Pharmaceutical Analysis I

Quality Control
Quality – as applied to drugs product has been
defined as the sum of all factors which
contribute directly or indirectly to the safety,
effectiveness and reliability of the product.
These qualities are built into the product
through research and during the
manufacturing process by procedure
collectively referred to as quality control
 Quality Control
• QC guarantees :
– Drug is free from impurities
– Physically and chemically stable
– Contains amount of active ingredients as stated on
the label
– Optimal release of active ingredients when the
product is administered
 Quantitative Pharmaceutical
Chemistry
• The application of the procedures of
quantitative analytical chemistry
1. To the analysis & determination of the purity and
quality of drugs and chemicals used in pharmacy
2. To the analysis of the chemical constituents
found in the human body whose altered
concentrations during the disease states serve as
diagnostic aids in the practice of medicine
3. To the analysis of medicinal agents and their
metabolites found in biological systems
 Analytical Chemistry
• Branch of chemistry involved with the analysis
of chemical components
• 2 kinds:
1. Qualitative chemical analysis – is the
identification of the component in the
sample/product.
2. Quantitative chemical analysis- determination of
the amount/concentration
 Quantitative Pharmaceutical Analysis
• A. Volumetric Method of Analysis
1. Chemical indicator methods
a. Neutralization
b. Redox
c. Precipitation
d. Complexation
• B. Gravimetric Method of Analysis
• C. Special Methods Used in Pharmaceutical
Analysis
 Review on Some Basic Principles
• Expression of Concentration
• Molarity – expression of concentration in
terms of moles of solute per liter of solution
• A Molar solution is a solution containing 1-
gram molecular weight of solute per liter of
solution
 Review on Some Basic Principles
• Normality – expression of concentration in
terms of equivalents of solute per liter of
solution
• Normal solution containing 1-gram equivalent
weight of solute per liter of solution
• Equivalent is the quantity of a substance that
is chemically equivalent to 1.0079g of
Hydrogen or Hydrogen ions
 Review on some basic principles
• Gram-equivalent weight (GEW) is defined as
that weight in grams which is chemically
equivalent to 1 gram – atom of hydrogen
(1.0079)
• In neutralizing reactions:
– It is defined as the weight of substance in grams
which contains, furnishes, and reacts with directly
or indirectly, replaces 1 gram – atom or ion of
hydrogen
 Quantitative Pharmaceutical
Analysis
• A. Volumetric Method of Analysis
1. Chemical indicator methods
a. Neutralization
b. Redox
c. Precipitation
d. Complexation
• B. Gravimetric Method of Analysis
• C. Special Methods Used in Pharmaceutical
 Volumetric/Titrimetric Method of
Analysis
• May be defined as those analytical methods in
which the volume of a solution of known
concentration consumed during an analysis is
taken as a measure of the amount of active
constituents in a sample being analyzed.
• Titration – the process whereby a standard
solution is brought into reaction
• Titrant also known as the standard solution is
the solution of known concentration
• Analyte is the substance being analyzed.
• Indicator is usually a chemical which changes
its color at or very near the point in the
titration where equivalent amounts of analyte
and titrant have reacted.
• Equivalence point – point at which the
reaction is exactly completed.
• End point where the titration actually stops at
which occurs a sudden change in some
property of the reaction mixture.
 Volumetric method of analysis
• Types of titration
1. Direct titration (one titrant)
ex. Assay of HCl using NaOH as the titrant
2. Residual or back titration (2 titrants)
ex. Assay of ZnO
Result in the drug assay is expressed in:
% w/v;
% v/v;
% w/w
• Titrations may be conducted by:
1. Direct titration- is the treatment of a soluble substance,
contained in solution in a suitable vessel (the titrate)
with an appropriate standard solution (the titrant), the
endpoint being determined instrumentally or visually
with the aid of a suitable indicator.
2. Residual titration is the addition of a measured volume
of a volumetric solution, in excess of the amount
actually needed to react with the substance being
assayed, the excess of the solution then being titrated
with a second volumetric solution. This constitutes a
residual titration and is known also as back titration.
• What is the % w/w of sodium hydroxide
(MW40) in 1.5 sample of soda if it uses 15.25
mL of 0.5N HCl in the titration using
phenolphthalein as the indicator?
N x V x mEq wt
% w/w = --------------------------- x 100
weight of the sample
• If a sample of sodium carbonate (MW106) weighing
1.932g required 32.10 mL of HCl in the titration,
what is the normality of the acid?
wt of the solute (analyte,sample)
1) N = ---------------------------------------
volume (mL) x mEq wt (solute)

wt of the solute (sample)

-------------------------
mEq wt of the solute (sample)
2) N = -------------------------------------
volume (mL)
If 20 mL of HCl required 24.60 mL of 0.0925 N NaOH, what is
the normality of the acid?

