SAJC H2 Physics Summary updated 25 Aug 23

St Andrew’s Junior College

H2 Physics
Summary

H2
Name: ________________ Class: _________
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SAJC H2 Physics Summary updated 25 Aug 23

Data
speed of light in free space c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1
permeability of free space o = 4  x 10-7 H m-1
permittivity of free space o = 8.85 x 10-12 F m-1
= (1/(36)) x 10-9 F m-1
elementary charge e = 1.60 x 10-19 C
the Planck constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s
unified atomic mass constant u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
rest mass of electron me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
rest mass of proton mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
molar gas constant R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
the Avogadro constant NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
the Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
gravitational constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
acceleration of free fall g = 9.81 m s-2

Formulae
uniformly accelerated motion s = u t + ½ a t2
v2 = u2 + 2 a s
work done on/by a gas W = p V
hydrostatic pressure p = g h
Gm
gravitational potential  = 
r
temperature T / K = T / oC + 273.15
1 Nm
pressure of an ideal gas p =3 〈c2 〉
V

mean translational kinetic energy of an ideal gas molecule E = 3 kT

2
displacement of particle in s.h.m. x = xo sin t
velocity of particle in s.h.m. v = v0 cos  t

v = x 02  x 2
electric current I = Anvq
resistors in series R = R1 + R2 + ...
resistors in parallel 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...
Q
electric potential V =
4 0 r
alternating current/voltage x = xo sin  t
μ0 I
magnetic flux density due to a long straight wire B=
2πd
μ0 NI
magnetic flux density due to a flat circular coil B=
2r
magnetic flux density due to a long solenoid B = μ0 nI
radioactive decay x = xo exp (- t)
ln2
decay constant  =
t1 / 2

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H2 Physics Summary (Syllabus 9749)

(Definitions, Equations, Terms, Qualitative Explanations, Common Mistakes)

Key: ( ) optional but good to include; { } Tutor’s comments/Common Mistakes; [ ] Alternative Term

Topic 1: Measurement
1. Base quantities (with their SI base units/ symbol): length (metre/ m), mass (kilogram/ kg), time (second/ s),
amount of substance (mole/ mol), temperature (kelvin/ K), current (ampere/ A).
Base units: are (a choice of well-defined) units by which all other units are expressed.
Derived unit: a unit expressed as a product and/or quotient of the base units. (eg. newton, pascal, joule, watt,
hertz, coulomb, volt, ohm)

Unitless quantities: all numbers, trigo functions, log functions (logx, ln), powers, certain physical constants (eg.
refractive index)

2. Homogeneous equations: An equation is homogeneous if every term on both sides of the equation have the
same SI base units. A physically correct equation must be homogeneous.

3. Prefixes: to recall certain prefixes & their decimal equivalents:

 1012 tera (T), 109 giga (G), 106 mega (M), 103 kilo (k), 10-1 deci (d), 10-2 centi (c), 10-3 milli (m), 10-6 micro
(), 10-9 nano (n), 10-12 pico (p).
 Sample TYS qns: decimetre = 10-1 m; megametre = 106 m; 500 cN = 500 x 10-2 N (2016 P1Q1)

4. Making reasonable estimates of certain physical quantities:

 to give the figure to 1 significant figure. {N08P1Q2, N09P1Q2}
 need to express a more complicated quantity in terms of other simpler quantities using a formula first.
 'correct to an order-of-magnitude' means value quoted is reliable to within a factor of ten or so.
 Significant figures: rules to follow:
 All non-zero digits are significant digits
 Zeros that occur between significant digits are significant digits
 Zeros to the right of the decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant

5. Errors
 An error is the difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’. A total error can be a
combination of both systematic error and/or random error.

6. Random error:
 An error {not reading} which causes measurements to be sometimes larger than the true value and
sometimes smaller than the true value.
 It is equally likely to be positive or negative with respect to true value, and can have different magnitudes.
 Can be reduced (eg. by taking the average of repeated readings, or by plotting a graph to obtain the line
or curve of best fit (Note: presence of random errors is represented by the scattering of points about the
best-fit line)).
 Eg. parallax error, non-uniform diameter of wire.

7. Systematic error:
 An error {not reading} which causes measurements to be either, always larger than the true value, or
always smaller than the true value.
Hence in an expt, a systematic error is of the same magnitude & with the ‘same sign’.
 Cannot be reduced by taking the average of repeated measurements.
 Can be eliminated {for eg, if a faulty instrument is replaced, if the experimental technique/procedure is
improved, or a different experimental approach is used}.
 Eg. zero error, incorrect calibration of the scale.

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8. Accuracy:
 refers to the degree of agreement between the result of a measurement and the true value of the quantity.
 Note: If several readings of a quantity are taken, the “result of the measurement” refers to the mean
(average) value of the readings. We take the average of the readings and compare it with the true value
to see if it is accurate.
 is a measure of the magnitude of the systematic error present; high accuracy implies a small systematic
error.
 check by looking at average value in a table or if gradient or y-intercept agree with the equation in a graph.

9. Precision:
 refers to the degree of agreement [scatter, spread] of repeated measurements of the same quantity. {Note:
regardless of whether or not they are correct with respect to the true value.}
 is a measure of the magnitude of the random errors present; high precision implies a small random error.
 check by looking at how close the repeated values are in a table or if the data scattering is close to the best
fit line in a graph.

10. For a quantity x = (2.0  0.1) mm, Actual [Absolute] uncertainty, x = 0.1 mm
Δx
Fractional uncertainty,
x = 0.05
Δx
Percentage uncertainty,
x  100% = 5 %

If p = (2 x + y) / 3, or p = (2 x – y) / 3, Actual uncertainty, p = (2 x + y) / 3

5x Δ r Δ x 3Δ y
If r = 2 x y3 or r = 3 , Fractional uncertainty, 
y r = x y

11. Rule 3: for Equations with Dependent Terms / Other Mathematical Functions (Trigo/ lg/ ln)

Y = ½ (Ymax –Ymin)

12. For Practical Exam (not theory papers): Absolute Uncertainty is generally estimated to:
(a) 1 x smallest div of instrument if conditions of measurement are ‘ideal’
(Exceptions: stopwatch timing where precision is 0.1 s; analogue meters, measuring cylinder,
thermometer (steady temp) where ½ smallest division is required instead)
(b) In general, x = (3 to 5) x smallest div if circumstances of measurement are ‘challenging’.

