Power Quality and FACTS(2022)

1. Answer any seven of the following questions:

(a) What are the functions of STATCOM in the improvement of power system performance?

• It provides dynamic voltage control in transmission and distribution system

• It provides damping against the oscillation in power system.
• It provides better transient stability
• It has voltage flicker control (it withstands sudden changes)
• It controls both real and reactive power

(b) What are the characteristics of thyristor-based FACTS devices?

Key Characteristics of Thyristor-Based FACTS Devices

1. High Power Handling Capability:

o Thyristors are capable of handling high power levels, making them suitable for large-
scale power system applications.
2. Fast Switching:
o Thyristors can switch on and off rapidly, allowing for quick response to changing
power system conditions and enhancing system stability.
3. Dynamic Reactive Power Compensation:
o These devices can dynamically control reactive power, providing voltage support
and improving power factor.
4. Enhanced Power Flow Control:
o By adjusting the impedance of transmission lines or injecting reactive power,
thyristor-based FACTS devices can control the power flow, improving system
efficiency and reliability.
5. Improved System Stability:
o They enhance both transient and steady-state stability by providing fast and precise
control over power system parameters.
6. Modularity and Scalability:
o Thyristor-based FACTS devices are modular and can be scaled up to meet the
requirements of different power system applications.

(c) Compare the operation of series and shunt compensation.

comparison of the operation of series and shunt compensation in tabular form:

Feature Series Compensation Shunt Compensation

Principle Insert capacitive or inductive Connect capacitive or inductive
reactance in series with the line components in parallel to the line or
load
Objective Enhance power transfer capability, Maintain voltage levels, improve power
improve voltage stability, control factor, provide reactive power support
power flow
Effect on Power Direct control over power flow and Indirect impact, primarily through
Flow transfer capability voltage and reactive power support
Voltage Maintains voltage along the Maintains local voltage levels
Regulation transmission line
Power Factor Moderate effect Significant improvement in power
Improvement factor
Stability Increases transient stability margin Provides voltage stability, less impact
Enhancement and dampens power oscillations on transient stability
Loss Reduction Reduces transmission losses by Reduces I²R losses by optimizing
optimizing current flow reactive power flow
Complexity More complex, especially with Simpler, especially with fixed
dynamic devices capacitors and reactors
Cost Higher, especially for dynamic Lower, especially for fixed capacitors
devices and reactors

(d) Write the functions of different power electronics switching devices.

Power electronics switching devices are semiconductor devices used to control and convert
electrical power efficiently. They play crucial roles in various applications such as power
supplies, motor drives, renewable energy systems, and industrial automation. Key devices
include diodes, thyristors (SCRs and GTOs), bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), MOSFETs, IGBTs,
TRIACs, and GCTs. Each device has unique characteristics like switching speed, voltage and
current handling capabilities, and efficiency levels, making them suitable for specific power
management tasks. Selection depends on factors such as application requirements, voltage
ratings, current handling capacity, and switching frequencies.

(e) What are different type of compensation schemes?

Here are different types of compensation schemes commonly used:

1. Shunt Compensation

• Devices:
 o Shunt Capacitors: Connected in parallel to supply reactive power and improve
power factor by reducing lagging currents.
o Shunt Reactors: Used to absorb reactive power and compensate for leading
currents.

2. Series Compensation

• Devices:
o Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC): Provide fixed capacitive reactance to compensate
inductive reactance in transmission lines.
o Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC): Allows dynamic control of series
reactance to regulate voltage and stabilize the grid.

3. Combined Series and Shunt Compensation

• Devices:
o Static Var Compensator (SVC): Combines shunt capacitors and reactors with
thyristor-controlled devices for reactive power compensation.
o Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): Integrates series and shunt compensation
with voltage phase-shifting capability for precise control over power flow and
voltage stability.

4. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

5. Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

6. Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)

(f) How can voltage instability be prevented by using the FACTS controllers?

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers are advanced power electronics devices
used to enhance the stability and efficiency of electrical power transmission. They play a crucial
role in preventing voltage instability in power systems through dynamic control of reactive
power and voltage levels. Key FACTS controllers include Static Var Compensators (SVCs), Static
Synchronous Compensators (STATCOMs), and Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs),
among others.
• Static Var Compensator (SVC): Provides continuous and rapid reactive power compensation
to regulate voltage levels and stabilize the grid against fluctuations caused by changing
loads.
• Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM): Offers fast response and precise control of
reactive power, maintaining voltage stability during transient conditions and disturbances.
• Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC): Adjusts the reactance in series with
transmission lines to optimize voltage profiles and enhance power transfer capability,
thereby preventing voltage drops or rises.

(g) Draw the power angle curve of SMIB system with midpoint SVC compensation.

(h) Draw the impedance vs. delay angle characteristics of TCSC and write your observations
on the same.

(i) What is meant by coordination and unified operation of FACTS controllers?

Coordination and Unified Operation of FACTS Controllers

In the realm of power systems, FACTS controllers (Flexible AC Transmission System) play a
crucial role in enhancing grid stability, improving power quality, and optimizing power
transmission efficiency.

• Coordination: Involves strategically placing different FACTS devices like SVCs (Static Var
Compensators), STATCOMs (Static Synchronous Compensators), and TCSCs (Thyristor-
Controlled Series Capacitors) across the grid. They work together harmoniously to regulate
 voltage, manage reactive power, and enhance power transfer capability. Coordination
ensures that these devices respond effectively to dynamic changes in grid conditions.
• Unified Operation: Takes coordination a step further by integrating control and monitoring
of FACTS devices into a centralized system. This unified approach enables real-time
monitoring, data sharing, and coordinated control strategies across all FACTS controllers. It
enhances grid reliability, optimizes transmission efficiency, and supports advanced grid
functionalities such as dynamic stability enhancement and congestion management.

2. (a) Explain the working of STATCOM. Draw the V-I characteristics of SVC and STATCOM,
and compare their performances.

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

(b) Derive the expression for active as well as reactive power flow in a lossless transmission
line and draw its necessary phasor diagram. Also discuss the active as well as reactive power
controlling by using FACTS controllers

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

Active Power Control

Active power (P) refers to the real power that performs actual work in the system, such as
running motors or lighting lamps. Controlling active power is essential for maintaining system
stability and efficient operation.

UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller):

• Mechanism: UPFC can control active power flow by injecting a voltage with a
controllable magnitude and phase angle into the line. This voltage injection
allows for the direct manipulation of the line's active power flow.
• Application: By adjusting the phase angle, UPFC can effectively direct the flow of
active power in the desired direction, thus managing congestion and optimizing
the power flow in the network.
TCSC (Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor):
• Mechanism: TCSC controls the impedance of a transmission line by inserting a
variable capacitor or inductor. This change in impedance affects the line’s active
power flow.
• Application: By reducing the line impedance, TCSC can increase the active power
flow through the line, thereby improving the system's loadability and stability.
Reactive Power Control

Reactive power (Q) is the power that oscillates between the source and the load, essential for
maintaining voltage levels within the power system.

SVC (Static VAR Compensator):

• Mechanism: SVC uses thyristors to control reactors and capacitors, providing
fast-acting reactive power compensation. It can either absorb or inject reactive
power into the system.
• Application: SVC helps in stabilizing the system voltage by providing reactive
power support, especially during sudden load changes or disturbances.
STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator):
• Mechanism: STATCOM employs power electronics to generate or absorb
reactive power. It uses voltage source converters to provide dynamic reactive
power compensation.
• Application: STATCOM is highly effective in voltage control and can quickly
respond to voltage sags or swells, thereby enhancing the voltage stability of the
power system.

Combined Control of Active and Reactive Power

UPFC:
• Mechanism: UPFC is one of the most versatile FACTS devices, capable of
controlling both active and reactive power simultaneously. It can inject a series
voltage (affecting active power) and a shunt voltage (affecting reactive power).
• Application: By providing independent control of both active and reactive
power, UPFC can optimize power flow, reduce losses, and improve overall
system stability.

3. (a) Illustrate the power swing damping in a single-machine infinite bus system using a
TCSC.

Power Swing Damping in a Single-Machine Infinite Bus System Using TCSC

A single-machine infinite bus (SMIB) system consists of a single synchronous generator

connected to an infinite bus (a large power system with constant voltage and frequency)
through a transmission line. Power swings in such a system can be caused by disturbances like
sudden changes in load, faults, or generator tripping. Power swing damping is essential to
maintain system stability.

Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

TCSC is a type of FACTS device used to control the impedance of a transmission line. It consists
of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor. By adjusting the firing angle
of the thyristors, the effective reactance of the capacitor can be varied, thus controlling the
power flow and damping power swings.

Mechanism of Power Swing Damping Using TCSC

1. Impedance Modulation: TCSC modulates the line impedance dynamically. By decreasing

the line impedance during a swing, it increases the power transfer capability of the line,
thereby reducing the amplitude of power swings.
2. Damping Torque: The TCSC can generate a damping torque that counteracts the
oscillations. By controlling the series reactance in response to the generator rotor speed
deviations, it helps in damping the oscillatory modes.

Illustration of Power Swing Damping

System Configuration

Generator: A synchronous generator connected to the infinite bus.

Transmission Line: The line connecting the generator to the bus.
TCSC: Installed in series with the transmission line.

Power Swing Damping Process

Normal Operation: Under steady-state conditions, the TCSC maintains a nominal

reactance to optimize power flow and voltage profile.
Disturbance Occurrence: A disturbance such as a fault or sudden load change causes
power swings. The generator rotor angle and speed begin to oscillate.
TCSC Response:
• Detection: The TCSC control system detects the power swing by monitoring the
line current, voltage, and generator rotor speed.
• Impedance Adjustment: Based on the detected swing parameters, the TCSC
adjusts its reactance. During the initial phase of the swing, it may reduce the
reactance to increase power transfer and mitigate the swing amplitude.
 • Damping Action: As the swing progresses, the TCSC varies its reactance to
provide a damping torque. This action helps in bringing the rotor oscillations to
rest more quickly.
Stabilization: The generator returns to its stable operating point, and the power
oscillations are damped out. The TCSC returns to its nominal reactance setting.

Where:

• VG and VB are the generator and bus voltages.

• Xeq is the equivalent impedance, including the TCSC impedance XTCSC .
The visualization above illustrates the damping of power swings in a single-machine infinite bus
(SMIB) system using a TCSC. The plot shows the rotor angle deviation over time, both with and
without the TCSC.

• Without TCSC (red dashed line): The system exhibits large, undamped oscillations,
indicating poor damping and a prolonged return to stability after a disturbance.
• With TCSC (blue line): The oscillations are significantly damped, showcasing the TCSC's
effectiveness in reducing the amplitude of the swings and bringing the system to stability
much faster.

(b) Compare HVDC and FACTS in the context of bulk power transmission. Illustrate the
operation of a series FACTS controller by using a suitable example. Is back-to-back VSC-HVDC
is considered as a FACTS device?

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

4. (a) Discuss different power quality problems in the distribution systems. Also discuss the
applications of suitable compensators to mitigate the respective power quality problems.

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

(b) Differentiate between voltage sourced converters (VSCs) and current sourced converters
(CSCs) in FACTS applications. Illustrate the single-phase full-wave bridge VSC converter
operation with the help of different operating waveforms.

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

5. (a) Explain the operation of DVR and UPQC in distribution systems. How can we use the
FACTS devices to maintain the power flow between a two-area with different frequency
between two generators? Explain with illustration.

Ans:-

Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

• A static var device used in transmission and distribution systems to protect sensitive electric
loads from power quality issues.

• First installed in North America in 1996, DVRs have been used in utilities, semiconductor, and
food processing.

• DVRs inject a voltage of required magnitude and frequency to restore load side voltage to
desired amplitude and waveform.

• Employs gate turn off thyristor (GTO) solid state power electronic switches in a pulse width
modulated (PWM) inverter structure.

• Can generate or absorb independently controllable real and reactive power at the load side.

• The source of the injected voltage is the commutation process for reactive power demand and
an energy source for the real power demand.
 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) Schematic Diagram
Operation

• DVR operates in stand-by mode during disturbances, comparing nominal system voltage to
voltage variation.

