Module 5

• Comparisons of different battery modelling techniques

• Introduction to relevant software (COMSOL, Simulink)
• Classification of battery packs
• Handling & storage of Battery packs
• life cycle of batteries
• Recycling of battery packs
• Battery economy
• Industrialization challenges
• Future Direction of Energy Storage
Classification of battery packs
• Key Elements of a Battery Pack
• Electrical Design:
• How cells are connected in series and parallel.
• Proper bus-bar design to carry the required current.
• Thermal Design:
• Temperature significantly impacts cell life.
• Optimal temperature range: 15-35°C.
• Environmental factors affecting temperature (e.g., Leh and Ladakh,
Rajasthan).
• Mechanical Design:
• Ensuring the battery pack's structural integrity.
• Durability and performance under various conditions.
• Importance of Electrical Design
• Proper Connection of Cells:
• Series increases voltage.
• Parallel increases capacity.
• Bus-Bar Design:
• Ensures efficient current flow.
• Prevents electrical fires due to short circuits.
• Safety Measures:
• Proper insulation and design to prevent high voltage hazards.
• Importance of Thermal Design
• Optimal Temperature Management:
• Enhances cell and pack life.
• Ensures efficient operation within the temperature range.
• Environmental Considerations:
• Handling extreme temperatures and moisture levels.
• Examples: Leh (cold), Rajasthan (hot), Assam (humid).
• Thermal Management Systems:
• Use of cooling jackets, safety valves, and thermistors to maintain temperature.
• Importance of Mechanical Design
• Structural Integrity:
• Battery pack must withstand crashes and extreme conditions.
• Safety and Reliability:
• Ensuring the pack remains intact during vibrations, shocks, and impacts.
• Material Selection:
• Lightweight yet durable materials to enhance performance and safety.
• Durability:
• Design for long-term use under various conditions.
• Battery Management System (BMS)
• Role of BMS:
• Controls current flow during charge and discharge cycles.
• Monitors and manages cell temperatures and voltages.
• Communicates with subsystems and external systems.
• Safety Functions:
• Prevents overcharging and overheating.
• Logs critical events for diagnostics and future service.
• Ensures optimal performance and safety of the battery pack.
• Electrical Design Details
• Capacity, Voltage, and Current:
• Series-parallel configuration for achieving desired specifications.
• High Voltage Isolation:
• Ensures safety at higher voltage levels.
• Short Circuit Prevention:
• Proper design to prevent short circuits and ensure efficient power delivery.
• Thermal Design Details
• Pack Efficiency:
• Maintains optimal temperature range for efficient operation.
• Improved Cell Life:
• Proper heat management to extend cell and pack life.
• Environmental Adaptability:
• Design considerations for various environmental conditions.
• Mechanical Design Details
• Crash and Shock Resistance:
• Ensuring the battery pack withstands extreme conditions.
• Cost-Effective Materials:
• Balance between safety and cost with appropriate material selection.
• Ease of Assembly and Service:
• Facilitates efficient manufacturing and maintenance processes.
• Compact and Lightweight Design:
• Minimizes volume and weight while maximizing energy density.
• Battery Management System Design
• Maintaining Operational Limits:
• Ensures cells operate within safe voltage, current, and temperature ranges.
• Safety Measures:
• Prevents unsafe conditions like overcharging, overheating, and short circuits.
• Communication:
• Interfaces with motor, charger, driver, and external systems for optimal performance.
• Event Logging:
• Records critical events to assist in diagnostics and maintenance.
• Stages of Battery Pack Design
• Cell Configuration:
• Series-parallel arrangement to achieve desired voltage and capacity.
• Structure:
• Incorporates mechanical, electrical, and thermal components.
• Safety:
• Includes measures for vibration, shock, and crash protection.
• Control:
• Monitoring and managing operational limits and ensuring safety.
• Applications:
• Interfaces with subsystems, displays, and telemetry for real-time monitoring
and control.
• Battery Pack Components
• Introduction: Overview of small battery pack components
• Components List:
• Battery Cells
• Insulation
• Base Plate
• Side Strips
• End Plates
• Cold Plate
• Bus Bar and Bus Bar Holder
• Thermistor and Voltage Sensors
• Wiring Harness
• Battery Management System (BMS)
• Outer Casing
• Battery Cells and Insulation
• Battery Cells:
• Types: Cylindrical, Prismatic, Pouch
• Materials: Metal casing for EV applications
• Terminals: Positive and negative, potential risks
• Insulation:
• Purpose: Prevents local loops and leakage current
• Challenges: Balancing electrical insulation and thermal dissipation
• Structural Components
• Base Plate:
• Function: Holds cells together, protects against vibration
• Side Strips and End Plates:
• Function: Apply uniform pressure to prevent cell bulging, increase battery