13. Actual uncertainty must be recorded to only 1 significant figure (1 sf).

The number of sig fig to be recorded for a calculated quantity x is determined by the position of the last
digit of its actual error x.

Eg: If g has been calculated to be 9.80645 m s-2 & g has been calculated to be 0.04848 m s-2,
then, g should be recorded as 0.05 m s-2 {1 sf } & g must then be recorded as (9.81  0.05 ) m s-2.
If g = 1.23 m s-2, then g should be recorded as (10  1) m s-2.
If the actual uncertainty is recorded (to 1sf) to its tenth or hundredth place, the number of sf for its
calculated quantity should follow to its tenth or hundredth place respectively.

Eg: If speed of sound, v has been calculated to be 330.80645 m s-1 &

v has been calculated to be 11.12 m s-1, v must be recorded as 10 m s-1 {1 sf };
v must then be recorded as (330  10) m s-1.
If v = 102 m s-1, then v should be recorded as (300  100) m s-1.

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14. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only magnitude but no direction.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and thus is only completely described if both its
magnitude & direction are known.

15. Vector Subtraction: Final Vector + (negative of Initial Vector)

Eg: A ball hits the surface of the road with an initial speed of 10 m s-1, 300 to the surface and rebounds with
a speed of 10 m s-1, 300 to the surface. Determine the magnitude of the change in velocity.

10 m s -1 10 m s -1
300 300

Soln: Change in velocity = final velocity – intial velocity {by definition, not “initial – final” }
= final velocity + (negative of initial velocity)

10 m s-1 (-u)
Change {The sequence of drawing the 3 vectors is
in important, using triangle law method}
600
velocity By cosine rule,
change in velocity = (102 +102 -2(10)(10) cos 600)1/2
10 m s-1 (final v)
= 10 m s-1

16. Resultant vector calculation via resolution & addition of component vectors:
Step 1: Resolve vectors into their 2 perpendicular components (need not always be in x- and y- directions,
esp for objects on a slope. When there is acceleration, it is in dir of acceleration and perpendicular to it).
Step 2: Sum all the x-components (Ax & Bx) to obtain vector Rx ; and sum all the y-components (Ay & By) to
obtain vector Ry.
Step 3: Rx and Ry are then added “vectorially” using Pythagoras theorem to obtain the magnitude of resultant
R.
Step 4: The direction, angle  of R (with respect to the horizontal) is obtained using the formula,
Ry
tan  =
Rx

17. Relative velocity:

The apparent velocity of B when observed from A is called the “velocity of B relative to A”, i.e. VBA = VB –
VA

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Topic 2: Kinematics

1. Displacement is defined as the distance moved in a specific direction.

Distance travelled is the total length covered irrespective of the direction of motion.

2. Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time OR the rate of change of distance travelled
{N04P3Q1: Explain why it is technically incorrect to define speed as distance per second. 1 m}

Velocity is defined as the displacement per unit time OR the rate of change of displacement
{NOT: displacement “over time”, nor displacement “per second”, nor “rate” of change of
displacement “per unit time”, nor speed in a particular direction, nor rate of change of
“distance”.}

The gradient of a displacement-time graph is the instantaneous velocity.

The area under a velocity-time graph is the change in displacement {s  vt unless v = constant}.

3. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

The gradient (tangent for curve) of a velocity-time graph is the instantaneous acceleration.
The area under an acceleration-time graph is the change in velocity.

 Questions on x-t , v-t and a-t graphs are important.

4. Equations of motion for straight line motion at const acceleration:

(1) v = u +a t derived from definition of acceleration: a = (v – u) / t
(2) s = ½ (u + v) t derived from the area under the v-t graph
(3) v2 = u2 + 2 a s derived from equations (1) and (2)
2
(4) s = u t + ½ a t derived from equations (1) and (2)

Two conditions to apply these equations: motion in a straight line and magnitude of the acceleration
is constant. {Eg, air resistance must be negligible}

5. Projectile Motion
At any instant: instantaneous velocity, v = v 2x  v 2y
vy sy
tan  = (: direction of tangential velocity wrt horizontal) {NOT: tan  = }
vx sx
Problem solving: Consider vertical and horizontal direction separately. Set sign convention.

6. Effect of Air resistance

 Projectile motion path with air resistance: Max height & Range reduced. Path is asymmetrical.

 Explanation for the difference in paths:

Air resistance opposes the motion of the body and acts against both the
horizontal and vertical motions. Hence the body’s maximum height is
reduced and the maximum range is also reduced.
As the body’s horizontal velocity keep decreasing, the horizontal displacement per unit time
keeps decreasing. The path is thus asymmetric.

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Topic 3: Dynamics

1. Newton’s First Law:

Every object continues in a state of rest or constant speed in a straight line (or constant velocity)
unless a net force acts on it to change that state.

2. Newton’s Second Law:

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it, and this
(rate of) change of momentum takes place in the direction of the net force.

3. Force on a body is defined as the rate of change of momentum of the body {i.e. F= d (mv) } and it
dt
acts in the direction of the change in momentum. {N2010 P3 Q6a, 2 m}

System Equation Example

Constant mass m(v-u) Forces acting on a point mass
with varying Net force, F =
t = ma
velocity Forces acting on connected bodies
acting over a finite time interval t

Constant velocity Thrust, F = 𝑣

dm Expelled fuel from a rocket providing a
dt forward thrust (in opp dir to the dir of
with varying mass with mass varying at dm/dt and
expelled fuel) on the rocket due to
moving at velocity v
Newton’s 3rd law as the mass of the
rocket decreases as dm/dt when the
fuel is expelled at velocity v

4. Newton’s Third Law:

When body A exerts a force on body B, object B exerts a force of the same type that is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on object A. {Ref: Examiner’s report for N01P3Q1}

 These two forces formed an action-reaction pair, always act on different bodies; hence, they
cannot cancel each other out.
 They are of the same type of force {so if the action force is a gravitational force, the reaction must
also be gravitational in nature}
{Must know how to identify forces which form an action-reaction pair. Note: weight and the normal
reaction are not an action-reaction pair as they are different type of force! }

5. Linear momentum p of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity. i.e. p = m v
Units: kg m s-1

6. Impulse of a force I is defined as the product of the force and the time t during which it acts.
Impulse is a vector.

Case 1: For a constant net force over the duration t -Impulse, I = F x t

Case 2: For a variable force – Impulse, I = area under the F-t graph =  F dt

 It is equal in magnitude to the change in momentum of the body.