• Variable amplitude and phase angle of injected voltages control real and reactive power
exchange between DVR and distribution system.

• DC input terminal of DVR connected to an energy storage device.

• Reactive power exchange internally generated by DVR without AC passive components.

• Real power exchange provided by DVR input DC terminal by external energy source or storage
system.

• Technical approach resembles low voltage ride-through (LVRT) capability in wind turbine
generators.

• Conduction losses minimized using Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) technology in

inverters.

Operation of UPQC

Components

Series Converter (Voltage Source Converter - VSC): Connected in series with the
distribution line through a series transformer, it compensates for voltage disturbances.
Shunt Converter (Voltage Source Converter - VSC): Connected in parallel to the load
through a shunt transformer, it compensates for current disturbances.
DC Link: A common DC capacitor links the series and shunt converters, providing the
required energy exchange between them.
Control System: Manages the operation of both converters to ensure effective
compensation.
Working Principle

Series Converter:
• Voltage Compensation: Injects a voltage in series with the supply to counteract
voltage sags, swells, and interruptions, ensuring a stable voltage supply to the
load.
• Harmonic Mitigation: Acts as a harmonic isolator by injecting the opposite
harmonic components, thus ensuring a clean voltage waveform for the load.
Shunt Converter:
• Current Compensation: Injects a current in parallel with the load to mitigate
current harmonics, compensate for reactive power, and balance the load
current.
• DC Link Voltage Regulation: Maintains the DC link voltage constant by managing
the active power exchange between the converters.

Diagram

Explanation of Operation

1. Normal Conditions:
• The series converter injects a compensating voltage to ensure that the load
receives a clean, stable voltage free from sags, swells, and interruptions.
 • The shunt converter supplies the necessary current to mitigate harmonics and
balance the load, ensuring that the source current remains sinusoidal and
balanced.
2. Disturbance Conditions:
• Voltage Sag/Swells: The series converter detects the sag or swell and injects a
compensating voltage to maintain the load voltage at the desired level.
• Harmonics: The shunt converter detects the current harmonics and injects an
equal and opposite harmonic current to cancel them out, ensuring a clean
current waveform.
3. Reactive Power Compensation: The shunt converter supplies or absorbs reactive power
to maintain the desired power factor.

Control Strategy

The UPQC control system employs various control algorithms to achieve its objectives:

Voltage Control: Monitors the load voltage and generates the reference voltage for the
series converter to inject the necessary compensating voltage.
Current Control: Monitors the load current and generates the reference current for the
shunt converter to inject the necessary compensating current.
DC Link Control: Maintains the DC link voltage at a constant level by managing the
power flow between the series and shunt converters.

Benefits

• Enhanced Power Quality: Mitigates a wide range of power quality issues, including
voltage sags, swells, interruptions, and harmonics.
• Improved Reliability: Ensures a stable and clean power supply to sensitive loads.
• Versatility: Combines the functions of both series and shunt compensators, providing
comprehensive power quality improvement.

Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices are essential tools for managing power flow
and maintaining stability in interconnected power systems, especially between two areas with
different frequencies or asynchronous interconnections. FACTS devices like High Voltage Direct
Current (HVDC) links, Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC), and Static Synchronous Series
Compensators (SSSC) can be used to control and maintain power flow between such areas.
Here’s an explanation of how FACTS devices can be utilized in this context.
Maintaining Power Flow with FACTS Devices

1. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Link

HVDC links are highly effective for interconnecting two areas with different frequencies. They
convert AC power into DC, transmit it over long distances, and then convert it back to AC power
at the receiving end. This allows the two areas to remain electrically isolated while still
facilitating power exchange.

Operation:

• AC to DC Conversion: The power from the first area is converted from AC to DC using a
rectifier station.
• DC Transmission: The DC power is transmitted through HVDC transmission lines.
• DC to AC Conversion: At the receiving end, an inverter station converts the DC power
back to AC, synchronized with the frequency of the second area.

Illustration:

2. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

The UPFC can control both active and reactive power flows in the transmission line, making it
useful for power flow management between two areas. However, it’s typically used in AC
systems where frequencies are synchronized or very closely matched.

Operation:

• Series Converter: Injects a voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle in
series with the transmission line to control power flow.
• Shunt Converter: Provides reactive power support and maintains the DC link voltage.

Illustration:
3. Back-to-Back HVDC System

A back-to-back HVDC system is a specific type of HVDC link used for connecting two areas that
are geographically close but operate at different frequencies or are otherwise incompatible. It
consists of two converter stations connected back-to-back without a DC transmission line.

Operation:

• Rectifier and Inverter: One converter station acts as a rectifier converting AC to DC, and
the other acts as an inverter converting DC back to AC at the required frequency.

Illustration:

(b) Discuss various causes for second harmonic distortion between the thyristor-controlled
reactor and the AC system.

Ans:-

Second harmonic distortion in the context of a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) and an AC

system can arise from several factors. Here are some key causes:

Non-linear Switching Characteristics of Thyristors:

 • Non-ideal Switching: Thyristors do not switch instantaneously, and their non-
ideal switching characteristics can introduce harmonic components, particularly
the second harmonic.
• Commutation Effects: When thyristors switch, the commutation process
(transferring current from one thyristor to another) can produce transient
currents that contain harmonic components.

Asymmetrical Firing Angles:

• Firing Angle Control: The firing angle of the thyristor determines the conduction
period. Any asymmetry in the firing angles can result in an imbalance, leading to
even harmonics, including the second harmonic.
• Control System Errors: Errors or inaccuracies in the control system that regulates
the firing angles can lead to unintentional asymmetries.

Supply Voltage Disturbances:

• Voltage Unbalance: Any unbalance in the supply voltage can cause the TCR to
operate asymmetrically, generating even harmonics.
• Voltage Harmonics: Pre-existing harmonics in the supply voltage can interact
with the TCR, leading to the generation of additional harmonics, including the
second harmonic.

Magnetic Saturation:

• Core Saturation: The magnetic core of the reactor can saturate at high current
levels, leading to a non-linear inductance. This non-linearity can generate
harmonic currents, including the second harmonic.
• Design Limitations: If the reactor is not designed to handle the maximum
operating conditions without saturating, it can frequently enter saturation and
generate harmonics.

