Foundations and

Cornelissen  Misra
Applications of
Foundations and

Varma
Indian Psychology Applications of
Edited by
Indian Psychology

Foundations and Applications of

R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen  Girishwar Misra  Suneet Varma
Edited by

Foundations and Applications of Indian Psychology explores the social, educational, R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen  Girishwar Misra  Suneet Varma

Indian Psychology
physical and emotional dimensions of Psychology, and contains selected chapters
from Pearson’s earlier two-volume set, entitled Foundations of Indian Psychology. This
combined edition firmly positions ancient practices and ideas from the Indian tradition
within the contours of mainstream psychology. It highlights the linkages between
modern psychology and ancient Indian ideas emerging from Vedic, Yogic, Buddhist, and
Sufi symbolisms.

With twenty-six essays covering how Indian ideas about mind and body, spirituality,
education and healing relate to some of the most important interest areas of modern
psychology, this volume enhances the very scope of psychology. As such, it makes
essential reading for students and scholars alike.

R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen teaches integral psychology at Sri Aurobindo International

Centre of Education, Pondicherry.
Girishwar Misra is Professor, and former Head of Department of Psychology, and
Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Delhi.
Suneet Varma is Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi.

Cover image: Shutterstock.com

Size (mm): 172x235 Spine (mm): 18 ISBN 97889332526365 Title Sub Title Author/Editor Name Edition With CD Red Band Territory line URL Price mQuest
 FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

OF

INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

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 FM.qxp 3/25/2010 12:49 PM Page 3

Foundations and Applications

International of
Relations Today
Indian Psychology

Aneek Chatterjee

Edited by
R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen
Girishwar Misra
Suneet Varma

Delhi z Chennai z Chandigarh

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 Copyright © 2014 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired
out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior
written permission of both the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher of this book.

Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia.

ISBN 9789332526365
eISBN 9789332538245

Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8 (A), Sector 62, NOIDA, 201 309, UP,
India. Registered Office: 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India

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 Contents

Foreword vii
Karan Singh

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction xi
R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

1. Indian psychology: Implications and applications 3

K. Ramakrishna Rao
2. A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India 18
Ajit K. Dalal
3. Beyond mind: The future of psychology as a science 40
Kundan Singh
4. Indian psychology and the scientific method 53
Peter Sedlmeier
5. Integrating yoga epistemology and ontology into an expanded integral 80
approach to research
William Braud
6. What is knowledge? A reflection based on the work of Sri Aurobindo 98
R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen
7. Knowing in the Indian tradition 119
Girishwar Misra
8. On the Vedic symbolism in the light of Sri Aurobindo 134
Vladimir Iatsenko
9. Models of personality in Buddhist psychology 146
Priya Ananda & Ajith Prasad
10. Ego and ahaṁkāra: Self and identity in modern psychology and 164
Indian thought
Kiran Kumar K. Salagame
11. The Sufi path of self-transformation 174
Bahman A. K. Shirazi

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 12. Integral Psychology: A new science of self, personality, and psychology 183
Suneet Varma
13. Psychology of emotions: Some cultural perspectives 205
Girishwar Misra
14. The philosophy of healing in Indian medicine 223
Kapil Kapoor
15. Healing and counselling in a traditional spiritual setting 227
Anand C. Paranjpe
16. Concept and scope of pratyāhāra in management of mental health 247
K. M. Tripathi
17. Psychotherapy and Indian thought 257
Alok Pandey
18. Psychotherapy and Integral Yoga Psychology 278
Michael Miovic
19. Integral education: An application of Indian psychology 293
Neeltje Huppes
20. The blending of healing and pedagogy in Āyurveda 303
P. Ram Manohar
21. Situating teacher education in the Indian context: A paradigm shift 314
Bharati Baveja
22. The Mirambika experience 325
Anjum Sibia
23. Krishnamurti and value education 344
Vinita Kaushik Kapur
24. Broadening of consciousness: A healing process among the survivors of 351
the Kachchh earthquake
Kumar Ravi Priya
25. Resolution of social conflicts: An Indian model 363
Raghubir Singh Pirta
26. Spiritual climate of business organizations and its impact on 374
customers’ experience
Ashish Pande & Rajen K. Gupta

Glossary of words of Sanskrit or Pali origin 393

The contributors 407
Index 413

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 Foreword
Karan Singh

Apart from its other achievements, the ancient which places Indian psychology at the heart of
Indian civilization undertook the most pro­ the entire study. It is important that Indian in­
found examination of the human mind that sights become part of mainstream psychology
has ever been attempted anywhere. The entire around the world, and not be treated merely
process of yoga, particularly the system based as an esoteric phenomenon.
on Patanjali’s Yogasutras, developed a meth­ The editors of Foundations of Indian Psychol-
odology for ‘stilling the modifications of the ogy deserve warm commendations for having
mind’. The Bhagavad Gita also contains specific brought together a broad and rich spectrum
instructions for stilling the mind, and thereby of articles dealing with various aspects of psy­
accessing the deeper reaches of our psyche. In­ chology, including social, psychological, edu­
dian psychology therefore has a firm base and cational, health and emotional dimensions.
a profound underlying philosophy. This book represents a valuable contribution
Due largely to centuries of Western do­ to world psychological studies and will be of
mination, we have tended to be unduly great value to students of psychology around
influenced by the West, even in the area of the world. Recent research on the brain and
psychology. This is not in any way to denigrate the mind­brain relationship has thrown fas­
the great breakthroughs of Western psychol­ cinating light upon how the human mind
ogy, particularly those of Sigmund Freud and functions. Indian psychology, of course, goes
C. G. Jung. Indeed, post-Jungian psychology, beyond the mind into what we would call the
especially Transpersonal Psychology, which spiritual centre of our being. The co­relation of
has developed in recent years in California these various elements and dimensions repre­
and around the world, are welcome efforts to sent a fascinating field for study.
delve deeper into the mysteries of the mind. Living as we are in an age of great stress
What is really needed is a creative fusion be­ and tension, the psychological aspects of hu­
tween the Indian psychological traditions and man welfare and individual happiness can no
the newer Western methodologies. longer be neglected. I take great pleasure in
As they do in so many other areas, Sri Au­ recommending this book not only to profes­
robindo’s writings throw a flood of light upon sional psychologists, but also to the general
various elements connected with the quest for reader interested in delving deeper into the
the inner light. He has used Vedic symbolism marvels and mysteries of the human mind.
to postulate a highly original interpretation,

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 Acknowledgements

The list of people to whom we owe an im­ Special mention need be made of Kireet
mense gratitude begins early. In fact, it begins Joshi, who in the early years of this century
with the ancient ṛṣis who composed the beau­ gave his unstinting moral and financial sup­
tiful verses of the Ṛg Veda, and it continues port to the development of Indian psychology
right into our present times through a long, as the then Chairman of the Indian Council
uninterrupted lineage of yogis, poets, sages, of Philosophical Research. Similarly, we are
philosophers and common men and women, grateful to K. Ramakrishna Rao, who personal­
who together developed the theory and prac­ ly and in his many official capacities has made
tice on which Indian psychology is based. a unique contribution to the development of
Amongst our contemporaries, there are Indian psychology. During the last ten years,
again too many great individuals to name all, the ICPR and ICSSR have enabled almost every
but we would like to mention at least a few. seminar related to Indian psychology in India.
The first who come to mind are no doubt the In this connection we also want to express our
authors of the chapters in this book. They have gratitude to Rajiv Malhotra and the Infinity
not only borne with us during the long period Foundation.
of gestation Foundations and Applications of Finally there are those at the Sri Aurob­
Indian Psychology took to come out, but they indo Ashram and the Indian Psychology In­
have also contributed in many other ways to stitute who have helped with the production
the development of Indian psychology as a of this book: Neeltje Huppes, without whose
science. Then there are the many others have continuous support the book might not have
not contributed directly to the text, but who come out at all, Vladimir Iatsenko who provid­
have worked for Indian psychology in other ed us with the Glossary, and Lynn Crawford,
ways, whether by writing, research or the or­ Divya Parasher and Jyoti Dalal who proofread
ganization of seminars, workshops and confer­ and typeset the texts. We owe a similar grati­
ences. We would like to mention, for example, tude to the staff of Pearson Education and to
George Mathews, Janak Pandey, S. Narayanan, the many others who by their interest, silent
Usha Ram, Indrani Sanyal, P. Krishna Rao, support or hard work have helped with the
Krishna Mohan, Sonali Bhatt Marwaha, Ra­ development of Indian psychology and the
mana Kumar Kanuri, H. R. Nagendra and his production of Foundations and Applications of
colleagues at SVYASA, and in Pondicherry A. Indian Psychology.
S. Dalal, Panch Ramalingam, Soumitra Basu, We are grateful to the Sri Aurobindo Ashram
Larry Seidlitz and Ananda Reddy, but there are Trust for giving us permission to use quotations
so many others. from Sri Aurobindo’s writings.

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 Introduction to the second edition
R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen
Girishwar Misra
Suneet Varma

practice by helping theory building and

What do we mean by Indian psychology?
application.
By Indian psychology we mean an approach to Psychology as taught at present, all over
psychology that is based on ideas and practices the world, is still amazingly unicultural. This
that developed over thousands of years within is rather remarkable if we consider the intensi­
the Indian sub­continent. In other words, we ty and ease of international communications,
use the word ‘Indian’ to indicate and honour and the fact that it is almost half a century
the origin of this approach to psychology—the since the political decolonization of Asia and
origin of the underlying philosophy, the con­ Africa was completed. Though the large com­
ceptual framework, the methods of enquiry, ponent of European and American thought in
and the technology of consciousness that psychology is understandable historically, it
it uses to bring about psychological change is not any longer excusable. For it is not that
and transformation. It may be useful to make the rest of the world has not thought about
explicit that we do not use the word ‘Indian’ human nature, and it is definitely not that
to localize or limit the scope of this approach contemporary psychology has found the one
to psychology; we do not mean, for example, and only correct way of doing so. In this con­
‘the psychology of the Indian people’, or ‘psy­ text, one could argue that Indian psychology
chology as taught at Indian universities’. We will be relevant particularly to Asian, African,
hold that Indian psychology as a meta­theory or Latin­American countries which share alter­
and as an extensive body of related theories native non­Western world views about mind,
and practices has something essential and psyche and various psychological phenomena
unique to contribute to the global civilization such as healing, health, self, or personality;
as a whole. but we strongly believe that in spite of all cul­
It may also be useful to make explicit that tural differences, there is a large common core
this volume is not about the past, but about to human nature, and that, to the extent that
the present and the future. You will look in Indian psychology deals with that common
vain for chapters about the history of Indian core, it should be of interest to all members of
philosophy or religion as they developed over the human family.
the ages. Many such texts are already avail­ In short, we do not look at Indian psy­
able, but this is not one of them. This volume chology as something that belongs only to
has contributions that demonstrate how ideas India or the past, but as a rich source of psy­
and practices from the Indian tradition can be chological insight and know­how that can be
used to tackle issues in contemporary psychol­ utilised to create a better future for the whole
ogy and constructively inform its disciplinary of humanity.

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 xii R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

In fact, the idea of a single truth supporting

What the Indian civilization can contrib-
a variety of manifestations is itself one of the
ute to psychology
core­characteristics of the deep view of reality
The unique contribution which the Indian that underlies the whole wide gamut of In­
civilization can make to modern psychology dian traditions. One of the most­often­quoted
can be looked at as consisting of three distinct aphorisms expressing this acknowledgment of
elements—a sophisticated and well­worked divergent views in spite of a single underlying
out, psychology­based meta­theoretical frame­ reality is probably: ekam sad viprā bahudhā va-
work, a wide repertoire of psychological danti, which means, ‘the truth is One, but the
practices, and a rich treasury of psychological wise call it by different names’. An interesting
theories. These three are, obviously, closely in­ aspect of this saying is that the differences are
terconnected, and it may be clear that none of not described as errors: it is the wise that give
them can be fully understood without a fairly different names to the one truth. Moreover,
complete understanding of the other two. Yet, one would miss the point if one were to take
as language is inevitably linear, we will give this saying as no more than a polite exhorta­
here a separate short introduction to each of tion for religious tolerance. It rests on a deep,
them. psychological understanding of the human
condition, which says that reality as it really is,
A psychology-friendly meta-theoretical will always remain beyond our limited men­
framework tal capacity to grasp, and that each individual
The first major contribution the Indian civili­ can perceive of that reality only as much as
zation can make to psychology is a psychol­ their individual capacity and inclination will
ogy­friendly meta­theoretical framework. To allow.
delineate the underlying theory, the basic There is another ancient saying which
‘paradigm’ of the Indian tradition is, of course, goes a step further. It deals with the different
a pretentious undertaking fraught with possi­ perceptions that arise from affirmative and ag­
bilities of error. The Indian civilization is im­ nostic approaches to reality. It says—and one
mensely complex, and, given the abundance of can immediately see how close some ancient
different—often contrary—voices it harbours Indian thinkers came to postmodern construc­
within itself, it is hard to state anything about tivism—that not only the name we give to an
it that cannot be contradicted with a striking experience, but even the experience itself is
counter­example. And yet, it is useful to give determined by our ‘set’. The Taittirīya Upaniṣad
it a try, for the simple reason that without this (2.6.1), for instance, says, asann eva sa bhavati,
background it is impossible to fully understand asad brahmeti veda cet, asti brahmeti ced veda,
its psychological practices and its theories. santam enaṁ tato viduḥ, meaning, ‘whoever en­
When one looks at the Indian civilization visages it as existence becomes (or realizes) it as
as it developed over the ages, it becomes quick­ existence, and whoever envisages it as non­be­
ly clear that within it there exists such a huge ing becomes (or realizes) that non­existence’.
variety of distinct cultural traditions, that one It may be noted that in the Indian tradition
may doubt whether it actually makes sense to such differences are not attributed only to the
speak of a single Indian tradition and whether different cultural priming; they are attributed
it would not be more accurate to speak of primarily to the different type, level and qual­
Indian traditions in the plural. The doubt is ity of the internal state of the observer. And
understandable, but we would contend that this brings us to what might well be described
in case of the Indian tradition, singularity and as the most important difference between the
multiformity are not necessarily mutually ex­ Indian and the Western paradigm.
clusive. A rich variety of expressions does not
preclude the possibility of a common thread, The differences. Western psychology is largely
a single foundation supporting the variety, confined to two dimensions which are both
and we are inclined to think that especially in fully accessible to the ordinary waking con­
India such a common core indeed does exist. sciousness—the physical and the social.

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 Introduction xiii

Genetics, neurophysiology and the cognitive Accordingly, the possibility and cosmic im­
sciences are typical for sub­disciplines with portance of an absolutely silent, transcendent
a focus on the physical dimension, and the consciousness are hardly ever doubted, while
various offshoots of psychoanalysis, social there are major schools of thought that do
constructivism and cross­cultural psychology doubt the importance and even the reality of
could be considered typical for those who fo­ the material pole of existence. While Western
cus on social factors. Between the two, there is science has come to terms with the fact that
still, in spite of many attempts at ‘softening’ there are many different types of physical en­
psychology, a widespread tendency to take the ergies and substances, of which some are not
physical dimension more seriously than the directly perceptible by the human senses, the
social. Even in the field of consciousness stud­ Indian tradition takes it for granted that there
ies, the existence of physical reality tends to be are also various types and levels of non­physi­
taken for granted, while the ontological ‘real­ cal existence—entire inner ‘worlds’ which are
ity’ of consciousness and subjective experience not directly perceptible to the ordinary wak­
is open for discussion. Their apparent existence ing consciousness, but that are ontologically
needs some kind of justification, and both are as real, or even more real than the ordinary
commonly considered epiphenomenal prod­ physical world. These non­physical realities
ucts of material processes. Related to this, in are considered to be intermediate planes of
terms of epistemology, the ordinary waking conscious existence between the absolute,
consciousness is considered the only accept­ silent consciousness of the transcendent and
able state for the researcher to be in, and a clear the apparent unconsciousness of matter. As a
rational mind is taken as the ultimate arbiter result, physical and social factors are accepted
of truth. In fact, non­ordinary states of aware­ as part of causal networks, but not as the full
ness are primarily associated with drugs and story—events are thought to be influenced by
somewhat frivolous new-age activities. Finally, a wide variety of forces that include factors
in terms of practical methodology, objectivity belonging to non­physical realities. Similarly,
is taken as the ultimate ideal, and first-person, epistemologically, a rational mind is appreci­
subjective observations are taken seriously ated and cultivated, but it is understood that
only if they are embedded in statistics and there are higher sources of knowledge and the
third­person objective measures to counteract possibility of a direct, intuitive apprehension
their inherent weaknesses. Obviously all this of truth. Finally, objective, sense-based knowl­
is a simplification and there are exceptions to edge is considered a minor form of knowledge
this pattern—one could, for example, think of (or even ignorance, avidyā) and an immense
phenomenology—but still, a strong physicalist collective effort has gone into the develop­
bias, an absolute faith in the ordinary waking ment of processes that can make us more open
consciousness and a total reliance on objective to the subtle worlds, and especially to the pre­
methods are so much part of mainstream psy­ existing inner knowledge, vidyā.
chology that amongst psychologists, they are It may be clear that these two basic views
commonly considered indispensable elements of reality lead to a very different sense of
of the scientific method. what psychology is about, how it is to be con­
The intellectual tradition of India starts ducted, and what can be expected from it. For
from radically different assumptions. On­ those under the influence of the physicalist
tologically, the most fundamental reality is worldview, psychology deals either with outer
not matter, but spirit; or more precisely, the behaviour or with mental processes that hap­
indivisible unity of saccidānanda, of absolute pen within the neuro­physiological apparatus
existence, consciousness and delight. In other of individual human beings; even those who
words, the Indian tradition includes psycho­ stress social influences, tacitly assume that
logical phenomena like consciousness and such influences are transferred by physical
joy as core­elements of reality, and in fact it means. It is taken for granted that conscious­
takes not physics, but ‘knowledge of the self’ ness, whether individually or socially deter­
(adhyātma-vidyā) as the fundamental science. mined, depends on working neural systems.