{Incorrect to define impulse as change in momentum}
 Hence the change in momentum of the body is equal in magnitude to the area under the (net)
force-time graph. {For F-t graph of irregular shape, use “count-the-squares” method to estimate
the area}

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7. Weight: force experienced by a mass in a gravitational field. W = mg

Mass: a measure of the amount of matter in a body; hence, a measure of the inertia the body
 Inertia is the property of a body which resists change in its motion (2022 P3Q1(a))

Apparent weight refers to the Normal reaction N that the surface/ weighing scale exerts on a body.

8. Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum (PCM):

For a system of interacting bodies, the total momentum of the bodies (i.e. momentum of the system)
remains constant, provided no net force acts on the system. {incorrect to say “no external force”}

or, the total momentum of a closed system is constant,

i.e. m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 , if net F = 0 {applicable for all interactions}

Note: Total momentum during the interaction is also conserved. {See N08P1Q6}

9. Types of collisions:
(Perfectly) elastic Both momentum and (total) kinetic energy of the system before and
collision after collision are conserved.

During collision, KE is converted into other forms of energy (e.g.

deformation of rubber balls during collision) but is recovered (balls
regaining their shapes) such that KE before and after collision are the
same.
Inelastic collision Only momentum is conserved before and after collision, total kinetic
energy is not conserved.
Perfectly inelastic Only momentum is conserved before and after collision, and
collision
{no need to memorise as question
will tell you bodies moved The particles stick together {move with the same velocity} after collision.
together as one after collision}

For all elastic collisions,

relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation: u1 – u2 = v2 – v1

{this is a vector equation where u1, u2, v1 and v2 are all vectors and the signs for the four vectors
must be substituted correctly}

conservation of kinetic energy: ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22 = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22

{this is a scalar quadratic equation and there will be two soln. The correct soln must be chosen based
on context given}

3. Problem Solving:

For inelastic collision: Use PCM

For elastic collision: Use PCM and the “relative speed equation”.

Note:
 PCM applies to all interacting systems not subjected to a net force including explosion e.g. two magnet
with north pole facing repelling each other, not just collision.
 Momentum and velocity are vectors thus direction must be taken into account in applying PCM and
relative speed equations
 Always draw diagram of before and after collision/explosion to help keep track of the sign convention.

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Topic 4: Forces

1. Field of force: a region of space within which a force is experienced.

 Gravitational field: A region of space in which a mass experiences an attractive force due to
the effect of another mass.
 Electric field: A region of space where an electric charge experiences an attractive or repulsive
force due to the effect of another charge.
 Magnetic field: A region of space in which a moving electric charge or a current-carrying
conductor experiences a force (that is perpendicular to the magnetic field).

2. Egs of Types of Forces:

 Normal reaction: always perpendicular to the surface.
 Contact/Reaction force: vector sum of normal reaction and friction.
 Viscous force (drag): present when an object moves through a fluid. E.g. air resistance.
Magnitude of viscous force always increases with the speed of the object (BUT it is is NOT
necessarily  v unless question states so )
 Friction: always opposes relative motion; dissipative in nature.
 Tension and compression: act along the string, away from for tension/ towards for
compression the object.

3. Hooke’s law:
If the limit of proportionality {Examiner may use “elastic limit”} is not exceeded, the extension
(produced in a material) is directly proportional to the force/ load applied.

i.e. F = k x {k: force constant; spring constant, for a spring. x can also be the compression}

4. Pressure difference betw 2 pts within a liquid & separated by a vert dist h p =  g h

5. Upthrust: Origin: an upward force exerted by a fluid on a body in a fluid due to the difference in
pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the object.

6. Archimedes’ Principle: states that any object immersed in a fluid will experience an upthrust which
is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced by submerged {or floating} object.

i.e. Upthrust = Vdisplaced   fluid  g

7. When an object floats, the upthrust acting on it must be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the weight of the object since it is in vertical equilibrium.
i.e. Upthrust = weight of object ( assuming no other forces present)

8. Terminal Velocity (vt) of object falling in air:

At terminal velocity, Weight = Upthrust + k v tn { k v tn : viscous force, n: unknown constant of the
medium it is travelling in}

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9. Moment of a force: is defined as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line
of action from the pivot/ axis of rotation.

A couple is a pair of equal and opposite forces, whose lines of action do not coincide; hence they
are parallel forces. (Hence it tends to produce rotation only.)
Torque of a couple = product of one of the forces of the couple and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the forces.

10. 2 Conditions for Equilibrium of an “extended” object {i.e. not a point mass} (N06P2Q6a):
(1) The resultant force is zero.
(2) The resultant moment about any point equals zero.

Principle of Moments:
For a body to be in rotational equilibrium, the sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point
must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments about that same point. {Must explicitly state
the point used for pivot in problem solving!!}

 Exam Tip: If a force, of either unknown magnitude or direction, acts on a body, it is often
necessary/convenient to take moments about a certain pivot through which this unknown force
acts if it is not the unknown to be determined first (so that its moment would not need to be
considered).}
 To find the unknown force later in the question, the next step is usually to apply translational
equilibrium (i.e. Fnet = 0 in 2 perpendicular directions).

11. Centre of gravity of an object is defined as that single point through which the entire weight of the
object may be considered to act.

12. If a mass is acted upon by 3 forces only and is in equilibrium, then

 the lines of action of the 3 forces must pass through a common point (i.e. the 3 forces are
concurrent).
 When a vector diagram of the three forces is drawn, the forces will form a closed triangle (vector
triangle), with the vectors pointing in the same orientation around the triangle.

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Topic 5: Work, Energy & Power

1. Energy is the ability to do work. It exists in many possible forms: Mechanical (i.e. kinetic, potential
energies), chemical and thermal. It is a scalar quantity.

2. Principle of conservation of energy (PCE) : Energy is never created nor destroyed; may be transferred
/ converted from one form to another. Total energy of remains constant.

