 31.309 31.354 31.398 31.443 31.488 31.533 800 1400 57.870 57.914 57.958 58.002 58.045 58.089 58.133 58.177 58.221 58.265 58.308 1400
810 31.533 31.577 31.622 31.667 31.711 31.756 31.801 31.846 31.890 31.935 31.980 810 1410 58.308 58.352 58.396 58.440 58.484 58.527 58.571 58.615 58.659 58.702 58.746 1410
820 31.980 32.025 32.069 32.114 32.159 32.204 32.248 32.293 32.338 32.383 32.427 820 1420 58.746 58.790 58.834 58.878 58.921 58.965 59.009 59.053 59.096 59.140 59.184 1420
830 32.427 32.472 32.517 32.562 32.606 32.651 32.696 32.741 32.786 32.830 32.875 830 1430 59.184 59.228 59.271 59.315 59.359 59.402 59.446 59.490 59.534 59.577 59.621 1430
840 32.875 32.920 32.965 33.010 33.054 33.099 33.144 33.189 33.234 33.278 33.323 840 1440 59.621 59.665 59.708 59.752 59.796 59.839 59.883 59.927 59.970 60.014 60.058 1440
850 33.323 33.368 33.413 33.458 33.503 33.547 33.592 33.637 33.682 33.727 33.772 850 1450 60.058 60.101 60.145 60.189 60.232 60.276 60.320 60.363 60.407 60.451 60.494 1450
860 33.772 33.816 33.861 33.906 33.951 33.996 34.041 34.086 34.130 34.175 34.220 860 1460 60.494 60.538 60.581 60.625 60.669 60.712 60.756 60.799 60.843 60.887 60.930 1460
870 34.220 34.265 34.310 34.355 34.400 34.445 34.489 34.534 34.579 34.624 34.669 870 1470 60.930 60.974 61.017 61.061 61.105 61.148 61.192 61.235 61.279 61.322 61.366 1470
880 34.669 34.714 34.759 34.804 34.849 34.893 34.938 34.983 35.028 35.073 35.118 880 1480 61.366 61.409 61.453 61.496 61.540 61.583 61.627 61.671 61.714 61.758 61.801 1480
890 35.118 35.163 35.208 35.253 35.298 35.343 35.387 35.432 35.477 35.522 35.567 890 1490 61.801 61.845 61.888 61.932 61.975 62.018 62.062 62.105 62.149 62.192 62.236 1490
900 35.567 35.612 35.657 35.702 35.747 35.792 35.837 35.882 35.927 35.972 36.016 900 1500 62.236 62.279 62.323 62.366 62.410 62.453 62.496 62.540 62.583 62.627 62.670 1500
910 36.016 36.061 36.106 36.151 36.196 36.241 36.286 36.331 36.376 36.421 36.466 910 1510 62.670 62.714 62.757 62.800 62.844 62.887 62.931 62.974 63.017 63.061 63.104 1510
920 36.466 36.511 36.556 36.601 36.646 36.691 36.736 36.781 36.826 36.870 36.915 920 1520 63.104 63.148 63.191 63.234 63.278 63.321 63.364 63.408 63.451 63.494 63.538 1520
930 36.915 36.960 37.005 37.050 37.095 37.140 37.185 37.230 37.275 37.320 37.365 930 1530 63.538 63.581 63.624 63.668 63.711 63.754 63.798 63.841 63.884 63.927 63.971 1530
940 37.365 37.410 37.455 37.500 37.545 37.590 37.635 37.680 37.725 37.770 37.815 940 1540 63.971 64.014 64.057 64.101 64.144 64.187 64.230 64.274 64.317 64.360 64.403 1540
950 37.815 37.860 37.905 37.950 37.995 38.040 38.085 38.130 38.175 38.220 38.265 950 1550 64.403 64.447 64.490 64.533 64.576 64.619 64.663 64.706 64.749 64.792 64.835 1550
960 38.265 38.309 38.354 38.399 38.444 38.489 38.534 38.579 38.624 38.669 38.714 960 1560 64.835 64.879 64.922 64.965 65.008 65.051 65.094 65.138 65.181 65.224 65.267 1560
970 38.714 38.759 38.804 38.849 38.894 38.939 38.984 39.029 39.074 39.119 39.164 970 1570 65.267 65.310 65.353 65.396 65.440 65.483 65.526 65.569 65.612 65.655 65.698 1570
980 39.164 39.209 39.254 39.299 39.344 39.389 39.434 39.479 39.524 39.569 39.614 980 1580 65.698 65.741 65.784 65.827 65.871 65.914 65.957 66.000 66.043 66.086 66.129 1580
990 39.614 39.659 39.704 39.749 39.794 39.839 39.884 39.929 39.974 40.019 40.064 990 1590 66.129 66.172 66.215 66.258 66.301 66.344 66.387 66.430 66.473 66.516 66.559 1590
1000 40.064 40.109 40.154 40.199 40.243 40.288 40.333 40.378 40.423 40.468 40.513 1000 1600 66.559 66.602 66.645 66.688 66.731 66.774 66.817 66.860 66.903 66.946 66.989 1600
1010 40.513 40.558 40.603 40.648 40.693 40.738 40.783 40.828 40.873 40.918 40.963 1010 1610 66.989 67.031 67.074 67.117 67.160 67.203 67.246 67.289 67.332 67.375 67.418 1610
1020 40.963 41.008 41.053 41.098 41.143 41.188 41.233 41.278 41.323 41.368 41.412 1020 1620 67.418 67.460 67.503 67.546 67.589 67.632 67.675 67.718 67.760 67.803 67.846 1620
1030 41.412 41.457 41.502 41.547 41.592 41.637 41.682 41.727 41.772 41.817 41.862 1030 1630 67.846 67.889 67.932 67.974 68.017 68.060 68.103 68.146 68.188 68.231 68.274 1630
1040 41.862 41.907 41.952 41.997 42.042 42.087 42.132 42.176 42.221 42.266 42.311 1040 1640 68.274 68.317 68.359 68.402 68.445 68.488 68.530 68.573 68.616 68.659 68.701 1640
1050 42.311 42.356 42.401 42.446 42.491 42.536 42.581 42.626 42.671 42.715 42.760 1050 1650 68.701 68.744 68.787 68.829 68.872 68.915 68.957 69.000 69.043 69.085 69.128 1650
1060 42.760 42.805 42.850 42.895 42.940 42.985 43.030 43.075 43.120 43.165 43.209 1060 1660 69.128 69.171 69.213 69.256 69.298 69.341 69.384 69.426 69.469 69.511 69.554 1660
1070 43.209 43.254 43.299 43.344 43.389 43.434 43.479 43.524 43.569 43.613 43.658 1070 1670 69.554 69.597 69.639 69.682 69.724 69.767 69.809 69.852 69.894 69.937 69.979 1670
1080 43.658 43.703 43.748 43.793 43.838 43.883 43.928 43.972 44.017 44.062 44.107 1080 1680 69.979 70.022 70.064 70.107 70.149 70.192 70.234 70.277 70.319 70.362 70.404 1680
1090 44.107 44.152 44.197 44.242 44.286 44.331 44.376 44.421 44.466 44.511 44.555 1090 1690 70.404 70.447 70.489 70.531 70.574 70.616 70.659 70.701 70.744 70.786 70.828 1690
1100 44.555 44.600 44.645 44.690 44.735 44.780 44.824 44.869 44.914 44.959 45.004 1100 1700 70.828 70.871 70.913 70.955 70.998 71.040 71.082 71.125 71.167 71.209 71.252 1700
1110 45.004 45.049 45.093 45.138 45.183 45.228 45.273 45.317 45.362 45.407 45.452 1110 1710 71.252 71.294 71.336 71.379 71.421 71.463 71.506 71.548 71.590 71.632 71.675 1710
1120 45.452 45.497 45.541 45.586 45.631 45.676 45.720 45.765 45.810 45.855 45.900 1120 1720 71.675 71.717 71.759 71.801 71.844 71.886 71.928 71.970 72.012 72.055 72.097 1720
1130 45.900 45.944 45.989 46.034 46.079 46.123 46.168 46.213 46.258 46.302 46.347 1130 1730 72.097 72.139 72.181 72.223 72.266 72.308 72.350 72.392 72.434 72.476 72.518 1730
1140 46.347 46.392 46.437 46.481 46.526 46.571 46.616 46.660 46.705 46.750 46.794 1140 1740 72.518 72.561 72.603 72.645 72.687 72.729 72.771 72.813 72.855 72.897 72.939 1740
1150 46.794 46.839 46.884 46.929 46.973 47.018 47.063 47.107 47.152 47.197 47.241 1150 1750 72.939 72.981 73.023 73.066 73.108 73.150 73.192 73.234 73.276 73.318 73.360 1750
1160 47.241 47.286 47.331 47.375 47.420 47.465 47.509 47.554 47.599 47.643 47.688 1160 1760 73.360 73.402 73.444 73.486 73.528 73.570 73.612 73.654 73.696 73.738 73.780 1760
1170 47.688 47.733 47.777 47.822 47.867 47.911 47.956 48.001 48.045 48.090 48.135 1170 1770 73.780 73.821 73.863 73.905 73.947 73.989 74.031 74.073 74.115 74.157 74.199 1770
1180 48.135 48.179 48.224 48.268 48.313 48.358 48.402 48.447 48.492 48.536 48.581 1180 1780 74.199 74.241 74.283 74.324 74.366 74.408 74.450 74.492 74.534 74.576 74.618 1780
1190 48.581 48.625 48.670 48.715 48.759 48.804 48.848 48.893 48.937 48.982 49.027 1190 1790 74.618 74.659 74.701 74.743 74.785 74.827 74.869 74.910 74.952 74.994 75.036 1790
1200 49.027 49.071 49.116 49.160 49.205 49.249 49.294 49.338 49.383 49.428 49.472 1200 1800 75.036 75.078 75.120 75.161 75.203 75.245 75.287 75.329 75.370 75.412 75.454 1800
1210 49.472 49.517 49.561 49.606 49.650 49.695 49.739 49.784 49.828 49.873 49.917 1210 1810 75.454 75.496 75.538 75.579 75.621 75.663 75.705 75.746 75.788 75.830 75.872 1810
1220 49.917 49.962 50.006 50.051 50.095 50.140 50.184 50.229 50.273 50.318 50.362 1220 1820 75.872 75.913 75.955 75.997 76.039 76.081 76.122 76.164 76.206 76.248 76.289 1820
1230 50.362 50.407 50.451 50.495 50.540 50.584 50.629 50.673 50.718 50.762 50.807 1230 1830 76.289 76.331 76.373 1830
1240 50.807 50.851 50.895 50.940 50.984 51.029 51.073 51.118 51.162 51.206 51.251 1240
1250 51.251 51.295 51.340 51.384 51.428 51.473 51.517 51.561 51.606 51.650 51.695 1250
1260 51.695 51.739 51.783 51.828 51.872 51.916 51.961 52.005 52.049 52.094 52.138 1260
1270 52.138 52.182 52.227 52.271 52.315 52.360 52.404 52.448 52.493 52.537 52.581 1270
1280 52.581 52.625 52.670 52.714 52.758 52.803 52.847 52.891 52.935 52.980 53.024 1280
1290 53.024 53.068 53.112 53.157 53.201 53.245 53.289 53.334 53.378 53.422 53.466 1290
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

600
 Table A4 - Thermocouple Table (Type T)

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
150 2.712 2.737 2.761 2.786 2.810 2.835 2.860 2.884 2.909 2.934 2.958 150
160 2.958 2.983 3.008 3.033 3.058 3.082 3.107 3.132 3.157 3.182 3.207 160
170 3.207 3.232 3.257 3.282 3.307 3.333 3.358 3.383 3.408 3.433 3.459 170
180 3.459 3.484 3.509 3.534 3.560 3.585 3.610 3.636 3.661 3.687 3.712 180
-450 -6.258 -6.257 -6.256 -6.255 -6.254 -450 190 3.712 3.738 3.763 3.789 3.814 3.840 3.866 3.891 3.917 3.943 3.968 190
-440 -6.254 -6.253 -6.252 -6.251 -6.250 -6.248 -6.247 -6.245 -6.243 -6.242 -6.240 -440 200 3.968 3.994 4.020 4.046 4.071 4.097 4.123 4.149 4.175 4.201 4.227 200
-430 -6.240 -6.238 -6.236 -6.234 -6.232 -6.230 -6.227 -6.225 -6.222 -6.220 -6.217 -430 210 4.227 4.253 4.279 4.305 4.331 4.357 4.383 4.409 4.435 4.461 4.487 210
-420 -6.217 -6.215 -6.212 -6.209 -6.206 -6.203 -6.200 -6.197 -6.194 -6.191 -6.187 -420 220 4.487 4.513 4.540 4.566 4.592 4.618 4.645 4.671 4.697 4.724 4.750 220
-410 -6.187 -6.184 -6.180 -6.177 -6.173 -6.170 -6.166 -6.162 -6.158 -6.154 -6.150 -410 230 4.750 4.776 4.803 4.829 4.856 4.882 4.909 4.935 4.962 4.988 5.015 230
-400 -6.150 -6.146 -6.141 -6.137 -6.133 -6.128 -6.124 -6.119 -6.115 -6.110 -6.105 -400 240 5.015 5.042 5.068 5.095 5.122 5.148 5.175 5.202 5.228 5.255 5.282 240
-390 -6.105 -6.100 -6.095 -6.090 -6.085 -6.080 -6.075 -6.069 -6.064 -6.059 -6.053 -390 250 5.282 5.309 5.336 5.363 5.389 5.416 5.443 5.470 5.497 5.524 5.551 250
-380 -6.053 -6.047 -6.042 -6.036 -6.030 -6.025 -6.019 -6.013 -6.007 -6.001 -5.994 -380 260 5.551 5.578 5.605 5.632 5.660 5.687 5.714 5.741 5.768 5.795 5.823 260
-370 -5.994 -5.988 -5.982 -5.976 -5.969 -5.963 -5.956 -5.950 -5.943 -5.937 -5.930 -370 270 5.823 5.850 5.877 5.904 5.932 5.959 5.986 6.014 6.041 6.068 6.096 270
-360 -5.930 -5.923 -5.916 -5.909 -5.902 -5.896 -5.888 -5.881 -5.874 -5.867 -5.860 -360 280 6.096 6.123 6.151 6.178 6.206 6.233 6.261 6.288 6.316 6.343 6.371 280
-350 -5.860 -5.853 -5.845 -5.838 -5.830 -5.823 -5.815 -5.808 -5.800 -5.792 -5.785 -350 290 6.371 6.399 6.426 6.454 6.482 6.510 6.537 6.565 6.593 6.621 6.648 290
-340 -5.785 -5.777 -5.769 -5.761 -5.753 -5.745 -5.737 -5.729 -5.721 -5.713 -5.705 -340 300 6.648 6.676 6.704 6.732 6.760 6.788 6.816 6.844 6.872 6.900 6.928 300
-330 -5.705 -5.697 -5.688 -5.680 -5.672 -5.663 -5.655 -5.646 -5.638 -5.629 -5.620 -330 310 6.928 6.956 6.984 7.012 7.040 7.068 7.096 7.124 7.152 7.181 7.209 310
-320 -5.620 -5.612 -5.603 -5.594 -5.585 -5.577 -5.568 -5.559 -5.550 -5.541 -5.532 -320 320 7.209 7.237 7.265 7.294 7.322 7.350 7.378 7.407 7.435 7.463 7.492 320
-310 -5.532 -5.523 -5.513 -5.504 -5.495 -5.486 -5.476 -5.467 -5.458 -5.448 -5.439 -310 330 7.492 7.520 7.549 7.577 7.606 7.634 7.663 7.691 7.720 7.748 7.777 330
-300 -5.439 -5.429 -5.420 -5.410 -5.400 -5.391 -5.381 -5.371 -5.361 -5.351 -5.341 -300 340 7.777 7.805 7.834 7.863 7.891 7.920 7.949 7.977 8.006 8.035 8.064 340
-290 -5.341 -5.332 -5.322 -5.312 -5.301 -5.291 -5.281 -5.271 -5.261 -5.250 -5.240 -290 350 8.064 8.092 8.121 8.150 8.179 8.208 8.237 8.266 8.294 8.323 8.352 350
-280 -5.240 -5.230 -5.219 -5.209 -5.198 -5.188 -5.177 -5.167 -5.156 -5.145 -5.135 -280 360 8.352 8.381 8.410 8.439 8.468 8.497 8.526 8.555 8.585 8.614 8.643 360
-270 -5.135 -5.124 -5.113 -5.102 -5.091 -5.081 -5.070 -5.059 -5.048 -5.036 -5.025 -270 370 8.643 8.672 8.701 8.730 8.759 8.789 8.818 8.847 8.876 8.906 8.935 370
-260 -5.025 -5.014 -5.003 -4.992 -4.980 -4.969 -4.958 -4.946 -4.935 -4.923 -4.912 -260 380 8.935 8.964 8.994 9.023 9.052 9.082 9.111 9.141 9.170 9.200 9.229 380
-250 -4.912 -4.900 -4.889 -4.877 -4.865 -4.854 -4.842 -4.830 -4.818 -4.806 -4.794 -250 390 9.229 9.259 9.288 9.318 9.347 9.377 9.406 9.436 9.466 9.495 9.525 390
-240 -4.794 -4.783 -4.771 -4.759 -4.746 -4.734 -4.722 -4.710 -4.698 -4.685 -4.673 -240 400 9.525 9.555 9.584 9.614 9.644 9.673 9.703 9.733 9.763 9.793 9.822 400
-230 -4.673 -4.661 -4.648 -4.636 -4.624 -4.611 -4.599 -4.586 -4.573 -4.561 -4.548 -230 410 9.822 9.852 9.882 9.912 9.942 9.972 10.002 10.032 10.062 10.092 10.122 410
-220 -4.548 -4.535 -4.523 -4.510 -4.497 -4.484 -4.471 -4.458 -4.445 -4.432 -4.419 -220 420 10.122 10.152 10.182 10.212 10.242 10.272 10.302 10.332 10.362 10.392 10.423 420
-210 -4.419 -4.406 -4.393 -4.380 -4.366 -4.353 -4.340 -4.326 -4.313 -4.300 -4.286 -210 430 10.423 10.453 10.483 10.513 10.543 10.574 10.604 10.634 10.664 10.695 10.725 430
-200 -4.286 -4.273 -4.259 -4.246 -4.232 -4.218 -4.205 -4.191 -4.177 -4.163 -4.149 -200 440 10.725 10.755 10.786 10.816 10.847 10.877 10.907 10.938 10.968 10.999 11.029 440
-190 -4.149 -4.136 -4.122 -4.108 -4.094 -4.080 -4.066 -4.052 -4.037 -4.023 -4.009 -190 450 11.029 11.060 11.090 11.121 11.151 11.182 11.213 11.243 11.274 11.304 11.335 450
-180 -4.009 -3.995 -3.980 -3.966 -3.952 -3.937 -3.923 -3.908 -3.894 -3.879 -3.865 -180 460 11.335 11.366 11.396 11.427 11.458 11.489 11.519 11.550 11.581 11.612 11.643 460
-170 -3.865 -3.850 -3.836 -3.821 -3.806 -3.791 -3.777 -3.762 -3.747 -3.732 -3.717 -170 470 11.643 11.673 11.704 11.735 11.766 11.797 11.828 11.859 11.890 11.920 11.951 470
-160 -3.717 -3.702 -3.687 -3.672 -3.657 -3.642 -3.626 -3.611 -3.596 -3.581 -3.565 -160 480 11.951 11.982 12.013 12.044 12.075 12.106 12.138 12.169 12.200 12.231 12.262 480
-150 -3.565 -3.550 -3.535 -3.519 -3.504 -3.488 -3.473 -3.457 -3.441 -3.426 -3.410 -150 490 12.262 12.293 12.324 12.355 12.386 12.418 12.449 12.480 12.511 12.543 12.574 490
-140 -3.410 -3.394 -3.379 -3.363 -3.347 -3.331 -3.315 -3.299 -3.283 -3.267 -3.251 -140 500 12.574 12.605 12.636 12.668 12.699 12.730 12.762 12.793 12.824 12.856 12.887 500
-130 -3.251 -3.235 -3.219 -3.203 -3.187 -3.171 -3.154 -3.138 -3.122 -3.105 -3.089 -130 510 12.887 12.919 12.950 12.982 13.013 13.045 13.076 13.108 13.139 13.171 13.202 510
-120 -3.089 -3.072 -3.056 -3.040 -3.023 -3.006 -2.990 -2.973 -2.956 -2.940 -2.923 -120 520 13.202 13.234 13.265 13.297 13.328 13.360 13.392 13.423 13.455 13.487 13.518 520
-110 -2.923 -2.906 -2.889 -2.873 -2.856 -2.839 -2.822 -2.805 -2.788 -2.771 -2.754 -110 530 13.518 13.550 13.582 13.614 13.645 13.677 13.709 13.741 13.772 13.804 13.836 530
-100 -2.754 -2.737 -2.719 -2.702 -2.685 -2.668 -2.651 -2.633 -2.616 -2.598 -2.581 -100 540 13.836 13.868 13.900 13.932 13.964 13.995 14.027 14.059 14.091 14.123 14.155 540
-90 -2.581 -2.564 -2.546 -2.529 -2.511 -2.493 -2.476 -2.458 -2.440 -2.423 -2.405 -90 550 14.155 14.187 14.219 14.251 14.283 14.315 14.347 14.379 14.411 14.444 14.476 550
-80 -2.405 -2.387 -2.369 -2.351 -2.334 -2.316 -2.298 -2.280 -2.262 -2.244 -2.225 -80 560 14.476 14.508 14.540 14.572 14.604 14.636 14.669 14.701 14.733 14.765 14.797 560
-70 -2.225 -2.207 -2.189 -2.171 -2.153 -2.134 -2.116 -2.098 -2.079 -2.061 -2.043 -70 570 14.797 14.830 14.862 14.894 14.926 14.959 14.991 15.023 15.056 15.088 15.121 570
-60 -2.043 -2.024 -2.006 -1.987 -1.969 -1.950 -1.931 -1.913 -1.894 -1.875 -1.857 -60 580 15.121 15.153 15.185 15.218 15.250 15.283 15.315 15.347 15.380 15.412 15.445 580
-50 -1.857 -1.838 -1.819 -1.800 -1.781 -1.762 -1.743 -1.724 -1.705 -1.686 -1.667 -50 590 15.445 15.477 15.510 15.543 15.575 15.608 15.640 15.673 15.705 15.738 15.771 590
-40 -1.667 -1.648 -1.629 -1.610 -1.591 -1.572 -1.552 -1.533 -1.514 -1.494 -1.475 -40 600 15.771 15.803 15.836 15.869 15.901 15.934 15.967 15.999 16.032 16.065 16.098 600
-30 -1.475 -1.456 -1.436 -1.417 -1.397 -1.378 -1.358 -1.338 -1.319 -1.299 -1.279 -30 610 16.098 16.130 16.163 16.196 16.229 16.262 16.295 16.327 16.360 16.393 16.426 610
-20 -1.279 -1.260 -1.240 -1.220 -1.200 -1.181 -1.161 -1.141 -1.121 -1.101 -1.081 -20 620 16.426 16.459 16.492 16.525 16.558 16.591 16.624 16.657 16.690 16.723 16.756 620
-10 -1.081 -1.061 -1.041 -1.021 -1.001 -0.980 -0.960 -0.940 -0.920 -0.900 -0.879 -10 630 16.756 16.789 16.822 16.855 16.888 16.921 16.954 16.987 17.020 17.053 17.086 630
0 -0.879 -0.859 -0.839 -0.818 -0.798 -0.777 -0.757 -0.736 -0.716 -0.695 -0.675 0 640 17.086 17.120 17.153 17.186 17.219 17.252 17.286 17.319 17.352 17.385 17.418 640
0 -0.675 -0.654 -0.633 -0.613 -0.592 -0.571 -0.550 -0.530 -0.509 -0.488 -0.467 0 650 17.418 17.452 17.485 17.518 17.552 17.585 17.618 17.652 17.685 17.718 17.752 650
10 -0.467 -0.446 -0.425 -0.404 -0.383 -0.362 -0.341 -0.320 -0.299 -0.278 -0.256 10 660 17.752 17.785 17.819 17.852 17.886 17.919 17.952 17.986 18.019 18.053 18.086 660
20 -0.256 -0.235 -0.214 -0.193 -0.171 -0.150 -0.129 -0.107 -0.086 -0.064 -0.043 20 670 18.086 18.120 18.153 18.187 18.221 18.254 18.288 18.321 18.355 18.389 18.422 670
30 -0.043 -0.022 0.000 0.022 0.043 0.065 0.086 0.108 0.130 0.151 0.173 30 680 18.422 18.456 18.490 18.523 18.557 18.591 18.624 18.658 18.692 18.725 18.759 680
40 0.173 0.195 0.216 0.238 0.260 0.282 0.303 0.325 0.347 0.369 0.391 40 690 18.759 18.793 18.827 18.861 18.894 18.928 18.962 18.996 19.030 19.064 19.097 690
50 0.391 0.413 0.435 0.457 0.479 0.501 0.523 0.545 0.567 0.589 0.611 50 700 19.097 19.131 19.165 19.199 19.233 19.267 19.301 19.335 19.369 19.403 19.437 700
60 0.611 0.634 0.656 0.678 0.700 0.723 0.745 0.767 0.790 0.812 0.834 60 710 19.437 19.471 19.505 19.539 19.573 19.607 19.641 19.675 19.709 19.743 19.777 710
70 0.834 0.857 0.879 0.902 0.924 0.947 0.969 0.992 1.015 1.037 1.060 70 720 19.777 19.811 19.845 19.879 19.913 19.947 19.982 20.016 20.050 20.084 20.118 720
80 1.060 1.083 1.105 1.128 1.151 1.174 1.196 1.219 1.242 1.265 1.288 80 730 20.118 20.152 20.187 20.221 20.255 20.289 20.323 20.358 20.392 20.426 20.460 730
90 1.288 1.311 1.334 1.357 1.380 1.403 1.426 1.449 1.472 1.496 1.519 90 740 20.460 20.495 20.529 20.563 20.597 20.632 20.666 20.700 20.735 20.769 20.803 740
100 1.519 1.542 1.565 1.588 1.612 1.635 1.658 1.682 1.705 1.729 1.752 100 750 20.803 20.838 20.872 750
110 1.752 1.776 1.799 1.823 1.846 1.870 1.893 1.917 1.941 1.964 1.988 110
120 1.988 2.012 2.036 2.060 2.083 2.107 2.131 2.155 2.179 2.203 2.227 120
130 2.227 2.251 2.275 2.299 2.323 2.347 2.371 2.395 2.420 2.444 2.468 130
140 2.468 2.492 2.517 2.541 2.565 2.590 2.614 2.639 2.663 2.687 2.712 140
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