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 xiv R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

Non-physical realities are illusionary and para­ inability of modern science to deal effectively
psychological phenomena are ‘anomalous’. with non­physical realities and ‘the divine’,
For an eternal soul there is no place (except may not be intrinsic to science as such. Future
as a belief of others, not as an ‘objective’ re­ generations, who are likely to have a more
ality that exists in itself). Methodologically, globally informed cultural background, may
one has to rely on statistics and sophisticated ascribe this inability largely to the vagaries of
third­person methods of research. In terms of European history. It might well be found that
application, one aims at (behaviourally verifi­ in the early years of modern science, Europe
able) changes in others. left these inner realms aside, not because it
For those under the influence of the In­ is intrinsically too difficult to research them
dian system, consciousness is primary. It is in an intelligent and open­minded manner,
taken to be all­pervasive, and as existing with­ but simply because they were too encrusted
in space and time, as well as beyond both. The in the religious environment of the time. It
borders of the individual are porous, and the is true that neither alchemy, nor the later ef­
individual consciousness is found to extend forts of parapsychology have led to sufficiently
through space and time, to others, to all kinds concrete results to convince the sceptics; but
of inner worlds, and even to what is beyond that might well be because their studies were
all manifestation. As a result, non­physical hampered on the one side by the lack of a suf­
realities and parapsychological phenomena fit ficiently supportive philosophical framework,
perfectly within this explanatory framework, and on the other by their failure to develop
and there is no difficulty accepting an eternal effective powers within the inner realms they
soul as our real self. For research in Indian psy­ purported to study.
chology, sophisticated first person methods As we will try to present in this volume,
are the natural first choice. In terms of applica­ the Indian tradition might be able to provide
tion, Indian psychology aims primarily at the both. Though the Indian civilization has
mastery and transformation of oneself. had its own difficulties—800 years of foreign
When one lists these differences in this interference not the least of them—such a
manner, the two systems seem to belong to dramatic split between the physical and the
different worlds, and not only serious mis­ inner domains is not part of the Indian story.
understandings, but even a certain mutual In fact, the social structures and mental atti­
distrust appears almost inevitable. Historically tudes supporting spiritual pursuits in India are
this has indeed been the case. In the Indian much closer to those of European science than
tradition, right from the Upaniṣads and the to those of European religion. Even Śaṅkara—
stories of the Purāṇas, the basic ontological who arguably comes closest to what in the
and epistemological assumptions of modern Christian tradition would have been called
psychology are looked at as beginners’ errors, a church­father, given his role in founding
remnants of an ordinary, naive way of looking centres of religious authority and power—in
at the world that stand in the way of a deeper the end puts personal experience (anubhava)
understanding of how the human mind, con­ above tradition. In his Bhagavad Gītā Bhāṣya
sciousness in general, and even the physical he says, for example (18, 66), ‘Even a hundred
reality actually work. Seen from the other side, scriptural passages will not become authorita­
from the perspective of mainstream psychol­ tive when they, for instance, announce that
ogy, giving up its positivist, constructivist, or fire is cool or dark’ (Rao, 1979, p. 65). The
agnostic assumptions looks like a return to methods of yoga and meditation are nowadays
a superstitious past, a giving up of the most primarily looked at soteriologically, that is,
valuable accomplishments of the European as a means for salvation, as a means to arrive
Enlightenment, a recipe for disaster. at samādhi or nirvāṇa—at least if they are not
seen as a means to arrive at physical health
Roads to reconciliation. There are several and the survival of a corporate lifestyle. In
factors that may, however, help to over­ the culture of origin, however, they are part
come these difficulties. The first is that the of a coherent knowledge system and they are

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 Introduction xv

clearly looked at as a way to arrive at reliable and Transcendental Meditation (TM). Almost
knowledge. This is most clear in the case of all research is, moreover, in a mode that cul­
jñānayoga (the yoga of knowledge); but one tural anthropologists would call etic, rather
can easily discern elements of the pursuit of than emic. In other words, the research is done
truth even in karma- and bhaktiyoga (the paths from an outsider’s, rather than from an insid­
of works and devotion), which also, in their er’s perspective; the techniques are decontex­
own way, have methods to reduce the distor­ tualized, and their effectiveness is measured in
tions of perception and affect that are part of terms that belong to the theoretical framework
the ordinary human consciousness. of mainstream psychology. This is in itself not
The good news then is that modern sci­ surprising, for measurement involves the use
entific and ancient Indian approaches to psy­ of standards, and in science these standards
chology may not be so much contradictory as have to come from previously conducted re­
complementary. It is true that they are based search. But the result is that the effects of yoga
on different ontological and epistemological and meditation have been measured almost
assumptions, that they use different methods, exclusively on variables like blood pressure,
and to some extent, that they look at differ­ anxiety, depression and extroversion, which
ent sides of the human enterprise, but in the have little to do with what would have been
end, they are based on the same human urge considered relevant in the culture of origin,
for true knowledge, pure love, effective power such as equanimity, compassion, wisdom and
and happiness. It may not be easy to come to detachment.
mutual respect and understanding, but the While reflecting on the scope of exist­
effort will be worth it, for our preoccupation ing research on yoga and meditation, there
with knowledge and power in the physical is another issue that warrants careful consid­
domain has not solved humanity’s problems. eration. It is true that India has developed
On a global scale, suffering due to poverty, an astounding variety of structured methods
violence and disease is still rampant, and we to ‘do’ yoga and meditation. There can also
have added a considerable risk of sudden en­ be no doubt that it is worth studying these
vironmental self­destruction. One could well techniques, and that one should not do this
argue that the one thing we need most at pre­ only by etic, but also, or even especially, by
sent is a more comprehensive understanding emic approaches. The methods of yoga should
of our own nature. As editors of this volume, be understood on their own terms, and ideally
we would like to argue that Indian psychol­ not only in their gross ‘effectiveness’ but in
ogy can make a valuable contribution to that terms of the underlying spiritual and psycho­
endeavour. logical processes. But even a sympathetic, in­
sider’s look at these techniques will not give us
Psychological practices the whole story. Amongst the Indian psycho­
According to a survey commissioned by the logical practices that could benefit humanity,
Yoga Journal, there were in February 2008, there are not only such formalised methods
some 15.8 million practitioners of (haṭha) yoga and techniques, but there is also an implicit,
in the USA alone, and amongst the rest of the informal know­how that is orally transmitted
adult population, another 8 per cent, or eight­ from teacher to student within the guru–śiṣya
een million people, were ‘very or extremely in­ paramparā (the master–disciple relationship),
terested in yoga’. Over the years, thousands of or passed down from generation to generation
researches on yoga and meditation have been in the form of social institutions, customs, and
conducted (Murphy & Donovan, 1997; Walsh culturally prescribed—but individually adopt­
& Shapiro, 2006), but according to the latter, ed and adapted—attitudes and inner gestures.
this research is as yet rather imbalanced. Most When we look at yoga not only as a way to
research is conducted with beginning practi­ find the Divine but also as a way to bring our
tioners, and the vast majority of researches entire life more in harmony with the highest
have been carried out with not more than we can conceive and experientially ‘realize’,
three basic techniques—haṭhayoga, vipassana then it becomes clear why these informal,

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 xvi R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

implicit aspects of yoga play such a big role in and Sri Aurobindo, did not advocate the use
the Indian civilization, and why they are so in­ of highly structured and formalized tech­
teresting for modern psychology. An anecdote niques at all. They worked instead through a
from E. Richard Sorenson (2008) may illustrate focussed, specialized application of—in itself
the point. Sorensen relates an experience he quite simple—psychological processes and
had in a Tibetan monastery where most of the powers. There is an enormous variety of those,
monks were young, and where he had noticed and even though all the great gurus had their
earlier that the novices were always ‘eagerly own favourites—for example, Ramakrishna’s
rushing to share whatever special tidbit [sic] absolute devotion to the Divine Mother, or
might have come their way (whether material Ramana’s sustained and unremitting focus on
or ideational)’ (p. 46). As he relates: the question, ‘Who am I?’—they typically ad­
justed their method of teaching to the needs
One day, while having lunch with a
of each disciple at any given moment.
group of novices, a burst of mirth snared
The literature contains many different lists
my attention. An adolescent novice had
of desirable inner attitudes and gestures. Typi­
just selected, as if solely for himself, the
cal examples might be: a silent, non­judge­
largest apple off a plate. Bursts of laugh­
mental self­observation; a growing surrender
ter from the others, no verbal comment,
to the highest one can conceive; a sustained
just hilarity, as several then did much
aspiration towards the Divine (whether in
the same, usually with some special fillip
terms of knowledge, work, love, or oneness);
or perspective of their own. There was
a systematic development of traits like equa­
no obligation to be either different or
nimity, calm, patience, vigilance, kindness,
the same ... they were just nuzzling at a
compassion, love, joy, harmony, oneness,
trait all had seen outside.
wideness; small inner gestures of self­giving,
The interesting part is that amongst these consecration, openness, silence, surrender; the
youngsters, there were no pejorative remarks relocation of the centre of one’s consciousness
or outbursts of self­righteous indignation. inwards and upwards. As yet, it is hard to say
Egoism was for them not something natural with certainty, whether such non­sectarian,
and tempting, yet socially unacceptable, but informal ‘paths’ will dominate the future of
an utterly hilarious trait they had so far no­ Indian psychology, or the more formalized
ticed only in the behaviour of people outside ‘techniques’ that have played such a big role
their own community. Presuming there is no in the preservation of the tradition into the
major genetic difference in such matters, it is present. What seems clear to us is that there is
clearly worthwhile to study what it is exactly an urgent need for research in both.
that made sharing the natural baseline for
these children. It seems extremely unlikely Psychological theories
that such a fundamental difference can be Indian psychology has dealt with most areas
brought about by formal exercises or explicit in which mainstream psychology is interested,
instructions. and in many of them it has something unique
Regarding the spiritual core of the Indian to add. As we will see, there is a special, com­
psychological tradition, there is amongst pro­ mon quality to the contributions it can make
fessional psychologists a similar tendency to all these different fields. If we start with the
to focus on formal practices and specialised structure of the personality then we find that
techniques. Yet, in the Yoga Sūtras of Patañ­ the Indian tradition has developed the con­
jali, the undisputed authority on rājayoga, cept of ahaṁkāra, which stands somewhere in
only one of its many ślokas deals with āsanas between the Western concepts of ego and self­
(yogic postures), and the Bhagavad Gītā hardly concept. But besides this egoic centre, which
mentions strongly structured practices at all. belongs to the ordinary waking conscious­
Even in our times, some of the greatest sages ness, the Indian tradition has also developed
of modern India, like Ramakrishna Parama­ a detailed nomenclature for many other, more
hansa, Sai Baba of Shirdi, Ramana Maharshi subtle and non­egoic centres of consciousness;

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 Introduction xvii

and it has even worked out, especially in cer­ subtle, not sense­based forms of cognition,
tain Buddhist schools, how a consciousness might well deserve to become one of the ma­
can exist without any centre whatsoever. Simi­ jor thrust areas of Indian psychology, as their
larly, the Indian tradition has found below the development may lead to the creation of ap­
surface of our waking consciousness not only propriate research methodologies for a whole
the dark ‘unconscious’ that depth psychology new field of psychology.
has explored, but a whole range of subtle kośas Another major area of interest in psychol­
or layers of consciousness, that each have their ogy is that of emotion and motivation. To
own characteristic nature. It has even worked fully understand the various Indian theories
out many different ways of ‘realizing’ in one’s of emotion, one has to go back to what should
experience (or perhaps one should rather say, perhaps count as one of the greatest discover­
in one’s being) a Transcendent beyond all ies of the Indian tradition—the idea that the
nature. It has found that all these inner lay­ nature of ultimate reality can be described as
ers, types, and centres of conscious existence an indivisible unity of Sat, Cit and Ānanda, or
have their specific influences on the surface Existence, Consciousness, and Delight. While
personality, and that a direct access to them in mainstream psychology, it is generally pre­
can, with sufficient training, enable levels of sumed that happiness is dependent on the
freedom, peace, joy, compassion, and under­ satisfaction of individual needs and desires,
standing much beyond what is possible in the this theory asserts that delight is inherent in
ordinary waking state. existence, even though it can be clouded in
In the field of cognition, we see a similar humans by their ‘ignorance’ (avidyā). In other
pattern. On the one hand, there is a detailed words, suffering is attributed to ego­bound
theoretical understanding of ordinary, sense­ deformations and limitations of the over­
based cognition, mostly described as a system individualized human consciousness. Seen
of pramāṇa, or knowledge­producing events. from this angle, the satisfaction of desires may
Different schools developed somewhat differ­ give temporary relief, but the road to lasting
ent theories about these matters—and they and unconditional happiness and wisdom
made much of their differences—but there is runs through detachment from the ego, and
actually quite a large common base. It is note­ a rediscovery of one’s knowledge of, love for,
worthy that the philosophical school of the and oneness with the ultimate reality. With
Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, which specialised in issues of the ideal of perfect detachment and complete
epistemology and methodology, came to con­ equanimity, a series of intriguing questions
clusions that are similar to modern thought arises, which have occupied some of the best
in many respects. However, just as we saw in minds in Indian history, regarding the pos­
the field of Self and Personality, the ordinary sibility of action for someone who has com­
sense­based cognition was not enough for the pletely overcome all desire, preference and
Indian tradition, and it developed besides a attachment. If such ‘unmotivated’ action is
detailed understanding of intuition, inspira­ possible—and most schools of Indian thought
tion, revelation, and various other types of agree that it is—then what kind of action can
‘intuitive knowledge’ for which there are not that be?
always equivalent terms in English. The sheer In the field of emotion, a special place de­
complexity of the terminology, the subtle but serves to be given to the ideas of Bharata (400–
significant differences between the various 200 BCE) on aesthetic enjoyment. Bharata
terms, and the stress on concrete methods to starts with the fascinating question, why peo­
develop and refine these various forms of in­ ple enjoy watching tragic plays in spite of the
tuitive knowledge may give an idea not only fact that they already know beforehand that
of the enthusiasm and energy with which watching such plays will make them cry. Con­
these possibilities have been explored, but sidering the emotions that spectators and ac­
also of the rigour, precision and attention for tors suffer and savour, he arrives at the subtle
detail with which this work was undertaken. theory of rasa, the basic ‘taste’, which triggers
The study, cultivation and perfection of these the original delight hidden in all things.

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 xviii R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

It is commonly held, especially amongst which tells them that a more personalized, ec­
American authors (for example, Walsh & lectic and intuitive approach works better. The
Shapiro, 2006) that there are several areas of informal experience seems to come closer to
psychology where the Indian tradition has reality than the formal theory. Interestingly,
little to contribute. Though this is in itself per­ there is substantial statistical evidence to sup­
fectly plausible, it does not hold for the most port this view. Bruce Wampold (2001), for ex­
commonly quoted examples. In all four areas ample, has collected massive meta­analytical
where Walsh and Shapiro, for example, think data to show that hardly any of the efficacy
that ‘the meditative traditions’ have little to in psychotherapy can be ascribed to specific
contribute—child­development, psychody­ methods and theories. According to his find­
namics, psychopathology and psycho­phar­ ings, the efficacy in therapy is almost entirely
macology—there is in fact detailed theoretical determined by factors that either belong to
knowledge available within Āyurvedic and the environment in which the therapy takes
Siddha literature. In all four fields, the Indian place or that are internal to the therapist and
tradition has paid attention to very similar the client. While this is hard to understand
social and physical factors as are taken into from within the medical model that is used
account in Western psychology; but there is, in most mainstream therapy research, it is in
besides, an additional interest in influences full harmony with Indian psychology, where
on more subtle planes. In child­development, the focus is on the work people have to do on
for example, influences from previous lives themselves. The guide—whether he plays the
and the unique ‘soul­quality’ of the child, the role of pedagogue, teacher, human resource
svabhāva, are acknowledged as major contribu­ professional or therapist—guides by exam­
tors to the child’s character and development. ple, and perhaps even by direct influence. He
A similar multilevel understanding is part of shows that growing up is both worthwhile and
the Indian way of looking at psychopathology, feasible; that difficult material can be learned;
and the developmental stages later in life—the that it is possible to master complex social
four āśramas. The misconception that there is situations in a constructive manner; and that
no Indian contribution to any of these fields, life’s problems can be solved. In a very deep
is in all likelihood due to the same peculiar sense, the guide guides mainly by sharing
way in which Western psychology has studied who he is in the essence of his being and what
the Indian tradition that we mentioned ear­ matters is how he expresses that essence in his
lier. Mainstream academics have either looked life. In many forms of therapy­training this is
at the decontextualized techniques of yoga and recognized, and undergoing therapy oneself is
meditation, or at the other extreme, at equally then an essential part of the training­process.
decontextualized philosophical systems. The But in Indian psychology, which is built on
surrounding culture, as actually practiced, and self­knowledge rather than on knowledge of
the mediating theories—which are both very statistically generalized others, the demand
well developed in India—have so far not re­ for self­work, for understanding and mastering
ceived the attention they deserve. one’s own self, goes further—both in breadth
and in depth. In breadth, because it extends to
all fields of applied psychology, and in depth
Indian psychology applied
because a good guide is supposed to show that
Psychology is very much an applied science; it is possible, in the words of Sri Aurobindo, to
and fields like pedagogy, education, social ‘transcend and integrate’: A good guide should
work, human resource development, organisa­ be able to show that it is possible to go beyond
tional behaviour and therapy can all be looked one’s limitations; to live from a higher con­
at as specialized fields of applied psychology. sciousness; to act from less selfish motives; to
At present, practitioners in these fields often work more in harmony with the whole.
experience a certain tension between the offi­ The practical application of Indian psy­
cial theory, which prescribes well-defined, ex­ chology differs from present­day mainstream
plicit methods and procedures, and experience, psychology in a manner that parallels the

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 Introduction xix

differences we found in the various areas of said in the beginning of this introduction, this
theory formation. There is on the one hand book would like to open up issues like these to
the same constant attention to the multidi­ a wider discussion.
mensional nature of the personality—a mul­
tidimensionality that is not limited to the
The lay of the book
physical and the social, but that extends to,
or rather starts with, the spiritual. And there is The first edition of Foundations and Applica-
on the other hand, a constant awareness that tions of Indian Psychology, was published in two
each individual is ultimately unique. Both at­ volumes under the title Foundations of Indian
tention points come together in the important Psychology. The first of these volumes had as
concepts of svabhāva and svadharma—the rec­ subtitle Theories and concepts and contained
ognition that individuals have not only their 22 chapters. The second volume had as sub­
own true nature, their own unique set of qual­ title, Practical applications, and contained 17
ities, but also their own truth of action, their chapters.
own rules of conduct. Both concepts are based The present, second edition comes out as a
on the underlying sense that the individual is single volume under the title, Foundations and
not just a cluster of self­concepts and tenden­ Applications of Indian Psychology. It includes 24
cies to behave according to pre­established chapters from the first edition, and two new
patterns, but a spiritual being, a soul who has ones, the first by Anand Paranjpe, the second
taken birth for a definite purpose, a purpose by Ashish Pandey and Rajen K. Gupta. The
which it has to find and fulfil. first 13 chapters of Foundations and Applica-
tions of Indian Psychology are about the basic
theories and concepts of Indian psychology.
Concluding remarks
The remaining 13 deal with its application in
Indian psychology as such is as old as history; the fields of health, education and society.
and in a technical sense, even older than writ­
ten history, given that there are indications A short guide to the individual chapters
of a long oral tradition before the first texts The first chapter, ‘Indian psychology: Implica­
were ever written down. But Indian psychol­ tions and applications’, gives an overview of
ogy as a branch of modern science is a new what Indian psychology is and what it can con­
field, which is as yet truly in its infancy. Our tribute. K. Ramakrishna Rao argues that unlike
attempt to use the treasures of the Indian tra­ Western psychology which does not have an
dition for contemporary problems is relatively overarching theory encompassing the entire
new and in that sense we are pioneering a new discipline, Indian psychology’s approach is
effort. The editors and contributors to this synthetic and holistic, so that it becomes pos­
book make no claims on being accomplished sible to overcome dichotomies such as science
yogis; they are ordinary scholars and profes­ and spirituality, the sacred and the secular,
sionals who have tried to see what various theory and practice, individual and society.
ideas and practices from the Indian tradition At the same time, Indian psychology, broadly
can contribute to some major issues in con­ speaking, has applications ranging from indi­
temporary psychology. The different chapters vidual transformation to conflict resolution
are records of such attempts; most are explora­ at the societal level. Rao takes centrality of
tory in nature and not the outcome of a long, consciousness as the defining characteristic of
well­established tradition of research. What is Indian psychology, and goes on to delineate
more, this book looks at the Indian tradition twelve principles which provide the outline
as a knowledge system in its own right, and for a model of Indian psychology. The realm
tries to see whether its ideas and its practices of extra­ordinary human experience (includ­
have the potential to complement and enrich ing telepathy and the direct action of mind
modern science not only in terms of content, over matter), Rao elucidates, can be researched
theory­construction and practical application, most thoroughly using the concepts, methods
but even in basic research methodology. As and models of Indian spiritual psychology.

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 xx R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

Ajit K. Dalal’s chapter deals with the devel­ clever manipulations of concepts located in
opment of academic psychology in India. The the mind. Kundan begins by exposing the
title, ‘A journey back to the roots: Psychology limits of induction, the mainstay of the sci­
in India’, alludes to the recent and renewed entific method, and challenges the possibil­
interest in models of psychology that have ity of any true ‘objectivity’, largely on the
originated and developed in India over mil­ ground that our most basic tool of research,
lennia. Dalal’s chapter offers a comprehensive language, not only describes events, but also
history of academic psychology in India, from creates a cosmology, a worldview that influ­
its inception in 1905 at Calcutta University ences the thought, behaviour and perception
as part of the Philosophy Department, to the of the user. Leaning towards Eastern wisdom
contemporary emergence of the Indian psy­ traditions, and basing his arguments largely
chology movement. The chapter is accurate on Mādhyamika, Advaita Vedānta and Inte­
and informative in that it provides details of gral Yoga, Kundan then offers the view that
academic psychology in India, in terms of the mind is not the knower of things, but an
number of psychologists, universities and col­ object of knowledge. He holds that the truth
leges offering psychology, details of associa­ of one’s existence can only be found by iden­
tions formed by psychologists over the years, tifying oneself with a higher consciousness
and a chronology of events of direct signifi­ beyond the mind.
cance to academic psychology. But more than
that, Dalal has been able to pin­point that the The next four chapters deal with epistemol­
main reason why psychology has failed to ogy, methodology, and cognition from dif­
develop as a discipline of national importance ferent angles. In ‘Indian psychology and the
is that it is largely a Western import. Right scientific method’, Peter Sedlmeier explores
from the beginning, psychologists have led a how the Indian tradition can be used as a
double life, in the sense that they subscribe to source for specific psychological hypotheses
one kind of psychology in their professional that can be tested within the formal param­
lives (Western), but to another when it comes eters of mainstream science. Sedlmeier first
to their personal lives—for which they lean outlines the standards of the scientific method
on the Indian textual tradition, and the psy­ and then introduces his own conception of
chology contained therein (for example, the what genuine Indian psychology is all about,
Bhagavad Gītā). As Dalal points out, academic including a ‘metatheory’ of Indian psychol­
psychology in India became more useful and ogy. From this metatheory (and to a certain
relevant from the 1970s onwards, with a shift extent also from theories that are included in
in focus to social problems, and more so in the the metatheory), he derives several classes of
1980s when it was acknowledged that culture testable hypotheses and exemplifies these with
played a dominant role in the shaping of the the help of some specific hypotheses or ques­
psyche. Academic psychology in India is be­ tions. Subsequently, Sedlmeier comes back to
coming increasingly more culture­sensitive the topic of methods with an emphasis on the
and culturally rooted; and at the same time, special methods needed to examine some of
the emergence of the Indian psychology the hypotheses that deal with different aspects
movement, with its emphasis on the global of consciousness. The chapter ends with an
relevance of systems such as Vedānta, Bud­ exploration of possible ‘interfaces’ between
dhism, Yoga and the more recent Integral Psy­ Indian and Western academic psychology.
chology of Sri Aurobindo, is also witnessed. In the next chapter, William Braud makes
In ‘Beyond mind: The future of psychol­ an attempt at ‘Integrating yoga epistemology
ogy as a science’, Kundan Singh places Indian and ontology into an expanded integral ap­
Psychology in the wider, global context of proach to research’, on the basis of his work
an increasingly post­modern understanding on ‘Integral Inquiry’ at what at the time was
of reality. He argues that true knowledge is called the Institute of Transpersonal Psychol­
attainable only by a shift in consciousness ogy. Braud is of the view that Indian psychol­
from a lower to a higher level, and not by ogy and yogic epistemology and ontology can

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 Introduction xxi

contribute much to enrich research aimed at similarity between the Indian and the West­
bridging the gap between science and the spir­ ern mode of intellectual inquiry. In the Indian
itual/wisdom traditions. He describes ways in view, mind is conceptualized as an internal
which yogic principles, and processes closely sense organ. Misra concludes that the Indian
related to these, already have been usefully in­ perspective on knowing holds contemporary
troduced into research praxis, and suggests ad­ relevance and has practical utility.
ditional ways in which aspects of yoga might
be integrated into research in the future and The next five chapters offer perspectives on
how this might enliven and transform the re­ the self, the structure of the personality, the
search enterprise. human condition and the aim of life accord­
Matthijs Cornelissen makes in ‘What is ing to five quite different traditions. Vladimir
knowledge? A reflection based on the work Iatsenko opens the series with a short treatise
of Sri Aurobindo’ a case for the existence of ‘On the Vedic Symbolism in the light of Sri
essentially different modes of knowing. Cor­ Aurobindo’. He attempts to recover as the
nelissen notes that Aurobindo identified four true meaning of the Veda the possibility of
forms of knowing—knowledge by identity, realising heaven on earth, that is, to possess
knowledge by intimate direct contact, knowl­ and live in the highest Divine consciousness
edge by separative direct contact and wholly here on earth. He stresses that the Vedic view
separative knowledge by indirect contact. Cor­ was one of transformation—invoking the
nelissen goes on to elaborate these four types higher powers by aspiration, surrendering to
of knowledge as follows: (1) knowledge by them, inviting them to come down and bring
indirect separative contact includes scientific about transformation. This was the Vedic Sac­
knowledge of the outer reality; (2) knowledge rifice: its aim was transformation of terrestrial
by direct separative contact is the semi­ob­ existence.
jective introspection of inner processes; (3) Priya Ananda and Ajith Prasad point out
knowledge by direct intimate contact is the that Buddhist psychology has formulated
experiential knowledge of inner processes; and various ways of analysing personality which
(4) knowledge by identity is the Vedic knowl­ may be termed as ‘The models of personality
edge in which knower, knowledge and known in Buddhist psychology’. These psychological
are one. In Aurobindo’s view, direct, intuitive models are valuable in studying a variety of
knowledge by identity forms the essential core experiences—of the conventional involve­
of all our knowledge. The author offers some ment of ordinary beings, of those in the stages
arguments why such unconstructed, intuitive of the path to awakening, and the qualities
knowledge might actually exist, and then out­ of the fully awakened state. The authors indi­
lines some of the ways by which the Indian cate that these models are useful in analysing
tradition has tried to make self­observation experiences related to sleep, dream, death,
and intuition more accurate and reliable. after­death state, etc. In this chapter, various
In ‘Knowing in the Indian tradition’, models of personality available in Buddhist
Girishwar Misra gives an account of Indian psychology are explored. The application of
theories of cognition. Indian theories of cog­ these models in understanding various psy­
nition emphasize universal concepts, and view chological states and afflictions are also briefly
reality as a unified whole. The process of know­ touched upon.
ing begins with doubt, and the desire to know. The chapter by Kiran Kumar K. Salag­
In general, Misra points out, two domains of ame, ‘Ego and ahaṁkāra: Self and identity in
knowledge are differentiated in the Indian modern psychology and Indian thought’, ex­
view—the transcendental (pāramārthika) and amines the concepts of ‘ego’ and ‘ahaṁkāra’.
the empirical (vyāvahārika). Transcendental These terms have been used synonymously,
reality is considered as non­changing and and ego has been used as a translation of
universal. The major issues that have been ahaṁkāra. Kiran Kumar points to the concep­
discussed are mind, consciousness, and reality. tual similarities and dissimilarities between
Misra notes that there is a certain degree of the two terms, and outlines their implications

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 xxii R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

for human development and well­being. The In the last chapter with a primarily theo­
author carried out a series of empirical studies retical focus, ‘Psychology of emotions: Some
at the University of Mysore to study the con­ cultural perspectives’, Girishwar Misra begins
cept of ahaṁkāra. The findings suggest that with a summary of findings on the study of
ahaṁkāra can serve as a meta­construct which emotions in mainstream psychology. Whereas
can embrace many of the modern psychologi­ early studies on emotions searched for uni­
cal concepts related to self and identity. versals, the author notes that studies across
In the next chapter, Bahman Shirazi cultures do indicate differences in the experi­
provides an outline of ‘The Sufi path of self- ence of emotions, in their recognition, and
transformation’. Beginning with a brief in­ variations in their intensity. Misra builds on
troduction to Islam (which means ‘peaceful this and concludes that emotions are cultur­
surrender’ to the Divine Will), Shirazi notes ally shaped. The Indian contribution of rasa
that the process of spiritual transformation theory is then outlined. Misra is of the view
involves seven classical stages—awakening, that the concept of rasa as meta­emotion and
abstinence, non­attachment, spiritual poverty, bhāva as emotion, present a new dimension of
patience, God-reliance, and joyous certitude. aesthetic creativity that goes beyond the es­
The spiritual journey in Sufism begins with tablished views on emotion and widens their
the sharia which is a collection of principles scope. The Indian idea of rasa draws our atten­
and practices that govern the day­to­day life of tion to a refined subjective mental state, and
Muslims. The next level involves tarigha, which in relation to aesthetic experience, the person
literally means a path which requires the ex­ as dancer/poet and spectator/audience gets
pert knowledge of a guide (sheikh) to traverse. transported to an altered state, which may not
The third level of the spiritual journey brings be in congruence with mundane experience.
the aspirant to a higher spiritual conscious­ Misra holds that in the Indian view, emotion
ness called haghighat (Truth­consciousness). can be a transcendental cognition, and rasa
The fourth and final level of Sufism is known involves experiencing the universal self.
as ma’rifa (Gnosis), which refers to direct
knowledge and love of the Divine. The author The second half of Foundations and Applica-
points out that only persistence, patience and tions of Indian Psychology has five chapters on
absolute purity of the heart and soul and total health, counselling and therapy, five on edu­
sincerity can bring the seeker into direct union cation and three on social and organisational
with God consciousness. issues.
Suneet Varma’s chapter, ‘Integral psychol­ ‘Philosophy of healing in Indian medi­
ogy: A new science of self, personality, and cine’, is a theoretical overview of Āyurveda,
psychology’, outlines a theory of personality in which Kapil Kapoor first points out that in
based on Sri Aurobindo’s conceptualization of the Indian intellectual traditions, knowledge
the human being. Starting with the basic no­ is an integrated whole, and Āyurveda is a
tion of self and personhood in various schools good example of this. The aims of Āyurveda
of contemporary academic psychology that are two­fold—(i) freedom from illness, and
are largely located in the lower levels of psy­ (ii) protection of good health through pre­
chological functioning, the field of Transper­ vention. Kapoor then notes that this science
sonal Psychology is used as a stepping stone of medicine recognizes that there is a deep
to access the higher reaches of humanity. A connection between the body and the mind,
brief outline of the Advaita Vedāntic perspec­ and that for good health, the mind must be at
tives on personality then paves the way for Sri peace with itself. This peace of mind is born of
Aurobindo’s neo-Vedāntic depiction of the moral cognition and conduct.
person. Varma then indicates the potential of In the next chapter, ‘Healing and counsel­
Integral Psychology in bringing about human ling in a traditional spiritual setting’, Anand
unity. In the last section, the author outlines Paranjpe describes a typical “neighbourhood
an approach to the transformation of emo­ guru”: not very well­known, living an ut­
tions, and its role in psychotherapy. terly simple, non­ostentatious life, but highly