3. Elastic potential energy/ Strain energy = Area under F-x graph if elastic limit not exceeded
= ½ F x = ½ k x2 {for material obeying Hooke’s law, Fx}

{Use “count the squares” method

to estimate area}

Note: No need to distinguish between elastic

and proportionality limit in A level syllabus

Change in EPE from x1 to x2 = ½ k (x12 – x22)

Note: (x12 – x22)  (x1 – x2)2

4. Kinetic energy, KE = ½ m v2

 need to derive using: definition of work by net force & work by net force converted to KE only .
This requires the force to be a net force in the horizontal direction so the mass does not
experience a change in GPE, & v2 = u2 +2 a s

5. To distinguish Gravitational PE & Elastic PE {Potential Energy (PE) is defined as the stored energy
available to do work}
 GPE is the potential energy possessed by a mass due to its position {or height or distance} in the
gravitational field of another mass
 EPE of a system is due to its deformation {or stretching or compression}.

6. GPE GPE = mgh where g remains constant over distance h {near Earth’s surface} and h is
measured with reference to a position defined as h = 0, GPE = 0.
 need to derive, using: definition of work & work converted to GPE only
This requires the force exerted by the external agent to be = mg in magnitude but in opposite
direction to weight, so that the mass does not experience a change in KE.

7. The PE, U, of a body in a force field {whether gravitational or electric field} is related to the force F it
experiences by: F =  dU {see also Topic 7}
dx

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8. Work done by a force (on a system) is defined as the product of the force and displacement in the
direction of the force.

i.e. W  F    x cos  or W  F cos    x 

 Positive work by F if the displacement x, or its component, is in same direction as F.

 Negative work by F if x or its component is in opposite direction to F.
 No work is done if F and x are perpendicular to each other.
 If a variable force F produces a displacement in the direction of F, the work done can be found from
the area enclosed by F-x graph. W   F dx = Area enclosed by F –x graph and displacement-axis.
{May need to determine the area by “counting the squares”, the displacement-axis may be the y-
axis}
 Work done on / by gas, in general, |W |=  p dV = Area under p-V graph. {Topic 12}
 For work done by a gas expanding against a constant external pressure, W = p V

9. Work-Energy Theorem:
Work done by a force on a body = change in energy of the body (Typical energy are the KE, GPE,
thermal energy generated, EPE, etc) of the body. (The change can be an increase or a decrease.)

10. Power is defined as the work done per unit time {Not “work done per second”}, or the rate at
which energy is transferred, i.e. P  W  E
t t

W  E
11. Average Power (over a given finite time interval) = < P > = =
t t

dW dE
12. Instantaneous Power, P    P =Fv {To derive from definitions of power & work}
dt dt
 for object moving at constant speed:

F is the applied force {eg. Engine thrust, NOT Fnet} = total resistive force {since it is in equilibrium}

 for object beginning to accelerate:

magnitude of F = total resistive force + ma {N07P1Q10,N88P1Q5}

13. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of (useful) output energy of a machine to the input energy.

i.e. = (Useful) Output Energy  100 % = (Useful) Output Power  100 %

Input Energy Input Power

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Topic 6: Motion in a Circle

s
1. Angular displacement  is defined by  =
r
Unit: radian (rad). Vector quantity.

 One (the) radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to the
radius of the circle.
 For one complete revolution, an object rotates through 360o, or 2 rad.

2. Angular velocity  is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement (about the centre of
the circle) i.e.  = = (for a complete revolution)

3. Linear [or tangential] velocity, v = r 

is the instantaneous velocity at any point in its circular path.

The velocity of a body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes since its direction changes. It
thus experiences an acceleration, a net force and a change in momentum.

4. Explain why an object moving with constant speed in a circle is said to be accelerating.
Ans: The velocity of the object changes since its direction changes. It thus experiences an
acceleration since by definition, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

 Candidates are expected to explain qualitatively why the acceleration is radially towards the
centre of the circle {hence, called the centripetal acceleration}

 Having an acceleration must mean there’s a net force (which must similarly be directed towards
the centre of the circle by Newton’s 2nd law).

v2
5. Centripetal acceleration, ac = r 2 = (in magnitude)
r

6. Centripetal force: v2
Fc = m r 2 = m gives the magnitude of centripetal
r

refers to the resultant of all the forces that act on a system in circular motion.
{“centripetal” simply means “centre-seeking”}

 Hence, when asked to draw a diagram showing all the forces that act on a system in circular
motion, it is wrong to include a force that is labelled as “centripetal force” as that amounts to
‘double-counting’.

 In presenting a solution involving centripetal force, it is essential to begin with:

“The centripetal force is provided by…. {resultant of some named forces, e.g., tension, lateral
friction, normal reaction, gravitational force, depending on situation}.

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7. Candidates are expected to solve problems involving horizontal circular motion, e.g., on a banked
road (friction), aeroplane turning (lift), conical pendulum (tension) by forming 2 equations,
e.g., for conical pendulum:
v2
 Horizontally, there’s centripetal acc; hence, Tx = m ---------- eqn (1)
r
 Vertically, there is equilibrium of forces; hence, Ty = mg ---------- eqn (2)

8. Candidates are expected to solve problems involving vertical circular motion, e.g.
 “looping the loop” in a roller coaster ride {Example 13, p 16};
 car moving over a hump such that it does not lose contact with road {Example 11, p 14}.

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Topic 7: Gravitational Field

1. Newton’s law of gravitation:

The gravitational force of attraction F between two point masses M and m separated by a distance r is
given by
GMm
F=
r2
where G is the Universal gravitational constant (given in data list), 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2

or, the gravitational force of attraction between two point masses is proportional to the product of
their masses & inversely proportional to the square of their separation.
 Must include “point masses” {N09P3Q5aii}
 Note that r refers to the distance between the centres of the masses, not the radius of
masses.
 Vector form of Newton’s law of gravitation has a negative sign i.e. F = -GMm/r2. When solving
numerical problems, leave out the negative sign, because we are only interested in its
magnitude.
 However, when sketching a graph of F against r, retain the negative sign.

2. Gravitational field strength, g

at a point is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass at that point. {NOT: “force on unit mass”}
F
g= Unit: N kg-1. Vector quantity.
m

GM
Field Strength due to a point mass M, g=
r2
where M = Mass of object “creating” the field. (Notice that m does not appear in this formula)
r = distance measured from centre of M to that point.
 Need to derive using Newton’s law of gravitation & definition of g (N09P3Q5a);
 Near the Earth’s surface {up to say, about 1000 m from the Earth’s surface}, g can be taken to be
constant (= 9.81 N kg-1).