life
• Cooling and Electrical Connections
• Cold Plate:
• Function: Maintains optimal temperature
• Bus Bar and Holder:
• Function: Connect cells in series and parallel, ensures efficient energy flow and
prevents short circuits
• Thermistor and Voltage Sensors:
• Role: Measure temperature and voltage, communicate with BMS
• Wiring Harness and BMS
• Wiring Harness:
• Function: Facilitates efficient energy and signal flow
• Battery Management System (BMS):
• Role: Monitors and controls battery parameters, communicates with motor and
controller
• Outer Casing and Environmental Protection
• Outer Casing:
• Purpose: Protects battery pack from environmental conditions like water and dust,
ensures safety during crashes
• Overall Structure:
• Components: Battery cells, thermistor, voltage sensor, insulation pad, base plate, cold
plate, outer casing, bus bar, bus bar holder, side strip, wiring harness, end plates, BMS
• Consistency: Components remain the same regardless of battery pack size
• Mechanical Design Considerations
• Material Selection:
• Criteria: Cost, availability, strength, non-hazardous, non-toxic
• Base Plate Design:
• Function: Supports and secures cells
• Cell Movement:
• Prevention: Ensure minimal movement for safety and longevity
• Uniform Pressure:
• Importance: Prevents cell bulging, extends cell life
• Cost Optimization and Outer Casing Design
• Material Cost Optimization:
• Balancing strength and budget
• Outer Casing Design:
• Protection: Overall safety, environmental shielding
• Bus Bar and Packaging Constraints:
• Considerations: Vehicle space limitations, irregular shapes
• Battery Pack Construction Example
• Example Cell:
• Capacity: 15 Ah
• Voltage: 3.65V
• Dimensions: Length 17mm, Breadth 65.4mm, Height 126mm
• Configuration:
• Parallel (8P): Increases Ah to 120 Ah
• Series (8S): Increases voltage to 29.2V
• Combined (8P 8S): Results in 3.6 kWh battery pack
Case Study: Two-Wheeler Electric Scooter
•Range Requirement
•Designed for a 75 km range
•Energy Consumption
•Average consumption: 16.5 Wh/km
•Auxiliary systems consumption: 2 Wh/km
•Total: 18.5 Wh/km
• Energy Calculation
• Total Energy Requirement
• For 75 km: 75 * 18.5 Wh/km ≈ 1.4 kWh
• Depth of Discharge (DoD)
• 80% DoD (10%-90% battery charge)
• Adjusted energy requirement: 1.4 kWh / 0.8 ≈ 1.7 kWh
• Battery Pack Design
• Current Requirement
• Nominal operating voltage: 60V
• Calculated current: 1.7 kWh / 60V ≈ 28.3A
• Cell Configuration
• Using 15 Ah cells
• 2 cells in parallel to achieve 30 Ah
• Series Configuration
• Number of Cells in Series
• Nominal voltage per cell: 3.65V
• Cells in series: 60V / 3.65V ≈ 16.4
• Decision: 16 cells in series
• Voltage Range
• Operating range: 50V to 70V
• Final Pack Configuration
• Configuration
• 2 parallel cells, 16 cells in series (2P16S)
• Total cells: 32
• Weight and Packaging
• Total weight: 10.24 kg
• Arrangement: 2 rows of 2P8S
• Forces on the Battery Pack
• Types of Forces
• Tension on side strips
• Bending on end plates
• Load on base plate
• Shear on bus bar
 BEST STORAGE AND USE PRACTICES
• Procurement
• Purchase batteries from a reputable manufacturer or supplier.
• Avoid batteries shipped without protective packaging (i.e., hard plastic or
equal)
• Inspect batteries upon receipt and safely dispose of damaged batteries.
• Storage
• Store batteries away from combustible materials.
• Remove batteries from the device for long-term storage.
• Store the batteries at temperatures between 5°C and 20°C (41°F and 68°F).
• Separate fresh and depleted cells (or keep a log).
• If practical, store batteries in a metal storage cabinets.
• Avoid bulk-storage in non-laboratory areas such as offices.
• Visually inspect battery storage areas at least weekly.
• Charge batteries in storage to approximately 50% of capacity at least once
every six months
Chargers and Charging Practice
• Never charge a primary (disposable lithium or alkaline) battery; store
one-time use batteries separately.
• Charge or discharge the battery to approximately 50% of capacity
before long-term storage.
• Use chargers or charging methods designed to charge in a safe manner
cells or battery packs at the specified parameters.
• Disconnect batteries immediately if, during operation or charging, they
emit an unusual smell, develop heat, change shape/geometry, or
behave abnormally. Dispose of the batteries.
• Remove cells and pack from chargers promptly after charging is
complete. Do not use the charger as a storage location.
• Charge and store batteries in a fire-retardant container like a high
quality LiPo Sack when practical.
• Do not parallel charge batteries of varying age and charge status; chargers
cannot monitor the current of individual cells and initial voltage balancing
can lead to high amperage, battery damage, and heat generation. Check
voltage before parallel charging; all batteries should be within 0.5 Volts of
each other.
• Do not overcharge (greater than 4.2V for most batteries) or over-discharge
(below 3V) batteries.