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 Introduction xxiii

regarded, deeply respected and much loved a half­lit animal­human consciousness to an

by the small circle of people who visit him increasingly divine humanity. The counsellor
for guidance and solace. Paranjpe gives his or therapist who can assist us in this journey
lineage and belief­system, but in many ways is but a fellow traveller who has walked ahead
more importantly, focuses on the pragmatics: of us from a life of relative darkness to a life
what questions people come with, the type of increasing Light. Only one who has mas­
of advice he gives, and the rational behind tered swimming to a high degree can save
his responses. It is a type of study we hope the one who is drowning; so is the case with
to see many more of, as they could provide therapy.
us with invaluable guidance for the develop­ In ‘Psychotherapy and Integral Yoga Psy­
ment of more integral, inclusive methods of chology’, Michael Miovic explores some of
therapy. the concerns of clinical psychology with spe­
In ‘Concept and scope of pratyāhāra in the cial reference to the areas of overlap between
management of mental health’, K. M. Tripathi psychotherapy and Sri Aurobindo’s model of
describes how yoga can be conceptualized as Integral Yoga Psychology. Miovic utilizes Inte­
a system of self­healing. Tripathi notes that gral Yoga Psychology as an organizing frame­
following the technical definition of yoga, de­ work because Sri Aurobindo interpreted yoga
rived from Patañjali’s Yoga-Sūtras, one could as being primarily a psychological process of
consider vipāssanā, Transcendental Medita­ self­cultivation and ego­transformation, and
tion, and śavāsana as techniques of pratyāhāra, expressed his insights in modern English. Like
the control of the senses. The author further psychotherapists, Sri Aurobindo was deeply
points out that through pratyāhāra, one can interested in the problem of how to change
attain complete isolation from internal as character structure and behaviour, the only
well as external stimuli. Thus, the practice of difference being that he felt the key to this
pratyāhāra can help in managing the stresses change was ultimately spiritual. Miovic notes
of personal life and in regaining composure. that Sri Aurobindo developed a complex un­
Tripathi holds that pratyāhāra is sense­control, derstanding of human psychology, including
leading to self­control. It is one’s sensations, concepts of the ego, the importance of child­
perceptions, notions, imagination, and other hood development, defence mechanisms,
mental activities that become the subject mat­ the unconscious, the significance of dreams,
ter of study when the mind turns inwards for resistance, and the importance of biology.
introspection. Introspection helps in regulat­ However, where Sri Aurobindo diverges from
ing and modulating these mental activities Western psychology and psychiatry is in his
by understanding their nature and field of spiritual realism. The practical consequence of
operation, and is a means of redirecting their this is that he recommends that people find
energy. Thus, perfection in pratyāhāra brings their souls before trying to work through the
about a deep mental relaxation. unconscious, because the psychic being is a
In his chapter on ‘Psychotherapy and In­ more powerful agent of knowledge and action
dian thought’, Alok Pandey provides a broad than the observing ego.
overview of the many ways in which Indian
psychological concepts and practices can be In ‘Integral education: An application of Indi­
used in all aspects of counselling and psychi­ an psychology’, Neeltje Huppes explores how
atric care. In general, the Indian view of exist­ the basic understanding of life and its pur­
ence is that of the journey of the divine in a pose which one finds in ancient Indian texts,
person. All struggles and suffering represent a could revolutionize modern education. In the
movement from an infra­rational (animal) ex­ Indian view, some aspect of the supreme con­
istence to a more rational (human) existence, sciousness, though often concealed, pervades
and further towards an even greater supra­ each and everything. In our daily conscious­
rational (divine) existence and an end­state of ness, this supreme consciousness is mostly
Truth, Bliss, Peace and Beatitude. This is the covered up, yet each of us carries a spark of
human journey: from obscure beginnings in the Supreme deep within, called the caitya

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 xxiv R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Girishwar Misra, Suneet Varma

puruṣa or soul. Huppes emphasizes that if the irrelevant today. At the same time, educators
soul is allowed to come to the foreground, it in India have consistently failed to acknowl­
can influence the mental, affective, volitional edge the richer and more convincing concepts
and physical surface consciousness to act more that exist in the Indian traditions since time
in harmony with this universal consciousness. immemorial. Basing herself on ideas given in
The psychological process of human develop­ the Bhagavad Gītā, Baveja notes that teaching
ment is thus seen as a progressive develop­ is not a collection of skills but an ongoing pro­
ment: a development balanced between the cess of contemplation; a continuous search
innermost part of the being—the soul—and for truth; an ongoing quest to understand the
the outer life. Huppes notes that the ideal learner, the processes of learning, the ways of
of integral education combines two lines of providing learning experiences and inspira­
development: the revealing and unfolding of tion to help students embark on their inner
the soul, and the development of the mental, journey. Thus, a teacher has to be a true karma
affective and physical domains as instruments yogī who engages in enjoined actions in the
for expressing that soul in daily life. pursuit of knowledge, and is committed to the
In ‘The blending of healing and pedagogy development of her self and her students.
in Āyurveda’, P. Ram Manohar highlights how In ‘Education for life: The Mirambika expe­
the medical tradition of Āyurveda has pre­ rience’, Anjum Sibia utilizes the ethnographic
served a rather unique concept of education method to examine the teaching­learning pro­
that blends principles of healing with those cess in Mirambika, a centre of learning based
of pedagogy. With its intense focus on the on Free Progress Education, as outlined by Sri
promotion of positive health and well­being, Aurobindo and The Mother. Sibia explicates
Āyurveda has discovered that elevated levels the pedagogic processes occurring in the class­
of health can be achieved only by a subtle room in order to understand the relationship
transformation of the inner personality. While between the school philosophy, activities and
diseases can be cured, managed or prevented student outcomes. Sri Aurobindo emphasizes
by medical intervention and other physical that, ‘The chief aim of education should be
means, higher states of health can be achieved to help the growing soul to draw out that in
only through self-awakening. Manohar thus itself which is best and make it perfect for a
emphasizes that the process of self­education noble cause’. Sibia notes that Free Progress
is essentially an educative development, a Education is based on the assumption that a
psycho­spiritual transformation that enables person is good in him/herself, and that posi­
the individual to not only live with aware­ tive freedom is a pre­requisite to help children
ness, but also with health. The meeting point by allowing them space to experiment, and
of the most refined methods of pedagogy and by providing them with opportunities for
healing result in the notion of the physician growth.
par excellence as the vaidya, the one who In ‘Krishnamurti and value education’,
knows the essentials and helps the individual Vinita Kaushik Kapoor notes that the aim of
through education to reach a state of height­ education must be to awaken an intelligence
ened awareness, a state most conducive to the through which thought and knowledge find
acquisition of both knowledge and health. their right place. Such a perception may be
In ‘Situating teacher education in the In­ seen as a religious perception. Kapoor further
dian context: A paradigm shift’, Bharati Baveja emphasizes that it is only when the truly reli­
indicates how teacher training could be made gious mind informs the values on which we
more responsive to the actual needs of chil­ build our daily existence that there is a pos­
dren using theories derived from the Indian sibility of a sane and orderly world, free from
tradition. Baveja points out that discourse in conflict and sorrow. Krishnamurti emphasizes
education, particularly teacher education, has the importance of understanding oneself first,
its origins in pragmatic concerns overridden and the role of the educator here is to help the
by social pressures in the late nineteenth cen­ child observe the ways in which thought cre­
tury, concerns that are largely, if not entirely, ates its own prison. Krishnamurti also stresses

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 Introduction xxv

the relationship of the child with nature as example of what a well­worked­out quantita­
an essential part of education. Finally, Kapoor tive study in Indian psychology can offer. After
notes that Krishnamurti initiates a strong and noting how according to the Indian tradition,
consistent thrust towards establishing values every aspect of society should be permeated
rooted in the sacred, the truly religious. with spirituality, the authors look at various
concepts used for the study of spirituality in
‘Broadening of consciousness: A healing the corporate domain. They then settle on the
process among the survivors of the Kachchh following main thesis for their study: “spiritu­
earthquake’ is an ethnographic study carried ality of employees is reflected in the work cli­
out by Kumar Ravi Priya. The study utilizes a mate. This may in turn affect the employees’
cultural psychological perspective on health service to the customers.” The study confirms
and illness to understand the phenomena of the main thesis, though the effect found is not
suffering and healing which took place in the very large, and apparently just one amongst
crisis faced by Kachchh during the post­earth­ several others.
quake period. In the chapter, Priya illustrates
how the villagers’ belief in karma (taken here as With this, we have reached the end of our
an internalized notion of duty towards family, introduction to Foundations and Applications of
community and nature) facilitated the heal­ Indian Psychology. We hope—and actually ex­
ing process, as it allowed them to transcend pect—that Foundations will provide an inspir­
the notion of a limited ‘I’ or ego and broaden ing read. Each chapter has something unique
their consciousness to experience themselves and valuable to contribute and together, its 26
as part of a pure and absolute consciousness, chapters form a harmonious and representa­
as one with the Eternal. Priya also provides a tive whole.
poignant account of how the research process Obviously, a book of this size cannot be
contributed to his own growth as a person. complete. For every issue we have touched
In ‘Resolution of social conflicts: An In­ upon, and for many that we haven’t even
dian model’, R.S. Pirta explores the features, mentioned, there exists somewhere a treasury
dynamics and outcome of the Chipko (hug- of more detailed knowledge. Unfortunately
the­tree) movement, a people’s non­violent most of this knowledge and psychological
struggle for justice and sustainability in the know­how is at present only available outside
Garhwal Himalayas. Pirta notes that Chipko the borders of academic science. We hope that
had its origins in the environmental desecra­ this book will encourage an increasing stream
tion of the Garhwal Himalayas, characterized of rigorous work bringing the two worlds of
by large­scale logging operations managed outer, scientific, and inner spiritual knowledge
by private contractors. The villagers revolted closer together. Humanity needs both.
against the logging policies of the forest de­
partment as it made their lives much more
difficult and complicated. A hawk and dove
conflict ensued, in which the doves (native
Garhwalis) won. This later transformed into a
broad-based Himalaya Bachao Andolan (Save
the Himalayas Movement). Pirta provides a
unique social­psychological analysis of the
movement, while exploring the role played
by the local deities and their relation to the
mental health of the people.
In the last chapter, ‘Spiritual Climate of
business organizations and its impact on cus­
tomers’ experience’, Ashish Pandey and Rajen
K. Gupta come down from the Himalayan vil­
lages to the corporate world and offer a good

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 1
Indian psychology: Implications and applications
K. Ramakrishna Rao

Over the years, I have used two metaphors to It has potential for application to areas, which
describe the psychological content in classical current Western approaches appear unable
Indian thought. Psychological insights in the to address effectively. These include such vi-
Indian tradition are rich diamonds in the raw, tal concerns as conflict resolution at a social
buried deep in the ravines worn by philosophi- level, transformation at a personal level, and
cal streams and covered by issues and concerns the widely held beliefs in spirituality and para-
extraneous to academic psychology. So they normal phenomena.
need to be mined and recovered by modern in- With the backdrop of classical Indian
vestigative tools, cut into contemporary catego- thought, it becomes possible to develop a
ries, polished by concepts currently in vogue, meta-theory and unified models for psycho-
and displayed dressed in fashionable discourse. logical research. We hope that this exercise
Only then can we see their radiating natural will contribute to the growth of the discipline
brilliance and their many-sided splendour. In appropriately called spiritual psychology,
the second metaphor, classical Indian thought which has implications for bridging the sci-
is a treasure trove of psychological thought, ence–spirituality divide. Science and religion
hidden in the thick forests of philosophical and are generally considered to be disparate and
religious texts, waiting to be harvested. inconsistent, if not conflicting, attempts at
In a significant sense, the analytic ap- understanding reality. Our contention is that
proach of Western psychology is piecemeal. It science and spirituality need not be so consid-
is said that psychology, with some exceptions, ered. In this chapter, I will present an outline
has bits of theories relevant to specific areas of what I consider to be the major assump-
such as perception and learning, but not an tions of a meta-theory of science and religion,
overarching theory encompassing the entire important conceptual and methodological
field. In the Indian tradition, however, the issues in studies of spirituality, the relevant
approach is synthetic and holistic. Its meta- implications of these assumptions for psycho-
theoretical postulates help to overcome di- logical theory and research, and possible areas
chotomies such as the sacred and the secular, of application.
spirituality and science, theory and practice,
society and individual, reason and experi-
Religion and spirituality
ence. They help to build models for studying
human nature in its totality and formulate Spirituality and religion have gained a measure
comprehensive theories that apply to a wide of respectability in recent years in academic
variety of topics and issues. Therefore, I be- discussions, thanks to the substantial litera-
lieve, Indian psychology has implications that ture that appears to connect them to health
are in a sense broader than psychology itself. (George et al., 2002; Koenig et al., 2001).

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 4 K. Ramakrishna Rao

However, what the concepts ‘spirituality’ and … rather than spiritual variables’ (ibid.). The
‘religion’ precisely mean is a matter of consid- latter assertion may be an oversimplification,
erable controversy. For example, Koenig et al. once we acknowledge that spirituality and reli-
(2001), in their Handbook of Religion and Health, gion are not sufficiently well distinguished for
call our attention to the difficulties involved operational purposes.
in finding acceptable definitions for religion Peter Hill and Kenneth Pargament (2003)
and spirituality. Pointing out the inadequacy point to the dangers of bifurcating religion
of their dictionary definitions, they list several and spirituality. They list four such dangers.
distinguishing characteristics of religion and (1) Manifestation of spirituality in all its forms
spirituality (Table 1.1, p. 18). These include, occurs in a social context, and all organized
first, that religion is community-focused, ob- religions address personal affairs. Therefore,
servable, measurable and objective, whereas the view that one addresses issues at the social
spirituality is individualistic, less visible and and the other at a personal level is untenable.
measurable, and more subjective. Second, that (2) There is a growing tendency to think that
religion is organized, behaviour-oriented, and spirituality is good and religion is bad. There
involves outward practices. Spirituality, how- is no justification for such attributions as both
ever, is less formal and systematic, and more have potentially beneficial and harmful sides.
inward directed. Characterizing religion as ‘an (3) For most people, the distinction between
organized system of beliefs, practices, rituals, religion and spirituality does not exist. They
and symbols’, Koenig et al. (2001) regard spirit- have spiritual experiences in an organized reli-
uality as ‘the personal quest for understanding gious context. (4) The polarization of the two
answers to ultimate questions about life, about concepts, spirituality and religion, ‘may lead
meaning, and about relationship to the sacred to needless duplication in concepts and meas-
or transcendent…’ (p. 18). They depict spiritu- ures’ (p. 65). Hill and Pargament suggest that
ality as the outer circle which includes various the sacred, which includes the divine and the
religions as inner circles (Figure 1.1, p. 19). transcendent, is ‘the common denominator of
Others, like Teresa Woods and Gail Iron- religious and spiritual life’ and spirituality is ‘a
son (1999), also emphasize the public and search for the sacred, a process through which
private aspects of religion and spirituality. people seek to discover, hold on to, and, when
However, it is well known that William James necessary, transform whatever they hold sa-
(1902), among others, emphasized the private cred in their lives’ (ibid.).
aspects of religion as well. It is suggested, there- The definitional and operational ambi-
fore, that religion and spirituality are overlap- guities of religion and spirituality constructs
ping constructs. They exhibit some common spill over into the science–religion dialogue.
characteristics and some non-shared features Without a certain degree of clarity of the core
(Miller & Thoresen, 1999). According to Miller concepts ‘religion’ and ‘spirituality’, the sci-
and Thoresen (1999), ‘the field of religion is to ence–religion dialogue would be a non-starter.
spirituality as the field of medicine is to health’ We believe that the spiritual traditions of In-
(p. 28). This view suggests that spirituality is dia have something to offer in this context.
an inner circle within the wider circle of reli- There is a general consensus between the In-
gions, a view somewhat different from the one dian and Western perspectives that the com-
expressed by Koenig et al. (2001). Empirical mon ground between religion and spirituality
studies of spirituality and religion have rarely is the sacred. The sacred may refer to different
made operational distinctions between the two. things such as god, divinity, ultimate reality
Again, to quote Miller and Thoresen (1999), and so on. The common denominator of all of
‘almost all empirical studies to date have not them, it would seem, is transcendence. Tran-
recognized the distinctions … but instead have scendence implies going beyond what is given
treated religiousness, religion, and spirituality in one’s normal sensory experience. In the
as the same general concept’ (p. 29). Further, spiritual traditions of India, whether Hindu or
they point out that ‘with rare exceptions, the Buddhist, there is an overwhelming empha-
available literature has measured religious sis on transcendence as a state of being that