3. Explain the effect of Earth’s rotation on the value of acceleration of free fall {N07/P3/Q5c}
 Concept: At equator, object is both accelerating downward AND rotating, so it experiences both
acceleration of free fall AND centripetal acceleration.
i.e., Fnet = manet
Fg = m(afree fall + acentripetal)
 acceleration of free fall = g-field strength – centripetal acceleration < 9.81 m s-1
 part of the gravitational field strength is needed to provide for the centripetal acceleration.
Thus the acceleration of free fall is smaller (than at the poles).

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4. Explain why apparent weight at equator < at poles:

Concept: At equator, resultant of the gravitational force and the normal reaction N provides the
centripetal force to keep the body in circular motion.
GMm
At equator: − Nequator = mrω2
r2
GMm
 Nequator = - mrω2
r2
where Nequator is considered the “apparent weight”
At the poles:  = 0.
 Npoles = –0
Thus apparent weight at equator < apparent weight at the poles.

Explain why “effective g” at equator < at poles:

 Effective g is taken to mean the apparent weight  mass m (const).
 Hence effective g at equator < effective g at the poles.

Explain why the acceleration of free fall near the Earth’s surface is constant: {2015 P3Q6(a)(ii) [3]}
GM
 Use g = where r = radius of Earth (RE) + height above surface (h)
r2
 Near the Earth’s surface, h << RE , hence h is negligible
𝑮𝑴
 Thus g = 𝟐 = a constant , independent of h
𝑹𝑬

By reference to the pattern of the lines of gravitational force near to the surface of the Earth, explain
why the acceleration of free fall near to the Earth’s surface is approximately constant (CIE M18P42, 3 m)
Any 3 from:
 The lines are radial
 Near the surface the lines are (approximately) parallel
 Parallel lines means field strength (g) is constant
 Constant field strength, hence constant acceleration of free fall

Explain why, near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational field strength is equal to the acceleration
of free fall. {2021 P3 Q4c [3]}
 The acceleration of free fall is the acceleration, a, of a mass m near the Earth’s surface where
the net force is provided by the gravitational force of the Earth. (A) [1]
 The gravitational field strength at a point, g, near the Earth’s surface is defined as the
gravitational force per unit mass at that point. [1]
 Since the net force in (A) is provided by the gravitational force exerted by Earth, g = a. [1]

5. Satellites in Circular Orbits (round a mass M, e.g. the 9 or so planets round the Sun)
GMm
= mrω2
r2
GM 2
r3 = T
4 2
GM
T2  r3 is a constant) (Kepler’s 3rd law)
(since
4 2
 Not allowed to recall & use this eqn

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6. Geostationary Satellite
is one which is always above a certain point on the Earth as the Earth rotates about its axis.

For a geostationary orbit, satellite must satisfy 3 conditions:

1. have a period = period of Earth’s rotation {24 hours}
2. rotate from west to east
3. lie in equatorial plane of Earth

Because the period is 24 h, the satellite will

 be at a certain/particular height from the Earth’s surface
 have a certain/particular orbital speed ( ; which can be derived fr FG = FC)
Note: the mass of the satellite does not have to be any particular value & hence its KE, GPE, & the
centripetal force are also not particular values (since their values depend on the mass of the
geostationary satellite.)

Advantages of geostationary satellite used as a communication satellite:

 No tracking of the satellite required to receive signals from Earth
 Large spatial coverage due to high altitude
 Can monitor the same area consistently {i.e. can send & receive transmission from the area under
observation without interruption}

Explain why a geostationary orbit must lie in the equatorial plane of the earth:
 The force of attraction to the Earth is to its centre so the circular orbit must be centred at the
Earth’s centre.
 The plane of the orbit must lie in the equatorial plane of the Earth; otherwise it would have a
varying latitude (and thus not be geostationary). {N2003 P3Q2 c}

7. Binary Star system

G m1 m 2 G m1 m 2
F=   m1r1 2  m 2 r 2 2
2
R ( r1  r 2 ) 2
 angular velocity  is taken to be the same for both stars
r1 r2
 orbital radius for each star is r1 and r2 respectively m m
 separation between both stars, R = (r1 + r2) for the gravitational 2
force equation

8. Gravitational potential, 
at a point is defined as the work done per unit mass (by an external agent) in bringing a small test
mass from infinity to the point (without a change in its kinetic energy).
U
 =
m

Explain why gravitational potential values are always negative? {N2011P3Q6a} [2]
 Potential at infinity is defined to be zero.
 As the gravitational force is attractive, the force exerted by the external agent is opposite in
direction to the displacement of the test mass, hence work done is negative.
 Thus the potential, (which is the work done per unit mass), always has a negative value.
GM
Gravitational potential due to a point mass M,  = − {negative sign must not be omitted
r
dϕ
Relation between g and : g= − = - gradient of -r graph
dr

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9. Gravitational potential energy U of any mass m at a point (in the gravitational field of another mass)
M, is the work done (by an external agent) in bringing that mass m {NOT: “unit mass”, or “a mass”}
from infinity to that point (without a change in KE).
GMm
U =m =−
r

Note: negative sign is part of the magnitude, must be kept for ALL types of questions (both
calculation and graphical). At infinity, GPE is defined to be 0.

dU
Relation between Fg and U: Fg = − = gradient of U-r graph
dr

10 Change in GPE, U = m g h
{only where g is constant over the distance h; otherwise, must use: U = mf  mI }

Work done (by external agent) on a body of mass m to move it from a point to another point,

ΔU = m 

2GM
11. Escape speed vE = 2 gR =
R
, where R = radius of planet with mass M
{Need to derive using PCE & definition of escape speed; recall & use is not allowed}

By Principle of Conservation of Energy, Initial KE + Initial GPE = Final KE + Final GPE

GMm
i.e. ½ mvE2 + (− ) = 0 + 0
R
2GM
vE = = 2 gR (since g = )
R
Note: An object with TE (i.e. KE + GPE) ≥ 0 can escape the gravitational field of the planet and
travel to ‘infinity’.

12. Energies of an orbiting Satellite:

GMm
KE = 2r {should be derived from FG = Fc}
GMm
GPE = −
r
GMm GMm GMm
Total Energy = GPE + KE = 2r + (− r ) = − 2r

13 Explain why a satellite does not move in the direction of the gravitational force:
i.e. why does it stay in its circular orbit, and not fall towards the Earth?
Ans: because the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the satellite is JUST sufficient to cause
the centripetal acceleration.