601
 Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms

Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Celsius Ohms

0 -17.78 93.04
5 -15.00 94.12
10 -12.22 95.21
15 -9.44 96.31
20 -6.67 97.39
25 -3.89 98.48
30 -1.11 99.57
32 0.00 100.00
35 1.67 100.65
40 4.44 101.73
45 7.22 102.82
50 10.00 103.90
55 12.78 104.98
60 15.56 106.07
65 18.33 107.15
70 21.11 108.22
75 23.89 109.31
80 26.67 110.38
85 29.44 111.45
90 32.22 112.53
95 35.00 113.61
100 37.78 114.68
105 40.56 115.76
110 43.33 116.83
115 46.11 117.90
120 48.89 118.97
125 51.67 120.04
130 54.44 121.11
135 57.22 122.17
140 60.00 123.24
145 62.78 124.31
150 65.56 125.37
155 68.33 126.44
160 71.11 127.50
165 73.89 128.56
170 76.67 129.62
175 79.44 130.68
180 82.22 131.74
185 85.00 132.80
190 87.78 133.86
195 90.56 134.91
200 93.33 135.97
212 100.00 138.50
225 107.22 141.24
250 121.11 146.48
275 135.00 151.70
300 148.89 156.90

602
 Table A6 - Properties of Water Specific Gravity and LBs/HR to GPM

603
 Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density

Temperature Specific Volume Weight Density

-t- -v- -ρ-
(oF) (ft3/lb) 3
(lb/ft ) (lb/gallon)
32 0.01602 62.41 8.344
40 0.01602 62.43 8.345
50 0.01602 62.41 8.343
60 0.01603 62.37 8.338
70 0.01605 62.31 8.329
80 0.01607 62.22 8.318
90 0.01610 62.12 8.304
100 0.01613 62.00 8.288
110 0.01617 61.86 8.270
120 0.01620 61.71 8.250
130 0.01625 61.55 8.228
140 0.01629 61.38 8.205
150 0.01634 61.19 8.180
160 0.01640 60.99 8.154
170 0.01645 60.79 8.126
180 0.01651 60.57 8.097
190 0.01657 60.34 8.067
200 0.01664 60.11 8.035
210 0.01670 59.86 8.002
212 0.01672 59.81 7.996
220 0.01678 59.61 7.969
240 0.01693 59.08 7.898
260 0.01709 58.52 7.823
280 0.01726 57.92 7.743
300 0.01745 57.31 7.661
350 0.01799 55.59 7.431
400 0.01864 53.65 7.172
450 0.01943 51.47 6.880
500 0.02043 48.95 6.543
550 0.02176 45.96 6.143
600 0.02364 42.30 5.655
650 0.02674 37.40 4.999
700 0.03662 27.30 3.651

604
 Table A8 - Properties of Water Kinematic Viscosity Centistokes

Deg F (cSt) Deg F (cSt)

32 1.93 120 0.609
35 1.82 125 0.582
40 1.66 130 0.562
45 1.53 135 0.534
50 1.41 140 0.514
55 1.30 145 0.493
60 1.22 150 0.472
65 1.13 155 0.457
70 1.05 160 0.440
75 0.988 165 0.426
80 0.929 170 0.411
85 0.870 175 0.397
90 0.825 180 0.384
95 0.782 185 0.372
100 0.738 190 0.362
105 0.698 195 0.351
110 0.668 200 0.341
115 0.637 212 0.318

605
 Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE HEAT OF THE LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT SPECIFIC

(LBS. PER SQ IN.) LIQUID OF OF VOLUME
(Degrees F) (BTU/LB) EVAPORATION STEAM Hg (CU FT
Absolute P Gauge P (BTU/LB) (BTU/LB) PER LB)

14.696 0.0 212.00 180.07 970.3 1150.4 26.80

15.0 0.3 213.03 181.11 969.7 1150.8 26.29
16.0 1.3 216.32 184.42 967.6 1152.0 24.75
17.0 2.3 219.44 187.56 965.5 1153.1 23.39
18.0 3.3 222.41 190.56 963.6 1154.2 22.17
19.0 4.3 225.24 193.42 961.9 1155.3 21.08
20.0 5.3 227.96 196.16 960.1 1156.3 20.089
21.0 6.3 230.57 198.79 958.4 1157.2 19.192
22.0 7.3 233.07 201.33 956.8 1158.1 18.375
23.0 8.3 235.49 203.78 955.2 1159.0 17.627
24.0 9.3 237.82 206.14 953.7 1159.8 16.938
25.0 10.3 240.07 208.42 952.1 1160.6 16.303
26.0 11.3 242.25 210.62 950.7 1161.3 15.715
27.0 12.3 244.36 212.75 949.3 1162.0 15.170
28.0 13.3 246.41 214.83 947.9 1162.7 14.663
29.0 14.3 248.40 216.86 946.5 1163.4 14.189
30.0 15.3 250.33 218.82 945.3 1164.1 13.746
31.0 16.3 252.22 220.73 944.0 1164.7 13.330
32.0 17.3 254.05 222.59 942.8 1165.4 12.940
33.0 18.3 255.84 224.41 941.6 1166.0 12.572
34.0 19.3 257.58 226.18 940.3 1166.5 12.226
35.0 20.3 259.28 227.91 939.2 1167.1 11.898
36.0 21.3 260.95 229.60 938.0 1167.6 11.588
37.0 22.3 262.57 231.26 936.9 1168.2 11.294
38.0 23.3 264.16 232.89 935.8 1168.7 11.015
39.0 24.3 265.72 234.48 934.7 1169.2 10.750
40.0 25.3 267.25 236.03 933.7 1169.7 10.498
41.0 26.3 268.74 237.55 932.6 1170.2 10.258
42.0 27.3 270.21 239.04 931.6 1170.7 10.029
43.0 28.3 271.64 240.51 930.6 1171.1 9.810
44.0 29.3 273.05 241.95 929.6 1171.6 9.601
45.0 30.3 274.44 243.36 928.6 1172.0 9.401
46.0 31.3 275.80 244.75 927.7 1172.4 9.209
47.0 32.3 277.13 246.12 926.7 1172.9 9.025
48.0 33.3 278.45 247.47 925.8 1173.3 8.848
49.0 34.3 279.74 248.79 924.9 1173.7 8.678
50.0 35.3 281.01 250.09 924.0 1174.1 8.515
51.0 36.3 282.26 251.37 923.0 1174.4 8.359
52.0 37.3 283.49 252.63 922.2 1174.8 8.208
53.0 38.3 284.70 253.87 921.3 1175.2 8.062
54.0 39.3 285.90 255.09 920.5 1175.6 7.922

606
 Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE HEAT OF THE LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT SPECIFIC

(LBS. PER SQ IN.) LIQUID OF OF VOLUME
(Degrees F) (BTU/LB) EVAPORATION STEAM Hg (CU FT
Absolute P Gauge P (BTU/LB) (BTU/LB) PER LB)

55.0 40.3 287.07 256.30 919.6 1175.9 7.787

56.0 41.3 288.23 257.50 918.8 1176.3 7.656
57.0 42.3 289.37 258.67 917.9 1176.6 7.529
58.0 43.3 290.50 259.82 917.1 1176.9 7.407
59.0 44.3 291.61 260.96 916.3 1177.3 7.289
60.0 45.3 292.71 262.09 915.5 1177.6 7.175
61.0 46.3 293.79 263.20 914.7 1177.9 7.064
62.0 47.3 294.85 264.30 913.9 1178.2 6.957
63.0 48.3 295.90 265.38 913.1 1178.5 6.853
64.0 49.3 296.94 266.45 912.3 1178.8 6.752
65.0 50.3 297.97 267.50 911.6 1179.1 6.655
66.0 51.3 298.99 268.55 910.8 1179.4 6.560
67.0 52.3 299.99 269.58 910.1 1179.7 6.468
68.0 53.3 300.98 270.60 909.4 1180.0 6.378
69.0 54.3 301.96 291.61 908.7 1180.3 6.291
70.0 55.3 302.92 272.61 907.9 1180.6 6.206
71.0 56.3 303.88 273.60 907.2 1180.8 6.124
72.0 57.3 304.83 274.57 906.5 1181.1 6.044
73.0 58.3 305.76 275.54 905.8 1181.3 5.966
74.0 59.3 306.68 276.49 905.1 1181.6 5.890
75.0 60.3 307.60 277.43 904.5 1181.9 5.816
76.0 61.3 308.50 278.37 903.7 1182.1 5.743
77.0 62.3 309.40 279.30 903.1 1182.4 5.673
78.0 63.3 310.29 280.21 902.4 1182.6 5.604
79.0 64.3 311.16 281.12 901.7 1182.8 5.537
80.0 65.3 312.03 282.02 901.1 1183.1 5.472
81.0 66.3 312.89 282.91 900.4 1183.3 5.408
82.0 67.3 313.74 283.79 899.7 1183.5 5.346
83.0 68.3 314.59 284.66 899.1 1183.8 5.285
84.0 69.3 315.42 285.53 898.5 1184.0 5.226
85.0 70.3 316.25 286.39 897.8 1184.2 5.168
86.0 71.3 317.07 287.24 897.2 1184.4 5.111
87.0 72.3 317.88 288.08 896.5 1184.6 5.055
88.0 73.3 318.68 288.91 895.9 1184.8 5.001
89.0 74.3 319.48 289.74 895.3 1185.1 4.948
90.0 75.3 320.27 290.56 894.7 1185.3 4.896
91.0 76.3 321.06 291.38 894.1 1185.5 4.845
92.0 77.3 321.83 292.18 893.5 1185.7 4.796
93.0 78.3 322.60 292.98 892.9 1185.9 4.747
94.0 79.3 323.36 293.78 892.3 1186.1 4.699
95.0 80.3 324.12 294.56 891.7 1186.2 4.652
96.0 81.3 324.87 295.34 891.1 1186.4 4.606
97.0 82.3 325.61 296.12 890.5 1186.6 4.561
98.0 83.3 326.35 296.89 889.9 1186.8 4.517
99.0 84.3 327.08 297.65 889.4 1187.0 4.474

607
 Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE HEAT OF THE LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT SPECIFIC

(LBS. PER SQ IN.) LIQUID OF OF VOLUME
(Degrees F) (BTU/LB) EVAPORATION STEAM Hg (CU FT
Absolute P Gauge P (BTU/LB) (BTU/LB) PER LB)