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 5

goes well beyond sensory awareness. Spiritual another. The option of convenience is to keep
pursuit is an exercise for transformation of the science and spirituality as separate as possible
human condition to achieve transcendence. and limit them to pre-circumscribed domains
Spiritual psychology is dedicated to under- with impregnable walls built between them.
standing this process. Thus, in the Indic tradi- Alternatively the tendency is to reject out-
tions, spirituality is the quest and religions are right one in favour of the other. This is an
the tools and technologies—first, to aid in that unnatural arrangement, because both science
quest and, second, to apply the discoveries of and spirituality continue to affect our being
the spiritual quest to life and living. Spirituality and behaviour, whether or not we acknowl-
is to religion what science is to technology. Seen edge it. An obvious casualty in the process is
in this light, science and spirituality are two a meaningful dialogue between science and
truth-seeking activities that seem to run paral- spirituality.
lel to each other. If the effects of science and spirituality on
humans are genuine as believed, a dialogue
between the two is not merely warranted, but
Science and spirituality
necessary. This calls for a meta-theory aimed at
From time immemorial, science and spiritual- the unification of science and spirituality, be-
ity have been two important avenues of hu- cause a theory of science or spirituality alone
man endeavour. Search for truth is the goal of is unlikely to facilitate a meaningful dialogue
science as well as of spirituality. Their discov- between them. The underlying perspective of
eries have had enormous influence on people such a theory should be one that does not pit
across cultures and around the world. How- science against spirituality, or vice versa, one
ever, their relative roles and dominance have that does not conceive either in opposition to
varied over time. It would seem that spiritual the other, but postulates unity and comple-
quest was the dominant force first. Today sci- mentarity between them, at perhaps a more
ence clearly has the upper hand, even though profound level than is obvious to common-
spirituality does seem to play a major role sense. In this context, spiritual psychology,
in the personal lives of a majority of people. which attempts to gain unified understanding
Again, the application of science and spiritual- of the transcendental and empirical domains
ity has profoundly influenced human life all of our existence and experience, appears to be
along. The discovery of truth, whether in the the discipline that holds the key.
area of science or spirituality, quite often leads The basic postulates of a meta-theory em-
to development of technologies that affect bracing science and spirituality include the
our lives in a variety of ways. Technological following. First, science and spirituality are
development is not the exclusive province of two knowledge streams that spring from the
science. Analogous developments take place in human mind. The two streams are marked by
the sphere of spirituality as well. In a signifi- their distinct epistemological contours. They
cant sense, religious practices are the offshoots travel through different terrains, but finally
of the application of spiritual discoveries. merge into the mother sea of conscious-
Most of the time, science and spirituality ness. Second, emancipation of the human
have run as parallel quests. We are concerned condition from the limiting constraints of
at a given time with one or the other. Conse- ignorance and suffering to a state of happiness
quently, they are compartmentalized, consid- and well-being are the goals of both science
ered in isolation, and pursued independently. and spirituality. These goals are pursued by
However, when there is a simultaneous focus different strategies and methodologies with
on the two for their unified understanding, varying degrees of success. However, success
problems arise in the form of truth conflicts. or failure is not confined to one domain or
This in turn leads to the perception of one one methodological stance. Rather science is
in opposition to the other. One then tends applicable to some areas of human concern,
to pronounce a verdict from one perspec- and spirituality appears to matter in some oth-
tive, however disconcerting it may be from ers. Scientific habit of the mind and spiritual

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 6 K. Ramakrishna Rao

outlook are not opposed to each other; they art and promoting values of love, compassion
serve different functions. However, together and altruism—is belied. Economic prosperity
they hold the best hope of achieving the high- and happiness appear to be unrelated beyond
est happiness, with fewer risks. Third, there is a point. Thus science as a liberating influence
no intrinsic opposition between science and appears to have serious limits.
spirituality. There are, of course, epistemic dif- The goal of spirituality, like that of sci-
ferences between them. They follow different ence, is also liberation. It is the liberation of
methodological strategies which are valid in the inner spirit. Spirituality could be seen as
their respective domains. Problems arise and a complementary force that gives a positive
mistakes are made when there is conflation of direction to science and acts as an antidote
the two, and when transgression of the paths to the latter’s use for destructive purposes. In
takes place, such as the attempts to prove the the least, it provides coping mechanisms to
existence of God by science or the denigration deal with psychologically debilitating anxiety,
of evolutionary theories by assertions of crea- stress, fear and helplessness. At its best, spiritu-
tion by some religious sects. ality is known to free humans from all kinds of
It would not be correct to say that science suffering born out of dysfunctional egos with
alone leads to truth. Perhaps it can be said that insatiable desires, and consequent personal
science leads us more reliably to understand frustration and externally directed aggression.
the physical world. The same may be said Spirituality could be a soothing syrup to congested
about spirituality as being more appropriate minds that cough conflict and abuse. At the same
in dealing with non-physical matters such time, it may also be seen as a blinding influ-
as values. There may be areas where both ence that shuns reason, spurts superstitious
approaches are appropriate and a unified ap- behaviour and stifles ambition and achieve-
proach more fruitful. ment. Instead of liberating, it could exile the
In the Indian tradition, both science and human spirit to the dark recesses of ignorance,
spirituality have the same goal, which is libera- disease and deprivation. Thus both science
tion (mokṣa). The goal of science is enriching and spirituality are double-edged. They could
the human condition by freeing it from con- be used to emancipate or to enslave. However,
straints of hunger, disease and deprivation; working in tandem, they could help enhance
and creating physical conditions for comfort, human potential, limiting each other’s ad-
convenience and need gratification. With verse effects.
their exponential growth during our lifetime, A dialogue between science and spiritual-
we have come to expect science and its off- ity would help to clarify their relative roles. In
shoot technologies to provide plenty for all. this context, exploring areas in which spiritual
The growth is not without its problems, how- matters, such as whether prayer affects meas-
ever. The explosive growth of science with un- urable empirical variables like health, is of
predictable consequences threatens to subvert considerable importance. Spiritual psychology
and distort life itself on this planet. Nuclear is the discipline of relevance here.
energy and genetic engineering, for example,
which have extra-ordinary potential to trans-
Spiritual psychology
form the human condition, are more feared
today than loved. The promise of science to Science has methods that work well in their
satisfy human needs has not helped to reduce legitimate domains of application. It would be
the needs. Rather, it spurred the insatiable a category mistake, however, to ask of science
desire for more. Indiscriminate exploitation of the proof for the existence of God. It would
resources and ingenious destruction of the en- be equally inappropriate to ask for a spiritual
vironment followed. Also, the belief that sat- explanation of the structure of the atom. Does
isfying the physical needs of food and shelter, it follow then that science is science and
and the psychological concerns of security and spirituality is spirituality and the two shall
stability, will lead humans to devote them- never meet? Not necessarily so. If it were, the
selves to finer aspects of life—such as pursuing question of dialogue between the two would

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 7

not arise. Inasmuch as the human mind is component in our beliefs and behaviour is the
the source from which science and spiritual- business of spiritual psychology.
ity spring and merge back in consciousness, Science is based on reason and observa-
as postulated in the unified theory—despite tion. Spiritual truths are born of revelations
the distinctly parallel tracks on which they and are anchored in experience. Science in
run—there is obvious interaction between general is third-person oriented, whereas spir-
the two in our lives. The science–spirituality ituality is first-person practised. Thus science
dialogue is predicated on such interactions. and religion enjoy two diametrically different
Spiritual psychology focuses on them as its perspectives. Their validity essentially depends
subject matter. on the validity of the sources from which their
We said that science and spirituality respective claims emerge. If revelations are
spring from the human mind. However, they delusional experiences of maladjusted messi-
manifest as two distinct epistemic modes. One ahs, religious beliefs tend to be false and det-
is the rational mode. It is mediated by the rimental. On the contrary, if they are indeed
senses, the nervous system, and the brain. The non-rational forms of knowing the truth, then
other, the intuitive mode, is the revelational there must be a non-rational source or path-
component of spiritual experience. It is the so- way to truth. If there are thus two diametrical-
called transcendental aspect of our being that ly different sources of truth seeking, in which
is not mediated but directly experienced. It scientific discoveries and technologies on
processes consciousness-as-such. It is knowing the one hand and religious beliefs and prac-
by being. As William James puts it: ‘Mystical tices on the other are based, it is enormously
experiences are as direct perceptions of fact for important that we study the authenticity of
those who have them as any sensations ever religious experiences as we do the validity
were for us’ (1902/1914, pp. 423–424). The of scientific discoveries. It is the business of
existence of the intuitive/revelational mode is spiritual psychology to do just that. Since the
fundamental for spiritual experiences, just as mind is the seat/base of all knowledge, spir-
the brain and sensory processing are essential itual psychology attempts to study the mind
for scientific understanding. Science is based as the interfacing instrumentality between
on cognitive processing of information. In science and religion. In an important sense, it
the Indian tradition, spirituality is considered is an attempt to apply spirituality underlying
transcognitive. Consciousness is believed to religious behaviour to psychology in general,
manifest in humans at the cognitive as well and to its transpersonal and transcognitive
as transcognitive (transcendental) levels. Spir- aspects in particular.
itual psychology explores the two together in Spiritual psychology is both a branch of
the phenomena that are a joint manifestation psychology, like child psychology and social
of sense and reason on the one hand, and in- psychology, and a system of psychology, like
tuition and experience on the other. psychoanalysis. It has a set of basic postulates
Without miracles and mystical experi- that provide an overarching theoretical ori-
ences, the sacred texts of most religions would entation. The basic postulate in this case is
be left with little credible substance. The the primacy of spirit defined as the principle
miracles and revelational experiences may or centre of consciousness in the embodied
have a spiritual source. For this reason, they human condition. Spiritual psychology, ac-
are labelled as non-natural or supernatural knowledging the primacy of the spirit, ex-
phenomena and are seen as conflicting with plores its relation to the mind and the body in
the basic limiting principles of science. For the person. Spiritual psychology explores the
some, that is a sufficient justification for their unity of the spirit, the mind and the body as
rejection as genuine phenomena. Such a rejec- they manifest in the human context. It serves
tion would be comforting if one were to live as the bridge to connect the otherwise dispa-
in the domain of natural science alone. That rate realms of personal and transpersonal, the
would leave out, however, a great deal in our secular and the sacred, the cognitive and the
beliefs and practices. Exploring the spiritual transcognitive processes.

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 8 K. Ramakrishna Rao

Spiritual psychology shares a great deal following twelve points/principles provide the
with religious psychology and yet is very dif- outline of a model based on classical Indian
ferent from it. Religious psychology, as the psychological thought:
Cambridge psychologist R. H. Thouless (1972)
1. Psychology is the study of the person
defined it, seeks ‘to understand religious
(jīva).
behaviour by applying to it the psychological
2. The person is consciousness embodied.
principles derived from the study of non-
religious behaviour’. Spiritual psychology 3. The person is not an isolated and dis-
goes well beyond this. It seeks to understand connected entity in that the jīva is
human nature itself from the study of the transpersonal and interconnected by
spiritual aspects in our beliefs and behaviour. transcognitive states.
Postulation of the primacy of the spirit is the 4. Consciousness-as-such is irreducibly dis-
defining characteristic of spiritual psychology. tinct from material objects, including the
Spirit (ātman), in the Indian tradition, is brain and the mind.
consciousness-as-such. Consequently, the 5. The mind is different from consciousness
study of consciousness-as-such in its relation as well as the body/brain machine. Un-
to the thinking-mind and the sensing-brain like consciousness, the mind is material,
constitutes the subject matter of spiritual albeit subtle. Unlike the brain, the mind
psychology. has non-local characteristics, that is, it is
not constrained by time and space vari-
ables, as gross material objects are. Thus
Theoretical base the mind is the facilitating principle and
Indian psychology has much to offer for a function that interfaces consciousness at
foundational base to build the edifice of spir- one end and the brain processes at the
itual psychology. Psychology in the Indian other.
tradition is an ‘inner’ discipline in search of 6. Consciousness in the human context,
realizing truth and perfection in the human that is, consciousness embodied, appears
condition. The goal is to find oneself in an circumscribed, conditioned and clouded
unconditioned and unmasked state. While by a vortex of forces generated by the
assuming that consciousness is the ground mind–body connection. Consequently,
condition of all knowledge, Indian psychol- the conditioned person becomes an isolat-
ogy studies consciousness in its multifaceted ed instrument of individualized thought,
manifestations and seeks to explore the expe- passion and action.
rience of its true nature in one’s being. Indian 7. From individuation arise, on the one
psychology is not only a body of generaliz- hand, subjectivity, rational thinking and
able principles, but it is also a set of practices relativity of truth and values. On the other
that can be used for the transformation of hand, there arises the ego as the organiz-
the human condition towards perfection. It ing principle.
has its own methods appropriate to its sub- 8. With the ego, come attachment and crav-
ject matter and objectives. The methods are ing which lead the person in turn to expe-
observational, but they are different from the rience anxiety, insecurity, stress, distress,
externally oriented observations of ‘outer’ disease and consequent suffering.
sciences. They are a peculiar blend of first- 9. Situated in such an existential predica-
second- and third-person perspectives. They ment of ignorance and suffering, the goal
provide for personal, subjective, and non-rela- of the person is self-realization.
tional authenticity and in-group inter-subject 10. Self-realization consists in achieving a
validity (Rao, 2002). The strength of Indian state of freedom and liberation (mokṣa) by
psychology consists in the potential it offers a process of deconditioning training and
for transformation through successive stages consequent transformation of the per-
and processes of deconditioning the person son to achieve higher states of awareness
to a state of freedom and perfection. The and achievement. This is accomplished

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 9

by accessing consciousness-as-such in is different from it. The mind is closely con-

transcognitive states. nected to different systems of the brain. It
11. Endowed with consciousness, mind and influences and is influenced by events in the
body, the person is capable of brain-pro- brain. Most Indian traditions assert that the
cessed learning (śravaṇa), mind-generated mind is comprised of subtler forms of matter
understanding (manana) and consciousness- than the brain. Consequently, it has different
accessed realization (nididhyāsana). characteristics such as non-locality. Its subtle
12. Yoga is a method of liberation via realiza- character makes it possible to receive the light
tion of transcognitive states. Realization of consciousness/spirit to reflect its contents.
takes different forms relative to the dif- By virtue of its implicit non-local nature, it is
ferent dispositions of the seekers. These possible for the mind to act on systems beyond
include knowledge-focussed jñāna yoga to the body complex with which it is associated.
meet the thought needs, devotion-filled Such a conception of the mind leaves open
bhakti yoga to deal with one’s passionate the possibility that the mind may survive the
nature, and action oriented karma yoga for destruction and cessation of the associated
those dominated by the impulse to act. body at a given time.
Thus wisdom, worship and work are three The mind thus enjoys dual citizenship in
distinct routes for self-realization. the physical world as well as in the realm of
consciousness. As a material form, the mind’s
This model makes a fundamental distinction citizenship in the material world is by birth
between ‘consciousness/spirit’ and ‘mind’, as it were. Its naturalization in the domain of
and a secondary distinction between ‘mind’ consciousness/spirit is a matter of choice and
and ‘brain’. Consciousness is the knowledge an outcome of significant effort. Its citizenship
side of the universe. It is the ground condi- in the material realm bestows on it the right
tion for all awareness. Consciousness is not to process information through its sensory
a part or aspect of the mind, which, unlike channels and neural connections. The mind
consciousness, is physical. Consciousness also has involuntary and passive access to
does not interact with the mind or any other consciousness in that the light of conscious-
objects or processes of the physical universe. ness shines on it to illumine its critically
However, in association with consciousness, poised contents, which become subjectively
mental phenomena become subjective and revealed. The mind also has within its reach
are revealed to and realized by the person. the possibility of partaking in consciousness-
In this view, the mind is the interfacing as-such by disciplined practice so that it may
instrumentality that faces consciousness/spirit have direct and unmediated knowledge. This
on one side and the brain and the physical possibility is otherwise remote because of the
world on the other. The mind thus gives the mind’s habitual involvement with the sensory
impression of having two faces—the physical and cortical processes.
side in its relation to the brain and other phys- In the dual roles of the mind, two distinct
ical systems, and the subjective side facing processes—the cognitive and the transcogni-
consciousness/spirit. From the physical side, tive—aid the mind. The former involves sen-
the mind collects information by processing sory-motor processes; while the transpersonal
the inputs it receives. This is normal cognitive processes involve accessing consciousness-as-
processing. When the information thus pro- such and achieving pure conscious states. In
cessed is exposed to consciousness at the other normal cognitive processes, consciousness is
end, that is, when the light of consciousness is reflected in the mind. Awareness consists in
reflected on it, there is conscious experience of those reflections. In transcognitive processes,
the phenomenal data. In a reflexive situation, consciousness is realized in the mind. Aware-
where the reflection of consciousness reflects ness in such a state consists in a relationship
back in consciousness (pratibimba), one has of identity with consciousness.
subjective awareness. The main concern of psychology, in gen-
The mind, though physical like the brain, eral, is with the normal processes of the mind.