{Misconception: to think that motion (i.e. velocity) must always be in the direction of the net force.
Newton’s 2nd law only requires the (rate of) change in momentum, & hence the CHANGE in velocity,
to be in the direction of the net force. {The direction of the vector, change in velocity, is not the
same as that of the initial velocity, in general.}
Illustration: direction of motion in a parabolic motion is not in the direction of the net force}

Why Satellites, as they gradually lose energy due to small resistive forces, may eventually ‘burn up’ in
the Earth’s atmosphere? [4m] {2011P3Q6d – an important question}

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14 Weightlessness:
Explain why a person in a satellite orbiting the Earth experiences “weightlessness” although the
gravitation field strength {g} at that height is not zero.

Ans: Since the person and the satellite would both have the same acceleration, the normal
reaction on the person is zero.
{To elaborate:
the sensation of weight is due to the normal reaction exerted on the object. When the person & the floor
of the satellite have the same acceleration, the contact force between them is zero, hence the normal
reaction is zero. This is the state of “weightlessness”.}

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Topic 8: Oscillations

1. Displacement: distance of the oscillating mass from its equilibrium position in a particular direction

Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position. ( a scalar)

Period T, is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

1
Frequency f, is the number of oscillations per unit time. Hence f= [Hz or s-1]
T
Angular frequency  is defined by w = 2f where f is the number of oscillations per unit time.

Thus  = 2f

2. Phase is an angle in radians which gives a measure of the fraction of a cycle that has been completed by an
oscillating particle or by a wave. {One cycle corresponds to 2 rad.}

Phase difference/angle  = x  2 = t  2
 T
{x = separation between 2 wave particles, measured along the direction of wave motion;
t = time difference between two waves or two particles in a wave}

3. Simple harmonic motion is an oscillatory motion in which the acceleration [or restoring force] is
 always proportional to, and
 opposite in direction to the displacement from a certain fixed point / equilibrium position

Hence. a = - 2 x (defining equation of S.H.M)

 The negative sign indicates that the 2 vectors, x and a, are always in opposite
directions.

“Time Equations” “Displacement Equations”

x = xo sin ( t) Case 1
x = xo cos ( t) ) Case 2
{depending on the initial condition}
v = dx v =   xo2  x 2
dt {in List of Formulae}
= xo cos ( t) {for Case 1}
= vo cos ( t) (v – x graph is an ellipse. See below)

a =  2 x a = 2 x
=  xo2 sin ( t) {Case 1}
= ao sin ( t)
KE = 12 mv2 KE = 1
2 mv2 = 1
2 m2 (x o2  x2)
= 1
2 m [xo cos ( t)]2 {Case 1}
(KE – x graph is an inverted parabola)

PE = 12 m2x2 PE = 12 m2x2
= 1
2 m2 [xo sin ( t)]2 {Case 1}
{PE – x graph is a parabola}

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- x
0

Max Velocity vo = xo  ; Max acceleration ao = xo 2

In general, Total Energy, Etotal = KE + PE at any instant = max PE

Energy
KE PE ET

Shown above
T T 3T
t
0 4 2 4 T

Suppose period of shm is T. Common error: Students draw the

Then period of KE variation = ½ T “McDonald’s” energy-time graph shown above
where there are discontinuities.

NB: PE in SHM comprises “all” possible potential energies ie GPE & EPE. In solving problem
involving PE, use the SHM formula for PE ( 12 m2x2), rather than finding the different types of
potential energies separately (mgh , ½ kx2) unless required by qn. This can often be complex.

Also note that there are two cycles in the graphs of KE and PE in one period (T) of oscillation. The
mistake is to often to take T/2 for the period of the oscillation when given a KE or PE graph.

{ Note: KE & PE are quadratic eqns }

Energies for Horiz Spring-Mass system wrt Displacement (not time)

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For vertical spring-mass system:

 extension e of the spring is not equal to the displacement x of the mass {In contrast, for a
horizontal spring-mass system, x = e }
 total energy is not equal to KEmax although it is still equal to PEmax.
ET = EK + (GPE + EPE).
 If GPE is chosen to be zero at the equilibrium position (ie B), the graph for the various
energies will be as follows: (The graphs will be different if the zero GPE reference level is
chosen differently.)

Energy

EPE ET

Ep
Ek
x
C B A
GPE

4. For a horizontal or vertical spring-mass system,

 Period is given by: 𝑇 = 2𝜋

 Relationship between  and k is given by:  = (derivation not required)

where m = mass attached to spring;

k = spring constant

5. Damping refers to the loss of energy from an oscillating system to the environment, caused by
dissipative forces, eg friction, viscous force.

6. Light Damping: The system oscillates about the equilibrium position with decreasing amplitude over
a period of time.

Critical Damping: The system does not oscillate & damping is just adequate such that the system returns
to its equilibrium position in the shortest possible time.

Heavy Damping: The damping is so great that the displaced object does not oscillate but returns to
its equilibrium position very very slowly.

{Need to illustrate these 3 degrees of damping with a displacement-time graph}

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7. Free Oscillation: An oscillating system is said to be undergoing free oscillations if:

 its oscillations are not subjected to an external periodic driving force.
 Hence the system oscillates at its natural frequency.

Forced Oscillation: An oscillating system is said to undergo forced oscillations if:

 it is subjected to an external periodic driving force.
 As a result, the frequency of the forced (or driven) oscillations will be at the frequency of the
driving force [called the driving frequency] i.e. no longer at its own natural frequency.

8. Resonance:
 a phenomenon whereby the amplitude of a system undergoing forced oscillations is at a maximum.
 It occurs when the frequency of the periodic driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the
system.

9. Effects of damping on the frequency response of a system undergoing forced oscillations:

1) resonant frequency decreases { causing the peak to shift slightly leftwards}

2) sharpness of resonance [resonant peak] decreases
3) amplitude of forced oscillations decreases
Amplitude of forced oscillations

No
damping

Light
damping
Heavy
damping

f0 Frequency of driving force

A graph showing the amplitude of the forced oscillations at various driving frequencies fd . The
natural freq of the undamped system is fo & the 4 curves are for the same oscillator at different
degrees of damping. Magnitude of driving force ( ie its amplitude) on the driven system is
kept const.