100.0 85.3 327.81 298.40 888.8 1187.2 4.432

101.0 86.3 328.53 299.15 888.2 1187.4 4.391
102.0 87.3 329.25 299.90 887.6 1187.5 4.350
103.0 88.3 329.96 300.64 887.1 1187.7 4.310
104.0 89.3 330.66 301.37 886.5 1187.9 4.271
105.0 90.3 331.36 302.10 886.0 1188.1 4.232
106.0 91.3 332.05 302.82 885.4 1188.2 4.194
107.0 92.3 332.74 303.54 884.9 1188.4 4.157
108.0 93.3 333.42 304.26 884.3 1188.6 4.120
109.0 94.3 334.10 304.97 883.7 1188.7 4.084
110.0 95.3 334.77 305.66 883.2 1188.9 4.049
111.0 96.3 335.44 306.37 882.6 1189.0 4.015
112.0 97.3 336.11 307.06 882.1 1189.2 3.981
113.0 98.3 336.77 307.75 881.6 1189.4 3.947
114.0 99.3 337.42 308.43 881.1 1189.5 3.914
115.0 100.3 338.07 309.11 880.6 1189.7 3.882
116.0 101.3 338.72 309.79 880.0 1189.8 3.850
117.0 102.3 339.36 310.46 879.5 1190.0 3.819
118.0 103.3 339.99 311.12 879.0 1190.1 3.788
119.0 104.3 340.62 311.78 878.4 1190.2 3.758
120.0 105.3 341.25 312.44 877.9 1190.4 3.728
121.0 106.3 341.88 313.10 877.4 1190.5 3.699
122.0 107.3 342.50 313.75 876.9 1190.7 3.670
123.0 108.3 343.11 314.40 876.4 1190.8 3.642
124.0 109.3 343.72 315.04 875.9 1190.9 3.614
125.0 110.3 344.33 315.68 875.4 1191.1 3.587
126.0 111.3 344.94 316.31 874.9 1191.2 3.560
127.0 112.3 345.54 316.94 874.4 1191.3 3.533
128.0 113.3 346.13 317.57 873.9 1191.5 3.507
129.0 114.3 346.73 318.19 873.4 1191.6 3.481
130.0 115.3 347.32 318.81 872.9 1191.7 3.455
131.0 116.3 347.90 319.43 872.5 1191.9 3.430
132.0 117.3 348.48 320.04 872.0 1192.0 3.405
133.0 118.3 349.06 320.65 871.5 1192.1 3.381
134.0 119.3 349.64 321.25 871.0 1192.2 3.357
135.0 120.3 350.21 321.85 870.6 1192.4 3.333
136.0 121.3 350.78 322.45 870.1 1192.5 3.310
137.0 122.3 351.35 323.05 869.6 1192.6 3.287
138.0 123.3 351.91 323.64 869.1 1192.7 3.264
139.0 124.3 352.47 324.23 868.7 1192.9 3.242
140.0 125.3 353.02 324.82 868.2 1193.0 3.220
141.0 126.3 353.57 325.40 867.7 1193.1 3.198
142.0 127.3 354.12 325.98 867.2 1193.2 3.177
143.0 128.3 354.67 326.56 866.7 1193.3 3.155
144.0 129.3 355.21 327.13 866.3 1193.4 3.134

608
 Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE HEAT OF THE LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT SPECIFIC

(LBS. PER SQ IN.) LIQUID OF OF VOLUME
(degrees F) (BTU/LB) EVAPORATION STEAM Hg (CU FT
Absolute P Gauge P (BTU/LB) (BTU/LB) PER LB)
145.0 130.3 355.76 327.70 865.8 1193.5 3.114
146.0 131.3 356.29 328.27 865.3 1193.6 3.094
147.0 132.3 356.83 328.83 864.9 1193.8 3.074
148.0 133.3 357.36 329.39 864.5 1193.9 3.054
149.0 134.3 357.89 329.95 864.0 1194.0 3.034
150.0 135.3 358.42 330.51 863.6 1194.1 3.015
152.0 137.3 359.46 331.61 862.7 1194.3 2.977
154.0 139.3 360.49 332.70 861.8 1194.5 2.940
156.0 141.3 361.52 333.79 860.9 1194.7 2.904
158.0 143.3 362.53 334.86 860.0 1194.9 2.869
160.0 145.3 363.53 335.93 859.2 1195.1 2.834
162.0 147.3 364.53 336.98 858.3 1195.3 2.801
164.0 149.3 365.51 338.02 857.5 1195.5 2.768
166.0 151.3 366.48 339.05 856.6 1195.7 2.736
168.0 153.3 367.45 340.07 855.7 1195.8 2.705
170.0 155.3 368.41 341.09 854.9 1196.0 2.675
172.0 157.3 369.35 342.10 854.1 1196.2 2.645
174.0 159.3 370.29 343.10 853.3 1196.4 2.616
176.0 161.3 371.22 344.09 852.4 1196.5 2.587
178.0 163.3 372.14 345.06 851.6 1196.7 2.559
180.0 165.3 373.06 346.03 850.8 1196.9 2.532
182.0 167.3 373.96 347.00 850.0 1197.0 2.505
184.0 169.3 374.86 347.96 849.2 1197.2 2.479
186.0 171.3 375.75 348.92 848.4 1197.3 2.454
188.0 173.3 376.64 349.86 847.6 1197.5 2.429
190.0 175.3 377.51 350.79 846.8 1197.6 2.404
192.0 177.3 378.38 351.72 846.1 1197.8 2.380
194.0 179.3 379.24 352.64 845.3 1197.9 2.356
196.0 181.3 380.10 353.55 844.5 1198.1 2.333
198.0 183.3 380.95 354.46 843.7 1198.2 2.310
200.0 185.3 381.79 355.36 843.0 1198.4 2.288
205.0 190.3 383.86 357.58 841.1 1198.7 2.234
210.0 195.3 385.90 359.77 839.2 1199.0 2.183
215.0 200.3 387.89 361.91 837.4 1199.3 2.134
220.0 205.3 389.86 364.02 835.6 1199.6 2.087
225.0 210.3 391.79 366.09 833.8 1199.9 2.0422
230.0 215.3 393.68 368.13 832.0 1200.1 1.9992
235.0 220.3 395.54 370.14 830.3 1200.4 1.9579
240.0 225.3 397.37 372.12 828.5 1200.6 1.9183
245.0 230.3 399.18 374.08 826.8 1200.9 1.8803
250.0 235.3 400.95 376.00 825.1 1201.1 1.8438
255.0 240.3 402.70 377.89 823.4 1201.3 1.8086
260.0 245.3 404.42 379.76 821.8 1201.5 1.7748
265.0 250.3 406.11 381.60 820.1 1201.7 1.7422
270.0 255.3 407.78 383.42 818.5 1201.9 1.7107

609
 Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE HEAT OF THE LATENT HEAT TOTAL HEAT SPECIFIC

(LBS. PER SQ IN.) LIQUID OF OF VOLUME
(Degrees F) (BTU/LB) EVAPORATION STEAM Hg (CU FT
Absolute P Gauge P (BTU/LB) (BTU/LB) PER LB)
275.0 260.3 409.43 385.21 816.9 1202.1 1.6804
280.0 265.3 411.05 386.98 815.3 1202.3 1.6511
285.0 270.3 412.65 388.73 813.7 1202.4 1.6228
290.0 275.3 414.23 390.46 812.1 1202.6 1.5954
295.0 280.3 415.79 392.16 810.5 1202.7 1.5689
300.0 285.3 417.33 393.84 809.0 1202.8 1.5433
320.0 305.3 423.29 400.39 803.0 1203.4 1.4485
340.0 325.3 428.97 406.66 797.1 1203.7 1.3645
360.0 345.3 434.40 412.67 791.4 1204.1 1.2895
380.0 365.3 439.60 418.45 785.8 1204.3 1.2222
400.0 385.3 444.59 424.0 780.5 1204.5 1.1613
420.0 405.3 449.39 429.4 775.2 1204.6 1.1061
440.0 425.3 454.02 434.6 770.0 1204.6 1.0556
460.0 445.3 458.50 439.7 764.9 1204.6 1.0094
480.0 465.3 462.82 444.6 759.9 1204.5 0.9670
500.0 485.3 467.01 449.4 755.0 1204.4 0.9278
520.0 505.3 471.07 454.1 750.1 1204.2 0.8915
540.0 525.3 475.01 458.6 745.4 1204.0 0.8578
560.0 545.3 478.85 463.0 740.8 1203.8 0.8265
580.0 565.3 482.58 467.4 736.1 1203.5 0.7973
600.0 585.3 486.21 471.6 731.6 1203.2 0.7698
620.0 605.3 489.75 475.7 727.2 1202.9 0.7440
640.0 625.3 493.21 479.8 722.7 1202.5 0.7198
660.0 645.3 496.58 483.8 718.3 1202.1 0.6971
680.0 665.3 499.88 487.7 714.0 1201.7 0.6757
700.0 685.3 503.10 491.5 709.7 1201.2 0.6554
720.0 705.3 506.25 495.3 705.4 1200.7 0.6362
740.0 725.3 509.34 499.0 701.2 1200.2 0.6180
760.0 745.3 512.36 502.6 697.1 1199.7 0.6007
780.0 765.3 515.33 506.2 692.9 1199.1 0.5843
800.0 785.3 518.23 509.7 688.9 1198.6 0.5687
820.0 805.3 521.08 513.2 684.8 1198.0 0.5538
840.0 825.3 523.88 516.6 680.8 1197.4 0.5396
860.0 845.3 526.63 520.0 676.8 1196.8 0.5260
880.0 865.3 529.33 523.3 672.8 1196.1 0.5130
900.0 885.3 531.98 526.6 668.8 1195.4 0.5006
920.0 905.3 534.59 529.8 664.9 1194.7 0.4886
940.0 925.3 537.16 533.0 661.0 1194.0 0.4772
960.0 945.3 539.68 536.2 657.1 1193.3 0.4663
980.0 965.3 542.17 539.3 653.3 1192.6 0.4557
1000.0 985.3 544.61 542.4 649.4 1191.8 0.4456
1050.0 1035.3 550.57 550.0 639.9 1189.9 0.4218
1100.0 1085.3 556.31 557.4 630.4 1187.8 0.4001
1150.0 1135.3 561.86 564.6 621.0 1185.6 0.3802
1200.0 1185.3 567.22 571.7 611.7 1183.4 0.3619

610
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications

Valve Selection Guide for Application

Valve Terms

◾ Breaking Pressure:
The minimum pressure required to produce flow through a valve.

◾ Duty Cycle:
100% duty cycle is defined as continuous operation without any damage occurring. For intermittent duty
cycle (<100%), alternate energized and de-energized state at regular intervals to allow the valve to
completely cool down to room temperature.

◾ Flow Patterns:
A diagram showing how flow can be directed using a particular valve.

◾ Normally Closed:
Valve stays closed in de-energized state; opens when energized.

◾ Normally Open:
Valve stays open in de-energized state; closes when energized.

◾ Pressure Differential or Pressure Drop:

The difference between the inlet and the outlet pressure through a valve. The outlet pressure is lower
than the inlet pressure due to the restriction caused by the valve.

◾ Three-Way Valve:
Has three ports. Depending on the particular valve, all three ports may be open, two ports may be open,
or all ports may be closed.

◾ Two-Way Valve:
Has a single inlet port and a single outlet port.

Selecting your Valve

1. Choose a valve type depending on your application. This manual has two valve application selection
charts.

2. Consider your fluid type (liquid, gas or solids) and its characteristics to determine compatible valve
materials. PTFE withstands many harsh or corrosive chemicals. For safety reasons, always use metal
valves for pressurized gases.

3. Determine the temperature, pressure, and flow rate under which your valve will be operating. In
general, metal valves withstand higher temperatures and pressures than plastic valves.

4. For solenoid valves, consider response time and length of time valve will be energized. Continuous
(100%) duty solenoid valves are best for frequent on/off cycling. Choose normally closed or normally
open depending on the state the valve will be in most often.

5. Consider your maintenance requirements. Ball valves resist plugging and are easiest to service

611
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Types and Descriptions

◾ Angle-Seat Valves:
Utilize an ultra-compact actuator to move a piston back and forth within the valve body. On/off control
and continuous control designs are available for gases, steam, and liquids. The construction of the
body allows extremely high flow rates, particularly in comparison to conventional globe valves.

◾ Ball Valves:
Designed primarily for on/off service. These valves contain a ball with a hole through it. A handle or
electric actuator rotates the ball 90, turning the flow on or off. Use plastic ball valves for liquid
applications only.

◾ Butterfly Valves:
Designed primarily for on/off service. These valves have low pressure drops and are self-sealing so
they don’t require an additional flange gasket for installation. For pipe sizes ranging from 1.5" to 12" dia.

◾ Check Valves:
Self-actuated valves designed to prevent fluid from flowing backward into your system. Flow forces a
ball or disk in one direction to open the valve; when flow stops, the ball or disk seats to close the valve.

◾ Diaphragm Valves:
Use a flexible diaphragm to shut off flow center of the diaphragm is pushed down into a seat. Use these
valves for fluids that are dirty or have a high particulate content.

◾ Elliptic Valves:
Similar to ball valves except elliptic valves use an elliptic O-ring to seal the cylinder during rotation. The
seal design makes these valves ideal for vacuum applications.

◾ Manifold Valves:
Have one common port to two or more additional ports. For mixing, use the common port as the outlet;
for distributing, use the common port as the inlet.

◾ Metering Valves:
Multi-turn valves designed to regulate the flow of fluid. These valves generally have low flow rates and
high pressure differentials.

◾ Needle Valves:
Feature the most accurate flow control among the valves we offer. They are an excellent choice for
precise metering of liquids or gases.

◾ Pinch Valves:
Use solenoid to squeeze shut a piece of tubing. Fluid contacts only the tubing ideal for your high-purity
fluid applications.

◾ Plug Valves:
Used primarily for on/off service. Controls flow using a plug with a hole through it. Plugs can be made of
rigid materials such as PTFE, making them ideal for high-purity applications.

◾ Pressure Valves:
Designed to control or limit pressure not flow in a system. These self-actuating valves will either open a
relief port or bypass the fluid when a preset limit is reached.

612
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Types and Descriptions (Continued)

◾ Proportioning Valves:
Designed to produce variable flow rates. Valves open and close in proportion to the signal from your
controller.

◾ Sample Valves:
Special three-way valve designed to tap off a portion of the main flow for sampling purposes.

◾ Sanitary Valves:
Feature Tri-Clamp connections and 316 stainless steel body construction for sanitary and high purity
applications.

◾ Solenoid Valves (Direct Lift):

Use a plunger that is actuated to open or close the fluid path. These valves usually have low flow rates
and high differential pressure drops. They generally have quicker response time than pilot-operated
valves.

◾ Solenoid Valves (Pilot-Operated):

Utilize pressure created by air or liquids for actuation purposes. These valves are either piston or
diaphragm types and require differential pressure to keep valve closed. Because they don’t have a
plunger, they are usually available in larger orifice sizes than direct lift valves.

◾ Stopcocks:
Similar to ball valves except stopcocks are much smaller in size. Primarily used in the laboratory for
on/off control of flow or as a crude regulation of flow rate.

◾ Squeeze Valves:
Similar to ball valves except stopcocks are much smaller in size. Primarily used in the laboratory for
on/off control of flow or as a crude regulation of flow rate.

613
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Selection Overview - Service Application Chart

Valve Service Application Chart

Valve Mechanical
Valve Trim Valve Stem
Type Media (Type of Fluid to be Controlled) Function Function

Liquid Gas Solids

Lubricating powder (graphite, talcum, etc.)

Hygienic (Food, beverages, drugs etc.)

Corrosive (Acid vapors, chlorine etc.)

Control Valve (modulating flow rate)

Corrosive (Acid, alkaline etc.)

Abrasive Powder (Silica, etc.)

Neutral (Water, Oil, etc.)

Neutral (Air, Steam etc.)

On/Off (blocking flow)

Fibrous Suspension

Quarter Turn
Vacuum

Rotary
Linear
Slurry

Ball Valves X X X X X X X X X

Butterfly
Valves X X X X X X X X X X X

Diaphragm
Valves X X X X X X X X X X

Pinch
Valves X X X

Squeeze
Valves
X X X

Gate/Knife
Valves X X X X X X X X X

Globe
Valves X X X X X X X X

Needle
Valves X X X X

Plug Gate
Valves X X X X

Plug
Valves X X X X X X X

614
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Selection Detailed - Service Application Chart

Valve Service Application Chart Valve Service Application Chart

Conveyed Conveyed Valve
Nature of Fluid Valve Function Type of Disc Nature of Fluid Type of Disc
Fluid Fluid Function
Gate Gate
Neutral Rotary ball Globe
Plug On/Off Rotary ball
(Water, Oil, etc.) On/Off
Diaphragm Plug
Butterfly Neutral Diaphragm
Plug gate (Air, steam etc.). Globe
Globe Needle
Control valve,
Butterfly Butterfly
Control valve, modulating
Plug gate Diaphragm
modulating
Diaphragm Gate
Needle Butterfly
Gas
Corrosive Gate Rotary ball
On/Off
Plug gate Diaphragm
(Acid, Corrosive
Rotary ball Plug
alkaline On/Off
etc.) Plug (Acid vapors, Butterfly
chlorine etc.)
Diaphragm Control valve, Globe
Butterfly modulating Needle
Globe Diaphragm
Control valve, Diaphragm Gate
modulating Butterfly Globe
Vacuum On/Off
Plug gate Rotary ball
Liquid
Butterfly Butterfly
On/Off
Hygienic Diaphragm Abrasive Powder On/Off, Pinch
Butterfly Control valve, Squeeze
(Food, (Silica, etc.)
Control valve, Diaphragm modulating Spiral sock
beverages,
drugs etc.) modulating Squeeze Solids Lubricating On/Off, Pinch
Pinch powder Gate
Control valve,
Rotary ball modulating Spiral sock
(Graphite,
Butterfly talcum, etc.) Squeeze
Diaphragm
On/Off
Plug
Pinch
Slurry Squeeze
Butterfly
Diaphragm
Control valve,
Squeeze
modulating
Pinch
Gate
Gate
On/Off, Diaphragm
Fibrous
Control valve,
Suspensions Squeeze
modulating
Pinch
615
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Types - Advantages and Disadvantages

Valve Advantages Disadvantages

Quarter turn Difficult to clean
Open port Difficulty with slurries
Used with chemical or corrosive media Throttling limited to low differential pressure
Butterfly Compact, lightweight design Potential for cavitation and choke
Unguided disc movement is affected by flow
Available in large sizes
turbulence
Low pressure drop and high-pressure recovery
High coefficient of flow
Superior ease of operation Poor throttling characteristics
Maintains and regulates high volume, Difficult to clean, leads to contamination
high pressure, and high temp flow
Rugged construction and long service life
Ball Low purchase and maintenance cost
Able to function without side loads
Permits inspection and repair of seats and
seals without removing the valves' body from
the line
Does not require lubrication
Can only be used in moderate temperature
Extremely clean
(-60 to 450ºF)
Can only be used in moderate pressures
Leak proof seal
(approximately 300psi)
Diaphragm Tight shut-off Cannot be used in multi-turn operations
Easy maintenance No industry standard face-to-face dimensions
Repairs can be made without interrupting pipe The body must be made of corrosive resistant
line material
Reduce leakage to the environment
Available in large sizes Low pressure limitations
Can be used with slurries and viscous liquids Slow open and close time
Used as a shut off valve Erosion of the seat and disk can occur
Gate Easy to maintain and disassemble Poor throttling characteristics
Inexpensive Difficult to repair
Inherently fire-safe (when used with a metal
Should not be used in sanitary applications
sheet)
Bidirectional
Can be fast-acting High head loss
Precise control Large opening for disk assembly
Can be used in high-pressure systems Heavier than other valves
Globe
Cantilevered mounting of the disk to the stem
Low coefficient of flow
Not good for clean or sterile applications
Very Clean Cannot be used in high temperature applications
Excellent drainage Cannot be used in high pressure applications
Minimal turbulence Cannot be used with gas media
Low airborne contaminants
Pinch
Low maintenance
Low weight
Can be used in explosion-proof lines
Inexpensive

616
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Standard Control Valve Body Materials

Cast Material Standard Comments

Carbon Steel Moderate services such as non-corrosive liquids. Higher pressures and
ASTM A 216
temperatures than cast iron. Check codes
Gr. WCB
for suitability at extended high temperatures.
Chrome-Moly Steel Used for mildly corrosive fluids such as sea water, oils
ASTM A 217
Resistant to erosion and creep at high temperatures.
Gr. CS
Can be used to 595-C (11 OOF).
Type 304 Stainless ASTM A 351 Used for oxidizing or very corrosive fluids (see Appendix C).
O
Steel Gr. CSF Can be used above 540* C (100 F).
Type 316 Stainless Used for oxidizing or very corrosive fluids, resistant to
ASTM A 351
Steel corrosion pitting and creep (see Appendix C) Provides
Gr. CSFM
greater strength than 304 S.S.
Monel Resistant to non-oxidizing acids. Used with seawater and other mildly
ASTM A 494
corrosive fluids at high temperatures.
Gr. M35-1
Expensive
Hastelloy-C ASTM A 494 Used particularly with chlorine and chloride compounds
Gr. CW2N Expensive.
Iron ASTM A 126 Inexpensive and non-ductile.
Class B Used for water and non-corrosive liquids
Bronze ASTM B 61 topically used for trim
ASTM B 61 ASTM B 62 typically used for valve body.
And B 62 Can be used for water and dilute acid service
(see Appendix- B)
Note Gr = grade: grade designation pursuant to the referenced standard. Source: Compiled by SAIC, 1998.