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 10 K. Ramakrishna Rao

Therefore, the spotlight is on the brain and and altering of spiritual conceptions to fit the
the sensory processes that give us information. requirements of science and its methods? Slife,
Observational techniques from the third-per- Hope and Nebeker (1996), for example, raised
son perspective are appropriately employed to these questions as worthy of formal discus-
study mental phenomena. Consciousness-as- sions as they observed that the recent work of
such, which is not accessible to third-person researchers in spirituality ‘has the potential, at
observation, is lost sight of in scientific discus- least, to undermine the very conceptions these
sions. The consequence is a physical paradigm researchers are attempting to test’ (p. 78).
of the mind functioning in a mechanical uni- Such concerns are largely an outcome of
verse. Functions of the mind, it is assumed, are the prevailing positivist mindset in the West-
best understood by identifying the correlated ern psychological tradition. In the Indian
brain states. Significant shortcomings of this tradition, for example, there is no such limita-
approach include: (a) consciousness-as-such tion or narrowing of science to observable and
is routinely ignored; (b) higher states of con- tangible phenomena. In fact, there is no clear-
sciousness generally remain outside the scope cut incompatibility or conflict between science
of consciousness studies; and (c) the interest and spirituality. Transcendence is the goal of
in studying consciousness is confined to the spirituality; and is achieved through a process
theoretical side, with little appreciation of its of transformation. Transformation takes place
practical implications for developing higher in the physical plane by gaining control over
states of awareness. The goal has been one of normal psychological processes. Meditation,
maintaining normality rather than seeking to for example, is a method suggested to bring
transcend it. about the transformation of the person and
achieve a state of transcendence. Psychology in
the Indian tradition has a workable blueprint
Theory to testing
for erecting the edifice of spiritual psychol-
So far we have attempted to model a perspec- ogy by sidestepping the science-spirituality
tive for studying spirituality in the context of dichotomy. Consciousness is the common de-
doing psychology. If psychology is considered nominator of science as well as spirituality.
a scientific pursuit to understand human na- Spiritual psychology and general psychol-
ture, spiritual psychology is an area in which ogy represent two distinct conceptual streams
science and spirituality do not go their sepa- that flow in two different directions. The spir-
rate ways; they are not compartmentalized. ituality stream deals with states of pure con-
Rather they are seen as complementing each sciousness and their role in human condition.
other. What happens then to the basic issue The general psychology stream touches only
of incompatibility of science and spirituality? the periphery of consciousness and thus leaves
We are told that science essentially deals with out the spiritual and transcendental experi-
observable and tangible things. Its methods ences. Together the two streams appear to cov-
require operationalization of variables and rep- er the entire spectrum of mental phenomena.
lication of results. It is argued that the methods Therefore, if there were a confluence between
of science make philosophical commitments the two, we may be in a better position to un-
inconsistent, if not incompatible, with the derstand the unity and nexus between mind,
conceptual foundations of spirituality (Slife, body and consciousness. Spiritual psychology
Hope & Nebeker, 1996). Psychology made a is an exercise toward that end. Spirituality per
commitment to strictly adhere to the methods se may not be empirically tested; but, I believe,
of natural science. Is it possible then for psy- its effects can be observed and measured.
chology to study spirituality which stems from
altogether different theoretical assumptions? If
Implications and applications
the hallmark of spirituality is transcendence,
can transcendence be studied by methods de- Socio-political implications
veloped within the sensory framework? Does Spiritual psychology has important implica-
this necessitate a reinterpretation of spirituality tions and some possible applications. M. K.

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 11

Gandhi’s thought and experiments in political processes involved in ego-transformation.

action may be seen as grounded in spiritual They are aspiration, surrender and rejection.
psychology. The concept of satyāgraha and the Aspiration is the motivating factor, the driving
nonviolent action themes for social change force to feel the presence of the divine spirit.
and moral reconstruction are landmark ex- If spirit is consciousness-as-such, aspiration
periments in spiritual psychology. Gandhi is the desire to access consciousness-as-such.
spoke of ‘spiritual force’. He referred to an ‘in- Surrender refers to the openness to witness
ner voice’ guiding him. His emphasis on truth, consciousness-as-such with no prior notions,
nonviolence, love, compassion, and altruism attitudes and expectations. Rejection is the
are hallmarks of spiritual psychology applied throwing out of all those ego accretions that
to life and social action (Gandhi, 1938, 1958). cloud consciousness-as-such, so as to allow
Thus spiritual psychology has socio-political the unencumbered play of the psychic being.
relevance; and research in this area, which is The function of the psychic being is accessing
lagging, is truly warranted. consciousness-as-such to guide and transform
both our individual and collective life (Sri
Therapeutic implications Aurobindo, 1992).
As mentioned, the primacy of the spirit is Western psychology pays more attention
basic to spiritual psychology. The concept of to ego-adjustment than ego-transformation.
spirit has diverse connotations. In Indian psy- For example, the discussions often revolve
chology, ātman (Vedānta) or puruṣa (Sāṁkhya- around the defence mechanisms. G. E. Vail-
Yoga), come close to the English word ‘spirit’. lant (1993) in The Wisdom of the Ego provides
Ātman is consciousness-as-such, unclouded a brilliant classification of the varieties of
by and free from the polluting accretions defence mechanisms and styles of function-
emanating from the sensory processes. Sri ing, ranging from psychotic delusions to
Aurobindo (1992) called the embodied, in- mature altruism and humour. All these styles,
carnate portion or aspect of the ātman the whether normal or aberrational, are attempts
‘psychic being’ of the person. In Western psy- at adjustment and not transformation of the
chology—especially in its applied therapeutic ego. Transformation involves tracing the route
aspects—the ego occupies the centre stage, back from existential suffering, controlling
taking the place of the spirit. It is the func- craving and attachment, and transcending
tioning of the ego that is of primary concern. the limiting adjuncts of the mind so that the
Understanding the problems of adjustment of clouds of ignorance hovering around the per-
the ego, and dysfunctions of the ego caused son are dispelled and the person experiences
by factors such as chemical imbalances, child- states of pure consciousness. Such experiences
hood trauma, or problems of sex, has been the are the transformational resource and gateway
saga of much of Western clinical psychology to realization, the discovery of the spirit with-
and psychotherapeutic practices. in. Spiritual psychology in the Indian tradition
The ego in the Indian psychological tradi- is positive psychology that promotes health,
tion is a manifestation of the mind and not happiness and joy in a non-ego binding man-
of consciousness. It masks the spirit, the self. ner. It is the joy of the spirit and not of the
Shrouded by ignorance, the ego masquerades ego that the transformed person experiences.
as the self. Therefore, tearing down the veil The general psychotherapeutic approach is
of ignorance, taming the ego, transcending horizontal, travelling across the existential
the limiting adjuncts of the mind to allow contours of the ego. The spirituality way is
the true light of the spirit to shine and re- vertical, elevating the person from the tangled
flect on the mind of the person, become the ego to the sublime heights of the spirit, that is,
focus of spiritual psychology. This is what is states of pure conscious experience.
involved in the process of transformation of In the Western tradition, consciousness
the person. Yoga, for example, is a method of and the mind are conflated. By considering
training for such transformation. According intentionality as the defining characteristic of
to Sri Aurobindo, there are three intra-psychic consciousness, the possibility of the existence

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 12 K. Ramakrishna Rao

of pure conscious states, that is, conscious- example, there are concepts, methods and
ness without sensory content, is pre-empted. models that could make a difference. In the
Consequently consciousness is either denied classical Indian tradition, no sharp distinc-
and reduced to processes in the brain or left tion is made between the natural and the
completely unfathomable as in radical dual- supernatural, the scientific and the spiritual.
ist postulations with an unbridgeable chasm At some level of awareness, even the subject–
between mind and body. object dichotomy disappears. Consequently,
neither the paradox of naturalizing the super-
normal nor the perplexities of parapsycho-
Understanding extra-ordinary human
logical research pose any serious threat for an
experience
understanding of the psychic process within
Extra-ordinary human experiences such the paradigm of spiritual psychology.
as telepathy and the direct action of mind
over matter, which is technically labelled as
Implications for health and wellness
psychokinesis (PK) pose severe explanatory
challenges within the Western paradigm of The recent investigations in the area of epi-
science. They refer to events that cannot demiology of religion, and clinical studies of
simply occur in the physical universe as we the effect of religious and spiritual beliefs
know it. The basic limiting principles, as C. and practices on health and wellness, belong
D. Broad (1953) labelled them, governing the to the domain of spiritual psychology. There
assumptive base of science rule out the pos- are now many researchers actively engaged
sibility of mind-to-mind communication that researching in this area. Koenig, McCullough
does not involve meaningful transformation and Larson (2001) review in their Handbook of
of energy between minds. Similarly non- Religion and Health 1,200 research reports and
inferential precognition is an absurdity. All 400 reviews.
attempts to naturalize the supernatural—that Religion of one kind or another has ex-
is what parapsychology hopes to do—result isted in all societies; and it has had profound
in the paradox of demolishing the very as- effects on the lives of those who practice it.
sumptive base of science by science itself. The Prayer is central to all religious practices. It
attempts to find a naturalistic explanation of is universal and ubiquitous, crossing cultural
extrasensory perception (ESP), which is the and geographical boundaries. It encompasses
ability to communicate without any sensory all religions, even those that do not specifi-
channel, and PK have not been successful. cally acknowledge an entity like God, as in
These include observational theories based on Buddhism. Although the form and object of
quantum mechanics (Irwin, 1999). worship may vary, offering prayers is a perva-
I am inclined to argue that research in sive phenomenon that is considered neither
the area of extra-ordinary human experience unusual nor abnormal. According to a survey
is unlikely to make much headway if the re- published in 1996 by Princeton Religion Re-
search continues to employ the disjunctive search Center, 96% of the US population be-
Western conceptual categories. The most that lieved in God or a supernormal power. Despite
could be established within the Western para- the universally prevalent and largely shared
digm is to provide extensive and even com- religious behaviour and the belief that prayer
pelling evidence for the existence of cognitive is a means of propitiating gods or invoking
anomalies. Beyond this, I venture to hazard, supernatural forces/abilities to help improve
few insights into the nature of the phenomena human condition, it remained a largely unex-
themselves could be gained by methods that plored area until recently for contemporary so-
basically assume their non-existence. cial scientists. However, during the past fifteen
In this context, spiritual psychology has years, there are literally hundreds of research
much to offer and may give a new direction reports published in refereed journals.
and a fresh impetus to parapsychological There are several significant studies that
research. In Indian spiritual psychology, for explored the relationship between religiosity

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 13

and a variety of health conditions. In about rely heavily on religious beliefs and practices
150 studies on alcohol and drug abuse and to relieve stress, retain a sense of control, and
religious involvement, most of the studies maintain hope and sense of meaning and pur-
‘suggest less substance abuse and drug abuse pose in life. It is suggested that religion (a) acts
and more successful rehabilitation among as a social support system, (b) reduces the sense
the more religious’ (Koenig, McCullough & of loss of control and helplessness, (c) provides
Larson, 2001). Also, numerous studies investi- a cognitive framework that reduces suffering
gated the effect of religion on mental health, and enhances self-esteem, (d) gives confidence
delinquency, depression, heart disease, im- that one, with the help of God, could influence
mune system dysfunction, cancer and physical the health condition, and (e) creates a mindset
disability. (For a comprehensive review of re- that enables the patient to relax and allow the
search in these areas, see Koenig, McCullough body to heal itself. Again, the values engen-
& Larson, 2001). dered by religious involvement such as love,
Surveys of literature and meta-analysis of compassion, charity, benevolence, and altruism
published research seem to confirm the claims may help to successfully cope with debilitating
of individual researchers linking religious prac- anxiety, stress and depression. All this may be
tices with better health outcomes. For exam- true. Yet, there are issues that go beyond these
ple, in a systematic and comprehensive review, explanations. For example, if the observed ef-
Townsend, Kladder, Ayele and Mulligan (2002) fects of distant intercessory prayer on the health
assessed the impact of religion on health out- of patients, who did not even know that some
comes. They reviewed all experiments involv- one was praying for them, are genuine, as they
ing randomized controlled trials, published seem to be, the above secular explanations be-
between 1996 and 1999, that assessed the rela- come clearly inadequate. We need more than a
tionship between religious practices and meas- healthy mindset on the part of the patient to re-
urable health variables. The review revealed cover from illness because someone, unknown
that ‘religious involvement and spirituality to him, had prayed for his recovery. There may
are associated with better health outcomes, be more to religion than being a social and psy-
including greater longevity, coping skills, and chological support system. Consider, for exam-
health related quality of life and less anxiety’. ple, the case of remote intercessory prayer and
In a meta-analytic review of 29 independent its ramifications for future research in the area
samples, McCullough et al. (2000, p. 1) report that explores the effects of religious activities on
that religious involvement has a strong posi- health and well-being.
tive influence of increased survival.
If religious involvement does have benefi-
Distant (remote) intercessory prayer
cial health outcomes, as many of the published
reports in the West seem to suggest, then we A number of studies provide positive evidence
may ask: How does this relationship work? linking intercessory prayer with beneficial
What is its modus operandi, the process that health outcomes. Intercessory prayer involves
underlies the presumed effect? What is the praying for others’ benefit. In some of these
channel? Who is the source? These important, studies, the patients did not know that some-
though often tricky, questions have no easy one was praying for them. Yet, their condi-
answers. The favoured explanation is a secular tion seemed to have improved compared to
one. Religious beliefs and practices may have the controlled group of patients who did not
psychological effects, which in turn bring have the benefit of someone praying for them.
about somatic changes. If indeed religious Michael Miovic (2004) referred to two cases
beliefs and activities help to reduce anxiety, published recently in the journal Alternate
stress and depression, they could also help to Therapies, which document the effects of heal-
shield their negative effects on general health ing at a distance and ‘how an “energy” healer
and well-being. used intention-at-a-distance to cure a girl of
As Koenig, Larson and Larson (2001) sur- glioblastoma multiforme, a very aggressive
mise, when people become physically ill, many brain tumour. In this case, the diagnosis and