• Handling and Use
• Handle batteries and or battery-powered devices cautiously to not damage
the battery casing or connections.
• Keepaway batteries from contacting conductive materials, water,
seawater, strong oxidizers and strong acids.
• Do not place batteries in direct sunlight, on hot surfaces or in hot
locations.
• Inspect batteries for signs of damage before use. Never use and promptly
dispose of damaged or puffy batteries.
• Keep all flammable materials away from operating area.
• Allow time for cooling before charging a battery that is still warm from
usage and using a battery that is still warm from charging.
• Consider cell casing construction (soft with vents) and protective
shielding for battery research and experimental or evolving
application and use.
• Disposal
• Dispose of damaged cells and cells that no longer hold a substantial
charge. To check the general condition of your cells, charge them, let
them rest for an hour, then measure the voltage. If your cells are
close to 4.2V, the cells are in good condition.
• Dispose of used batteries by taking them to an e. Media bin (if less
than five pounds) or by completing an Online Chemical Waste
Collection Request
life cycle of batteries
• The battery life cycle refers to the duration a battery remains functional from its
initial use until it can no longer perform effectively or is replaced. It is crucial for
determining the efficiency, performance, and cost-effectiveness of a battery.
• Stages of the Battery Life Cycle
• Production:
• Mining and processing of raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and
graphite.
• Assembling battery cells and packs, which includes processes like electrode
fabrication, cell assembly, and pack formation.
• Usage:
• The battery is used in devices or vehicles, where it discharges energy to perform
work (e.g., powering an electric vehicle or a mobile phone).
• The battery undergoes regular charge-discharge cycles.
• Maintenance:
• Regular checks for performance and health, including charge state and
cycle count.
• Reconditioning (if applicable): Periodic balancing or maintenance to
prolong battery life.
• End-of-Life:
• The battery's performance degrades to the point where it cannot meet its
specifications effectively.
• Safe disposal or recycling of the battery according to regulations.
Recycling/Second-Life
• Applications:
• Extracting valuable materials from old batteries for new battery production.
• Repurposing old batteries for less demanding applications, such as
stationary energy storage.
 Factors Affecting Battery Life Cycle
•Charge-Discharge Cycles:
•A cycle refers to one complete charge and discharge. Batteries have a finite
number of cycles before they degrade.
•Depth of Discharge (DoD):
•The extent to which a battery is discharged before being recharged. Deeper
discharges reduce battery life.
•Charge Rate and Discharge Rate:
•High charge/discharge rates can lead to increased wear and reduce battery
life.
•Temperature:
•Extreme temperatures can affect the chemical reactions inside the battery,
leading to faster degradation.
•State of Charge (SoC):
•Keeping the battery at extreme high or low states of charge can affect its
life.
Procedure to Calculate Battery Life Cycle
• Determine Battery Parameters:
• Capacity (C): Total charge a battery can hold, measured in
ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh).
• Cycle Life (N): Number of charge-discharge cycles the battery
can go through before its capacity falls below 80% of its original
capacity.
• Depth of Discharge (DoD): Percentage of the battery’s total
capacity used in each cycle.
• Calculate Expected Battery Life:
• Equation for Cycle Life:
• Example Calculation:
• Capacity of Battery: 100 Ah
• DoD: 50% (You use half of the battery’s capacity per cycle)
• Cycle Life: 1000 cycles
• Effective Life Calculation:
• If you use 50% DoD each cycle:
• Effective Cycle Life=1000 cycles×0.5 DoD=500 cycles
• Estimate Battery Lifetime in Time:
• Battery Lifetime=Effective Cycle Life×Cycle Duration
Recycling of battery packs
• 1. Collection and Transportation
• Used battery packs are collected from various sources, including EV
manufacturers, repair shops, and recycling centers.
• They are then transported to recycling facilities in compliance with
safety regulations due to their hazardous nature.
• 2. Disassembly
• Battery packs are disassembled to separate different components,
such as the casing, wiring, and individual battery cells.
• This step often requires manual labor or automated systems to safely
handle and dismantle the batteries.
3. Material Separation
• The disassembled battery components are further processed to separate valuable
materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and other metals. This is typically
done using mechanical and chemical processes:
• Mechanical processes: Include shredding and crushing the batteries to reduce them to
smaller pieces.
• Chemical processes: Involve leaching and solvent extraction to recover metals.