Valve Body Materials - Fisher valves conforming to ASME B16.34-2013 standard

ASME
CATEGORY Specification Grade Material Group Nominal Designation
SA-216 WCC(1) 1.2 S-Mn-Si
SA-352 LCC(2) 1.2 S-Mn-Si
Carbon Steel
SA-350 LF2 1.1 C-Mn-Si
WC6 1.9 1-1/4Cr-1/2 Mo
WC9 1.10 2-1/4Cr-1 Mo
Alloy Steels SA-217
C12A 1.15 9Cr-1 Mo-V
CF8M 2.2 16Cr-12 Ni-2Mo
CF8 2.1 18Cr-8 Ni
CF8C 2.11 18Cr-10 Ni-Cb
CF3M 2.2 16Cr-12 Ni-2Mo
SA-351 CG8M 2.2 19Cr-10 Ni-3Mo
CK3MCuN 2.8 20Cr-18 Ni-6Mo
CD3MN(3)
Stainless Steel (Grade 4A) 2.8 22Cr-5 Ni-3Mo-N

SA-995 CD3MWCuN
(Grade 6A) 2.8 25Cr-7 Ni-3.5Mo-Cb

WCC is a standard substitute for WCB material.

LCC is a standard substitute for LCB material.
Listed as A351-CD3MN in B16.34-2013.

617
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

ASME Standard CL150 Valves (1) - 150# temperature - pressure rating

VALVE BODY TEMPERATURE - WORKING PRESSURE (PSIG) - ASME RATINGS

CF8 CF8M
(2,3) (2,3)
or or CK3MCuN
SERVICE WC6 WC9 C12A 304 316 317 CF8C CD3MN
TEMP (F) LCC LF2 WCC (2) (2) (2) (2,3) (2,3) CF3M 316L CG8M (2,3) (2,3) 347 CD3MWCuN
-20 to 100 290 285 290 290 290 290 275 275 275 230 275 275 275 275 290
200 260 260 260 260 260 260 230 235 235 195 235 235 255 255 260
300 230 230 230 230 230 230 205 215 215 175 215 215 230 230 230
400 200 200 200 200 200 200 190 195 195 160 195 195 200 200 200
500 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 150 170 170 170 170 170
600 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140
650 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125
700 --- 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110
750 --- 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 110 95 95 95 95 95
800 --- 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 -- -
850 --- -- - -- - 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 -- -
900 --- -- - -- - 50 50 50 50 50 --- --- 50 50 50 50 -- -
950 --- -- - -- - 35 35 35 35 35 --- --- 35 35 35 35 -- -
1000 --- -- - -- - 20 20 20 20 20 --- --- 20 20 20 20 -- -
1050 --- -- - -- - 20 20 20 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1100 --- -- - -- - 20 20 20 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1150 --- -- - -- - --- --- 20 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1200 --- -- - -- - --- --- 20 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1250 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1300 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1350 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 20 --- -- -
1400 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 15 --- -- -
1450 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 20 20 --- --- -- - 20 10 --- -- -
1500 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 15 15 --- --- -- - 15 10 --- -- -
1. Table information is extracted from the Valve–Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End, ASME Standard B16.34-2013. These tables must be used in
accordance with the ASME standard. The user is advised that a valve used under the jurisdiction of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME
Code for Pressure Piping, or governmental regulations is subject to any limitation of that code or regulation. This
includes any maximum temperature limitation for a material or rule governing the use of a material at a low temperature.” Information copied with
permission of the publisher; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, New York, 10017.
2. Flanged end ratings terminate at 1000_F.
3. At temperatures over 1000_F, use material only when carbon content is 0.04% or higher.

618
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

ASME Standard CL300 Valves (1) - 300# temperature - pressure rating

VALVE BODY TEMPERATURE - WORKING PRESSURE (PSIG) - ASME RATINGS

CF8 CF8M
(2,3) (2,3)
or or CK3MCuN
SERVICE C12A 304 316 317 CF8C CD3MN
TEMP (F) LCC LF2 WCC WC6 WC9 (2) (2,3) (2,3) CF3M 316L CG8M (2,3) (2,3) 347 CD3MWCuN
-20 to 100 750 740 750 750 750 750 720 720 720 600 720 720 720 720 750
200 750 680 750 750 750 750 600 620 620 510 620 620 660 660 745
300 730 655 730 720 730 730 540 560 560 455 560 560 615 615 665
400 705 635 705 695 705 705 495 515 515 420 515 515 575 575 615
500 665 605 665 665 665 665 465 480 480 395 480 480 540 540 580
600 605 570 605 605 605 605 440 450 450 370 450 450 515 515 555
650 590 550 590 590 590 590 430 440 440 365 440 440 505 505 545
700 --- 530 555 570 570 570 420 435 435 360 435 435 495 495 540
750 --- 505 505 530 530 530 415 425 425 355 425 425 490 490 530
800 --- 410 410 510 510 510 405 420 420 345 420 420 485 485 -- -
850 --- -- - -- - 485 485 485 395 420 420 340 420 420 485 485 -- -
900 --- -- - -- - 450 450 450 390 415 --- --- 415 415 450 450 -- -
950 --- -- - -- - 320 385 385 380 385 --- --- 385 385 385 385 -- -
1000 --- -- - -- - 215 265 365 355 365 --- --- 365 365 365 365 -- -
1050 --- -- - -- - 145 175 360 325 360 --- --- -- - 360 360 --- -- -
1100 --- -- - -- - 95 110 300 255 305 --- --- -- - 305 310 --- -- -
1150 --- -- - -- - --- --- 225 205 235 --- --- -- - 235 210 --- -- -
1200 --- -- - -- - --- --- 145 165 185 --- --- -- - 185 150 --- -- -
1250 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 135 145 --- --- -- - 145 115 --- -- -
1300 --- -- - -- - --- --- -- - 115 115 --- --- -- - 115 75 --- -- -
1350 --- -- - -- - --- --- 95 95 --- --- -- - 95 50 --- -- -
1400 --- -- - -- - --- --- 75 75 --- --- -- - 75 40 --- -- -
1450 --- -- - -- - --- --- 60 60 --- --- -- - 60 30 --- -- -
1500 --- -- - -- - --- --- 40 40 --- --- -- - 40 25 --- -- -
1. Table information is extracted from the Valve–Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End, ASME Standard B16.34-2013. These tables must be used in
accordance with the ASME standard. The user is advised that a valve used under the jurisdiction of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME
Code for Pressure Piping, or governmental regulations is subject to any limitation of that code or regulation. This
includes any maximum temperature limitation for a material or rule governing the use of a material at a low temperature.” Information copied with
permission of the publisher; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, New York, 10017.
2. Flanged end ratings terminate at 1000_F.
3. At temperatures over 1000_F, use material only when carbon content is 0.04% or higher.

Valve Seat Leakage Bubbles per Minute

Class VI Maximum Seat Leakage Allowable

(In accordance with ANSI/FCI 70-2)
NOMINAL PORT DIAMETER BUBBLES PER MINUTE(1)
in mm ml per minute Bubbles per minute
1 25 0.15 1
1-1/2 38 0.30 2
2 51 0.45 3
2-1/2 64 0.60 4
3 76 0.90 6
4 102 1.70 11
6 152 4.00 27
8 203 6.75 45
1. Bubbles per minute as tabulated are a suggested alternative based on a suitably calibrated measuring device, in this
case a 1/4 inch (6.3 mm) O.D. x 0.032 inch (0.8 mm) wall tube submerged in water to a depth of from 1/8 to 1/4 inch (3
to 6 mm). The tube end shall be cut square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs, and the tube axis shall be
perpendicular to the surface of the water. Other apparatus may be constructed and the number of bubbles per minute
may differ from those shown as long as they correctly indicate the flow in ml per minute.

619
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Trim Material Temperature Limits

LOWER UPPER
MATERIAL APPLICATION OF OC OF OC
304 SST, S30400, CF8 uncoated plugs and seats −450 −268 600 316
316 SST, S31600, CF8M uncoated plugs and seats −450 −268 600 316
317 SST, S31700, CG8M uncoated plugs and seats −450 −268 600 316
416 SST, S41600, 38 HRC min cages, plugs and seats −20 −29 800 427
CA6NM, 32 HRC min cages, plugs and seats −20 −29 900 482
Nitronic 50(1), S20910 high strength condition shafts, stems and pins −325 −198 1100 593
440 SST, S44004 bushings, plugs and seats −20 −29 800 427
17−4 PH, S17400, CB7Cu−1, H1075 cages, plugs and seats −80 −62 800 427
condition
Alloy 6, R30006, CoCr−A plugs and seats −325 −198 1500 816
Electroless Nickel Coating trim coating −325 −198 750 400
Hard Chromium Plating trim coating −325 −198 600 316
Hard Chromium Plating on V−balls trim coating −325 −198 800 427
Hard Chromium Coating trim coating −325 −198 1100 593
Monel (2) K500, N05500 uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 800 427
Monel (2) 400, N04400 uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 800 427
Hastelloy (3) B2, N10665, N7M uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 800 427
Hastelloy (3) C276, N10276, CW2M uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 800 427
Titanium Grades 2, 3, 4, C2, C3, C4 uncoated plugs and seats −75 −59 600 316
Nickel, N02200, CZ100 uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 600 316
Alloy 20, N08020, CN7M uncoated plugs and seats −325 −198 600 316
NBR, nitrile rubber seats −20 −29 200 93
FKM Fluoroelastomer (Viton (4)) seats 0 −18 400 204
PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene seats −450 −268 450 232
PA (nylon) seats −60 −51 200 93
HDPE, high density polyethylene seats −65 −54 185 85
CR, chloroprene (Neoprene(2)) seats −40 −40 180 82
Trademark of Armco Steel Corp.
Monel and Inconel are tradenames of Special Metals Corp.
Hastelloy is a tradename of Haynes International
Registered trademark of DuPont Performance Elastomers

620
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Service Temperature Limits for Non-Metallic Materials

ASTM Designations and Generic Description Temperature Range

Tradenames

CR Chloroprene −40 to 180°F, −40 to 82°C

EPDM Ethylene propylene terpolymer −40 to 275°F, −40 to 135°C
FFKM, Kalrez(1), Chemraz(2) Perfluoroelastomer 0 to 500°F, −18 to 260°C
FKM, Viton(1) Fluoroelastomer 0 to 400°F, −18 to 204°C
FVMQ Fluorosilicone −100 to 300°F, −73 to 149°C
NBR Nitrile −65 to 180°F, −54 to 82°C
NR Natural rubber −20 to 200°F, −29 to 93°C
PUR Polyurethane −20 to 200°F, −29 to 93°C
VMQ Silicone −80 to 450°F, −62 to 232°C
PEEK Polyetheretherketone −100 to 480°F, −73 to 250°C
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene −100 to 400°F, −73 to 204°C
PTFE, Carbon Filled Polytetrafluoroethylene, Carbon −100 to 450°F, −73 to 232°C
Filled
PTFE, Glass Filled Polytetrafluoroethylene, Carbon −100 to 450°F, −73 to 232°C
Filled
TCM Plus(3) Mineral and MoS2 filled PTFE −100 to 450°F, −73 to 232°C
TCM Ultra(3) PEEK and MoS2 filled PTFE −100 to 500°F, −73 to 260°C
Composition Gasket −60 to 300°F, −51 to 150°C
Flexible Graphite, Grafoil(4) −300 to 1000°F, −185 to 540°C
1. Registered trademark of DuPont Performance Elastomers.
2. Trademark of Greene, Tweed & Co.
3. Trademark of Fisher Controls International LLC
4. Trademark of Union Carbide

621
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Stem Packing Friction Values (Typical)

PTFE PACKING GRAPHITE

STEM SIZE RIBBON/
(INCHES) CLASS SINGLE DOUBLE FILEMENT
5/16 ALL 20 30 ---

125 ---
150 125
250 ---
3/8 300 38 56 190
600 250
900 320
1500 380
125 ---
150 180
250 ---
300 230
1/2 50 75
600 320
900 410
1500 500
2500 590

Valve Stem Packing Temperature – Pressure

Valve Sliding-Stem Environmental Packing Selection

Maximum Pressure and Temperature

Limits for 500 PPM Service(1) Seal
Service
Packing Customary Performance Packing
Life Index
System US Metric Index Friction
Single
300 psi 20.7 bar
PTFE V- Better Long Very Low
0 to 200°F -18 to 93°C
Ring
ENVIRO- See Fig. 3-25 See Fig. 3-25
SEAL PTFE -50 to 450°F -46 to 232°C Superior Very Long Low

ENVIRO-SEAL 750 psi 51.7 bar

Duplex -50 to 450°F -46 to 232°C Superior Very Long Low

ENVIRO-SEAL 1500 psi 103 bar

Graphite ULF 20 to 600°F -7 to 315°C Superior Very Long Moderate

(1) The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased
leakage might result. The temperature ratings apply to the actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.

622
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Valve Seating Shutoff Pressure

Leak
Recommended Seat Load
Class
Class I As required by user specification, no factory leak test required
Class II 20 pounds per lineal inch of port circumference
Class III 40 pounds per lineal inch of port circumference
Class IV Standard (Lower) Seat only—40 pounds per lineal inch of port circumference
(up through a 4-3/8 inch diameter port)
Class V Metal Seat(Lower)
Standard - determine pounds per
Seat only—80 lineal per
pounds inchlineal
of port circumference
inch from Table A-19
of port circumference
Class VI (larger than 4-3/8 inch diameter port)
Metal Seat - 300 pounds per lineal inch of port circumference

623
 Table A10 – Valve Selection – Materials and Applications (Continued)

Abbreviations and Terminology

Symbol Symbol
Cv Valve sizing coefficient P1 Upstream absolute static pressure

d Nominal valve size P2 Downstream absolute static

pressure
D Internal diameter of the piping Pc Absolute thermodynamic critical
pressure

Fd Valve style modifier, Pv Vapor pressure absolute of liquid at

dimensionless inlet temperature

FF Liquid critical pressure ratio factor, ΔP Pressure drop (P1-P2) across the
dimensionless valve

Fk Ratio of specific heats factor, ΔPmax(L) Maximum allowable liquid sizing

dimensionless pressure drop

FL Rated liquid pressure recovery factor, ΔPmax(LP) Maximum allowable sizing pressure
dimensionless drop with attached fittings

FLP Combined liquid pressure recovery factor q Volume rate of flow

and piping geometry factor of valve with
attached fittings (when there are no attached
fittings, FLP equals FL), dimensionless

FP Piping geometry factor, qmax Maximum flow rate (choked flow

dimensionless conditions) at given upstream
conditions

Gf Liquid specific gravity (ratio of density of liquid T1 Absolute upstream temperature

at flowing temperature to density of water at (degree K or degree R)
60°F), dimensionless

Gg Gas specific gravity (ratio of density of flowing w Mass rate of flow

gas to density of air with both at standard
conditions(1), i.e., ratio of molecular weight of
gas to molecular weight of air), dimensionless
k Ratio of specific heats, x Ratio of pressure drop to upstream
dimensionless absolute static pressure (ΔP/P1),
dimensionless
K Head loss coefficient of a device, xT Rated pressure drop ratio factor,
dimensionless dimensionless
M Molecular weight, dimensionless Y Expansion factor (ratio of flow
coefficient for a gas to that for a
liquid at the same Reynolds
number), dimensionless
N Numerical constant Z Compressibility factor,
dimensionless

γ1 Specific weight at inlet conditions

ν Kinematic viscosity, centistokes

1. Standard conditions are defined as 60°F (15.5°C) and 14.7 psia (101.3kPa).

624
 Table A11 – Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher ED Globe Valves

Valve Size Valve Plug Flow Characteristic Port Dia. Rated

(inches) Style (in.) Travel
CV FL XT FD
(in.)

1/2 Post Guided Equal Percentage 0.38 0.50 2.41 0.90 0.54 0.61

3/4 Post Guided Equal Percentage 0.56 0.50 5.92 0.84 0.61 0.61

Micro Form M Equal Percentage 3/8 3/4 3.07 0.89 0.66 0.72

1/2 3/4 4.91 0.93 0.80 0.67

1 3/4 3/4 8.84 0.97 0.92 0.62

Cage Guided Linear 1 5/16 3/4 20.6 0.84 0.64 0.34

Equal Percentage 1 5/16 3/4 17.2 0.88 0.67 0.38

Micro−Form M Equal Percentage 3/8 3/4 3.20 0.84 0.65 0.72

1/2 3/4 5.18 0.91 0.71 0.67

1 1/2 3/4 3/4 10.2 0.92 0.80 0.62

Cage Guided Linear 1 7/8 3/4 39.2 0.82 0.66 0.34

Equal Percentage 1 7/8 3/4 35.8 0.84 0.68 0.38

Linear 2 5/16 1 1/8 72.9 0.77 0.64 0.33

2 Cage Guided
Equal Percentage 2 5/16 1 1/8 59.7 0.85 0.69 0.31
Linear 148 0.82 0.62 0.30
3 Cage Guided 3 7/16 1 1/2
Equal Percentage 136 0.82 0.68 0.32
Linear 236 0.82 0.69 0.28
4 Cage Guided 4 3/8 2
Equal Percentage 224 0.82 0.72 0.28
Linear 433 0.84 0.74 0.28
6 Cage Guided 7 2
Equal Percentage 394 0.85 0.78 0.26
Linear 846 0.87 0.81 0.31
8 Cage Guided 8 3
Equal Percentage 818 0.86 0.81 0.26

625
 Table A11 – Valve Cv and Coefficients (Continued)

Fisher ED CL125 - CL600 Linear

Characteristic
Valve Port Maximum Flow Valve Opening–Percent of Total Travel
Diameter Travel(2)
Size, Coeffi-
NPS mm Inches mm Inches cient 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 FL(1)
Cv 3.21 5.50 8.18 10.9 13.2 15.0 16.9 18.6 19.9 20.6 0.84
1 & 1-1/4 33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 2.78 4.76 7.08 9.43 11.4 13.0 14.6 16.1 17.2 17.8 ---
XT 0.340 0.644 0.494 0.509 0.532 0.580 0.610 0.629 0.628 0.636 ---
Cv 4.23 7.84 11.8 15.8 20.4 25.3 30.3 34.7 37.2 39.2 0.82
Kv 3.66 6.78 10.2 13.7 17.6 21.9 26.2 30.0 32.2 33.9 ---
47.6 1.875 19 0.75
XT 0.656 0.709 0.758 0.799 0.738 0.729 0.708 0.686 0.683 0.656 ---
1-1/2 Fd 0.30 0.37 0.41 0.44 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.34 0.34 ---
Cv 2.92 5.70 9.05 12.5 15.6 18.5 21.1 23.9 26.8 29.2 0.91
33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 2.53 4.93 7.83 10.8 13.5 16.0 18.3 20.7 23.2 25.3 ---
XT 0.690 0.651 0.633 0.634 0.650 0.666 0.708 0.718 0.737 0.733 ---
Cv 7.87 16.0 24.9 33.4 42.1 51.8 62.0 68.1 70.6 72.9 0.77
Kv 6.81 13.8 21.5 28.9 36.4 44.8 53.6 58.9 61.1 63.1 ---
58.7 2.3125 29 1.125
XT 0.641 0.720 0.728 0.767 0.793 0.754 0.683 0.658 0.652 0.638 ---
2 Fd 0.30 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.33 ---
Cv 3.53 6.36 9.92 13.3 16.5 19.7 22.7 25.6 29.3 33.3 0.87
33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 3.05 5.50 8.58 11.5 14.3 17.0 19.6 22.1 25.3 28.8 ---
XT 0.456 0.529 0.549 0.582 0.611 0.633 0.671 0.723 0.727 0.694 ---
Cv 9.34 21.6 35.5 49.5 62.7 74.1 83.6 93.5 102 108 0.81
Kv 8.08 18.7 30.7 42.8 54.2 64.1 72.3 80.9 88.2 93.4 ---
73.0 2.875 38 1.5
XT 0.680 0.660 0.644 0.669 0.674 0.706 0.716 0.687 0.658 0.641 ---
2-1/2 Fd 0.27 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.27 ---
Cv 4.10 8.09 12.3 16.7 21.1 26.8 33.7 41.3 49.2 57.0 0.84
47.6 1.875 19 0.75 Kv 3.55 7.00 10.6 14.4 18.3 23.2 29.2 35.7 42.6 49.3 ---
XT 0.668 0.646 0.684 0.688 0.698 0.694 0.678 0.668 0.669 0.666 ---
Cv 14.5 32.9 52.1 70.4 88.5 105 118 133 142 148 0.82
Kv 12.5 28.5 45.1 60.9 76.6 90.8 102 115 123 128 ---
87.3 3.4375 38 1.5
XT 0.671 0.699 0.697 0.720 0.733 0.718 0.707 0.650 0.630 0.620 ---
3 Fd 0.26 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.28 0.29 0.30 ---
Cv 8.06 16.9 26.7 37.5 49.0 61.4 73.8 85.3 94.7 102 0.85
58.7 2.3125 29 1.125 Kv 6.97 14.6 23.1 32.4 42.4 53.1 63.8 73.8 81.9 88.2 ---
XT 0.592 0.614 0.662 0.672 0.674 0.676 0.694 0.722 0.736 0.732 ---
Cv 23.3 50.3 78.1 105 127 152 181 203 223 236 0.82
Kv 20.2 43.5 67.6 90.8 110 131 157 176 193 204 ---
111.1 4.375 51 2
XT 0.691 0.714 0.720 0.731 0.764 0.757 0.748 0.762 0.732 0.688 ---
4 Fd 0.31 0.36 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.27 0.28 ---
Cv 9.77 22.6 37.2 51.8 65.7 77.5 87.5 97.9 107 113 0.84
73.0 2.875 38 1.5 Kv 8.45 19.5 32.2 44.8 56.8 67.0 75.7 84.7 92.6 97.7 ---
XT 0.926 0.899 0.873 0.904 0.919 0.962 0.972 0.937 0.891 0.872 ---
1. At 100% travel.
2. If coefficients listed above for the NPS 8 linear cage with 51 mm (2-inch) travel are not sufficient for your application, consider using the
quick opening cage. The NPS 8 quick opening cage with 51 mm (2-inch) travel has approximately a linear characteristic.

Restricted trim.

626
 Table A11 – Valves Cv and Coefficients (Continued)

Fisher ED CL125-CL600 Equal

Percentage
Valve Port Maximum Flow
Characteristic
Valve Opening–Percent of Total Travel
Size, Diameter Travel Coeffi-
NPS mm Inches mm Inches cient 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 FL(1)

Cv 0.783 1.54 2.20 2.89 4.21 5.76 7.83 10.9 14.1 17.2 0.88
1 & 1-1/4 33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 0.677 1.33 1.90 2.50 3.64 4.98 6.77 9.43 12.2 14.9 ---
XT 0.766 0.614 0.587 0.667 0.672 0.687 0.743 0.760 0.733 0.667 ---
Cv 1.52 2.63 3.87 5.41 7.45 11.2 17.4 24.5 30.8 35.8 0.84
Kv 1.31 2.27 3.35 4.68 6.44 9.69 15.1 21.2 26.6 31.0 ---
47.6 1.875 19 0.75
XT 0.780 0.735 0.716 0.715 0.738 0.727 0.690 0.685 0.685 0.679 ---
1-1/2 Fd 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.46 0.45 0.30 0.31 0.35 0.38 ---
Cv 1.12 1.56 2.22 3.10 4.27 6.17 9.01 13.1 18.2 23.1 0.91
33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 0.969 1.35 1.92 2.68 3.69 5.34 7.79 11.3 15.7 20.0 ---
XT 0.821 0.864 0.820 0.703 0.721 0.679 0.665 0.639 0.650 0.700 ---
Cv 1.66 2.93 4.66 6.98 10.8 16.5 25.4 37.3 50.7 59.7 0.85
Kv 1.44 2.53 4.03 6.04 9.34 14.3 22.0 32.3 43.9 51.6 ---
58.7 2.3125 29 1.125
XT 0.827 0.834 0.774 0.727 0.687 0.684 0.702 0.736 0.686 0.687 ---
2 Fd 0.41 0.50 0.53 0.58 0.37 0.32 0.27 0.26 0.29 0.31 ---
Cv 0.923 1.42 2.09 2.84 4.11 5.83 8.58 12.8 18.5 24.3 0.88
33.3 1.3125 19 0.75 Kv 0.798 1.23 1.81 2.46 3.56 5.04 7.42 11.1 16.0 21.0 ---
XT 0.775 0.744 0.742 0.707 0.715 0.714 0.714 0.641 0.621 0.649 ---
Cv 3.43 7.13 10.8 15.1 22.4 33.7 49.2 71.1 89.5 99.4 0.84
Kv 2.97 6.17 9.34 13.1 19.4 29.2 42.6 61.5 77.4 86.0 ---
73.0 2.875 38 1.5
XT 0.778 0.702 0.678 0.677 0.658 0.654 0.661 0.665 0.661 0.660 ---
2-1/2 Fd 0.45 0.49 0.49 0.47 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.24 0.25 0.27 ---
Cv 1.57 2.57 3.82 5.44 7.64 11.5 18.2 26.7 35.1 43.9 0.89
47.6 1.875 19 0.75 Kv 1.36 2.22 3.30 4.71 6.61 9.95 15.7 23.1 30.4 38.0 ---
XT 0.801 0.756 0.713 0.677 0.648 0.672 0.628 0.635 0.706 0.710 ---
Cv 4.32 7.53 10.9 17.1 27.2 43.5 66.0 97.0 120 136 0.82
Kv 3.74 6.51 9.43 14.8 23.5 37.6 57.1 83.9 104 118 ---
87.3 3.4375 38 1.5
XT 0.774 0.706 0.682 0.635 0.616 0.602 0.663 0.693 0.670 0.675 ---
3 Fd 0.52 0.63 0.68 0.39 0.36 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 ---
Cv 1.75 3.11 4.77 7.07 10.7 17.0 27.9 41.5 58.0 70.7 0.87
58.7 2.3125 29 1.125 Kv 1.51 2.69 4.13 6.12 9.26 14.7 24.1 35.9 50.2 61.2 ---
XT 0.944 0.840 0.803 0.757 0.735 0.642 0.531 0.613 0.629 0.702 ---
Cv 5.85 11.6 18.3 30.2 49.7 79.7 125 171 205 224 0.82
Kv 5.06 10.0 15.8 26.1 43.0 68.9 108 148 177 194 ---
111.1 4.375 51 2
XT 0.731 0.650 0.643 0.645 0.632 0.625 0.672 0.742 0.737 0.716 ---
4 Fd 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.28 ---
Cv 3.82 7.65 11.4 16.9 25.5 38.2 60.5 85.7 105 112 0.89
73.0 2.875 38 1.5 Kv 3.30 6.62 9.86 14.6 22.1 33.0 52.3 74.1 90.8 96.9 ---
XT 0.746 0.700 0.694 0.669 0.640 0.627 0.591 0.644 0.735 0.813 ---
1. At 100% travel. Restricted trim.

627
 Table A12 – Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher Rotary Valves

Degrees of
Valve Size Valve
(inches) Valve Style Opening CV FL XT FD
1 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 15.6 0.86 0.53
90 34 0.86 0.42
1 1/2 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 28.5 0.85 0.5
90 77.3 0.74 0.27
2 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 59.2 0.81 0.53
90 132 0.77 0.41
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 58.9 0.76 0.5 0.49
90 80.2 0.71 0.44 0.7
3 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 120 0.8 0.5 0.92
90 321 0.74 0.3 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 115 0.81 0.46 0.49
90 237 0.64 0.28 0.7
4 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 195 0.8 0.52 0.92
90 596 0.62 0.22 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 270 0.69 0.32 0.49
90 499 0.53 0.19 0.7
6 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 340 0.8 0.52 0.91
90 1100 0.58 0.2 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 664 0.66 0.33 0.49
90 1260 0.55 0.2 0.7
8 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 518 0.82 0.54 0.91
90 1820 0.54 0.18 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 1160 0.66 0.31 0.49
90 2180 0.48 0.19 0.7
10 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 1000 0.8 0.47 0.91
90 3000 0.56 0.19 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 1670 0.66 0.38 0.49
90 3600 0.48 0.17 0.7
12 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 1530 0.78 0.49 0.92
90 3980 0.63 0.25 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 2500 0.49
90 5400 0.7
16 V−Notch Ball Valve 60 2380 0.8 0.45 0.92
90 8270 0.37 0.13 1
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 3870 0.69 0.4
90 8600 0.52 0.23
628
 Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Control Valve Sizing Formulas

N w q p(2) y T d, D

0.0865 --- m3/h --- --- ---

N1 kPa bar
0.865 --- m3/h psia
--- --- ---
1.00 --- gpm --- --- ---
N2 0.00214 --- --- --- --- --- mm
890 --- --- --- --- --- inch
N5 0.00241 --- --- --- --- --- mm
1000 --- --- --- --- --- inch
2.73 kg/h --- kg/m3 --- ---
N6 kPa bar
27.3 kg/h ---
psia kg/m3 --- ---
63.3 lb/h --- lb/ft3 --- ---
Normal Conditions TN = 0°C 3.94 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
kPa bar
394 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
N7(3)
Standard Conditions Ts = 4.17 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
15.5°C kPa bar
417 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions Ts = 60°F 1360 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
0.948 kg/h --- --- deg K ---
kPa bar
N8 94.8 kg/h --- --- deg K ---
psia
19.3 lb/h --- --- deg R ---
Normal Conditions TN = 0°C 21.2 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
kPa bar
2120 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
N9(3)
Standard Conditions Ts = 15.5°C 22.4 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
kPa bar
2240 --- m3/h --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions TS = 60°F 7320 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
1. Many of the equations used in these sizing procedures contain a numerical constant, N, along with a numerical subscript. These
numerical constants provide a means for using different units in the equations. Values for the various constants and the
applicable units are given in the above table. For example, if the flow rate is given in U.S. gpm and the pressures are psia, N1 has
a value of 1.00. If the flow rate is m 3/hr and the pressures are kPa, the N1 constant becomes 0.0865.
2. All pressures are absolute.
3. Pressure base is 101.3 kPa (1.013 bar)(14.7 psia).

(1)
Equation Constants

629
 Table A14 – Critical Pressure & Temperature of Elements

Element or Compound Critical Pressure - pc Critical Temperature - Tc k*

psia bar (abs) ˚F ˚C Cp / Cv

Acetic Acid, CH3-CO-OH 841 58.0 612 322 322
Acetone, CH3-CO-CH3 691 47.6 455 235 -
Acetylene, C2H2 911 62.9 97 36 1.26
Air, O2+N2 547 37.8 -222 -141 1.40
Ammonia, NH3 1638 113.0 270 132 1.33
Argon, A 705 48.6 -188 -122 1.67
Benzene, C6H6 701 48.4 552 289 1.12
Butane, C4H10 529 36.5 307 153 1.09
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 1072 74.0 88 31 1.30
Carbon Monoxide, CO 514 35.5 -218 -139 1.40
Carbon Tetrachloride, CCl4 661 45.6 541 283 -
Chlorine, Cl2 1118 77.0 291 144 1.36
Ethane, C2H6 717 49.5 90 32 1.22
Ethyl Alcohol, C2H5OH 927 64.0 469 243 1.13
Ethylene, CH2=CH2 742 51.2 50 10 1.26
Ethyl Ether, C2H5-O-C2H5 522 36.0 383 195 -
Fluorine, F2 367 25.3 -247 -155 1.36
Helium, He 33.2 2.29 -450 -268 1.66
Heptane, C7H16 394 27.2 513 267 -
Hydrogen, H2 188 13.0 -400 -240 1.41
Hydrogen Chloride, HCl 1199 82.6 124 51 1.41
Isobutane, (CH3) CH-CH3 544 37.5 273 134 1.10
Isopropyl Alcohol, CH3-CHOH-CH3 779 53.7 455 235 -
Methane, CH4 673 46.4 -117 -83 1.31
Methyl Alcohol, H-CH2OH 1156 79.6 464 240 1.20
Nitrogen, N2 492 34.0 -233 -147 1.40
Nitrous Oxide, N2O 1054 72.7 99 37 1.30
Octane, CH3-(CH2)6-CH3 362 25.0 565 296 1.05
Oxygen, O2 730 50.4 -182 -119 1.40
Pentane, C5H12 485 33.5 387 197 1.07
Phenol, C6H5OH 889 61.3 786 419 -
Phosgene, COCl2 823 56.7 360 182 -
Propane, C3H8 617 42.6 207 97 1.13
Propylene, CH2=CH-CH3 661 45.6 198 92 1.15
Refrigerant 12, CCl2F2 582 40.1 234 112 1.14
Refrigerant 22, CHClF2 713 49.2 207 97 1.18
Sulfur Dioxide, SO2 1142 78.8 315 157 1.29
Water, H2O 3206 221.0 705 374 1.32

630
 Table A15 – Pipe Standard Dimensions and Data

Carbon Steel Pipes - Working Pressure

Pipe Working Pressure

Wall Inside ASTM A53 B to 400°F
Nominal Outside Schedule
Thickness Diameter
Size Diameter Number or Manu-
-t- -d-
(inches) OD weight facturing Joint Type psig
(inches) (inches)
(inches) Process
40ST 0.088 0.364 CW T 188
1/4 0.540
80XS 0.119 0.302 CW T 871
40ST 0.091 0.493 CW T 203
3/8 0.675
80XS 0.126 0.423 CW T 820
40ST 0.109 0.622 CW T 214
1/2 0.840
80XS 0.147 0.546 CW T 753
40ST 0.113 0.824 CW T 217
3/4 1.050
80XS 0.154 0.742 CW T 681
40ST 0.133 1.049 CW T 226
1 1.315
80XS 0.179 0.957 CW T 642
40ST 0.140 1.380 CW T 229
1 1/4 1.660
80XS 0.191 1.278 CW T 594
40ST 0.145 1.610 CW T 231
1 1/2 1.900
80XS 0.200 1.500 CW T 576
40ST 0.154 2.067 CW T 230
2 2.375
80XS 0.218 1.939 CW T 551
40ST 0.203 2.469 CW W 533
2 1/2 2.875
80XS 0.276 2.323 CW W 835
40ST 0.216 3.068 CW W 482
3 3.500
80XS 0.300 2.900 CW W 767
40ST 0.237 4.026 CW W 430
4 4.500
80XS 0.337 3.826 CW W 695
40ST 0.280 6.065 ERW W 696
6 6.625
80XS 0.432 5.761 ERW W 1209
30 0.277 8.071 ERW W 526
8 8.625 40ST 0.322 7.981 ERW W 643
80XS 0.500 7.625 ERW W 1106
30 0.307 10.136 ERW W 485
40ST 0.365 10.020 ERW W 606
10 10.75
XS 0.500 9.750 ERW W 887
80 0.593 9.564 ERW W 1081

631
 Table A15 – Pipe Standard Dimensions and Data (Continued)

30 0.330 12.090 ERW W 449

ST 0.375 12.000 ERW W 528
12 12.75 40 0.406 11.938 ERW W 583
XS 0.500 11.750 ERW W 748
80 0.687 11.376 ERW W 1076
30ST 0.375 13.250 ERW W 481
40 0.437 13.126 ERW W 580
14 14.00
XS 0.500 13.000 ERW W 681
80 0.750 12.500 ERW W 1081
30ST 0.375 15.250 ERW W 421
16 16.00
40XS 0.500 15.000 ERW W 596
ST 0.375 17.250 ERW W 374
30 0.437 17.126 ERW W 451
18 18.00
XS 0.500 17.000 ERW W 530
40 0.562 16.876 ERW W 607
20ST 0.375 19.250 ERW W 337
20 20.00 30XS 0.500 19.000 ERW W 477
40 0.593 18.814 ERW W 581

632
 Table A16 – NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16

Three Conductors in Raceway, Cable or Earth

Table 310.16 Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0 Through 2000 Volts. 60 C Through 90 C
(140 K Through 194^F),

No More Than Three Current-Carrying Conductors in Raceway, Cable, or Earth (Directly Buried). Based on
Ambient Temperature of 30nC <86"F)

Size Temperature Rating of Conductor (See Table 310.11)

AWG
or
kcmil
60°C (I40°F) 75°C (I67°F) 90°C (I94°F) 60°C (I40°F) 75°C (I67°F) 90°C (I94°F)

Types
Types
TBS. SA. SIS.
Types EEP, EEPB, Ml, TBS, SA, SIS,
RHH, RHW-2, Types THHN,THHW,
RHW. THHN, THW-2,THWN-2,
THHW, THW, THHW,THW-2, RHW, RHH, RHW-2,
Types THWN, THWN-2, USE-2, Types THHW, THW, USE-2,
XHHW, XHH, XHHW, THWN, XHH, XHHW,
TW, UF USE. ZW XHHW-2, ZW-2 TW, UK XHHW,USE XHHW-2, ZW-2

COPPER ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM

18 14
16 18
14* 20 10 25
12* 25 25 30 20 20 25
10* 30 35 40 25 30 35
8 40 50 55 30 40 45

6 55 65 75 40 50 60
4 70 85 95 55 65 75
3 85 100 110 65 75 85
2 95 115 130 75 90 100
1 110 130 150 85 100 115

1/0 125 150 170 100 120 135

2/0 145 175 195 115 135 150
3/0 165 200 225 130 155 175
4/0 195 230 260 150 180 205

250 215 255 290 170 205 250

300 240 285 320 190 230 300
350 260 310 350 210 250 350
400 280 335 380 225 270 400
500 320 380 430 260 310 500

600 355 420 475 285 340 385

700 385 460 520 310 375 420
750 400 475 535 320 385 435
800 410 490 555 330 395 450
900 435 520 585 355 425 480

1000 455 545 615 375 445 1000

1250 495 590 665 405 485 1250
1500 520 625 705 435 520 1500
1750 545 650 735 455 545 1750
2000 650 665 750 470 560 2000

633
 Table A17 – NEC Conductor Properties and Impedance

NEC Table 8 Conductor Properties (DC Resistance)

TABLE 8 CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES DIRECT CURRENT RESITANCE AT 75°C (I67°F)
WIRE AREA Stranding Overall Copper Aluminum
WIRE
CIRCULAR UNCOATED COATED
SIZE DIAM. DIAM. AREA OHMS PER
MILLS QUANTITY OHMS PER OHMS PER
AWG IN. IN. SQ. IN. 1000 FEET
(CM) 1000 FEET 1000 FEET
18 1620 1 – 0.040 0.001 7.77 8.08 12.8
18 1620 7 0.015 0.046 0.002 7.95 8.45 13.1
16 2580 1 – 0.051 0.002 4.89 5.08 8.05
16 2580 7 1.019 0.058 0.003 4.99 5.29 8.21
14 4110 1 – 0.064 0.003 3.07 3.19 5.06
14 4110 7 0.024 0.073 0.004 3.14 3.26 5.17
12 6530 1 – 0.081 0.005 1.93 2.01 3.18
12 6530 7 0.030 0.092 0.006 1.98 2.05 3.25
10 10380 1 – 0.102 0.008 1.21 1.26 2.00
10 10380 7 0.038 0.116 0.011 1.24 1.29 2.04
8 16510 1 – 0.128 0.013 0.764 0.786 1.26
8 16510 7 0.049 0.146 0.017 0.778 0.809 1.28
6 26240 7 0.061 0.184 0.027 0.491 0.510 0.808
4 41740 7 0.077 0.232 0.042 0.308 0.321 0.508
3 52620 7 0.087 0.260 0.053 0.245 0.254 0.403
2 66360 7 0.097 0.292 0.067 0.194 0.201 0.319
1 83690 19 0.066 0.332 0.087 0.154 0.160 0.253
1/0 105600 19 0.074 0.372 0.109 0.122 0.127 0.201
2/0 133100 19 0.084 0.418 0.137 0.0967 0.101 0.159
3/0 167800 19 0.094 0.470 0.173 0.0766 0.0797 0.126
4/0 211600 19 0.106 0.528 0.219 0.0608 0.0626 0.100
250 – 37 0.082 0.575 0.260 0.0515 0.0535 0.0847
300 – 37 0.090 0.630 0.312 0.0429 0.0446 0.0707
350 – 37 0.097 0.681 0.364 0.0367 0.0382 0.0605
400 – 37 0.104 0.728 0.416 0.0321 0.0331 0.0529
500 – 37 0.116 0.813 0.519 0.0258 0.0265 0.0424
600 – 61 0.099 0.893 0.626 0.0214 0.0223 0.0353
700 – 61 0.107 0.964 0.730 0.0184 0.0189 0.0303
750 – 61 0.111 0.998 0.782 0.0171 0.0176 0.0282
800 – 61 0.114 1.030 0.834 0.0161 0.0166 0.0265
900 – 61 0.122 1.094 0.940 0.0143 0.0147 0.0235
1000 – 61 0.128 1.152 1.042 0.0129 0.0132 0.0212
1250 – 91 0.117 1.289 1.305 0.0103 0.0106 0.0169
1500 – 91 0.128 1.412 1.566 0.00858 0.00883 0.0141
1750 – 127 0.117 1.526 1.829 0.00735 0.00756 0.0121
2000 – 127 0.126 1.632 2.092 0.00643 0.00662 0.0106
Notes:
These resistance values are valid only for the parameters given. Using conductors having coated strands, different stranding
type and, especially, other temperatures changes the resistance.
Formula for temperature change: R2 = R1 [1 + a(T2-75), where: aCU = 0.00323, aAL = 0.00330.
Conductors with compact and compressed stranding have about 9% and 3%, respectively, smaller bare conductor
diameters than those shown. See Table 5A for actual compact cable dimensions.
The IACS conductivities used: bare copper = 100%, aluminum = 61%
Class B stranding is listed as well as solid for some sizes. Its overall diameter and area is that of its circumscribing circle.
(FPN): The construction information is per NEMA WC8-1988. The resistance is calculated per National Bureau of Standards
Handbook 100, dated 1966, and Handbook109, dated 1972.

634
 NEC Table 9 Conductor Properties (AC Resistance and Reactance)

AC Inductance and AC Resistance at 60 Hz Only

AC Resistance and Reactance for 600 Volt Cables, 3-Ø, 60 Hz, 75°C (167°F)
(Note: Three Single Conductors in Conduit, Cable or Air)
XL (REACTANCE) AC RESISTANCE FOR AC RESISTANCE FOR
FOR ALL WIRES UNCOATED COPPER WIRES ALUMINUM WIRES
Size
AWG / kcmil PVC, AL Steel PVC AL Steel PVC AL Steel
Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit
14 0.058 0.073 3.1 3.1 3.1 -- -- --
12 0.054 0.068 2 2 2 3.2 3.2 3.2
10 0.05 0.063 1.2 1.2 1.2 2 2 2
8 0.052 0.065 0.78 0.78 0.78 1.3 1.3 1.3
6 0.051 0.064 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.81 0.81 0.81
4 0.048 0.06 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.51 0.51 0.51
3 0.047 0.059 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.4 0.41 0.4
2 0.045 0.057 0.19 0.2 0.2 0.32 0.32 0.32
1 0.046 0.057 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.25 0.26 0.25
1/0 0.044 0.055 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.2 0.21 0.2
2/0 0.043 0.054 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.16 0.16 0.16
3/0 0.042 0.052 0.077 0.082 0.079 0.13 0.13 0.13
4/0 0.041 0.051 0.062 0.067 0.063 0.1 0.11 0.1
250 0.041 0.052 0.052 0.057 0.054 0.085 0.09 0.086
300 0.041 0.051 0.044 0.049 0.045 0.071 0.076 0.072
350 0.04 0.05 0.038 0.043 0.039 0.061 0.066 0.063
400 0.04 0.049 0.033 0.038 0.035 0.054 0.059 0.055
500 0.039 0.048 0.027 0.032 0.029 0.043 0.048 0.045
600 0.039 0.048 0.023 0.028 0.025 0.036 0.041 0.038
750 0.038 0.048 0.019 0.024 0.021 0.029 0.034 0.031
1000 0.037 0.046 0.015 0.019 0.018 0.023 0.027 0.025
Table Continued - Effective Impedance at 85% Power Factor at 60 Hz Only
EFFECTIVE Z AT 0.85 PF FOR EFFECTIVE Z AT 0.85 FOR
Size UNCOATED COPPER WIRES ALUMINUM WIRES
AWG / kcmil PVC AL Steel PVC AL Steel
Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit Conduit
14 2.7 2.7 2.7 -- -- --
12 1.7 1.7 1.7 2.8 2.8 2.8
10 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.8 1.8 1.8
8 0.69 0.69 0.7 1.1 1.1 1.1
6 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.71 0.72 0.72
4 0.29 0.29 0.3 0.46 0.46 0.46
3 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.37 0.37 0.37
2 0.19 0.19 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
1 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.24 0.24 0.25
1/0 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.2 0.2
2/0 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.16
3/0 0.088 0.092 0.094 0.13 0.13 0.14
4/0 0.074 0.078 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.11
250 0.066 0.07 0.073 0.094 0.098 0.1
300 0.059 0.063 0.065 0.082 0.086 0.088
350 0.053 0.058 0.06 0.073 0.077 0.08
400 0.049 0.053 0.056 0.066 0.071 0.073
500 0.043 0.048 0.05 0.057 0.061 0.064
600 0.04 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.055 0.058
750 0.036 0.04 0.043 0.045 0.049 0.052
1000 0.032 0.036 0.04 0.039 0.042 0.046
635
 NEC Table 9 Conductor Properties (AC Resistance and Reactance) Continued

Notes:

These values are based on the following constants: UL-type RHH wires with Class B stranding, in cradled
configuration. Wire conductivities are 100% IACS copper and 61% AICS aluminum, and aluminum
conduit is 45%.

Capacitive reactance is ignored, since it is negligible at these voltages. These resistance values are valid
only at 75°C (167 °F) and for the parameters as given, but are representative for 600 volt wire types
operating at 60 Hz.

“Effective Z” is defined as R cos (Ø) + X sin (Ø), where “Ø” is the power factor angle of the circuit.
Multiplying current by effective impedance gives a good approximation for line-to-neutral voltage drop.
Effective impedance values shown in this table are valid only at 0.85 power factor. For another circuit
power factor (PF), effective impedance (Zc) can be calculated from R and XL values given in this table as
follows: Ze = R x PF + XL sin [arccos (PF)].

636
 Table A18 – NEC Full Load Motor Currents

60 Hz AC Induction Motor

Horsepower Single Phase Three Phase

115 Volt 230 Volt 200 Volt 230 Volt 380-415 Volt 460 Volt 575 Volt
1/6 4.4 2.2 ~ ~ ~ ~
1/4 5.8 2.9 ~ ~ ~ ~
1/3 7.2 3.6 ~ ~ ~ ~
1/2 9.8 4.9 2.5 2.2 1.3 1.1 0.9
3/4 13.8 6.9 3.7 3.2 1.8 1.6 1.3
1 16.0 8.0 4.8 4.2 2.3 2.1 1.7
1 1/2 20.0 10.0 6.9 6.0 3.3 3.0 2.4
2 24.0 12.0 7.8 6.8 4.3 3.4 2.7
3 34.0 17.0 11.0 9.6 6.1 4.8 3.9
5 56.0 28.0 17.5 15.2 9.7 7.6 6.1
7 1/2 80.0 40.0 25.0 22.0 14.0 11.0 9.0
10 100 50.0 32.0 28.0 18.0 14.0 11.0
15 135 68.0 48.0 42.0 27.0 21.0 17.0
20 ~ 88.0 62.0 54.0 34.0 27.0 22.0
25 ~ 110 78.0 68.0 43.0 34.0 27.0
30 ~ 136 92.0 80.0 51.0 40.0 32.0
40 ~ 176 120 104 66.0 52.0 41.0
50 ~ 216 150 130 83.0 65.0 52.0
60 ~ ~ 177 154 103 77.0 62.0
75 ~ ~ 221 192 128 96.0 77.0
100 ~ ~ 285 248 165 124 99.0
125 ~ ~ 359 312 208 156 125
150 ~ ~ 414 360 240 180 144
175 ~ ~ 475 413 275 207 168
200 ~ ~ 552 480 320 240 192
250 ~ ~ 692 602 403 302 242
300 ~ ~ ~ ~ 482 361 289
350 ~ ~ ~ ~ 560 414 336
400 ~ ~ ~ ~ 636 477 382
450 ~ ~ ~ ~ 711 515 412
500 ~ ~ ~ ~ 786 590 472

Notes:
The information in this chart was derived from Table 430-148 & 430-150 of the NEC and Table 50.1 of UL standard
508A. The voltages listed are rated motor voltages. The currents listed shall be permitted for system voltage ranges
of 110-120, 220-240, 380-415, 440-480 and 550-600 volts.
The full-load current values are for motors running at usual speeds and motors with normal torque characteristics.
Motors built for especially low speeds or high torques may have higher full-load currents, and multi-speed motors will
have full-load currents varying with speed. In these cases, the nameplate current ratings shall be used.
Caution: The actual motor amps may be higher or lower than the average values listed above. For more reliable
motor protection, use the actual motor current as listed on the motor nameplate. Use this table as a guide only

637
 Table A19 – NEC Grounding and Bonding Conductors

Table 250.66 Grounding Electrode Conductor for Alternating-Current Systems

Size of Largest Ungrounded Service-Entrance Conductor or Size of Grounding Electrode Conductors
Equivalent Area for Parallel Conductors (AWG / kcmil) (AWG / kcmil)
Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum
2 or smaller 1/0 or smaller 8 6
1 or 1/0 2/0 or 3/0 6 4
2/0 or 3/0 4/0 or 250 4 2
Over 3/0 through 350 Over 250 through 500 2 1/0
Over 350 through 600 Over 500 through 900 1/0 2/0
Over 600 through 1100 Over 900 through 1750 2/0 3/0
Over 1100 Over 1750 3/0 250

Notes:
1. Where multiple sets of service-entrance conductors are used as permitted in 230.40. Exception No.2: The
equivalent size of the largest service-entrance conductor shall be determined by the largest sum of the areas of
the corresponding conductors of each set.
2. Where there are no service-entrance conductors, the grounding electrode conductor size shall be determined by
the equivalent size of the largest service-entrance conductor required for the load to be served.

Table 250.122 Minimum Size Equipment Grounding Conductors

for Grounding Raceway and Equipment

Rating or Setting of Automatic Overcurrent Size (AWG or kcmil)

Device in Circuit Ahead of Equipment, Conduit, Aluminum or
etc., Not Exceeding (Amperes) Copper Copper-Clad Aluminum*
15 14 12
20 12 10
30 10 8
40 10 8
60 10 8
100 8 6
200 6 4
300 4 9
400 3 1
500 2 1/0
600 1 2/0
800 1/0 3/0
1000 2/0 4.0
1200 3/0 250
1600 4/0 350
2000 250 400
2500 350 600
3000 400 600
4000 500 750
5000 700 1200
6000 800 1200
Note:
Where necessary to comply with 250.4(A)(5) or (BX4), the equipment grounding conductor shall be
sized larger than given in this table. 'See installation restrictions in 250.120.

638
 Table A20 - Specific Gravity and Gas Constants for Some Common Gases

Gas Specific Gravity Molecular Ratio of

SG - Gf Weight specific heat
-M- -k-
Acetylene (ethyne) - C2H2 0.907 26.038 1.234
1)
Air 1.000 28.967 1.399
Ammonia - NH3 0.588 17.032 1.304
Argon - Ar 1.379 39.944 1.668
Arsine 2.69
Benzene 2.559 78.114 1.113
Blast Furnace gas 1.02
Butadiene 1.869
n-Butane - C4H10 2.007 58.124 1.093
l-Butene - C4H8 1.937 56.108 1.111
Carbon dioxide - CO2 1.519 44.011 1.288
Carbon monoxide - CO 0.967 28.011 1.399
Carbureted Water Gas 0.63
Chlorine - Cl2 2.486 70.910
Coke Oven Gas 0.44
Cyclobutane 1.938
Cyclohextane 2.905 84.161 1.07
Cyclopentane 2.422 70.135 1.08
Cyclopropane 1.451
DoDecane – C12H26 5.88 170.340 1.031
Digestive Gas (Sewage or Biogas) 0.8
Ethane - C2H6 1.038 30.070 1.188
Ethylene (Ethene) - C2H4 0.9685 28.054 1.236
Fluorine 1.31 38.000
Freon, F-12 120.925 1.136
Helium - He 0.138 4.003 1.667
n-Heptane – C7H16 3.459 100.205 1.053
n-Hexane – C6H14 2.9753 86.178 1.062
Hydrogen 0.069 2.016 1.405
Hydrogen chloride - HCl 1.268 36.470
Hydrogen sulfide - H2S 1.177 34.082
Isobutane - C4H1 2.007 58.124 1.094

639
 Gas (Continued) Specific Molecular Ratio of
Gravity1) Weight specific heat
- s.g. - -M- -k-
Isopentane – C5H12 2.4911 72.151 1.074
Krypton 2.89
Methane - CH4 0.554 16.043 1.304
Methyl Chloride 1.74 50.490
Natural Gas (typical) 0.60 - 0.70 (0.65) (18.829) (1.32)
Neon 0.696 20.183 1.667
Nitric oxide - NO 1.0359 30.008 1.386
Nitrogen - N2 0.967 28.016 1.40
Nitrous oxide - N2O 1.530 44.020
Nonane 4.428 128.258 1.04
Octane 3.944 114.232 1.046
Oxygen – O2 1.105 32.000 1.396
Ozone 1.660
n-Pentane – C5H12 2.4908 72.151 1.074
Phosgene 1.39
Propane – C3H8 1.522 44.097 1.128
Propene (Propylene) – C3H6 1.4527 42.081 1.187
Sasol 0.42
Silane 1.11
Sulfur Dioxide - SO2 2.2117 64.066 1.264
Toluene-Methylbenzene 3.176
Water Gas (bituminous) 0.71
Water Vapor 0.622 18.016 1.329
Xenon 4.533 131.300 1.667

640
 Table A21 - Specific Gravity Common Fluids

Temperature Specific
Product oF oC Gravity s.g.
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO 61 16.1 0.79
68 20 0.76
Acetic acid 5% - vinegar 59 15 1.006
Acetic acid - 10% 59 15 1.014
Acetic acid - 50% 59 15 1.061
Acetic acid - 80% 59 15 1.075
Acetic acid - concentrated 59 15 1.055
Acetic acid anhydride (CH3COO)2O 59 15 1.087
Acetone CH3COCH3 68 20 0.792
Alcohol - allyl 68 20 0.855
Alcohol - butyl-n 68 20 0.81
158 70 0.78
Alcohol - ethyl (grain) C2H5OH 68 20 0.789
104 40 0.772
Alcohol - methyl (wood) CH3OH 68 20 0.79
Alcohol - propyl 68 20 0.804
32 0 0.817
Aluminum sulfate 36% solution 60 15.6 1.055
Ammonia 0 -17.8 0.662
Aniline 68 20 1.022
32 0 1.035
Automotive crankcase oils 60 15.6 0.88-0.94
SAE-5W/10W/20W/30W/40W/50W
Automotive gear oils 60 15.6 0.88-0.94
SAE-75W/80W/85W/90W/140W/150W
Beer 60 15.6 1.01
Benzene (benzol) C6H6 32 0 0.899
60 15.6 0.885
Bone oil 60 15.6 0.918
Boric acid H3BO3 46.4 8 1.014
59 15 1.025
Bromine 32 0 2.9
Butane-n 60 15.6 0.584
Butyric acid 68 20 0.959
Calcium chloride 5% 65 18.3 1.040
Calcium chloride 25% 60 15.6 1.23
Carbolic acid (phenol) 65 18.3 1.08
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 68 20 1.594

641
 o o
Product (Continued) F C SG

Carbon disulfide CS2 32 0 1.293

68 20 1.263
Castor Oil 68 20 0.96
104 40 0.95
China wood oil 60 15.6 0.943
Chloroform 68 20 1.489
140 60 1.413
Coconut oil 60 15.6 0.925
Cod liver oil 59 15 0.920-0.925
Corn oil 60 15.6 0.924
Cotton seed oil 60 15.6 0.88-0.93
Creosote 60 15.6 1.04-1.10
o
Crude oil 48 API 60 15.6 0.79
130 54.4 0.76
Crude oil 40o API 60 15.6 0.825
130 54.4 0.805
Crude oil 35.6o API 60 15.6 0.847
130 54.4 0.824
Crude oil 32.6o API 60 15.6 0.832
130 54.4 0.84
Crude oil Salt creek 60 15.6 0.843
130 54.4 0.82
Decane-n 68 20 0.73
Diethylene glycol 60 15.6 1.12
Diethyl ether 68 20 0.714
Diphenylamine 1.16
Diesel Fuel Oil 2D 13D 14D 15D 60 15.6 0.81 - 0.96
Dowtherm 77 25 1.056
Ethyl acetate CH3COOC2H3 59 15 0.907
68 20 0.90
Ethyl bromide C2H3Br 59 15 1.45
Ethylene bromide 68 20 2.18
Ethylene chloride 68 20 1.246
Ethylene glycol 60 15.6 1.125
Formic acid - 10% 68 20 1.025
Formic acid - 50% 68 20 1.121
Formic acid - 80% 68 20 1.186
Formic acid - concentrated 68 20 1.221
Freon - 11 70 21.1 1.49
Freon - 12 70 21.1 1.33
Freon - 21 70 21.1 1.37
Furfurol 68 20 1.159
Fuel oils 12 13 15A 15B 16 60 15.6 0.82-0.95
Gas oils 60 15.6 0.89

642
 o o
Product (Continued) F C SG

Gasoline a 60 15.6 0.74

Gasoline b 60 15.6 0.72
Gasoline c 60 15.6 0.68
Glycerin 100% 68 20 1.26
Glycerin 50% water 68 20 1.13
Glucose 60 15.6 1.35-1.44
Heptane-n 60 15.6 0.688
Hexane-n 60 15.6 0.664
Ink printers 60 15.6 1.0-1.4
Kerosene 60 15.6 0.78-0.82
Jet fuel 60 15.6 0.82
Lard 60 15.6 0.96
Lard oil 60 15.6 0.91-0.93
Linseed oil 60 15.6 0.92-0.94
Mercury 60 15.6 13.6
Methyl acetate 68 20 0.93
Methyl iodide 68 20 2.28
Milk 60 15.6 1.02-1.05
Molasses A first 60 15.6 1.40-1.46
Molasses B second 60 15.6 1.43-1.48
Molasses C blackstrap 60 15.6 1.46-1.49
Naphthalene 68 20 1.145
Neatsfoot oil 60 15.6 0.917
Nitrobentzene 68 20 1.203
59 15 1.205
Nonane-n 60 15.6 0.722
68 20 0.718
Octane-n 60 15.6 0.707
Olive oil 60 15.6 0.91 - 0.92
Palm oil 60 15.6 0.924
Peanut oil 60 15.6 0.92
Pentane-n 32 0 0.650
60 15.6 0.631
Potassium hydrate 1.24
Sodium chloride 1.19
Sodium hydrate 1.27
Tuluol 0.87
Turpentine 0.87
Water. fresh I
oF
Water. sea 36 1.02
Xylene 0.87

1) Based on water at 60°F and s.g. = 1

643
 Table A22 - The kinematic viscosity common fluids

Temperature Kinematic Viscosity

Seconds
Fluid Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO 61 16.1 0.305 36
68 20 0.295
Acetic acid - vinegar - 10% CH3COOH 59 15 1.35 31.7
Acetic acid - 50% 59 15 2.27 33
Acetic acid - 80% 59 15 2.85 35
Acetic acid - concentrated glacial 59 15 1.34 31.7
Acetic acid anhydride (CH3COO)2O 59 15 0.88
Acetone CH3COCH3 68 20 0.41
Alcohol - allyl 68 20 1.60 31.8
104 40 0.90 cp
Alcohol - butyl-n 68 20 3.64 38
Alcohol — ethyl (grain) C2H5OH 68 20 1.52 31.7
100 37.8 1.2 31.5
Alcohol - methyl (wood) CH3OH 59 15 0.74
32 0 1.04
Alcohol - propyl 68 20 2.8 35
122 50 1.4 31.7
Aluminum sulfate - 36% solution 68 20 1.41 31.7
Ammonia 0 -17.8 0.30
Aniline 68 20 4.37 40
50 10 6.4 46.4
Asphalt RC-0, MC-0, SC-0 77 25 159-324 737-1.5M
100 37.8 60-108 280-500
Automatic crankcase oil 0 -17.8 1295-max 6M-max
SAE 10W
Automatic crankcase oil 0 -17.8 1295-2590 6M-12M
SAE 10W
Automatic crankcase oil 0 -17.8 2590-10350 12M-48M
SAE 20W
Automatic crankcase oil 210 98.9 5.7-9.6 45-58
SAE 20
Automatic crankcase oil 210 98.9 9.6-12.9 58-70
SAE 30
Automatic crankcase oil 210 98.9 12.9-16.8 70-85
SAE 40

644
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Automatic crankcase oil 210 98.9 16.8-22.7 85-110
SAE 50
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 4.2 min 40 min
SAE 75W
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 7.0 min 49 min
SAE 80W
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 11.0 min 63 min
SAE 85W
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 14-25 74-120
SAE 90W
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 25-43 120-200
SAE 140
Automotive gear oil 210 98.9 43 - min 200 min
SAE150
Beer 68 20 1.8 32
Benzene (Benzol) C6H6 32 0 1.0 31
68 20 0.74
Bone oil 130 54.4 47.5 220
212 100 11.6 65
Bromine 68 20 0.34
Butane-n -50 -1.1 0.52
30 0.35
Butyric acid n 68 20 1.61 31.6
32 0 2.3 cp
Calcium chloride 5% 65 18.3 1.156
Calcium chloride 25% 60 15.6 4.0 39
Carbolic acid (phenol) 65 18.3 11.83 65
194 90 1.26 cp
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 68 20 0.612
100 37.8 0.53
Carbon disulfide CS2 32 0 0.33
68 20 0.298
Castor oil 100 37.8 259-325 1200-1500
130 54.4 98-130 450-600
China wood oil 69 20.6 308.5 1425
100 37.8 125.5 580
Chloroform 68 20 0.38
140 60 0.35
Coconut oil 100 37.8 29.8-31.6 140-148
130 54.4 14.7-15.7 76-80
Cod oil (fish oil) 100 37.8 32.1 150
130 54.4 19.4 95

645
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Corn oil 130 54.4 28.7 135
212 100 8.6 54
Corn starch solution 70 21.1 32.1 150
22 Baume 100 37.8 27.5 130
Corn starch solution 70 21.1 129.8 600
24 Baume 100 37.8 95.2 440
Corn starch solution 70 21.1 303 1400
25 Baume 100 37.8 173.2 800
Cotton seed oil 100 37.8 37.9 176
130 54.4 20.6 100
Crude oil 48o API 60 15.6 3.8 39
130 54.4 1.6 31.8
Crude oil 40o API 60 15.6 9.7 55.7
130 54.4 3.5 38
Crude oil 35.6o API 60 15.6 17.8 88.4
130 54.4 4.9 42.3
Crude oil 32.6o API 60 15.6 23.2 110
130 54.4 7.1 46.8
Decane-n 0 17.8 2.36 34
100 37.8 1.001 31
Diethyl glycol 70 21.1 32 149.7
Diethyl ether 68 20 0.32
Diesel fuel 20 100 37.8 2-6 32.6-45.5
130 54.4 1.-3.97 -39
Diesel fuel 30 100 37.8 6-11.75 45.5-65
130 54.4 3.97-6.78 39-48
Diesel fuel 40 100 37.8 29.8 max 140 max
130 54.4 13.1 max 70 max
Diesel fuel 60 122 50 86.6 max 400 max
160 71.1 35.2 max 165 max
Ethyl acetate CH3COOC2H3 59 15 0.4
68 20 0.49
Ethyl bromide C2H5Br 68 20 0.27
Ethylene bromide 68 20 0.787
Ethylene chloride 68 20 0.668
Ethylene glycol 70 21.1 17.8 88.4
Formic acid 10% 68 20 1.04 31
Formic acid 50% 68 20 1.2 31.5

646
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Formic acid 80% 68 20 1.4 31.7
Formic acid concentrated 68 20 1.48 31.7
77 25 1.57cp
Freon -11 70 21.1 0.21
Freon -12 70 21.1 0.27
Freon -21 70 21.1 1.45
Furfurol 68 20 1.45 31.7
77 25 1.49cp
Fuel Oils
No. 2 – No.6
Viscosity - Saybolt Universal Seconds SSU, versus temperature for typical fuel oils are
indicated in the diagram below:

Fuel oil 1 70 21.1 2.39-4.28 34-40

100 37.8 -2.69 32-35
Fuel oil 2 70 21.1 3.0-7.4 36-50
100 37.8 2.11-4.28 33-40
Fuel oil 3 70 21.1 2.69-5.84 35-45
100 37.8 2.06-3.97 32.8-39
Fuel oil 5A 70 21.1 7.4-26.4 50-125
100 37.8 4.91-13.7 42-72
Fuel oil 5B 70 21.1 26.4- 125-
100 37.8 13.6-67.1 72-310
Fuel oil 6 122 50 97.4-660 450-3M
160 71.1 37.5-172 175-780

647
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Gas oils 70 21.1 13.9 73
100 37.8 7.4 50
Gasoline a 60 15.6 0.88
100 37.8 0.71
Gasoline b 60 15.6 0.64
100 37.8
Gasoline c 60 15.6 0.46
100 37.8 0.40
Glycerin 100% 68.6 20.3 648 2950
100 37.8 176 813
Glycerin 50% water 68 20 5.29 43
140 60 1.85 cp
Glucose 100 37.8 7.7M-22M 35M-100M
150 65.6 880-2420 4M-11M
Heptanes-n 0 -17.8 0.928
100 37.8 0.511
Hexane-n 0 -17.8 0.683
100 37.8 0.401
Honey 100 37.8 73.6 349
Ink, printers 100 37.8 550-2200 2500-10M
130 54.4 238-660 1100-3M
Insulating oil 70 21.1 24.1 max 115 max
100 37.8 11.75 max 65 max
Kerosene 68 20 2.71 35
Jet Fuel -30. -34.4 7.9 52
Lard 100 37.8 62.1 287
130 54.4 34.3 160

2
Kinematic Viscosity: 1 cSt (centiStokes) = 10-6 m /s

Lard oil Lard oil Lard oil Lard oil Lard oil
Linseed oil Linseed oil Linseed oil Linseed oil Linseed oil
Mercury Mercury Mercury Mercury Mercury
Methyl acetate Methyl acetate Methyl acetate Methyl acetate Methyl acetate
Methyl iodide Methyl iodide Methyl iodide Methyl iodide Methyl iodide
Menhaden oil Menhaden oil Menhaden oil Menhaden oil Menhaden oil

648
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Milk 68 20 1.13 31.5
Molasses A, first 100 37.8 281-5070 1300-23500
130 54.4 151-1760 700-8160
B, second 100 37.8 1410-13.2M 6535-61180
130 54.4 660-3.3M 3058-15294
C, blackstrap 100 37.8 2630-55M 12190-255M
130 54.4 1320-16.5M 6120-76.5M
Naphthalene 176 80 0.9
212 100 0.78 cp
Neatstool oil 100 37.8 49.7 230
130 54.4 27.5 130
Nitrobenzene 68 20 1.67 31.8
Nonane-n 0 -17.8 1.728 32
100 37.8 0.807
Octane-n 0 -17.8 1.266 31.7
100 37.8 0.645
Olive oil 100 37.8 43.2 200
130 54.4 24.1
Palms oil 100 37.8 47.8
130 54.4 26.4
Peanut oil 100 37.8 42 200
130 54.4 23.4
Pentane-n 0 17.8 0.508
80 26.7 0.342
Petrolatum 130 54.4 20.5 100
160 71.1 15 77
Petroleum ether 60 15.6 31(est) 1.1
Propionic acid 32 0 1.52 cp 31.5
68 20 1.13
Propylene glycol 70 21.1 52 241
Quenching oil (typical) 100-120 20.5-25
Rapeseed oil 100 37.8 54.1 250
130 54.4 31 145
Rosin oil 100 37.8 324.7 1500
130 54.4 129.9 600
Rosin (wood) 100 37.8 216-11M 1M-50M
200 93.3 108-4400 500-20M
Sesame seed oil 100 37.8 39.6 184
130 54.4 23 110
Sodium chloride 5% 68 20 1.097 31.1
Sodium chloride 25% 60 15.6 2.4 34
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) 20% 65 18.3 4.0 39.4

649
 Seconds
Fluids (Continued) Saybolt
CentiStokes Universal
oF oC cSt SSU
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) 30% 65 18.3 10.0 58.1
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) 40% 65 18.3
Soya bean oil 100 37.8 35.4 165
130 5.4 19.64 96
Sperm oil 100 37.5 21-23 110
130 54.4 15.2 78
Sulphuric acid 100% 68 20 14.56 76
140 60 7.2 cp
Sulphuric acid 95% 68 20 14.5 75
Sulphuric acid 60% 68 20 4.4 41
Sulphuric acid 20% 3M-8M
650-1400

Tar, coke oven 70 21.1 600-1760 15M-300M

100 37.8 141-308 2M-20M
Kinematic Viscosity: 1 cSt (centiStokes) = 10-6 m2/s
Tar, gas house 70 21.1 3300-66M 2500
100 37.8 440-4400 500
Tar, pine 100 37.8 559 200-300
132 55.6 108.2 55-60
Toluene 68 20 0.68 185.7
140 60 0.38 cp
Triethylene glycol 70 21.1 40 400-440
185-205
Turpentine 100 37.8 86.5-95.2 1425
130 54.4 39.9-44.3 650
Varnish, spar 68 20 313
100 37.8 143
Water, distilled 68 20 1.0038 31
Water, fresh 60 15.6 1.13
31.5
130 54.4 0.55
Water, sea 1.15 31.5
Whale oil 100 37.8 35-39.6 163-184
130 54.4 19.9-23.4 97-112
Xylene-o 68 20 0.93
104 40 0.623 cp

650
 Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

°F Centipoise °F Centipoise °F Centipois

Acetic Acid Ethylene Oxide Isohexane

59 1.31 -57 0.577 32 0.376
64 1.30 -37 0.488 68 0.306
77 1.155 -5.8 0.394 104 0.254
86 1.04 32 0.320 Isopentane
106 1.00 Fluorbenzene 32 0.273
212 0.43 68 0.598 68 0.223
Acetic Anhydride 140 0.389 Kerosene
32 1.24 212 0.275 68 2.69
59 0.971 Fuel Oil, #2 100 2.0
64 0.90 70 3.0 - 7.4 Methyl Alcohol
86 0.783 100 2.11 - 4.28 -48 1.98
212 0.490 Fuel Oil, #6 32 0.82
Acetone 122 97.4 - 660 59 0.623
14 0.450 160 37.5 - 172 68 0.597
32 0.399 Gasoline 77 0.546
59 0.337 60 0.46 - 0.88 86 0.510
77 0.316 100 0.40 - 0.71 Methyl Chloride
Ammonia Glycerin 0 0.25
-92 0.475 32 12,110 20 0.23
-58 0.317 43 6,260 40 0.21
-40 0.276 59 2,330 60 0.19
-28 0.255 68 1,490 100 0.16
Benzene 77 954 Naphthalene
32 0.912 86 629 176 0.967
50 0.758 Heptane 212 0.776
68 0.652 32 0.524 Nitric Acid
86 0.564 63 0.461 32 2.275
104 0.503 68 0.409 Nitrobenzene
122 0.542 77 0.386 37 2.91
Carbon Tetrachloride 104 0.341 42 2.71
32 1.329 Hexane 50 2.48
59 1.038 32 0.401 68 2.03
68 0.969 68 0.326 Nitromethane
86 0.843 77 0.386 32 0.853
104 0.739 104 0.341 77 0.620
140 0.585 Hydrochloric Acid, 31.5% n-Octane
Chlorine Liquid 0 3.4 32 0.706
-40 0.505 20 2.9 68 0.240
-20 0.462 40 2.5 104 0.433
20 0.400 60 2.0 Pentane
60 0.350 80 1.8 32 0.289
100 0.313 100 1.6 68 0.524
Ethylbenzene 140 1.2 Phenol
63 0.691 Iodine Liquid 65 12.7
Ethylene Glycol 241 2.27 122 3.49
68 19.9 Isoheptane 158 2.03
104 9.13 32 0.481 194 1.26
140 4.95 68 0.384
176 3.02 104 0.315

651
 Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids (continued)

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

°F Centipoise °F Centipoise °F Centipoise
Phosphorous Liquid Sodium Liquid Sulfuric Acid
71 2.34 0 2.4 32 48.4
88 2.01 26 1.3 59 32.8
110 1.73 40 1.2 68 25.4
123 1.60 60 1.1 86 15.7
140 1.45 100 1.0 104 11.5
158 1.32 140 0.85 122 8.82
Sodium Hydroxide Sulfur (gas free) 140 7.22
0 100 253 10.9 Turpentine
100 40 276 8.7 60 2.11
120 25 100 2.0
140 15 301 7.1
160 9.5 314 7.2 Water
200 3.7 317 7.6 60 1.13
220 2.4 319 14.5 130 0.55
250 1.4 Sulfur Dioxide
-28 0.5508
13 0.4285
32 0.3936

652
 Table A24 - The absolute viscosity common gases

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

°F Centipoise °F Centipoise °F Centipoise
Acetylene Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen
32 0.00935 32 0.0166 -6.7 0.0156
Air 59 0.0172 51.6 0.0171
32 0.0171 260.8 0.0218 81 0.0178
104 0.0190 Chlorine 261 0.0219
444 0.0264 122 0.0147 440 0.0256
633 0.0305 212 0.0168 Oxygen
674 0.0312 302 0.0187 32 0.0189
768 0.0341 392 0.0208 67 0.0202
Ammonia Ethane 262 0.0257
32 0.0092 32 0.0085 440
68 0.0098 63 0.0090 0.0302
212 0.0128 Ethylene n-Pentane
302 0.0146 32 0.0091 77 0.0068
482 0.0181 68 0.0101 212 0.0084
Argon 122 0.0110 Propane
32 0.0210 212 0.0126 64.2 0.0079
68 0.0222 Helium 213 0.0101
212 0.0269 32 0.0186 Propylene
392 0.0322 68 0.0194 62 0.0083
Benzene Hydrogen 122 0.0093
0 0.0065 -172 0.0057 Sulfur Dioxide
32 0.0116
40 0.0070 -143.5 0.0062 64.4 0.0124
70 0.0075 -25 0.0077 68.9 0.0125
100 0.0080 32 0.0084 213 0.0161
200 0.0091 69 0.0088
Butene 264 0.0108
0 0.0075 Hydrogen Chloride
40 0.0080 54.4 0.0139
70 0.0085 61.8 0.0141
100 0.0090 212 0.0182
200 0.0104 Hydrogen Sulfide
Butylene 32 0.0117
66 0.0074 62.6 0.0124
212 0.0095 212 0.0159
Carbon Dioxide Methane
-144 0.0090 32 0.0102
-76 0.0106 68 0.0109
32 0.0139 212 0.0133
68 0.0148
86 0.0153