Na x Va = Nb x Vb

number of mEq
N = ---------------------------
Volume (mL)

wt of the solute (sample)

-------------------------------- = N x V (s.s.)
mEq wt of the solute (sample)
 Volumetric Method of Analysis
• In Titratimetric analysis it is convenient to use
equivalence.
• Principle in equivalence for calculation
purposes:
– One equivalent of acid neutralizes exactly one
equivalent of a base
 Volumetric Method of Analysis
• Gram-equivalent weight – defined as the
weight in grams which is chemically
equivalent to 1 gram-atom of Hydrogen
• Equivalent is defined as the number of gram-
equivalents involved in quantitative procedure
Example: H2S04
• Milliequivalent (meq) defined as gram –
milliequivalents involved in quantitative
analysis
 Volumetric Method of Analysis
• Titer – weight of a substance chemically
equivalent to 1mL of a standard solution
• Ex. Monograph of titers of standard solution:
Each mL of 0.1N HCl is equivalent to 3.705 mg of
Ca(OH)2.
The titer of Ca(OH)2 in 0.1N HCl is therefore
3.705mg/mL
• Standard solution – is a solution of known
concentration (normality/molarity)
Example: HCl, H2S04
• Standardization – the determination of the
concentration of the solution
 Volumetric Method of Analysis
• Standardization may be accomplished:
1. by the use of a substance of known purity
which is termed as primary standard.
Ex. HCl can be standardized titrimetrically
using Na2C03 as the primary standard
2. using another standard solution known as
secondary standard.
Ex. HCl can be standardized using NaOH
solution
• What is a primary standard?
– It is a carefully weighed sample of a substance of
known purity
– The primary standard is used to standardize
solutions acids or bases.
Example : Sodium carbonate is the primary standard
used to standardize acid standard solution like HCl
and sulfuric acid.
Volumentric....
• Sample problems:
1. If a sample of Na2C03 weighing 1.6250g
required 30.20mL of the acid in the titration,
what is the Normality of the solution?
2. If 25 mL of HCl required 24.60mL of 0.1N
NaOH, what is the Normality of the acid?
Volumetric....
• Standard solution
– Acids Primary standard use is Na2CO3
• H2SO4
• HCl
– Bases Primary standard used is KHC8H4O4
• KOH
• NaOH
Volumetric...
• Volumetric apparatus have 2 types:
1. Made to deliver a definite volume of liquid
example: buret and pipet
2. Made to contain a definite volume of liquid
examples: volumetric flask
graduated cylinder
Temperature:

specified in the USP and NF for volumetric

instruments is 25⁰ C
 Processes in Volumetric analysis
1. neutralization in aqueous and non-aqueous
solution
2. Redox- Oxidation reduction reaction
3. Precipitation
4. Complexation
Volumetric...
• Neutralization reaction – are chemical
process in which an acid (proton donor) reacts
with a base (proton acceptor). The products of
a neutralization reaction in aqueous solution
are water and salt.
• Examples of Chemical reaction in
neutralization
Indicators
• Are complex organic compounds used to:
1. Determine the end points in neutralization
process
2. Determine the hydrogen ion concentrations
3. Indicate that a desired change in pH has been
effected.
These organic substances may be acids or bases
themselves.
• Rules for the use of indicators:
1. Use 3 drops of the solution for titration unless otherwise
directed
2. When strong acid is titrated with strong base or strong alkali
with strong acid, methyl orange, methyl red, or
phenolphthalein may be used
3. When a weak acid is titrated with a strong base, use
phenolphthalein as the indicator
4. When a weak alkali is titrated with a strong acid, use methyl
red as the indicator
5. A weak alkali should never be titrated with a weak acid, or
vice versa, since no indicator will give a sharp end point
6. The appearance of a color is more observable than is the
disappearance. Therefore always titrate where possible to
the appearance of a color
Volumetric....
• Neutralization
2 types:
1. acidimetry – determination of base using acid
standard solution
2. Alkalimetry – determination of acid using
standard alkali solution
Volumetric...
• Acidimetry
• Direct titration method – conducted by
introducing standard acid solution gradually
from a burette
• Properties:
– Reactions are rapid
– Sharp end point
– One titrant
Volumetric...
Sample problem.
1. What is the %w/w of the active constituents
in 1 g of caustic soda (NaOH) if it uses 15.25
mL of 0.5NHCl in the titration using
phenolphthalein as an indicator?
2. Calculate the % of Na2C03 in 500mg Soda
ash (Na2C03) using 0.100N of 26.20 mL of
sulfuric acid in the titration to reach the end
point of methyl orange.
Volumetric...
• 3. If 0.2800g sample of sodium bicarbonate
(96.54%NaHC03) is titrated with 0.9165N
sulfuric acid, what volume of the acid should
be required to produce an end point?
• Residual or Back titration
– Reactions are slow
– Solute may be insoluble in water
– 2 titrants
When to use:
1. Reaction with acid standard standard solution is
relatively slow
2. When the substance to be assayed does not give
a distinct, sharp end point with an indicator by
direct titration
3. When the sample is insoluble in water
Volumetric...
• 1. If a sample of Magnesia magma weighing
5.2430g when dissolved in 25mL of 0.9915N
H2S04 required 9.85mL of 1.1402N NaOH to
titrate the excess acid, calculate the % if
Magnesium hydroxide in the sample
Volumetric...
2. What is the %w/w of Magnesium Hydroxide
in 1g Milk of Magnesia which was treated with
18.20mL of 0.2N HCl and titrated with 12.35
mL of 0.04N NaOH using M.R. as indicator
 Nitrogen determination by
Kjeldahl method

• Organic material

digested w/ conc H2S04 in the presence of a catalyst

• Converted to
NH4HS04
Added w/ excess strong NaOH

• NH3 gas is liberated and absorbed in a

measured amount of standard acid solution
solution
 Non-aqueous Titrimetric Analysis
• Neutralization in Non-aqueous Medium
• With introduction of many new complex
organic medicinal agents, the problems of
quality control increased due to the
characteristic of the therapeutic agents such
as their;
• Poor solubility in water
• Weakly reactivity in water
• Moisture is to be avoided in using nonaqueous
procedures, since water (H2O) being weakly
basic would compete with the weak nitrogen
base for the perchloric acid (HClO4) and the
sharpness of the end point would be lost.
• Acidimetry in nonaqueous solvents
• Water competes with the basic species in
solution to the proton of the titrant
• Water has amphoteric properties, it may act
as acid or base depending upon the
experimental conditions
• To conduct the titrations of weak bases, the
solvent must be changed:
– In order to eliminate the competing chemical
reaction of water for the proton
– To increase the strength of the basic species
• The titrimetric analysis of a number of weakly
basic substances (analyte) in glacial acetic
acid (solvent) using a standard solution of
perchloric acid (HClO4) as the titrant.
• These compounds are:
– Amines
– Amine salts
– Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds
– Alkali salts of organic acids, alkali salts of weak
inorganic acids
– Amino acids
• Solvent used in acidimetric titrimetry are
either relatively neutral or acidic in nature
• The choice of solvent is determined by the
basic character of the substance to be
assayed.
• Titrant. The most valuable and widely used
titrant is perchloric acid in glacial acetic acid
or the relatively neutral solvent dioxane
• The indicators for weak bases and their salts
indicators used:
– Crystal violet, methyl rosaniline chloride,
quinaldine red, α-naphtholbenzein & malachite
green
• With relatively stronger bases indicators used:
– Methyl red, methyl orange & thymol blue
• To standardize perchloric acid the primary
standard used is: Potassium biphthalate
– KHC8H4O4 MW 204.22
• Alkalimetry in nonaqueous solvents
• Solvents. The proper choice of base solvent
can enhance the acid strength of weakly acid
compounds so that they can be titrated with
standard solution .
• Factors which can be considered in choosing a
base solvent:
1. solubility of the substance to be analyzed
2. the relative base strength of the solvent
3. sharpness of the end point
4. nonreactivity of the solvent
• Solvents
– Ethylenediamine
– Dimethylformamide
– Pyridine
• Titrants/standard solution
– Sodium methoxide
– Lithium methoxide