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 14 K. Ramakrishna Rao

cure were so convincingly established with those who assume the essential incompatibil-
contemporary medical technology (biopsies ity of science and spirituality.
and serial brain scans), and the disease itself Impressed with the extensive publica-
is known to be so uniformly fatal that it is tions in the area, Chibnall, Jeral and Cerullo
difficult to ascribe the healer’s results to pure (2001) toiled for a couple of years to do a
chance’ (p. 58). methodologically sophisticated and conceptu-
In a double blind study involving 393 ally unambiguous study to test the influence
coronary care patients, Randolph Byrd (1988) of distant intercessory prayer on health. They
divided his subjects into two randomized found themselves unable to proceed beyond a
groups. One group is the intercessory prayer critical review of the published reports. Their
group and the other is the control group. Nei- paper, ‘Experiments on Distant Intercessory
ther the physicians attending on them nor Prayer: God, Science, and the Lesson of Mes-
the patients themselves knew which patients siah’, turned out to be more a debunking ex-
were being prayed for. Also, those who actu- ercise rather than a constructive contribution.
ally offered prayers did not know the patients They conclude that this area of research is
for whose recovery they were praying. Results simply unproductive. They argue, among oth-
showed that the patients in the intercessory er things, that the notion of intervention by
prayer group experienced significantly fewer supernatural beings does not simply meet the
episodes of congestive heart failures (p < .05), basic testability and explanatory requirements
fewer cardiac arrests (p < .05), received fewer of science. They write: ‘Science does not deny
antibiotics (p < .005) and required less respira- God, miracles, and the like, it merely neglects
tor support and medication (p < .0001). W. S. them…. Science cannot actualize spirituality,
Harris et al. (1999) conducted a double blind so why do we ask this of it?’ This paper became
study of distant intercessory prayer with 990 quite influential among health professionals
patients in the cardiac care unit. In this study in the West for the reason that its rationale is
with randomized controlled trials, it was quite consistent with the mindset that makes
observed that the experimental group (the a clear separation between science and spiritu-
prayed for patients) recovered better than the ality, between what is believed to be natural as
control group of patients. The results are sta- distinguished from the supernatural, which is
tistically significant, even after correction for considered ex-hypothesis as beyond the scope
multiple analyses. In a meta-analysis of pub- of science. Such separation of the natural and
lished studies, Mueller, Plevak and Rummans the supernatural engenders among scientists
(2001) found that randomized controlled the fear of trespassing into the sacred, which,
trials had shown a significant positive effect it would seem, is one of the powerful reasons
between intercessory prayer and recovery behind the efforts to fault researches in this
from coronary disease. They observed that ad- and similar areas.
dressing the spiritual needs of the patient may Comforting the critics of the studies re-
enhance recovery from illness. porting significant positive influence of inter-
If these effects of distant intercessory cessory prayer on health in humans are the
prayer are genuine, as they seem to be, how results of a recent multi-million dollar study
do we explain them? The secular explana- (Benson et al., 2006) funded by John Temple-
tions of the sort considered earlier are clearly ton Foundation in USA. This study of the ther-
inadequate. What is the mechanism involved? apeutic effects of intercessory prayer in cardiac
Who is the source? What is the channel? It bypass patients, carried out by a team of six-
was clearly understood by those who offered teen researchers, involved three groups of ran-
the prayers that it was God who was involved, domly assigned patients in six US hospitals.
responding to the prayer to influence the One group numbering 604 patients received
health outcome of the patients. Are we then intercessory prayer after being informed that
experimenting with God? Can science go be- they may or may not receive prayer. The sec-
yond itself and deal with spirituality and the ond group of 597 patients did not receive the
divine? This could be scary and frightening to prayer after similar information that they may

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 Indian psychology: Implications and applications 15

or may not receive the prayer. The third group not that unusual as Rao’s (1965) reviews have
of 601 subjects received intercessory prayer shown.
after they were told that they would receive Such attempts to scientifically test the ef-
such a prayer. fects of spirituality on life show why the ar-
The subjects in the two prayed-for groups gument that researches in the religion–health
received 14 days of prayer for uncomplicated area do not meet the testability requirements
recovery after the bypass surgery. The primary of science is unconvincing, if not false. In ad-
measure of outcome is the presence of any dition, there is no intrinsic reason to bring
complication within thirty days of surgery. in God or supernatural beings as the source
The results showed no significant benefit of observed effects of distant intercessory
to the patients in the prayed-for groups over prayer on health. Consider, for example, the
the control group of patients who did not wealth of studies that show similar effects of
receive any prayers. On the contrary, it was the influence of direct mental influence on
found that the patients in group three, who remote biological systems. There is a large
were told that they would receive and did in empirical database accumulated over the years
fact receive prayers, fared significantly worse by William Braud and associates that provides
compared to the other two groups. From this strong evidence suggestive of the possibility
the authors conclude that intercessory prayer of influencing the physiology of a remotely
itself ‘had no effect on complication-free re- situated person by sheer mental intention
covery’ from the bypass surgery. of another person. Braud and Schlitz (1991)
The publication of this study by Benson review eight separate experiments in which
et al. (2006) was considered by several com- the subjects attempted to influence remote
mentators as the final word on the efficacy of biological systems by simply wishing such a
intercessory prayer, even though Benson him- change. The crucial difference between prayer
self leaves room for more studies. I believe this and such wishing is that no supernatural be-
study should not be considered alone. It is in ing is invoked in the wish phenomenon, un-
the nature of studies in areas like this that you like in the prayer, which is generally directed
do not expect replication each time one con- at seeking the help of God to grant the wish.
ducts a study. It is the cumulative results of a The results of the experiments by Braud and
number of studies evaluated by an appropriate associates show that a subject by mental in-
meta-analysis that should guide our gener- tention alone could influence in the desired
alizations. Therefore, the Benson et al. study direction (a) the autonomic nervous system
should be seen not only in relation to other activity of a remotely situated person, (b) the
studies involving intercessory prayer but also muscular tremor and ideo-motor reactions, (c)
along with a significant amount of literature mental imagery of another person, and (d) the
available in related areas like studies of direct rate of haemolysis of human red blood cells
action of mind over matter or psychokinetic in vitro. There is no reference in these studies
effects. Then, one realizes why these effects to supernatural beings or non-testable enti-
are not replicable on demand and why occa- ties. As Braud points out, based on the over all
sionally the observed effect is opposite of the statistical results, the distant mental influence
one expected, which is technically known as effects are relatively reliable and robust. The
psi-missing. Also, it would not be correct to magnitude of the effects is not trivial and is
say that there was no significant influence of comparable to self-regulation effects. The abil-
intercessory prayer on health outcome in the ity to mentally influence is apparently widely
study by Benson and associates, because the distributed. Thus, these experiments not only
observed difference between the non-prayed show the feasibility of scientifically studying
for and prayed for groups in this study is statis- such phenomena as healing through distant
tically significant. Parapsychological literature intercessory prayer, but they suggest also that
is replete with such effects (Rhine, 1952; Rao, the source of the effect may be a living person
1965). Rather it was a negative or psi-missing and not necessarily a supernatural entity like
effect, the one opposite of expectation. This is God.

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 16 K. Ramakrishna Rao

characteristic of Indian psychology (Rao,

Conclusion
2004). In the classical Indian tradition, con-
I am convinced that spiritual psychology is a sciousness is not conceived as an epiphenom-
viable discipline and that Indian psychology enon or as a quality of experience. Rather
may be seen as providing the foundational consciousness is an autonomous principle, the
base for it. It should be mentioned, however, ground condition of all knowing. However,
that spiritual psychology is different from the not all knowing is of the sensory kind, which
psychology of religion, and that religion and gives us only representational knowledge.
spirituality are distinct and different in some There is another kind of knowing, knowing by
important aspects, even though the two are being, which arises when we access conscious-
often used interchangeably by researchers ex- ness-as-such. In a state of pure consciousness,
ploring the effects of religion on health and we are told, one has non-representational di-
well-being. It is necessary to underscore the rect awareness. In such a state, there is no pos-
distinction. Religion is doctrinaire and de- sibility of dissociation between knowing and
nominational, having specific behavioural and being, cognition and conduct, and thought
social consequences. Therefore, being religious and action. As the Upaniṣadic statement pro-
implies more than being spiritual. Spirituality claims, ‘to know Brahman is to be Brahman’.
is not circumscribed within the bounds of any If sensory awareness gives one understanding
one religion. Rather it is guided by a belief in of the phenomena, knowing by being results
what may be called the transcendental aspect in the realization of the phenomena in his/
of being. While all religions aim at promot- her being. The lives of true saints and those
ing spirituality, there is the distinct possibility who have had genuine ‘peak’ experiences are
that the manifest forms of religious worship instances of those who achieved realization
and participation in religious activities may in various degrees. Realization, on the one
be dissociated from intrinsic spirituality. hand, removes any gap between belief and
Therefore, a measure of religiosity need not behaviour. On the other, it has important
be a measure of spirituality. Researchers are transformational consequences to the person
now becoming increasingly aware of this pos- and his well-being. It is important to recognize
sibility. The Fetzer scale of ‘Multidimensional that the notion of pure consciousness is not
Measurement of Religiousness/Spirituality’ an armchair metaphysical postulate. It is an
explicitly recognizes the distinction between empirical claim embedded in Indian tradition.
religiosity and spirituality. We will do well to understand it and study its
The Indian social scientists will have an implications to psychological research. Spir-
advantage over their Western colleagues in itual psychology is the discipline that could
carrying out research at the explanatory level unravel the many mysteries that shroud the
of this area. At the outset, they would be less several layers of higher consciousness.
encumbered and constrained by what I con-
sider a regressive notion that involves the di-
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the numerous mind-transforming techniques effects of intercessory prayer (STEP) in cardiac
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Braud, W., & Schiltz, M. J. (1991). Conscious Miller, W. R., & Thoreson, C. E. (1999). Spiritual-
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New York: Oxford University Press.

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 2
A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India
Ajit K. Dalal

For almost a century, academic psychology in century is contingent on a better understand­

India has continued to be an alien discipline. ing of the present state­of­the­art. This chapter
In the beginning of the last century, psycho­ aims to examine the status of psychology in
logy was imported lock, stock, and barrel from India as a scientific discipline, identifying the
the West, and was first implanted in 1916 at factors responsible for its retarded growth. It
Calcutta University. The Western model of also discusses the parallel movement now un­
research and teaching provided the basis on derway to rediscover the knowledge rooted in
which Indian research grew for a long pe­ scriptures and folk practices, and explores its
riod. For Indian psychologists trained in the relevance in the present times.
Western traditions, it has been a long journey Three sets of arguments are put forward
to turn towards their own heritage and take to explain the retarded growth of academic
Indian concepts and theories germane to un­ psychology in India. One, which is more
derstanding Indian social reality. Indeed, in charitable, is the lack of a supportive intel­
this long history, concerns have been voiced lectual climate. In a country where a vast
from time to time to align psychology with population lives in a condition of subhuman
contemporary social issues, so as to meet the poverty, and decisions about social develop­
challenges of rapid socio­economic and global mental programmes are politically motivated,
changes. Looking back, one gets an impres­ any scholarly pursuit is considered peripheral.
sion that psychology in India has come a long The academic institutions plagued by a rising
way to find its roots in its own native wisdom, student population, political manipulations
though it still has to cover much ground to and lack of funds have gradually become non­
become a science of Indian origin. performers. There is no premium placed on
Throughout its existence as an alien excellence in teaching and research. Adair,
implant, psychology has been struggling to Pandey, Begam, Puhan and Vora (1995) con­
ground itself in the Indian soil and adapt to ducted a study on sixty­four Indian psycho­
local conditions. Over the years this implant logists through a mailed questionnaire. The
has grown, with branches spreading all over survey revealed three major impediments to
the country. However, it has not borne fruits research productivity: (a) lack of supportive
as expected and has largely remained a sterile intellectual climate, (b) poor professional sup­
academic pursuit, as far as the real issues of na­ port, and (c) inadequate research funding. Os­
tional development are concerned. The non­ tensibly, the lack of an academic culture and
visibility of psychologists in various national a non­supportive socio­political environment
forums gives rise to serious concerns about are greatly responsible for the prevailing state
its relevance and future. What kind of psy­ of affairs. It does explain the overall decline
chology we aspire to have in the twenty-first in the academic standards in the country. It,

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 A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India 19

however, throws no light on ‘why is psycho­ in India. In any case, India has the largest
logy in India lagging behind other sisterly number of psychologists outside the Western
disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology block, and is considered a ‘publication gi­
and economics?’ It brings forth the second ant’ among all developing countries (Gilgin
line of argument that there are some inherent & Gilgin, 1987). This rapid expansion of the
limitations in psychology as a scientific disci­ discipline has aroused many hopes and expec­
pline. Its excessive conformity to empiricist­ tations about its possible contribution to the
positivist methodologies and confining to success of nation­building projects. The prob­
micro­level problems have restricted the scope lems of poverty, illiteracy, urban decay and
of its psycho­social inquiry. disease control cannot be handled on the ba­
This methodological approach is insuf­ sis of sound economic planning only, but also
ficient to take up more applied macro-level require changes in the attitudes and beliefs of
problems (Dalal, 2010). The restricted bounda­ people, and their motivations for collective
ries of the discipline obviate the need to work action. This calls for a realistic appraisal of
in applied settings, or to work with govern­ the impediments which psychology in India
mental or non­governmental agencies. The is currently experiencing. Psychology needs to
third set of arguments focus on the personal break its present disciplinary shackles to join
and professional background of Indian psy­ hands with other social sciences. Currently,
chologists. Psychologists in the first half of this much soul­searching is going on within the
century were a product of the colonial domi­ discipline; and it is realized that psychology
nation of Indian society, greatly influenced in India needs to be rooted in its own history
by Western scholarly traditions. The first and heritage.
generation psychologists after India’s Inde­ In recent years there have been sev­
pendence were predominantly converts from eral good publications which enable a critical
the philosophy background. This combined evaluation of the development of psycho­
with their elitist­urban background; fewer job logy in India. Some of these writings (Dalal,
openings and self­serving research orientation 1990, 1996, 2002; Misra & Gergen, 1993; D.
gave Indian psychologists an identity distinct Sinha, 1986, 1996; J. B. P. Sinha, 1993) have
from those who belonged to other sister disci­ critically evaluated the progress of psycho­
plines. This chapter examines the progress of logy. The five surveys of research in psy­
psychology in India against the backdrop of chology (Mitra, 1972; Pareek, 1980, 1981; J.
these arguments. It endeavours to explore the Pandey, 1988, 2001, 2004) cover important
possibilities of psychology becoming a more research contributions since the beginning
vibrant science, accepting the challenges of a of the last century. Pareek and Rao (1974a),
rapidly changing Indian society. We need a Pestonjee (1986), and NCERT (1981) compiled
psychology which is a positive discipline con­ psychological measures developed in India.
ducive to self­growth and social harmony. Reports prepared by the University Grants
Indian psychology has come a long way Commission (UGC, 1968, 1982, 1999) deal
in the hundred years of its existence. Today, with teaching and research programmes in
there are a large number of teaching and universities. Some empirical studies (Adair,
research institutions offering wide range of 1989) have examined the professional status
courses in psychology. It is not known how of the discipline of psychology. More recently,
many colleges and universities offer psychol­ Misra (2010), Salagame (2005, 2008), Pandey
ogy courses and how many psychologists are and Singh (2005), Paranjpe (2006) and Varma
professionally active. There is no data which (2004) have provided incisive understanding
official agencies, like the University Grants of the current status of psychology in India.
Commission (UGC), the Indian Council of These publications have formed the basis of
Social Science Research (ICSSR), or the Depart­ preparing this review chapter.
ment of Science and Technology, can furnish. In brief, this chapter traces the genesis of
One estimate (A. K. Jain, 2005) suggests that scientific psychology in India in the beginning
there are more than 15,000 psychologists of the last century. It examines the constraints

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 20 Ajit K. Dalal

and creative pursuits of Indian psychologists as the first psychology department, the Depart­
in seeking a disciplinary identity. The present ment of Experimental Psychology. Narendra
chapter is, in a way, an updated and complete­ Nath Sengupta, who chaired this department,
ly revised version of the article initially pub­ had his education at Harvard University with
lished (Dalal, 1996). The major focus in this Hugo Munsterberg, a student of William
version is on the long and circuitous journey Wundt. Laboratory research in Calcutta in the
towards indigenization and on the emerging areas of depth perception, psychophysics and
concern to root psychology in Indian tradi­ attention inspired early work at other centres.
tions. Lastly, some conjectures are made about Recognizing the scientific nature of research,
the possible directions in which psychology is psychology was included as a separate section
likely to tread in the twenty-first century. in the Indian Science Congress in 1923. Thus,
psychology in India at an early stage acquired
the status of a science along with physical and
Twentieth century psychology in India: A
biological sciences, something which Western
Western implant
psychology achieved only after a long strug­
Indian scriptures dating back thousands of gle. The Indian Psychological Association was
years extensively dealt with the analysis of founded in 1924; and the Indian Journal of Psy-
states of consciousness and contents of mental chology, the first psychology journal in India,
activities. The important feature of this early appeared the very next year.
exposition is that it is mostly experiential Before these experimental traditions could
and is a culmination of centuries­old tradi­ consolidate, Sengupta left Calcutta. He was
tion of self-verification. In the ancient Indian succeeded by Girindra Shekhar Bose. Being
scriptures no rigid distinction among religion, a medical doctor and a psychiatrist who was
philosophy and psychology was maintained. in close contact with Sigmund Freud, Bose
The overriding consideration was to help in­ showed much enthusiasm to promote psy­
dividuals in their pursuit of self­realization choanalysis. In 1922 he founded the Indian
and liberation from the miseries of life. In Psychoanalytic Society, which two years later
this world­view, the source of all suffering was was affiliated with the International Psycho­
presumed to be within the person, and thus analytic Society. Bose received his Ph.D. from
the emphasis was on exploring the ‘world Calcutta on the ‘concept of repression’—the
within’, to alleviate suffering. The goal was to first Ph.D. from any Indian University in
seek enduring harmony of spirit, mind and psychology. He established the Lumbini Park
body for everlasting happiness. The yoga sys­ Mental Hospital in Calcutta in 1940; and in
tem evolved very sophisticated mind­control 1947 brought out a journal, Samiksha. The De­
techniques in this pursuit. In contemporary partment started an Applied Psychology Wing
literature, this broad field of inquiry is referred in 1938, when Jung, Meyers and Spearman
to as ‘Indian Psychology’. were invited to the Silver Jubilee Session of the
These rich traditions, however, had little Indian Science Congress.
bearing on academic psychology implanted in Prior to India’s Independence from the
India as a Western science during the British British rule, other departments were estab­
colonial rule. Scientific psychology with labo­ lished at Mysore and Patna. M. V. Gopalswami,
ratory work was a novel approach, not having who headed the Department at Mysore, was
any parallel in traditional Indian psychology. trained at London University with Spearman
Psychology was first introduced as a subject in in the mental testing tradition. He developed
the Philosophy Department at Calcutta Uni­ Indian adaptations of Western intelligence
versity. Brojendra Nath Seal, who was the then tests and applied psychological principles in
King George V Professor of Mental and Moral the field of education. Gopalswami was the
Philosophy, drafted the first syllabus for ex­ first to set up an animal laboratory in India.
perimental psychology and established a labo­ The Department at Patna began in 1946,
ratory for demonstration purposes in 1905. along with the Institute of Psychological Re­
Eleven years later this laboratory was upgraded search and Services, headed by H. P. Maiti.