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Topic 9: Wave Motion

1. Progressive wave: is the movement of a disturbance from a source which transfers energy from
the source to places around it by means of vibrations/oscillations. {Mark Scheme for N07P2Q3a, 2 m}

2. Transverse wave: a wave in which the oscillations of the wave particles {NOT: movement/motion}
are perpendicular to the direction of the transfer of energy { NOT: propagation of the wave }.

Longitudinal wave: a wave in which the oscillations of the wave particles are parallel to the direction
of the transfer of energy.

3. Wavelength : distance between 2 consecutive points on a wave which are in phase.

4. Wave speed of a wave, v= {derived from v =  / T and f = 1 / T}

{It refers to the speed of propagation of the energy {which is constant}, NOT to the speed of
oscillation of a wave particle which is simple harmonic in nature, given by v =   xo2  x 2 }

5. Wavefront is line or surface joining points which are at the same state of oscillation, i.e. in phase,
e.g. the lines formed by crests of ripples on a pond

6. Phase is the angle which gives a measure of the fraction of a cycle that has been completed by an
oscillating particle or by a wave. {One cycle corresponds to 2π rad.}

7. Phase difference () is a measure of how much one wave is ‘out of step’ with another wave or
how much one particle in a wave is out of step with another particle in the same wave. It is
expressed in terms of angles from 0 to 2 radians.

x t
i.e. =  2 & =  2
 T

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8. Intensity (of a wave at a location): defined as the rate of energy flow [i.e. power] per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation (at that location)

i.e. Energy Power S.I. unit of intensity is W m-2

Intensity  
Time  Area Area

 For all types of wave sources (with the same frequency), Intensity  (Amplitude)2 since
Total Energy  A2

 Only for a point source (which would emit spherical wavefronts),

Intensity = where r = distance from the point source.
Area perpendicular to wave = surface area of a sphere = 4r2
For constant power point source,
1
𝐼 ∝
𝑟
Since 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴 → 𝐴 ∝

Power from the source Power incident on the receiver

 Intensity at the receiver =
Surface Area of the wavefront
= Area of the receiver

9. State what is meant by plane polarisation of a wave. ( 2019 P2 Q2, 1 m )

 Plane polarisation is a process by which the oscillations/vibrations of the wave (particles) are
confined to only one direction, in the plane normal to the direction of energy transfer.

9. State why a sound wave cannot be polarised. (2019 P2Q2, 1 m)

 For a sound wave (which is a longitudinal wave), its wave particles oscillate in a direction
parallel to (ie NOT perpendicular to), the direction of energy transfer. Hence it’s not possible to
confine the oscillations to a plane which is normal to the direction of energy transfer.

10. I = Io cos2 θ ( Malus’ Law)

Intensity I of light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine
of angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer.

2 polarising filters/sheets whose transmission axes make an angle of θ with each other

 Malus’ Law is about the effect of a polaroid on polarized light, NOT on unpolarised light.
In set up above, the 1st polaroid allows only ½ the incident intensity to pass through it
regardless of the direction of the polarizing axis, such that Io= ½ of the intensity of the
unpolarised light.

Of the polarised output from the 1st polaroid, the 2nd polaroid lets through a fraction (cos2) .
Hence the intensity transmitted by the 2nd polaroid I = Io cos2 θ

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Topic 10: Superposition

1. Principle of Superposition
When two or more waves of the same type meet/superpose at a point, the resultant displacement
{NOT: amplitude} of the waves is equal to the vector sum of their individual displacements at that
point.

2. Coherence
Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference (not zero phase difference)
between them (with respect to time).
 Common error: students wrongly think coherent waves must always be in phase with each
other. The phase difference can be of any value, it is only required to be constant wrt time.

3. Interference:
refers to the superposition of coherent waves which results in a change in the overall intensity.

Constructive interference:
This occurs when waves from two (or more) arrive at a point in phase (i.e. zero phase difference),
producing a resultant wave with maximum amplitude ( & hence, max intensity)

Destructive interference:
This occurs when waves from two (or more) coherent sources arrive at a point in anti-phase (i.e.
phase difference of  radians), producing a resultant wave of minimum amplitude (and hence,
minimum intensity.)

4. Conditions for CI & DI:

(a) in terms of Phase Difference at the screen:
(i) If constructive interference occurs at a pt P (on the screen),
 phase difference of the 2 waves at P = (n) 2 radians { 0, 2, 4, etc }

(ii) If destructive interference occurs at P,

 phase difference of the 2 waves at P = (n + ½) 2 radians { , 3, 5 etc }
In both cases, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

(b) in terms of Path Difference: Here, phase difference betw the 2 sources must be known.
(i) If constructive interference occurs at P,
the path difference (for the two sources at S1 and S2) must be an integral multiple of the
wavelength λ , if the two sources are in phase:
 path difference |S1P – S2P| = 0, 1 λ, 2 λ, 3 λ, … = n λ

{ with 2 antiphase sources:  path difference = (n + ½)  (odd multiples of half wavelengths) }

(ii) If destructive interference occurs at P,

the path difference will be an odd multiple of half wavelengths, if the two sources are in
phase:
 path difference = 0.5 λ, 1.5 λ, 2.5 λ, 3 .5 λ, ...
= (n + 1/2 ) λ or (2n + 1)/2 λ

{ with 2 antiphase sources:  path difference = n  }

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5. Conditions to produce a ‘well-defined’ interference pattern:

For an interference pattern to be clearly observable (well-defined), the waves (of the same type)
must be (in decreasing order of importance):
(i) coherent (or have the same frequency & speed)
(ii) have about the same amplitude (equal is best),
(iii) superpose {NOT: overlap, meet, interact}
(iv) be polarised in the same direction, or unpolarised (only for transverse waves)

6. Young’s Double Slit Interference

D
Fringe separation, x =
a

where x: distance between 2 successive bright fringes (or 2 dark fringes).

: Wavelength of light.
D: distance between the double slits and the screen.
a: distance between the 2 double slits.

 applicable only if a << D; hence, generally applies only to double slit interference of light, i.e. NOT
for microwaves, sound waves, water waves since condition of a << D is difficult to be met in lab.
However, see 2009 P1Q24 on radiowaves.