• Primary standard
– Benzoic acid
Indicators:
• Thymol blue
• Azo violet
• o-Nitroaniline
 Precipitation and Complexation
Methods of analysis
• Volumetric precipitimetry requires the
formation of relatively insoluble substances or
precipitates to cause the reactions to go to
sufficient completion to be quantitative in
nature.
• Determination of end point
• Cessation of precipitation or the appearance
of a turbidity
• Use of internal indicators
• Instrumental methods
• Indicators
– Ferric ammonium sulfate
– Potassium chromate
– Adsorption indicators

• Standard solutions
– 0.1 N silver nitrate
– 0.1N ammonium thiocyanate
Standardization of Silver Nitrate
• Diluted HCl
Chemical reaction :
AgNO3 + HCl AgCl + HNO3
white curdy ppt
Standardization of Ammonium thiocyanate

Chemical reactions:
AgNO3 + NH4SCN AgSCN + NH4NO3
White ppt

FeNH4 (SO4)2 + 3NH4SCN Fe(SCN)3 + 2(NH4)2SO4

red color
 Volumetric precipitation
• Direct titration
– Ammonium thiocyanate
• Residual or back titration
– Silver nitrate in excess
– Ammonium thiocyanate
Residual titration : Volhard method

A sample of 0.2182 sodium chloride was assayed

by Volhard method using 50 mL of 0.0985 N
silver nitrate and 11.75 mL of 0.1340N
ammonium thiocyanate. Calculate the % of
sodium chloride in the sample.
Volumetric precipitation
 Complexation methods
• Metal ions such as Al3+, Bi 3+, Ca2++, Mg2++
and Zn2++

• Analytical reagent disodium

ethylenediaminetetracetate (EDTA)
– Metal –ion indicators used
• Complexation reaction
• When a metal ion combines with a molecule
which can donate electrons, the resulting
compound is termed as complex.
• If the combining molecule contains two or
more groups that donate electrons, this
complex is called chelate.
• EDTA will react with metal ions to form a
water – soluble, stable complex, or chelate
compound.
• The reaction is rapid and quantitative with
such polyvalent metal ions as:
– Al+3 Bi +3 Ca +2 Mg +2
• Monovalent metal ions yield relatively weak
or unstable complexes.

• Hexadentate- the four oxygen and the two

nitrogen atoms of the EDTA molecule capable
of entering a complexation reaction with a
metal ion would make it a hexadentate
molecule
Ligand – is the EDTA molecule which provides
groups for attachment to metal ions
• Standard solution

• EDTA titrations

• Indicators
– EDTA titration indicators are organic compounds
which form colored complex ions with the metal
ion in high dilution
• Indicators used in EDTA titrations
– Hydroxynaphthol blue (hnb)
– Eriochrome black
– Pyridylaxonaphthol
– Xylenol (xyo) orange
• Preparation and standardization of 0.05M
Disodium Ethylenediaminetetraacetate
– Primary standard : Calcium carbonate
– Indicator: hnb
– End point : blue
• Masking – determination of metal in the
presence of another metal
• Mechanism of masking – It is accomplished by
adjusting the pH titration medium so that it
will be favorable to the metal being
determined.
• Residual titrations (standard Solutions)
– EDTA
– ZINC SULFATE

• Metal ions
– Ca++, Mg ++, Zn++ (direct titration)
– Bi+++, Al+++ (residual titration)
Oxidation – Reduction Reaction
• Rules in assigning oxidation number:
1. The oxidation state of an element in free
state is zero (0).
This includes polyatomic elements.
2. The oxidation state of a monoatomic ion
is the same as the charge on that ion.
a) alkali metal ions are always +1
b) alkaline earth ions are always +2
3. The halogens are in a -1 oxidation state
in binary (2 element) compound
4. Oxygen in a compound is usually -2. certain
compounds called peroxides or superoxides
contain O in a lower negative oxidation state.
5. Hydrogen in a compound is usually +1

6. The sum of the oxidation states of all the

atoms in compound is equal to zero (0).

For polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation

state equals the charge on the ion.
• OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION
• Permanganate methods

• Ceric sulphate

• Iodimetry

• Iodometry
• Permanganate methods
Characteristics:
• Reaction of permanganate is solution are
rapid
• Potassium permanganate serves as indicator
itself
• Oxidation-reduction reaction methods of
analysis involve a change in valence of the
reacting substances
• Oxidizing agent – is the reactant that gains
electrons in the redox reaction. It is identified
by the decrease in oxidation state. KMnO4

• Reducing agent- is the reactant that losses

electrons in the redox reaction. It is identified
by the increase in oxidation state. Na2C2O4
Oxidizing agents:
• KMn04
• K2Cr207
• Ce(S04)2
Reducing agents
• FeS04
• Na2C204
• H2C204
• Na2S203 – Sodium thiosulfate
Half-reaction illustrates the gain or loss of
electrons in a separate balanced equation
Permanganate ion Manganous ion
MnO4- + 5 e Mn++

Oxalate ion Carbon dioxide

C2O4 2- 2CO2 + 2 e
• Equivalent weight and mEq wt. computation:
• Oxidizing agent
Eq wt = MW
____________
no. of e gained

mEq wt. = MW
____________
no. of e gained x 1000
• Example.
• KMnO4 - oxidizing agent

KMnO4 + 5e Mn++
• Reducing agent:
Eq wt = MW
__________
no. of e lost

mEq wt = MW
_____________
no. of e lost x 1000
• Sodium oxalate – reducing agent

Na2C2O4 2CO2 + 2e
• Permanganate process
• Characteristics:
– Can be standardized easily
– It retains its concentration over a long period of
time when proper precaution are observed in its
preparation and preservation
– Reaction of permanganate in solution are rapid
– It serves as the indicator in titration
• Permanganate Methods
• Standardization of Potassium permanganate
• Primary standard – sodium oxalate, since it can
be obtained in a very pure condition
• Sufficient sulfuric acid must be added to keep
the hydrogen – ion concentration reasonably
constant throughout the titration, thereby
preventing the formation of manganese dioxide
and supplying the hydrogen ions used up in the
reduction of the permanganate ion.
• For every mole of permanganate ion reduced, 8
mol of hydrogen ion is required.
The half-reactions are:

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5 e Mn++ + 4H2O

And
C2O4 2- 2CO2 + 2 e

5Na2C2O4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4

2MnSO4 + 5Na2SO4 + K2SO4 + 10 CO2 + 8 H2O

• Direct titration methods
• Assay of Hydrogen Peroxide Solution
• 20 mL diluted sulfuric acid
• O.1N potassium permanganate

5H2O2 + 2KMnO4 + 3 H2SO4

5O2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H20
• Indirect titration
• The indirect titration of permanganate oxidation is
employed with those compounds that can be
converted through chemical reactions to an
equivalent amount of oxalate, which can be
quantitatively oxidized by the permanganate.
• Assay of Cherry juice for Malic Acid
The content of cherry juice, the malic acid is
converted to an equivalent amount of calcium salt,
which is converted to insoluble to calcium oxalate;
the oxalate is then liberated and oxidized with
permanganate.
• Residual titration methods
• The residual titrations in the official assays with
potassium permanganate solution are of two
types:
1. titration in which an excess of standard
potassium permanganate solution is employed to
oxidize a substance and the amount in excess is
determined by reduction with:
a) excess standard oxalic acid, or
b) excess ferrous ammonium sulfate
And back titration with standard potassium
permanganate
• 2. titration in which an excess of standard oxalic
acid solution is added to the substance and the
excess oxalic acid is titrated with standard
potassium permanganate.
Ceric sulfate titration methods
• Ceric sulfate solution in diluted sulfuric acid is a
strong oxidizing agent and more stable than
standard permanganate solutions, provided
sufficient sulfuric acid is present:
a)To prevent hydrolysis
b) To prevent precipitation of salts

Ceric ion Cerous ion

Ce 4+ + e Ce 3+
• Advantages of ceric sulfate solutions over permanganate
and dichromate:
1. the solutions are stable even on boiling
2. they react quantitatively with oxalate or arsenite ion,
and either sodium oxalate or arsenic trioxide (AS2O3) may be
used as primary standard.
3. Cerous ion is colorless and does not obscure the
indicator end point
4. no intermediate products are formed in the
reduction of ceric cerium
5. rather high concentrations of chloride ion are not
oxidized by ceric salts, so the ferrous iron can be determined
in the presence of chlorides
6. the ferrous phenanthroline ion (ferroin) is a very
satisfactory indicator in titrations with ceric salts.
• Standardization of Ceric sulfate Ce (SO4) 2
• Primary standard – Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
• Indicator – orthophenathroline TS
• End point – change of color from pink color to
very pale blue