Load Imbalance:

• Unbalanced Loads: Uneven distribution of loads across the phases can lead to
unbalanced currents, which can cause the generation of even harmonics.
• Dynamic Load Changes: Rapid changes in the load can cause transient
imbalances, resulting in the generation of second harmonic currents.

Transformer Inrush Currents:

 • Inrush Current Phenomena: When transformers are energized, they can draw
large inrush currents that are rich in harmonic content, including the second
harmonic. These harmonics can interact with the TCR.
• Core Magnetization: The process of magnetizing the transformer core during
inrush can cause asymmetrical currents, generating even harmonics.

External Disturbances:

• Lightning Strikes: Lightning strikes and other transient disturbances can

introduce high-frequency components and harmonics into the system.
• Switching Surges: Switching operations in the power system, such as capacitor
bank switching, can generate transient disturbances that contain harmonic
components.

Component Mismatches:

• Inductor and Capacitor Tolerances: Variations in the inductance and capacitance

values due to manufacturing tolerances can lead to imbalances in the TCR
operation.
• Thyristor Characteristics: Variations in the characteristics of thyristors, such as
their on-state voltage drop and turn-on/turn-off times, can introduce
imbalances.

6. (a) Describe the sub-synchronous resonance phenomenon and its impacts. Discuss the
possible solution techniques for the same. Can we mitigate it by using variable impedance
type or VSC type FACTS controllers?

Ans:-

Sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) is a condition in electrical power systems where there is an

interaction between the electrical network and the mechanical system of a turbine-generator
set, leading to oscillations at frequencies below the system's nominal frequency (sub-
synchronous frequencies). These oscillations can have serious consequences if not properly
managed.

Causes and Impacts of Sub-synchronous Resonance

Causes:
 • Series Capacitor Compensation: SSR often occurs in power systems with series
capacitor compensation. The series capacitors can create conditions where the
electrical resonance frequency is close to one of the mechanical natural
frequencies of the turbine-generator shaft.
• Generator Shaft Dynamics: The turbine-generator shaft has several natural
frequencies (torsional modes). If any of these modes match a sub-synchronous
frequency in the electrical system, it can lead to resonance.
• Variable Power Flow: Fluctuations in power flow and system impedance can also
contribute to conditions that favor SSR.

Impacts:

• Torsional Oscillations: SSR can cause large torsional oscillations in the generator
shaft, potentially leading to mechanical fatigue, damage, or even failure.
• Electrical Instability: It can result in voltage and current oscillations, causing
instability in the power system.
• Damage to Equipment: Prolonged SSR conditions can damage the generator,
turbine blades, and other related mechanical components.
• Operational Challenges: It can lead to challenges in maintaining stable and
reliable power system operation.

Possible Solution Techniques

SSR Damping Devices:

• Torsional Vibration Dampers: These are mechanical devices installed on the

turbine-generator shaft to absorb and dampen torsional oscillations.
• Power System Stabilizers (PSS): PSS can be used to add damping to the rotor
oscillations by modulating the excitation system of the generator.

Series Capacitor Bypass:

• Bypassing Capacitors: Temporarily bypassing or removing series capacitors from

the circuit can help in mitigating SSR by removing the cause of the resonance.

Tuned Filters:

• Sub-Synchronous Filters: Installing filters that are tuned to sub-synchronous

frequencies can help in absorbing these oscillations and preventing them from
affecting the rest of the system.
FACTS Controllers for SSR Mitigation

Variable Impedance Type FACTS Controllers:

• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC): TCSC can provide variable series
compensation, which can be adjusted dynamically to avoid resonance
conditions. It can modulate the impedance and effectively dampen sub-
synchronous oscillations.
• Static VAR Compensators (SVC): SVCs provide dynamic reactive power
compensation, which can help stabilize the voltage and mitigate the effects of
SSR by improving the overall system damping.

Voltage Source Converter (VSC) Type FACTS Controllers:

• Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM): STATCOM can provide fast and

flexible reactive power support, helping to stabilize the voltage and improve
damping of oscillations, including those caused by SSR.
• Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC): UPFC can control power flow and
voltage in the network dynamically. By controlling both real and reactive power
flows, UPFC can effectively mitigate SSR conditions.
• Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC): IPFC can control power flows in multiple
lines, offering a comprehensive solution to SSR by ensuring optimal power flow
and stability across the network.

(b) With neat sketches, explain the configuration and operating characteristics of a fixed
capacitor- thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR) with a step down transformer.

A Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) with a step-down transformer is a type

of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) device used in power systems for reactive power
compensation and voltage regulation. Here's an explanation of its configuration and operating
characteristics:

Configuration

Fixed Capacitor (FC):

• Provides a fixed amount of leading reactive power (capacitive VARs) to the

system.
 • Connected in shunt (parallel) with the power system.

Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):

• Consists of a reactor (inductor) in series with a bidirectional thyristor valve.

• The thyristor valve controls the current through the reactor by phase angle
control, effectively varying the reactance of the TCR.
• Connected in shunt with the power system, typically in parallel with the fixed
capacitor.

Step-down Transformer:

• Used to match the voltage levels between the high voltage transmission system
and the lower voltage required for the TCR.
• Provides electrical isolation and reduces the voltage to a level suitable for the
thyristor valve operation.

Control System:

• Manages the firing angles of the thyristors in the TCR to control the amount of
reactive power absorbed by the reactor.
• Uses feedback from the power system parameters such as voltage, current, and
reactive power.

Operating Characteristics

Reactive Power Compensation:

 • The fixed capacitor provides a constant leading reactive power.
• The TCR absorbs variable lagging reactive power depending on the thyristor
firing angle.
• By controlling the thyristor firing angle, the net reactive power (combination of
FC and TCR) can be adjusted to meet system requirements.

Variable Reactance:

• The TCR can vary its reactance from maximum (thyristors fully off) to zero
(thyristors fully on) by adjusting the firing angle.
• This allows for precise control of the reactive power absorbed by the TCR.