653
 Table A25 - Density of Elements in English and Metric Units

Density - lb/ft3 Density - kg/m3

Mol Wt.
Element or Compound 14.7 psia & 60˚F 1013 mbar & 15.6˚C
Liquid Gas Liquid Gas

Acetic Acid, CH3-CO-OH 65.7 1052.4 66.1

Acetone, CH3-CO-CH3 49.4 791.3 58.1
Acetylene, C2H2 0.069 1.11 26.0
Air, O2+N2 0.0764 1.223 29.0
Ammonia, NH3 0.045 0.72 17.0
Argon, A 0.105 1.68 39.9
Benzene, C6H6 54.6 874.6 78.1
Butane, C4H10 0.154 2.47 58.1
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.117 1.87 44.0
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.074 1.19 28.0
Carbon Tetrachloride, CCl4 99.5 1593.9 153.8
Chlorine, Cl2 0.190 3.04 70.9
Ethane, C2H6 0.080 1.28 30.1
Ethyl Alcohol, C2H5OH 49.52 793.3 46.1
Ethylene, CH2=CH2 0.074 1.19 28.1
Ethyl Ether, C2H5-O-C2H5 44.9 719.3 74.1
Fluorine, F2 0.097 1.55 38.0
Helium, He 0.011 0.18 4.00
Heptane, C7H16 42.6 682.4 100.2
Hydrogen, H2 0.005 0.08 2.02
Hydrogen Chloride, HCl 0.097 1.55 36.5
Isobutane, (CH3)2 CH-CH3 0.154 2.47 58.1
Isopropyl Alcohol, CH3-CHOH-CH3 49.23 788.6 60.1
Methane, CH4 0.042 0.67 16.0
Methyl Alcohol, H-CH2OH 49.66 795.5 32.0
Nitrogen, N2 0.074 1.19 28.0
Nitrous Oxide, N2O 0.117 1.87 44.0
Octane, CH3-(CH2)6-CH3 43.8 701.6 114.2
Oxygen, O2 0.084 1.35 32.0
Pentane, C5H12 38.9 623.1 72.2
Phenol, C6H5OH 66.5 1065.3 94.1
Phosgene, COCl2 0.108 1.73 98.9
Propane, C3H8 0.117 1.87 44.1
Propylene, CH2=CH-CH3 0.111 1.78 42.1
Refrigerant 12, CCl2F2 0.320 5.13 120.9
Refrigerant 22, CHClF2 0.228 3.65 86.5
Sulfur Dioxide, SO2 0.173 2.77 64.1
Water, H2O 62.34 998.6 18.0

654
 Table A26 - Metric Conversion Tables

Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain

Length Flow Rates

millimeters 0.10 centimeters cubic 60.0 ft 3 /hr

millimeters 0.001 meters feet/minute
cubic 1.699 m 3 /hr
millimeters 0.039 inches feet/minute
cubic 256.5 Barrels/day
millimeters 0.00328 feet feet/minute
cubic feet/hr 0.1247 GPM
centimeters 10.0 millimeters cubic feet/hr 0.472 liters/min
centimeters 0.010 meters cubic feet/hr 0.01667 ft 3 /min
centimeters 0.394 inches cubic feet/hr 0.0283 m 3 /hr
centimeters 0.0328 feet cubic meters/hr 4.403 GPM
inches 25.40 millimeters cubic meters/hr 16.67 liters/min
inches 2.54 centimeters cubic meters/hr 0.5886 ft 3 /min
inches 0.0254 meters cubic meters/hr 35.31 ft 3 /hr
inches 0.0833 feet cubic meters/hr 150.9 Barrels/day
feet 304.8 millimeters
feet 30.48 centimeters Velocity
feet 0.304 meters
feet 12.0 inches feet per second 60 ft/min
feet per second 0.3048 meters/second
Area feet per second 1.097 km/hr
feet per second 0.6818 miles/hr
sq. millimeters 0.010 sq. centimeters meters per 3.280 ft/sec
sq. millimeters 10.-6 sq. meters second
meters per 196.9 ft/min
sq. millimeters 0.00155 sq. inches second
meters per 3,600 km/hr
sq. millimeters 1.076 x 10-5 sq. feet second
meters per 2,.237 miles/hr
sq. centimeters 100 sq. millimeters second
sq. centimeters 0.0001 sq. meters Weight (Mass)
sq. centimeters 0.155 sq. inches
sq. centimeters 0.001076 sq. feet pounds 0.0005 short ton
sq. inches 645.2 sq. millimeters pounds 0.000446 long ton
sq. inches 6.452 sq. centimeters pounds 0.453 kilogram
sq. inches 0.000645 sq. meters pounds 0.000453 metric ton
sq. inches 0.00694 sq. feet short ton 2000.0 pounds
sq. feet 9.29 x 104 sqs. millimeters short ton 0.8929 long ton
sq. feet 929 sq. centimeters short ton 907.2 kilogram
sq. feet 0.0929 sq. meters short ton 0.9072 metric ton
sq. feet 144 sq. inches long ton 2240 pounds
long ton 1.120 short ton
Flow Rates long ton 1016 kilogram
long ton 1.016 metric ton
gallons US/minute kilogram 2.205 pounds
GPM 3.785 liters/min kilogram 0.0011 short ton
gallons US/minute 0.133 ft 3 /min kilogram 0.00098 long ton
gallons US/minute 8.021 ft 3 /hr kilogram 0.001 metric ton
gallons US/minute 0.227 m 3 /hr metric ton 2205 pounds
gallons US/minute 34.29 Barrels/day metric ton 1.102 short ton
(42 US gal) metric ton 0.984 long ton
cubic feet/minute 7.481 GPM metric ton 1000 kilogram
cubic feet/minute 28.32 liters/minute

655
 Table A26 - Metric Conversion Tables (Continued)

Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain

Volume & Capacity Pressure &Head

cubic cm 0.06102 cubic inches atmosphere 14.69 psi

cubic cm 3.531 x 10-5 cubic feet atmosphere 1.013 bar
cubic cm 10.-6 cubic meters atmosphere 1.033 Kg/cm2
cubic cm 0.0001 liters atmosphere 101.3 kPa
cubic cm 2.642 x 10-4 gallons (US) atmosphere 33.9 ft of H 2O
cubic meters 10.6 cubic cm atmosphere 10.33 m of H2O
cubic meters 61,023.0 cubic inches atmosphere 76.00 cm of Hg
cubic meters 35.31 cubic feet atmosphere 760.0 torr (mm of Hg)
cubic meters 1000.0 liters gallons atmosphere 29.92 in of Hg
cubic meters 264.2 cubic cm bar 14.50 psi
cubic feet 28,320.0 cubic inches bar 0.9869 atmosphere
cubic feet 1728.0 cubic meters bar 1.020 Kg/cm2
cubic feet 0.0283 liters bar 100.0 kPa
cubic feet 28.32 gallons cubic bar 33.45 ft of H 2O
cubic feet 7.4805 cm cubic bar 10.20 m of H2O
liters 1000.0 inches cubic bar 75.01 cm of Hg
liters 61.02 feet cubic bar 750.1 torr (mm of Hg)
liters 0.03531 meters bar 29.53 in of Hg
liters 0.001 gallons cubic kilogram/sq. cm 14.22 psi
liters 0.264 cm cubic kilogram/sq. cm 0.9807 bar
gallons 3785.0 inches cubic kilogram/sq. cm 0.9678 atmosphere
gallons 231.0 feet cubic kilogram/sq. cm 98.07 kPa
gallons 0.1337 meters liters kilogram/sq. cm 32.81 ft of H O (4 DEG C)
2
gallons 3.785 x 10-3 kilogram/sq. cm 10.00 m of H2O (4 DEG C)
gallons 3.785 kilogram/sq. cm 73.56 cm of Hg
kilogram/sq. cm 735.6 torr (mm of Hg)
Pressure & Head bar kilogram/sq. cm 28.96 in of Hg
atmosphere kiloPascal 0.145 psi
pounds/sq. inch 0.06895 kg/cm2 kiloPascal 0.01 bar
pounds/sq. inch 0.06804 kPa kiloPascal 0.00986 atmosphere
pounds/sq. inch 0.0703 ft of H O (4 DEG C) kiloPascal 0.0102 kg/cm2
2
pounds/sq. inch 6.895 m of H O (4 DEG C) kiloPascal 0.334 ft of H O
2 2
pounds/sq. inch 2.307 cm of Hg (0 DEG C) kiloPascal 0.102 m of H 2O
pounds/sq. inch 0.703 torr (mm of Hg) kiloPascal 0.7501 cm of Hg
pounds/sq. inch 5.171 (0 DEG C) kiloPascal 7.501 torr (mm of Hg)
pounds/sq. inch 51.71 in of Hg (0 DEG C) kiloPascal 0.295 in of Hg
millibar 0.001 bar
pounds/sq. inch 2.036

Some units shown on this page are not recommended by SI, e.g., kilogram/sq. cm should be read as kilogram
(force) / sq. cm

656
 Table A27 – Standard Conditions and Gas Laws

Standards and Conditions Laws of Gases

Standard conditions (US Customary) are at: Universal gas equation

14.69 psia & 60˚F Pv = mRTZ

Normal conditions (metric) are at:

Where:
1.013 bar and 0˚C & 4˚C water

Note : Within the Masoneilan Control Valve Sizing English units

handbook, the metric factors are at: 2
P = press lbs/ ft
1.013 bar and 15.6˚C. v = volume in ft
3

m = mass in lbs
Specific gravity of air G = 1 (reference for gases)
R = gas constant = 1545
Specific gravity of water = 1 (reference for liquids) M

1 U.S. gallon of water = 8.3378 lbs @ std cond. Metric units

1 cubic foot of water = 62.34 lbs @ std cond (= density) P = Pascal
3
1 cubic foot of water = 7.48 gallons v = m
1 cubic foot of air = 0.076 lbs @ std cond (= air density) m = kg
R = gas constant = 8314
Air specific volume = 1 / density = 13.1 cubic feet /lb M
Air molecular weight M = 29

G of any gas = density of gas / 0.076

Gas expansion (perfect gas)
G of any gas = molecular weight M of gas / 29
P1V1 P2 V2
=
G of gas at flowing temp = G x 520 T1 T2
T + 460

Flow conversion of gas Velocity of sound C (ft/sec)

scfh = lbs/hr
density k  T+460 
C = 223
M
scfh = lbs/hr x 379
Velocity of sound C (m/sec)
M
k  T+273
scfh = lbs/hr x 379 C = 91.2
G M

657
 Table A28 – Head Loss in Piping Systems

Friction Losses in Pipe Fittings - Resistance Coefficient K

2
Head loss in fittings hf : hf =[K * v /2g]
2
Head loss in pipe hp : hp= f * [L(in ft) /D (in ft)] * [ v /2g] Note: f = moody friction factor for pipe
Head loss flow meter ho: ho = [inches H2O / 12 ] in feet
Head loss in piping and fittings: hL = hp + hf + hO + hV
Head loss for valve hV = hL * (0.15 to 0.4) Note: verify valve works for percent pressure drop
Head required for pump in feet = hp + hf + ho + hV + any working vessel pressure in feet
Nominal Pipe Size in Inches
1- 1- 2-1/2- 8- 12- 18-
Fitting 1/2 3/4 1 2 4 6
1/4 1/2 3 10 16 24

LD K Value
Angle Valve 55 1.48 1.38 1.27 1.21 1.16 1.05 0.99 0.94 0.83 0.77 0.72 0.66
Angle Valve 150 4.05 3.75 3.45 3.30 3.15 2.85 2.70 2.55 2.25 2.10 1.95 1.80
Ball Valve 3 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04
Butterfly Valve 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.68 0.63 0.35 0.30
Gate Valve 8 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10
Globe Valve 340 9.2 8.5 7.8 7.5 7.1 6.5 6.1 5.8 5.1 4.8 4.4 4.1
Plug Valve Branch Flow 90 2.43 2.25 2.07 1.98 1.89 1.71 1.62 1.53 1.35 1.26 1.17 1.08
Plug Valve Straightaway 18 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.22
Plug Valve 3-Way Thru-Flow 30 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36
90° 30 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36
45° 16 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.19
Standard Elbow
long radius
16 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.19
90°
Close Return Bend 50 1.35 1.25 1.15 1.10 1.05 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60
Thru-Flow 20 0.54 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24
Standard Tee
Thru-Branch 60 1.62 1.50 1.38 1.32 1.26 1.14 1.08 1.02 0.90 0.84 0.78 0.72
r/d=1 20 0.54 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24
r/d=2 12 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.14
r/d=3 12 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.14
r/d=4 14 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.17
90 Bends, r/d=6 17 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.32 0.31 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20
Pipe Bends, r/d=8 24 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.53 0.50 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.29
Flanged Elbows,
Butt-Welded r/d=10 30 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36
Elbows r/d=12 34 0.92 0.85 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.51 0.48 0.44 0.41
r/d=14 38 1.03 0.95 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.72 0.68 0.65 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.46
r/d=16 42 1.13 1.05 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.80 0.76 0.71 0.63 0.59 0.55 0.50
r/d=18 45 1.24 1.15 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.55
r/d=20 50 1.35 1.25 1.15 1.10 1.05 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60
a=0° 2 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
a=15° 4 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05
a=30° 8 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10
Mitre Bends a=45° 15 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.18
a=60° 25 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30
a=75° 40 1.09 1.00 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.48
a=90° 60 1.62 1.50 1.38 1.32 1.26 1.14 1.08 1.02 0.90 0.84 0.78 0.72
Note: Fittings are standard with full openings.

658
 Table A29 – Maximal flow velocity in pipes

Maximal flow velocity in pipes

Water m/s ft/s
Tap water (low noise) 0.5 - 0.7 1.6 -8.2
Tap water 1.0 - 2.5 3.3 - 8.2
Cooling water 1.5 - 2.5 4.9 - 8.2
Boiler feed water. suction 0.5 - 1.0 1.6 - 3.3
Boiler feed water. discharge 1.5 - 2.5 4.9 - 8.2
Condensate 1.0 - 2.0 3.3 - 6.5
Heating circulation 1.0 - 3.0 3.3 - 9.8
Lower velocity in thin lines. Higher in thick lines. The pressure drop normally calculates
separately for longer lines with several separate bend-resistance´s.
Steam m/s ft/s
Saturated Steam. high pressure 25 - 40 82 - 131
Saturated Steam. in special cases 0 - 60 0 - 197
Saturated Steam. medium and low pressure 30 - 40 99 - 131
Saturated Steam. at peak load 0 - 50 0 - 164
Steam / Water emulsion 0 - 25 0 - 82
The pressure drop normally calculates separately for longer lines with several separate
bend-resistances.
Oil m/s ft/s
Suction lines for pumps 0 - 0.5 0 - 1.6
Suction lines for pump (low pressure) 0.1 - 0.2 0.3 - 0.65
Discharge line for booster pump 1.0 - 2.0 3.3 - 6.5
Discharge line for burner pump 0 - 1.0 0 - 3.3
Air m/s ft/s
Combustion air ducts 12 - 20 40 - 66
Air inlet to boiler room 1-3 3.3 - 9.8
Warm air for house heating 0.8 - 1.0 2.6 - 3.3
Vacuum cleaning pipe 8 - 15 26 - 49
Compressed air pipe 20 - 30 66 - 98
Ventilation ducts (hospitals) 1.8 - 4 5.9 - 13
Ventilation ducts (office buildings) 2.0 - 4.5 6.5 - 15
Exhaust gas m/s ft/s
Ducts at minimum load 0 - 4.0 0 - 13
Stack at minimum load 0 - 5.0 0 - 16
Boiler with one-step burner (on - off) 5.0 - 8.0 16 - 26
Boiler with two-step burner (high - low) 10 - 15 31 - 49
Boiler with modulating burner (3:1) 15 - 25 49 - 82
To keep the surface free from soot the velocity should always exceed 3.0 - 4.0 9.8 - 13

659
Table A30 – Pressure Vapor Chart of Common Liquids

660
 References

1. Fisher Controls, Fisher Control Valve Handbook, 4th edition

2. Norman A. Anderson, Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control, 3rd ed
3. Dale Seborg, Thomas Edgar, Mellichamp, Process Dynamics and Control, 1st ed
4. Bela Liptak, Instrument Engineer’s Handbook
5. Gene F. Franklin ect., Feedback Control Of Dynamic Systems, 3rd ed
6. Tony R. Kuphaldt - Series on electronics and instrumentation
7. Jacques Smuts, Ph.D., P.E. – Author of the book Process Control for Practitioners
8. Myke King - Process Control A Practical Approach
9. Emerson Process
10. Cisco Networks
11. Yokagawa Corporation
12. Endress - Hauser
13. Smar Corporation
14. Samson
15. Masoneilan
16. ISA, Control Systems Engineer Study Guide, 5th ed
17. ANSI/ISA-51.1-1979(R1993) Process Instrumentation Terminology
18. ANSI/ISA-75.01.01-2002 Flow Equations for Sizing Control Valves
19. ANSI/ISA-5.1-1984(R1992) Instrumentation Symbols and Identification
20. NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
21. NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
22. NFPA 70 National Electrical Code
23. NFPA 77 Static Electricity
24. NFPA 78 Lightning Protection
25. NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery
26. NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems
27. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Div. 1, UG-125 through UG-136;
28. http://www.atlascopco.us
29. http://www.instrumentationportal.com/
30. http://www.chemengonline.com/
31. http://www.automation.com/
32. http://www.pumpsandsystems.com/
33. http://www.EngineeringToolbox.com
34. http://arachnoid.com/calculus/volume2.html
35. https://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/hazloc.html
36. http://www.specificsystems.com/
37. http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials.asp
38. http://engineeronadisk.com/
39. http://pcuserinfo.com/open-system-interconnect-osi-and-tcpip-network-layer-model/
40. http://www.airbestpractices.com
41. http://www.goggle.com (Images)
42. http://www. wikipedia.org/

661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
Control Systems Engineering Exam Reference Manual: A Practical Study Guide
Third Edition
ISBN: 978-1-941546-56-7

This manual helps prepare the PE (Professional Engineer) candidate for the NCEES PE examination in the
optional discipline of Control Systems Engineering (CSE). The CSE examination covers a broad range of
subjects, from the electrical, mechanical and chemical engineering disciplines. This examination is not
on systems theory, but on sound judgment of the application of process control systems and applicable
codes and standards. Basic process control systems (BPCS) and safety instrumented systems (SIS) are
presented in detail. Experience in engineering or designing process control systems is almost a necessity
to pass this discipline of the NCEES P&P (principles and practices) examination.

Study of this reference manual should adequately prepare the experienced engineer or designer to take
the CSE examination. This manual presents many practical problems which may be presented on the
CSE examination with explanations and worked solutions. State and federal codes needed for the
examination are reviewed and standard documentation and design practices are demonstrated for the
design of real world plant control systems.