Arsenic Trioxide (reducing agent) to Arsenate ion

As2O3 2AsO43- + 4 e

Ceric ion (oxidizing agent) to Cerous ion

Ce 4+ + e Ce 3+
IODIMETRY
Standardization of Iodine Solution
Primary standard : Asenic Trioxide (As2O3)
Indicator: starch
End point: blue color
Half reactions:

Iodine (oxidizing agent)

I2 + 2e 2I -

Arsenic Trioxide (reducing agent) to Arsenate ion

As2O3 2AsO43- + 4 e
IODOMETRY
• Iodometry is considered indirect titration since the
samples of oxidizing agents do not react with
Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) directly but with the
added potassium iodide (KI) as the reducing agent
liberating Iodine which in turn reacts with Na2S2O3

Standardization of Sodium thiosulfate

Primary standard: Potassium dichromate
Indicator: starch
End point: disappearance of blue color
• Half reactions:

Iodine (oxidizing agent)

I2 + 2e 2I -

Dichromate ion (oxidizing agent)

Cr2O7 2- + 6e 2Cr 3+

Thiosulfate ion (reducing agent)

Thiosulfate ion to tetrathionate ion
2S2O3 2- S4O6 2- + 2e
 Special Methods used in
Pharmaceutical Analyses
Ash and Water Determinations
The ash content of the crude drugs is generally
taken to be the residue after incineration
• it represents the inorganic salts naturally
occurring in the drug and adhering to it.
• It may also include inorganic matter added for
the purpose of adulteration.
• Furnishes a basis for judging the identity and
cleanliness of a drug and gives information
relative to its adulteration with inorganic matter.
Total ash – is the residue remaining after incineration
wt of the ash
% total ash = ------------------- x 100
wt of the ash
Acid-insoluble ash- is the part of the total ash which is
insoluble in diluted hydrochloric acid.
wt of the acid-insol ash
% acid – insoluble ash = ---------------- x 100
wt of sample
• The ash or residue yielded by an organic chemical
compound is, as a rule, a measure of the amount of
inorganic matter present as impurity.
• In most cases, the inorganic matter is present in small
amounts which are difficult to remove in the purification
process and which are not objectionable if only traces are
present.
Control of temperature is the most important analytical
factor to regulate in making ash determinations.
Description of heat with their corresponding temperature
Very-dull –red heat = 500 - 550°C
Dull-red heat = 550 – 700°C
Bright – red heat = 800 - 1000°C
Yellow-red heat = 1000 - 1200°C
White – red heat = 1200 - 1600°C
• Residue on Ignition
The ash content of chemicals is determined by
ignition to dull redness in the same manner as in the
determination of the ash content of a crude drug.

• Loss on Ignition
Provides a means of determining the percentage of
test material which volatilized and driven off
under condition specified.

wt of sample – wt of ash
% LOI = --------------------------------- x 100
wt of sample
Water content:
Forms of water in drugs:
1. Water of crystallization
2. Water in the adsorbed form
Water content is generally determined by one of 6
methods:
1. gravimetric, for drugs containing no constituents,
other than water, volatile at 105°C
2. Gravimetric, for drugs containing ether-soluble
constituents volatile at 105°C
3. Azeotropic (toluene distillation)
4. Titrimetric (Karl Fischer)
5. Dew point
6. Electrolytic hygrometric
Extractive and Crude Fiber Content
Different methods of extraction
The Soxhlet Apparatus for extraction

• Alcohol- soluble extractive

Alcohol is a good solvent for resinous matter.
Determination of alcohol-soluble extractive is most
frequently employed to determine approximately the
amount of resin in drugs in which resinous matter is the
important constituent.
• Solvent Hexane-soluble extractive
Solvent hexane is a good solvent for fats and fatty oils.

• Crude fiber content of a drug is the residue,

consisting chiefly of cellulose that remains
undissolved after successive treatment with boiling
acid and alkali.