Voltage Control:

• By varying the net reactive power, the FC-TCR can regulate the voltage at the
point of connection.
• When the system voltage is high, the TCR absorbs more reactive power to lower
the voltage.
• When the system voltage is low, the TCR absorbs less reactive power, allowing
the fixed capacitor to raise the voltage.

Harmonic Generation:

• The switching action of the thyristors in the TCR can generate harmonics.
• Proper design and filtering are required to mitigate these harmonics and prevent
them from affecting the power system.

Dynamic Response:

• The FC-TCR provides a fast dynamic response to changes in the power system,
making it effective for transient stability and voltage regulation.

Operation in Different Modes:

• Capacitive Mode: When the reactive power from the fixed capacitor exceeds the
absorption of the TCR, the device operates in a net capacitive mode.
• Inductive Mode: When the TCR absorbs more reactive power than what the
fixed capacitor provides, the device operates in a net inductive mode.
 • Neutral Mode: When the reactive power provided by the fixed capacitor and
absorbed by the TCR are balanced, the device operates in a neutral mode,
providing minimal net reactive power to the system.

Applications

• Voltage regulation and stabilization in power transmission systems.

• Compensation for inductive loads in industrial power systems.
• Mitigation of voltage flicker in arc furnace installations.
• Improvement of power factor in distribution systems.

7. (a) Describe detailed functional control schemes of series and shunt converters in UPFC.
Illustrate the performance of STATCOM and UPFC in order to improve the transient stability
and power oscillation damping by using a suitable example.

Control of UPFC

As the UPFC consists of two converters that are coupled on the DC side, the control of each
converter is taken up individually.

Control of the Shunt Converter

The shunt converter draws a controlled current from the system. One component of this
current is Ip which is automatically determined by the requirement to balance the real power
supplied to the series converter through the DC link. This power balance is enforced by
regulating the DC capacitor voltage by feedback control.

The other component of the shunt converter current is the reactive current, In which can be
controlled in a similar fashion as in a STATCOM.

There are two operating (control) modes for a STATCOM or the shunt

converter. These are,

1. VAR control mode where the reactive current reference is determined by the inductive or
capacitive VAR command. The feedback signals are obtained from current transformers (CT)
typically located on the bushings of the coupling (step down) transformer.

2. Automatic voltage control mode where the reactive current reference is determined by the
output of the feedback voltage controller which incorporates a droop characteristic (as in the
case of an SVC or a STATCOM). The voltage feedback signals are obtained from potential
transformers (PT) measuring the voltage V1 at the substation feeding the coupling transformer.
Control of the Series Converter

The series converter control is aimed at injecting a series voltage of the required magnitude and
angle. These are different control modes for the series voltage listed below.

1. Direct voltage injection mode where the converter simply generates a voltage phasor in
response to the reference input. A special case is when the desired voltage is a reactive voltage
in quadrature with the line current.

2. Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode where the injected voltage Vc is phase shifted relative
to the voltage V1 by an angle specified by the reference input.
3. Line impedance emulation mode where the series injected voltage is controlled in proportion
to the line current. The complex impedance (the injected voltage divided by the line current)
seen by the line current is determined by the reference inputs. It is essential to take care (in
employing this control mode) to avoid instability or resonance.

For example, negative values of the resistance can cause instability. A large value of the
capacitive (negative) reactance can result in resonance.

4. Automatic power flow control mode where the reference inputs determine the required real
power (P) and the reactive power (Q) at a specified location in the line. Both P and Q can be
controlled independently of each other in a feasible region determined by the satisfaction of
various constraints.

In this control mode, the series injected voltage is determined by a vector control system to
ensure the flow of the desired current (phasor) which is maintained even during system
disturbances (unless the system control dictates the modulation of the power and reactive
power).

Although the normal conditions dictate the regulation of the complex power flow in the line,
the contingency conditions require the controller to contribute to system stability by damping
power oscillations.

The feedback signals for the series converter control come from CT and PTs where the line
current and the voltages at the two ports of the UPFC are measured. The block diagram of the
series converter control is shown.
The automatic power flow control is implemented utilizing the vector control scheme that
regulates the line current based on Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF). Here the controlled
quantities are the in-phase and quadrature components (relative to the voltage at port 1 of the
UPFC).

Neglecting harmonics, these components are constants in steady state and depend on the
desired reference values of P and Q. The feedback control of the in-phase and quadrature
components of the line current is utilized to determine the magnitude and angle of the series
injected voltage.

--> To illustrate the performance of a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and a

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) in improving transient stability and power oscillation
damping, let's consider a simplified example of a power system. The example will show how
each device helps in maintaining system stability and damping oscillations after a disturbance.

Example Power System

Let's assume a simple power system with two generators (G1 and G2) connected to a load
through a transmission line. This system can experience disturbances such as a sudden change
in load or a fault on the transmission line. Here's the scenario:

3. Power System without FACTS Devices:

• Two generators G1 and G2 are connected to a load via a transmission line.
• A fault occurs on the transmission line, causing a temporary imbalance and
resulting in power oscillations.

STATCOM

A STATCOM is a shunt-connected device that provides reactive power support to the power
system, helping to maintain voltage stability and improve transient stability.

Operation:

4. Reactive Power Injection:

• After the fault, the voltage at the load bus drops.
• The STATCOM injects reactive power to the load bus, helping to maintain voltage
levels and support transient stability.
5. Damping Power Oscillations:
 • The STATCOM can dynamically adjust the amount of reactive power injected or
absorbed based on the system conditions.
• This helps in damping power oscillations caused by the fault.

Performance Illustration:

• Before the fault, the system operates stably.

• During the fault, the voltage drops, and power oscillations occur.
• The STATCOM quickly responds by injecting reactive power, helping to restore the
voltage and damp the oscillations.
• As a result, the system returns to a stable operation more quickly compared to a system
without a STATCOM.

UPFC

A UPFC is a more versatile device that can control both the magnitude and phase angle of the
voltage, thus managing both active and reactive power flows in the transmission line.