7. Resultant intensity due to interference of 2 waves with different intensities at

(a) a pt of constructive interference (b) a pt of destructive interference {Worked Eg 4}

Firstly, we relate the amplitudes of the waves to their individual intensities 𝐼 and 𝐼 :
E.g. For wave A, AmplitudeA ∝ 𝐼 ; For wave B, AmplitudeB ∝ 𝐼

(a) To find the resultant amplitude where constructive interference occurs, we add up the
individual amplitudes: Amplitude total (= AA +AB)) ∝ ( 𝐼 + 𝐼 )
Then use: resultant intensity = ( Amplitudetotal )2

(b) To find the resultant amplitude where destructive interference occurs, calculate the difference
betw the 2 amplitudes: Amplitude total (= AA - AB)) ∝ ( 𝐼 − 𝐼 )
Then use: resultant intensity = ( Amplitudetotal )2

Resultant intensity is NOT = sum (or difference) of the 2 individual intensities because that’s not
how waves interact when they superpose. Refer to Principle of Superposition.

8. Diffraction refers to the spreading {not: bending} of waves when they pass through an opening
[gap], or round an obstacle into the “shadow” region.

 For significant diffraction to occur, the size of the gap should be approximately equal to the
wavelength of the wave.
 Diffraction of light provides evidence for the wave nature of light and all other electromagnetic
radiation. Because the wavelength of light is very short ( 10-7 m), diffraction can only be
observed through very narrow slits or small obstacles. Sound waves, however, are able to
diffract around bigger objects because of their longer wavelength.

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9. Single-Slit Diffraction
Angular position of First Minima: sin 1 = where b = slit width.

 when  is small, then   {in radians}

 the central maximum is twice as wide ( 2 wide) as any of the other secondary maxima (
wide each).

 Rayleigh criterion states that 2 images are said to be just distinguishable {ie just resolved} if the
central maximum of one image falls on the first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other.

 Angular position of the 1st minimum, min  when  is small { which should be the case in
the Exam}

 Thus resolving power of lens/aperture is high if min is small. This can be achieved by using
a large aperture diameter (width b) or a small wavelength .
o If the actual angle subtended by the two point sources at the slit, s = min, then the
images are just resolved (by Rayleigh’s criterion).
o Hence, s must be > min if the images are to be (obviously) resolved.
o Conversely, if s < min , the images are not resolved.

 Typically s is calculated using s =

where r  distance of the two objects from aperture/lens,
s (arc length)  (linear) separation of objects (since s is small)

10. Diffraction grating (Multiple Slit Diffraction)

maxima are located at angular positions defined by  in : d sin  = n 

where: d: slit separation (grating or line spacing ) is the distance between adjacent slits
 : angle of diffraction /angular deviation /angle of deviation (measured from the normal)
n: order of diffraction (must be an integer or zero) , : wavelength

 The maximum number of orders can be found by substituting  = 90° to 1st det the highest
order of diffraction, nhighest
where nhighest = d /  (rounded down to nearest integer)
Hence maximum number of orders/bright fringes (displayed on screen) = 2nhighest + 1
 When a white light passes through a diffraction grating:
 for each order of diffraction, a longer wavelength {red} diffracts more than a shorter
wavelength {violet} {as sin   for a given n}.
 the zeroth order (at centre of diffraction pattern) would remain white as all the
colours/wavelengths in white light meet at this position.
 Overlapping betw different orders of different wavelengths might also occur { eg if the 3rd
order of violet is at a smaller angle than the 2nd order of red. }

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SAJC H2 Physics Summary updated 25 Aug 23

11. Stationary (standing) wave

A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency, amplitude and
speed, travelling in opposite directions are superposed. {mnemonic: FASO}
{Assume “boundary conditions” are met, for eg, n  = distance between source & reflector, for
2
stationary waves in a stretched string}
Differences between stationary waves & progressive waves:
Stationary Waves Progressive Waves
Amplitude Varies from maximum at the anti- Same for all particles in the wave
nodes to zero at the nodes. (assuming no energy is lost).
Phase [Phase Particles in the same segment/ All particles within one wavelength have
angle] between 2 adjacent nodes are in different phases.
phase. Particles in adjacent
segments are in anti-phase.
Wave Profile The wave profile does not advance. The wave profile advances.
Energy No energy is transported by the Energy is transported in the direction of
wave. the wave.

 Node: a region of destructive superposition where the waves always meet out of phase by 
radians. Hence displacement here is permanently zero { zero only if the 2 amplitudes are equal;
otherwise, it’s described as a minimum}.

 Antinode: a region of constructive superposition where the waves always meet in phase.
Hence a particle here vibrates with maximum amplitude.
{but it is NOT a point with a permanent large displacement! }

 Distance between 2 successive nodes/antinodes = /2

 Boundary Conditions for Stat Waves on Stretched Strings betw 2 fixed ends
o at the 2 fixed ends: always a node

 Boundary Conditions for Stat Waves in Air Columns

o at open end: antinode ( assuming no end corrections)
o at closed end: node

 Need to know relation between , length of pipe L, & end correction in both open & closed pipes

{N09P1Q22} Eg, for fundamental mode in closed pipe: = L + c, if end correction c is not negligible.
4

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 SAJC H2 Physics Summary updated 25 Aug 23

 For stationary sound waves: Change in Pressure at nodes & antinodes (over one period)
Fig. 10.35 shows three snapshots of a longitudinal stationary wave formed by the (left/ right) oscillations
of air molecules (represented by vertical lines) at three instants of time. (The incident and reflected
longitudinal waves are not included for clarity of diagram).
displacement
(horizontal)

N A N A N A N A N

R C R C R
(at t = 0)
distance

(at t = T /4)
distance

C R C R C
(at t = T /2)
distance

Fig. 10.35: Displacement-distance graphs at three time instants and

the corresponding positions of air molecules.
pressure

Patm distance
R C R C R
(at t = 0)

Patm
distance
(at t = T /4)

Patm C distance
R C R C
(at t = T /2)
Fig. 10.36: Graphs of pressure against distance for stationary sound wave.

1) A pt of compression & a pt of rarefaction: both have zero displacement; must know how
to deduce from a displacement-distance graph the positions of the points of compressions
& rarefactions.

2) at nodes : maximum pressure change occurs because every node changes from a point of
compression to become a point of rarefaction half a period later {N05P3Q3c; N08P1Q22 }

3) at antinodes: there is no change in pressure.

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