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 A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India 21

Vocational guidance and counselling was pro­ from theology and philosophy, and had devel­
vided to a large number of students and to the oped its own methods of inquiry based on the
general public. Since Maiti was trained with natural science models. Indian psychologists
Girindra Shekhar Bose, the orientation was saw that in applying Western psychology
psychoanalytic and clinical. In a short time, there was an opportunity of developing a secu­
Patna emerged as a major centre for teaching, lar identity distinct from that of religion and
research and counselling services. philosophy, which was not possible within
Research during this period was mainly indigenous intellectual traditions integrating
in the areas of sensation, perception, psy­ philosophy, spirituality and psychology. More­
chophysics and reaction time, influenced by over, due to the neglect of many centuries,
the work of Wundt and Titchner. Fascination Indian psychology was not well equipped to
for laboratory work and value­free research, examine the contemporary world and did not
based on the natural science model, sustained have tools to explain the existing social and
the interest of Indian psychologists in these moral decay of the Indian society. There were
areas. Western research in these areas could no new concepts, theories and methods in
easily be replicated without considering the Indian psychology applicable to the changing
cultural factors. In the area of social psychol­ individual and social order.
ogy, early work focussed on repeating Allport’s Alignment with Western positivism gave
experiments on social facilitation on Indian Indian psychologists an opportunity to make
samples. An important work of this period a fresh beginning. The emerging scientific dis­
was the rumour study by Prasad (1935). Prasad cipline of psychology gave rise to some hope
content­analysed the rumours doing the of generating radically different explanations
rounds during a major earthquake in north­ of the prolonged colonial rule. There were
ern India. He found that most rumours were exciting possibilities of making important dis­
anxiety­inducing, thereby justifying the fear coveries about Indian people and society. Also,
experienced by earthquake victims. Festinger one could hope that the explanations of posi­
acknowledged that this work inspired his for­ tive science would provide the much needed
mulation of the cognitive dissonance theory respectability to Indian cultural practices and
(Cohen & Cohen, 1977). rituals. At the personal level, it gave a new re­
spectability to the upwardly mobile psychol­
ogy professionals who mostly hailed from the
Two worlds of Indian psychologists
upper­class, Western­educated elite. Although,
The concepts and theories in Western psychol­ as Nandy (1995) stated in the context of Girin­
ogy have their genesis in the social upheavals dra Shekhar Bose, there was an awareness that
of Europe in the nineteenth century, with the sectoral and uni­dimensional approach of
its metamorphosis from an agrarian to an academic psychology cannot yield in­depth
industrial society. The discipline evolved to analysis of the socio­psychological problems
comprehend the complex social realities and of Indian society, it could also not establish
the problems of industrialization. With the durable links with Indian traditions and belief
imperial expansion of modern capitalism, the systems.
influence of Western knowledge in the colo­ Nandy (1995) further stated: ‘As a result,
nized societies was inevitable. The popularity the usual encounter between an ancient cul­
of English-medium education made writings of ture with its distinctive culture of science and
Western thinkers accessible to Indian scholars. an exogenous science with its own distinctive
A large body of this knowledge was alien, even culture fractured the self-definition not only
in contradiction to that which was prevalent of Bose but of many others involved in the
in the colonized traditional societies. The con­ similar enterprise’ (p. 83). Caught between the
tradictions were more glaring in colonies, like two worlds, Indian psychologists always had
India, having a strong sense of cultural identity a problem in balancing between a number
and a rich heritage of scholarly work. of polarities: metaphysical versus empirical;
In the West, psychology had moved away clinical versus experimental; intuitive versus

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 22 Ajit K. Dalal

objective. The Indian mind, even if trained to his own private radio station and was involved
be a scientist, often finds it difficult to ruth­ in various cultural activities.
lessly pursue the objective reality, something These illustrations are cited to give some
which comes perhaps naturally to a West­ clues about how Indian psychologists managed
erner. Thus, conflicting elements are resolved to live simultaneously in two worlds with little
into a suspension rather than a solution. ‘The overlap. Thus it is no surprise that Indian psy­
aesthetic satisfaction of a Hindu myth resides chologists remained apolitical all along. There
in full savoring of both the extremes rather is no reflection in their work of the predomi­
than seeking a synthesis’ (Kakar, 1982, p. 11). nant social and political movements, even that
Indian psychologists compartmentalized their of the freedom movement. Indian psycholo­
work in the Western psychological tradition gists remained on the edge of the society, as far
from other scholarly and personally satisfying as their professional activities were concerned.
creative pursuits. They simultaneously lived in Their research lacked continuity, commitment
two different worlds without any significant and conviction. The situation changed only
overlap. marginally after Independence.
How Indian psychologists before Inde­ Durganand Sinha, who may be considered
pendence lived in two different worlds can be as one of the architects of modern Indian psy­
illustrated with some examples. Sir Brojendra chology has observed in his prolific writings
Nath Seal, who established the first psycholo­ that early attempts at formulation of Indian
gy laboratory in the country to promote exper­ Psychology were rejected by psychologists in
imental psychology, was a great historian of India who were trained in the empirical tra­
ancient Indian science and the inspiration for dition, because of such notions like rebirth,
Jadunath Sinha to bring out his monumental transmigration of souls and supernatural pow­
work on Indian psychology. N. N. Sengupta, ers. It was considered as ‘glib talk’, ‘revivalism’
who was trained to be an experimental psy­ and ‘uncritical worship of the past’, and the
chologist, had a large number of non­empir­ term Indian Psychology acquired a ‘pejorative
ical papers in scientific journals. His writings connotation’. So what is ‘spiritual psychology’
covered the whole range from the psychology for Western academicians becomes ‘revival­
of mysticism to the psychology of Western ism’ for Indian academicians! Reasons for
dance. Sengupta did not stay in Calcutta for such resistance and rejection of psychology
long and joined the Philosophy Department grounded in traditional ideas is primarily due
at Lucknow University. There he co­authored to the negative attitude that we have inherited
a book, Introduction to Social Psychology, with from our colonial past on the one hand and
an eminent sociologist, Radhakamal Mukher­ the influence of the scientific worldview on
jee, in 1928. The orientation of this book the other (Dalal, 2002; Paranjpe, 2002).
was more sociological than psychological. As It may be argued that a vast majority of
Rajanarayan (1983) wrote in his biographical Indian psychologists have shied away from
note, he turned religious and got interested Indian psychological perspectives because of
in mystical traditions and published work in this attitude, and the religio­philosophical
this area. Girindra Shekhar Bose had, along context in which those perspectives are em­
with his important work in the area of psy­ bedded. But, paradoxically, a majority of
choanalysis, serialized an interpretation of the them share the same socio­cultural context
Bhagavad Gītā in the prestigious Bengali maga­ with the rest of the Indian population, and
zine, Pravasi, without any direct reference to are guided by the same religio­philosophical
psychoanalytic concepts (Nandy, 1995). Bose perspectives which have shaped the attitudes,
also wrote a long commentary on sacred Indi­ emotions, motivations, morals and values of
an texts in Bengali, titled Purana Pravesa. Go­ the Indian masses in their day­to­day living!
palswami, who was at Mysore, came from an As K. Kiran Kumar Salagame (2008) observed,
affluent background and maintained interest this situation has created some kind of a split
in two diverse fields—intelligence testing and in the personality—psychologist as a profes­
animal laboratory work; besides, he also had sional vs. psychologist as a person—and it has

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 A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India 23

contributed to a lack of creativity and origi­ In most universities, psychology departments

nality and draining of personal resources and were established by splitting the departments
energy resulting in ‘burn out’ among many. A of philosophy. As a result, a large number of
psychologist in his role as a scientist conducts philosophy faculty moved to the newly formed
the professional activities with one set of as­ psychology departments; many who opted for
sumptions and beliefs and as a person lives psychology were those who saw better career
and acts with another set of assumptions and opportunities in the new departments. This
beliefs among fellow humans. movement from philosophy to psychology was
One reason why Indian psychologists so pervasive that by the end of the 1960s a ma­
could live in two parallel worlds was probably jority of the chairpersons in psychology depart­
because the colonial rulers did not see much ments had a philosophy background. In the
utility of psychology in consolidating their normal course this could have given a strong
empire. This, for example, was not true in the philosophical knowledge base to psychology,
case of sociology and social anthropology, making it richer in terms of indigenous con­
which had much to contribute to the smooth cepts and theories. But this did not happen. In
functioning of the colonial administration in their enthusiasm to establish a new identity as
India (Dhanangare, 1985). Indian culture and scientists, these faculty members with a back­
society was totally unfamiliar to the colonial ground in philosophy completely dissociated
officials when they first arrived. The unique themselves from their parent discipline. They
systems of caste, religion, tribal and rural were more fascinated by the idea of value­free
communities, rituals, beliefs, traditions were and culturally­neutral experimental work. The
all baffling to an Englishman. These had no areas they showed interest in were areas such
parallel in the experiences of the Western so­ as memory, psychophysics, perception, learn­
cieties. Thus, in the absence of proper under­ ing and pattern recognition, which could be
standing of Indian social realities the colonial studied without bringing in the cultural con­
administrators were facing many problems in text. These faculty members from philosophy
their smooth functioning. There was much had little training in research methodology.
urgency and support for research on these top­ Their major quest, therefore, was to acquire
ics. Neither Indian psychology nor Western methodological sophistication and mastery
psychological research held any such promise over statistical techniques. In the process they
and were largely ignored. It is understandable became ardent adherents of Western research
why the British did not promote psychology methods. Thus, despite their firm moorings
in India in the same way they did sociology in ancient Indian psychology, psychology in
and social anthropology, for instance. India did not reap the fruits of this unique ad­
In fact, Indian culture with its liberal and vantage. Indian psychologists were still coexist­
multiple traditions did not offer resistance ing in two different worlds. As professionals
to this new emerging science. In the West, they were engaged in scientific research based
Descartean philosophy had to face opposition on Western models but to satisfy their creative
from theology for a long time. Psychoanalysis urges they would engage in other activities.
had a very controversial entry into Western This Indian experience was not an exception in
society; many of the books by Freud were this respect. In neighbouring Pakistan (Ansari,
initially banned. In India psychoanalysis was 1990) and Bangladesh (Hamida Begam, 1990)
accepted without anyone raising an eyebrow. it was the same story, as in many other former
The three main streams of academic psychol­ European colonies.
ogy in India—experimental psychology, psy­ Living in two different worlds had at least
choanalysis and intelligence testing—were two major implications for the growth of
viewed as culture­free, justifying uncritical psychology. One, psychologists did not en­
borrowing from the West. gage in thematic research over a long period
The fact that psychologists in India lived of time. They kept hopping from one area to
in two worlds did not change much after Inde­ another and did not sustain their interest in
pendence, but rather became more pronounced. one theme. Often extrinsic factors—such as

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 24 Ajit K. Dalal

funds or opportunities—became more deci­ 1953. They continued working in this area in
sive factors for conducting research, than any later years.
intrinsic interest in the topic. Even a cursory Another area which emerged during this
glance at their published works would reveal period, but was not sustained in the later
that most of the Indian psychologists had decades, is counselling and guidance. The
covered a wide range of topics. It could be baf­ guidance bureau at Patna inspired the estab­
fling to a Western researcher, but in India it lishment of similar bureaus in other states.
is a normal practice. Researchers did not cul­ The UP Psychological Bureau was among
tivate any theoretical interest, or adhere to a the first ones, established in 1947. This bu­
particular theoretical position in their research. reau, under the leadership of Sohan Lal and
There are few Indian researchers whose work thereafter of C. M. Bhatia and S. N. Mehrotra,
has a cumulative effect. Two, the professional adapted many intelligence and aptitude tests
bodies of Indian psychologists rarely took any in Hindi, and provided counselling services to
stand on vital national issues. They were more the public. The Bihar Psychological Bureau,
interested in holding annual conferences and under the guidance of Mohsin, worked on
meetings, where rarely substantive issues were similar lines. In Bombay, the Parsi Panchayat
passionately debated. Most of the conflicts that Vocational Guidance Bureau provided services
weakened these professional organizations to students, as well as to referred cases. The Bu­
were of an interpersonal nature. There was no reau also brought out the Journal of Vocational
larger vision of the psychology to be. and Educational Guidance. This journal played
an important role in furthering the guidance
movement in this country. However, the so­
Initiatives towards socially relevant
cial and political conditions were just not ripe
research
for the expansion of this movement; and not
India’s Independence from the colonial rule enough of a research base was built up to sus­
in 1947 did bring changes in the content and tain this movement. Consequently, instead of
concerns of psychological research. The Na­ growing, the movement lost its momentum
tional Government recognized the importance (D. Sinha, 1986). The first two ICSSR surveys
of social science teaching and research in at­ of research in psychology are testimony to the
taining the objectives of national reconstruc­ fact that this area did not yield much research
tion and social development. There was much in later years.
hope and expectation about the role that the A new development after Independence
social sciences could play in this endeavour. was the growth of psychology outside the
Psychologists began to realize that they have university system. The Ahmedabad Textile
a responsibility to engage in socially relevant Industries Research Association (ATIRA) was
research. established in 1950, where Kamla Chowdhury
As an example, psychologists responded conducted large­scale surveys to study mo­
to the human tragedy of the partition of India. tivational problems in the textile industries.
In its aftermath, thousands were killed in com­ Erikson and McClelland were frequent visitors
munal riots, followed by a massive influx of to this Institute. In the clinical field, advanced
refugees from across the border. Many psycho­ training programmes were introduced at the
logical studies of that period evidenced this All India Institute of Mental Health (now
concern in the rioting behaviour of the masses. known as the National Institute of Mental
Realizing the urgent need of research in this Health and Neuro-Sciences, NIMHANS) in
area, the Ministry of Education procured the 1955, followed by the Hospital for Mental
services of Gardner Murphy through UNESCO Diseases in Ranchi (1962). The Indian armed
in 1950 to develop a research programme to forces also showed interest in using psycho­
investigate the causes of communal violence. logical tests in personnel selection. For this,
Many Indian psychologists collaborated on the Psychological Research Wing of the De­
this project which culminated in the book, fence Science Organization was set up in 1949.
In the Minds of Men, edited by Murphy in The aim of this wing was not only to help in

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