4. Recycling Methods
• Several recycling methods are used to recover materials from battery packs:
• Pyrometallurgical: This method involves high-temperature smelting to recover metals.
It is energy-intensive and may release harmful emissions.
• Hydrometallurgical: Uses aqueous solutions to leach metals from the battery
materials. This method is considered more environmentally friendly and allows for the
recovery of a wider range of materials.
• Direct recycling: Involves reusing battery components directly after reconditioning,
without breaking them down into elemental materials. This method is still under
research and development.
• 5. Reuse and Repurposing
• Some battery packs that still have a significant capacity can be
repurposed for secondary applications, such as energy storage systems
for renewable energy sources. This extends the life of the batteries and
reduces the demand for new batteries.
• 6. Environmental and Safety Considerations
• Handling and recycling battery packs involve addressing several
environmental and safety concerns:
• Hazardous materials: Proper handling and disposal of hazardous
substances like electrolytes and heavy metals are essential to prevent
environmental contamination.
• Energy consumption: Recycling processes should aim to minimize energy
use to ensure the overall sustainability of the process.
• Regulatory compliance: Facilities must comply with local, national, and
international regulations regarding hazardous waste management and
recycling standards.
Recycling of
battery
packs
Battery economy
• Growth Comparison: Li-Ion vs. Lead-Acid Batteries:
• Li-Ion battery growth rate is higher.
• Lead-Acid batteries have a long-established market.
• Limitations:
• Limited lithium resources pose challenges.
• Example: India signed an MoU with Bolivia for lithium imports to develop
domestic lithium-based factories.
•Reducing Oil Imports:
•India's 2017-18 oil import bill: ~$90 billion.
•Potential reduction to $60 billion by 2030 with full electric vehicle (EV)
adoption.
•Resource Limitations:
•Lithium, like fossil fuels, is finite and extracted through mining.
•Potential for resource depletion similar to fossil fuels.
•EV Challenges: Higher CO2 emissions if battery range is low, low recharge
station availability, and limited lithium resources.
•Panasonic's Eco-Friendly Batteries:
•Launched in 2010, eliminating cadmium and mercury.
•Benefits: Reduced health risks and environmental impact, increased turnover.
•Technological Advancements:
•Collaboration with various companies for innovation and cost reduction.
•Examples:
•2013: Shin Kobe for cost-effective automotive batteries.
•2014: Exide's recycling plants.
•2016: Solarblitz batteries for solar energy.
•2017: Advanced lead-acid batteries with East Penn Manufacturing.
•2018: Epiq batteries with 6-year warranty, highest in India.
•Economic Growth:
•Growing need for batteries boosts economy.
•Increased turnover for companies with innovations.
•Example: Eveready Battery Company's turnover growth over the century.
•Employment Opportunities:
•Increased demand for batteries creates more jobs.
•Safe and sustainable battery production ensures long-term employability.