Operation:

6. Voltage Control:
• The UPFC can inject or absorb reactive power to maintain voltage stability at the
bus where it is connected.
7. Power Flow Control:
• The UPFC can adjust the phase angle of the voltage, thereby controlling the
active power flow through the transmission line.
• This capability is particularly useful for redistributing power flow after a
disturbance.
8. Damping Power Oscillations:
• By controlling both active and reactive power flows, the UPFC can provide
effective damping of power oscillations.

Performance Illustration:

• Before the fault, the system operates stably with balanced power flow.
• During the fault, the UPFC responds by adjusting both reactive power and phase angle
to manage power flow and maintain voltage stability.
 • The UPFC effectively redistributes power flow, preventing overload on any single
transmission line and damping oscillations.
• The system returns to a stable operation more efficiently compared to a system without
a UPFC.

Comparison and Example Illustration

Let's visualize the performance of both devices through a power system simulation. Suppose
we have the following conditions:

• A three-phase fault occurs at the midpoint of the transmission line.

• The fault is cleared after a short period.

Without STATCOM or UPFC:

• The system experiences significant voltage dips.

• Power oscillations are sustained and take longer to damp out.
• Generators may experience instability or even loss of synchronism.

With STATCOM:

• Voltage dips are mitigated as the STATCOM injects reactive power.

• Power oscillations are damped more quickly due to reactive power support.
• Generators maintain stability more effectively.

With UPFC:

• Voltage dips are mitigated, and the voltage profile is better controlled.
• Active power flow is adjusted, preventing overloads and redistributing power more
efficiently.
• Power oscillations are damped effectively through combined reactive and active power
control.
• Generators maintain synchronism and stability more robustly.

(b) Describe the applications of STATCOM

Here are some key applications of STATCOM:

1. Voltage Regulation

• Voltage Support: STATCOMs are used to maintain the voltage levels within the desired
range by injecting or absorbing reactive power. This is particularly useful in weak or
heavily loaded power systems where voltage variations are significant.
• Flicker Mitigation: STATCOMs help mitigate voltage flicker caused by rapidly changing
loads such as arc furnaces or large industrial motors.

2. Reactive Power Compensation

• Dynamic Reactive Power Control: STATCOMs provide fast and accurate reactive power
compensation, which is essential for maintaining the power factor close to unity in
industrial facilities and large power networks.
• Improvement of Power Factor: By supplying reactive power locally, STATCOMs improve
the power factor of the system, reducing the losses and increasing the efficiency of the
power system.

3. Enhancement of Transmission Capacity

• Increase in Power Transfer Capability: STATCOMs can increase the transmission

capacity of existing power lines by providing voltage support and reducing reactive
power flows, which helps in managing congestion in transmission networks.
• Stabilization of Long Transmission Lines: STATCOMs stabilize long transmission lines by
providing reactive power compensation, which mitigates the issues related to line
charging and voltage instability.

4. Improvement of Transient Stability

• Post-Fault Voltage Recovery: STATCOMs help in the rapid recovery of voltage levels
after faults, enhancing the transient stability of the power system.
• Damping Power Oscillations: By dynamically controlling reactive power, STATCOMs
damp power oscillations that may occur after disturbances such as faults or sudden load
changes.

5. Renewable Energy Integration

• Grid Integration of Wind and Solar Farms: STATCOMs facilitate the integration of
renewable energy sources like wind and solar farms by providing voltage support and
 reactive power compensation, addressing the intermittent and variable nature of these
sources.
• Mitigation of Power Quality Issues: STATCOMs help in mitigating power quality issues
such as voltage sags, swells, and harmonics that may arise due to the integration of
renewable energy sources.

6. Voltage Stability in Distribution Networks

• Support for Distribution Networks: STATCOMs are increasingly used in distribution

networks to support voltage levels, improve power quality, and provide reactive power
compensation, particularly in networks with a high penetration of distributed
generation.
• Voltage Control at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC): STATCOMs ensure that the
voltage at the PCC remains stable and within the acceptable range, which is crucial for
the reliable operation of sensitive loads.

7. Industrial Applications

• Support for Industrial Loads: STATCOMs are used in industrial plants to provide reactive
power support and voltage stabilization for large, fluctuating loads such as electric arc
furnaces, rolling mills, and large motors.
• Improvement of Productivity: By stabilizing voltage and mitigating power quality issues,
STATCOMs enhance the productivity and reliability of industrial processes.

8. Power Quality Improvement

• Harmonic Mitigation: STATCOMs can be equipped with filters to mitigate harmonics

generated by nonlinear loads, improving the overall power quality.
• Reduction of Voltage Imbalances: STATCOMs help in reducing voltage imbalances in
three-phase systems, ensuring balanced voltage supply to all phases.

9. Support for Weak Grids

• Strengthening Weak Grids: In remote or weak grid areas, STATCOMs provide essential
voltage support and reactive power compensation, ensuring reliable power supply and
stability.
• Support for Remote Loads: STATCOMs enable the stable operation of remote loads by
maintaining voltage levels and providing dynamic reactive power support.
10. Emergency Support and Grid Resiliency

• Fast Response to Contingencies: STATCOMs provide fast-acting reactive power support

during grid contingencies, helping to prevent voltage collapse and supporting grid
resiliency.
• Black Start Support: STATCOMs can assist in black start procedures by providing the
necessary reactive power support to re-energize the grid after a blackout.
8. (a) Explain power oscillation damping and functional requirements of thyristor switched
series capacitor (TSSC).

Power Oscillation Damping

Power oscillation damping (POD) refers to the reduction of power swings in electrical power
systems that occur due to disturbances such as faults, sudden load changes, or switching
operations. These oscillations, if not adequately damped, can lead to instability and potential
system collapse. Power oscillation damping aims to enhance the stability and reliability of the
power system by minimizing these oscillations.

Mechanisms of Power Oscillation Damping

Reactive Power Compensation: Devices like STATCOMs and SVCs can dynamically inject
or absorb reactive power to stabilize voltage and reduce oscillations.
Series Compensation: Using series capacitors or FACTS devices like TCSCs can modify
the power flow and improve the damping of oscillations.
Damping Controllers: Special controllers are designed to provide additional damping by
modulating the reactive power or series compensation in response to oscillations.

Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)

A Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) is a FACTS device used in power systems to provide
dynamic series compensation. It consists of a capacitor bank that is switched in and out of the
transmission line using thyristor switches. The primary purpose of TSSC is to control power flow
and enhance the stability and damping of power oscillations in the transmission network.

Functional Requirements of TSSC

Dynamic Series Compensation:

 • TSSC provides dynamic series compensation by rapidly switching the series
capacitor in and out of the transmission line.
• This compensates for the inductive reactance of the line, improving the power
transfer capability and stability.

Power Flow Control:

• By changing the effective impedance of the transmission line, TSSC controls the
power flow in the network.
• This helps in load balancing and reducing congestion in heavily loaded lines.

Damping of Power Oscillations:

• TSSC modulates the series compensation to provide damping of power

oscillations caused by disturbances.
• The fast switching capability of thyristors allows for quick response to
oscillations, enhancing the overall system stability.

Voltage Stability Improvement:

• TSSC helps in maintaining voltage stability by controlling the reactive power flow.
• It mitigates voltage fluctuations and supports voltage regulation at the point of
installation.

Transient Stability Enhancement:

• During faults or sudden disturbances, TSSC quickly adjusts the series

compensation to stabilize the system.
• This enhances the transient stability and helps in the recovery of the system
post-disturbance.

Flexible and Fast Response:

• TSSC provides a flexible and fast response to changing system conditions due to
the use of thyristor switches.
• This rapid response capability is essential for real-time power system operations.

Minimal Maintenance and High Reliability:

• The solid-state nature of thyristor switches ensures high reliability and minimal
maintenance requirements.
 • TSSC systems are designed for long-term operation with high availability.

Components and Operation of TSSC

Series Capacitor Bank:

• A capacitor bank connected in series with the transmission line provides the
necessary capacitive reactance.
Thyristor Switches:
• Thyristors are used to switch the capacitor bank in and out of the transmission
line.
• The switching is controlled by a gating signal that determines the conduction
period of the thyristors.
Control System:
• A sophisticated control system monitors the power system parameters and
determines the appropriate switching actions.
• The control system ensures optimal operation of the TSSC for power flow control
and oscillation damping.
Protection and Monitoring:
• Protective relays and monitoring equipment ensure the safe operation of the
TSSC.
• Protection systems prevent overvoltage and overcurrent conditions and provide
fault detection.

(b) Discuss the principle of operation of static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and
compare its performance with conventional series compensators

Principle of Operation of Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

A Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a type of FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission

System) device used for series compensation in power systems. It is designed to control the
power flow and enhance the stability of the transmission network by injecting a controllable
voltage in series with the transmission line.
Key Components

Voltage Source Converter (VSC):

• Converts the DC input from an energy storage device or a capacitor into a
controllable AC output voltage.
• Typically, an IGBT-based VSC is used for high-frequency switching and efficient
power conversion.
DC Energy Source:
• Provides the necessary DC voltage for the VSC. This can be a capacitor or an
energy storage device such as a battery.
Series Transformer:
• Injects the AC output voltage from the VSC into the transmission line.
Control System:
• Monitors power system parameters and controls the VSC to generate the
desired series compensation voltage.

Principle of Operation

Voltage Injection:
• The SSSC injects a controllable AC voltage in series with the transmission line
through the series transformer.
• The magnitude and phase angle of this injected voltage are dynamically
adjustable, allowing precise control over the line impedance and power flow.
 Power Flow Control:
• By adjusting the injected voltage, the SSSC can effectively control the real and
reactive power flow through the transmission line.
• This control helps in managing congestion, improving load distribution, and
enhancing the overall stability of the power system.
Reactive Power Compensation:
• The injected voltage can be leading or lagging, providing capacitive or inductive
compensation as needed.
• This helps in maintaining voltage stability and improving power factor.
Damping Power Oscillations:
• The SSSC can modulate the injected voltage to damp power oscillations caused
by disturbances, enhancing the transient stability of the system.

comparison between Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) and Conventional Series
Compensators (Fixed Series Capacitors and Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors - TCSC):

Feature SSSC Fixed Series Thyristor-Controlled

Capacitor (FSC) Series Capacitor
(TCSC)
Control Type Dynamic, fast, and precise Fixed capacitive Dynamic control using
control of voltage reactance thyristor switches
magnitude and phase
angle
Response Very fast due to solid-state Instantaneous but Moderate, limited by
Time electronics fixed compensation thyristor switching
speed
Power Flow Precise control over both Limited to reducing Moderate control over
Control real and reactive power line impedance reactive power flow
flow
Voltage Effective voltage No direct voltage Moderate voltage
Control regulation through control control via capacitive
dynamic voltage injection reactance
Power Highly effective due to Limited damping Moderate damping
Oscillation rapid response and capability capability
Damping precise control
Transient Significant improvement in Limited improvement Moderate improvement
Stability transient stability
Steady-State Enhanced due to dynamic Improvement in Improvement in steady-
Stability control of reactance steady-state power state power transfer
transfer capability capability
Flexibility High flexibility and No flexibility (fixed) Moderate flexibility
adaptability to varying
system conditions
 Complexity High due to advanced Low complexity Moderate complexity
power electronics and
control systems
Cost Higher due to advanced Lower cost Moderate cost
technology and
components
Maintenance Requires specialized Minimal maintenance Moderate maintenance
maintenance required
Harmonic Low if designed with None Potential harmonic
Generation appropriate filters generation due to
thyristor switching
Reliability High reliability with proper High reliability Moderate reliability
design and maintenance

9. Write short notes following: any on two of the

(a) Multi-pulse and multi-level converters

Ans:- Refer (Pyq2023)

(b) Passive reactive power compensation

Passive reactive power compensation involves the use of passive components, such as
capacitors and inductors, to improve the power factor and voltage stability of electrical power
systems without active control or electronic devices. These components provide a fixed amount
of reactive power compensation, which helps to balance the reactive power demand of the
system. Here are the main types and applications of passive reactive power compensation:

Types of Passive Reactive Power Compensation

Shunt Capacitors
• Purpose: Provide leading reactive power (capacitive VARs) to offset lagging
reactive power (inductive VARs) from inductive loads.
• Application: Commonly used in distribution systems, industrial plants, and
commercial buildings to improve power factor and voltage levels.
• Installation: Typically installed at the load, distribution substation, or
transmission level.
Series Capacitors
• Purpose: Compensate for the inductive reactance of transmission lines,
increasing power transfer capability and improving voltage stability.
 • Application: Used in long transmission lines to reduce impedance and enhance
system stability.
• Installation: Installed in series with the transmission line.
Shunt Reactors
• Purpose: Provide lagging reactive power (inductive VARs) to offset leading
reactive power (capacitive VARs) from lightly loaded transmission lines or cables.
• Application: Used in high-voltage transmission systems to control overvoltage
conditions and improve voltage stability.
• Installation: Installed at substations or along transmission lines.

Applications of Passive Reactive Power Compensation

Power Factor Correction

• Objective: Improve the power factor of the system by compensating for the
reactive power demand of inductive loads.
• Method: Shunt capacitors are commonly used in industrial and commercial
facilities to reduce reactive power charges and improve energy efficiency.
Voltage Support and Regulation
• Objective: Maintain voltage levels within acceptable limits, especially during
varying load conditions.
• Method: Shunt capacitors provide voltage support by injecting reactive power,
which helps in maintaining voltage levels in distribution networks.
Transmission Efficiency Improvement
• Objective: Enhance the efficiency of power transmission by reducing the reactive
power flow and associated losses.
• Method: Series capacitors are used to compensate for the inductive reactance of
long transmission lines, reducing voltage drops and improving power transfer
capability.
Reduction of Transmission Losses
• Objective: Minimize losses in the transmission network by optimizing the
reactive power flow.
• Method: Properly sized and placed shunt capacitors and reactors can balance
reactive power flow, reducing losses and improving overall system efficiency.
Mitigation of Overvoltage Conditions
• Objective: Prevent overvoltage conditions that can occur in lightly loaded
transmission lines or during sudden load drops.
 • Method: Shunt reactors absorb excess reactive power, preventing voltage rise
and maintaining system stability.

Advantages of Passive Reactive Power Compensation

• Simplicity: Passive components are simple in design, easy to install, and require minimal
maintenance.
• Reliability: With no moving parts or complex electronics, passive components have high
reliability and long service life.
• Cost-Effective: Passive compensation solutions are generally less expensive compared
to active compensation devices.
• Immediate Effect: Passive components provide instant compensation as soon as they
are connected to the system.

Disadvantages of Passive Reactive Power Compensation

• Fixed Compensation: Passive components provide a fixed amount of reactive power,

which may not be sufficient under varying load conditions.
• Lack of Dynamic Control: Unlike active compensation devices, passive components
cannot adjust their compensation in real-time.
• Potential Overcompensation: In certain situations, fixed capacitors can lead to
overcompensation, resulting in leading power factor and potential overvoltage issues.
• Limited Effectiveness in Dynamic Systems: Passive compensation is less effective in
systems with rapidly changing loads or frequent disturbance

(c) Thyristor-controlled braking resistor (TCBR)

Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)

A Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) is a device used in power systems and industrial
applications to rapidly dissipate excess energy and maintain system stability during events such as
faults, sudden load changes, or system disturbances. The TCBR uses thyristors to control the
connection and disconnection of a resistor in the circuit, providing dynamic and fast-acting control
over the braking process.

Principle of Operation

Thyristor Switching:
• The TCBR consists of a resistor connected in series with a thyristor switch.
• The thyristor switch can rapidly connect or disconnect the resistor from the circuit
based on control signals.
Control System:
• A control system monitors the power system parameters such as voltage, current,
and frequency.
• When a disturbance is detected, the control system triggers the thyristors to
connect the braking resistor to the circuit.
Energy Dissipation:
• The braking resistor dissipates excess energy as heat, reducing the voltage and
stabilizing the system.
• This helps in preventing overvoltage conditions, damping power oscillations, and
maintaining system stability.
Applications

Power System Stability:

• TCBRs are used to enhance the transient stability of power systems by quickly
dissipating excess energy during faults or disturbances.
• They help in damping power oscillations and preventing voltage spikes.
Industrial Applications:
• In industrial drives and machinery, TCBRs are used to control the deceleration of
motors by dissipating the kinetic energy of the rotating masses.
• They provide controlled braking, reducing mechanical stress and improving safety.
Wind Turbines:
• TCBRs are used in wind turbines to dissipate excess energy during high wind
conditions or when the grid cannot absorb the generated power.
• They help in maintaining the stability and reliability of wind power systems.
Railway Systems:
• In electric traction systems, TCBRs are used to provide dynamic braking for trains.
• They dissipate the kinetic energy of the train during braking, enhancing safety and
control.

Advantages

Fast Response:
• The use of thyristors allows for rapid connection and disconnection of the braking
resistor, providing fast-acting control.
Dynamic Control:
• TCBRs offer dynamic control over the braking process, allowing for precise energy
dissipation based on system conditions.
Improved Stability:
• By dissipating excess energy, TCBRs enhance the transient stability of power
systems and prevent overvoltage conditions.
\Reduced Mechanical Wear:
• In industrial and railway applications, TCBRs provide controlled braking, reducing
mechanical wear and tear on equipment.

Disadvantages

Heat Dissipation:
• The braking resistor dissipates energy as heat, which requires proper thermal
management to avoid overheating.
Complexity:
 • The control system and thyristor switches add complexity to the design and
operation of TCBRs.
Cost:
• The inclusion of power electronics and control systems can increase the cost of
TCBRs compared to simple resistive braking systems.

Components and Configuration

Resistor:
• A high-power resistor capable of dissipating significant energy as heat.
• Typically designed with high thermal capacity and robust construction to handle
large energy dumps.
Thyristor Switches:
• Semiconductor devices that control the connection and disconnection of the
braking resistor.
• Thyristors are chosen for their ability to handle high currents and voltages.
Control System:
• A monitoring and control system that measures system parameters and triggers the
thyristors based on predefined conditions.
• Ensures the proper operation of the TCBR and protects against faults and failures.
Cooling System:
• A cooling mechanism to manage the heat generated by the braking resistor.
• Can include natural convection, forced air cooling, or liquid cooling, depending on
the application.