ISRO's Battery Technology Sharing:

Collaboration with 10 major battery companies.
Aim: Enhance battery technology and production.

NASA's Electric Airplane:

Introduction of the first electric airplane.
India's Electric Future:
National interest in achieving full electric mobility by 2040.
Importance of international collaborations in technology and resource
sharing.
Industrialization challenges
• Resource Limitations and Supply Chain Issues
• Resource Scarcity:
• Limited availability of key materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
• Environmental and geopolitical risks associated with mining these
materials.
• Supply Chain Complexities:
• Global supply chain dependencies.
• Fluctuating prices and supply instability.
• Transportation and logistical challenges.
•Technological and Manufacturing Challenges

•Technology Development:
•Need for continuous innovation to improve battery performance, safety,
and longevity.
•Integration of advanced materials and new chemistries.
•Manufacturing Scalability:
•Scaling production from lab to factory while maintaining quality and
consistency.
•High initial capital investment for setting up manufacturing plants.
•Ensuring efficient and cost-effective production processes.
• Environmental and Regulatory Challenges

• Environmental Impact:
• Mining and production processes leading to ecological damage
and pollution.
• Managing battery waste and recycling.
• Reducing the carbon footprint of battery manufacturing.
• Regulatory Compliance:
• Navigating different regulations across countries and regions.
• Ensuring compliance with environmental, safety, and labor
standards.
• Adapting to evolving policies and standards.
Market and Adoption Challenges

•Market Acceptance:
•Consumer resistance due to high initial costs of EVs and battery-
powered devices.
•Range anxiety and lack of charging infrastructure.
•Economic Viability:
•Balancing cost reduction with maintaining high performance and safety
standards.
•Ensuring competitive pricing against traditional fuel-based technologies.
Future Direction of Energy Storage
Advanced Battery Technologies

•Solid-State Batteries:
•Enhanced safety and energy density.
•Potential to revolutionize electric vehicles and portable electronics.
•Lithium-Sulfur and Lithium-Air Batteries:
•Higher energy capacity and longer lifespan.
•Challenges in material stability and performance consistency.
•Next-Generation Lithium-Ion Batteries:
•Use of advanced materials like silicon anodes and high-voltage
cathodes.
•Improved performance and reduced costs.
•Alternative Energy Storage Solutions

•Flow Batteries:
•Scalable for large-scale energy storage.
•Longer cycle life and easy to maintain.
•Suitable for grid storage and renewable energy integration.
•Supercapacitors:
•Rapid charging and discharging capabilities.
•Lower energy density but high power density.
•Applications in hybrid systems and quick power delivery needs.
•Hydrogen Storage:
•Conversion of excess renewable energy into hydrogen.
•Use in fuel cells for clean energy generation.
•Potential for long-duration energy storage and transportation fuel.
Emerging Technologies and Innovations

•Thermal Energy Storage:

•Storing energy in the form of heat.
•Applications in industrial processes and concentrated solar power (CSP) plants.
•Mechanical Storage:
•Technologies like flywheels and compressed air energy storage (CAES).
•High efficiency and quick response times.
•Suitable for short-term and grid stability applications.
•Quantum Battery Research:
•Exploring quantum mechanical properties for energy storage.
•Potential for extremely high efficiency and energy densities.
•Early-stage research with promising theoretical benefits.
• Integration and Policy Directions
• Smart Grid Integration:
• Utilizing advanced energy storage for grid management and stability.
• Integration with renewable energy sources and smart grid technologies.
• Regulatory and Policy Support:
• Government incentives and subsidies for energy storage deployment.
• Development of standards and regulations to promote innovation and adoption.
• International cooperation on research and technology sharing.
• Sustainability and Recycling:
• Focus on sustainable materials and recycling processes.
• Reducing the environmental impact of battery production and disposal.
• Circular economy approaches to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency.