18EEE434T-Battery Systems

Engineering in Electric
Vehicles
Module 1
Overview:
Electric Vehicles
Introduction to Concepts and Series and Parallel
Concepts and
Electric Architectures configurations
Architectures
Drivetrains

Energy Recent
Past, Present & Current Major
Management Development
Future of EV Issues in EV
Strategies Trends

Drive cycle and

EV Concept, Key Vehicular vehicle control
Tractive effort
EV Technology dynamics unit, Introduction
of EV chargers
Module 2
• Electrochemical Batteries
• Pack & module design
• Cell and battery voltages
• Charge (or Amp hour)
• capacity, Specific energy
• Energy density, Specific power
• Amp hour (or charge) efficiency
• Energy efficiency
• Self-discharge rates
• Battery geometry, Battery temperature
• Battery life and number of deep cycles
• HV systems, Cables & Connectors
• HVIL, IRM, Traction voltages system
Module 3
• Battery-Management-System Requirements
• Battery State Estimation
• Battery Health Estimation
• Cell Balancing
• Voltage-Based Power-Limit Estimation
• Cooling and Heating required in Battery Pack
• Active vs. passive cooling strategies
• Types of cooling Control optimization for energy efficiency
• Heat exchangers and thermal interface materials
Module 4
• Temperature requirement of Protection and Insulation
• Thermocouples and measurement equipment
• Conventional cooling system in market
• Unconventional cooling systems
• General construction of physical electrochemical models of cells
• Boundary conditions
• Integration of materials properties into electrochemical models
• Integration of materials properties into electrochemical models
• Time dependent 1D, 2D and 3D cell modelling-FEM
• Simulation of battery data and correlation with experiment
• Equivalent electric circuit modelling of battery cells
Module 5
• Comparisons of different battery modelling techniques
• Introduction to relevant software (COMSOL, Simulink)
• Classification of battery packs
• Handling & storage of Battery packs
• life cycle of batteries
• Recycling of battery packs
• Battery economy
• Industrialization challenges
• Future Direction of Energy Storage
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Electric drivetrains are integral components of electric vehicles
(EVs), encompassing all the systems and components that
generate and deliver power to the vehicle's wheels.
• Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles,
electric drivetrains rely on electric power, offering several benefits
such as higher efficiency, lower emissions, and quieter operation.
• The key elements and functions of electric drivetrains.
Battery Pack, Electric Motor, Power Electronics Controller,
Transmission, Regenerative Braking System
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Battery Pack
• Function: Stores electrical energy needed to power the electric
motor.
• Types: Common types include lithium-ion (Li-ion), nickel-metal
hydride (NiMH), and solid-state batteries.
• Capacity: Measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), higher capacity
typically means longer range.
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Electric Motor
• Function: Converts electrical energy from the battery into
mechanical energy to drive the wheels.
• Types: Includes induction motors, permanent magnet
synchronous motors (PMSM), and brushless DC motors (BLDC).
• Efficiency: Generally more efficient than internal combustion
engines, often exceeding 90%.
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Power Electronics Controller
• Function: Manages the flow of electrical energy from the battery
to the motor and vice versa (for regenerative braking).
• Components: Includes inverters (converts DC to AC for AC
motors) and converters (manages voltage levels).

• Transmission
• Function: Transfers mechanical power from the motor to the
wheels.
• Design: Often simpler than ICE vehicles, as electric motors
provide high torque at low speeds, reducing the need for complex
multi-speed transmissions.
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Regenerative Braking System
• Function: Recovers kinetic energy during braking and converts it
back into electrical energy, which is stored in the battery.
• Benefit: Increases overall efficiency and extends driving range.
• Advantages of Electric Drivetrains
• Higher Efficiency
• Lower Emissions
• Quieter Operation
• Lower Operating Costs
Overview: Introduction to Electric Drivetrains
• Challenges and Considerations
• Battery Technology
• Charging Infrastructure
• Range Anxiety
• Initial Cost
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
• Electric vehicles (EVs) represent a transformative shift in
automotive technology, offering various concepts and
architectures designed to optimize efficiency, performance, and
sustainability.

• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
• Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
• Purely electric vehicles powered entirely by rechargeable battery
packs.
• Zero tailpipe emissions, high efficiency, and often equipped with
regenerative braking.
• Examples: Tesla Model S, Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Bolt.
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
• Vehicles that combine an ICE with an electric motor and a battery,
but cannot be plugged in for recharging.
• Uses regenerative braking and the ICE to recharge the battery,
provides better fuel efficiency than conventional vehicles.
• Examples: Toyota Prius, Honda Insight.
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
• Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
• Vehicles that combine an internal combustion engine (ICE) with
an electric motor and a battery that can be recharged by plugging
into an external source.
• Ability to run on electric power for short distances (usually 20-50
miles) and switch to ICE for longer trips.
• Examples: Toyota Prius Prime, Chevrolet Volt, Ford Fusion Energi.
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
• Vehicles powered by a fuel cell that converts hydrogen gas into
electricity.
• Zero emissions (only water vapor is emitted), quick refueling
times, and long range.
• Examples: Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo.
Electric Vehicles Concepts and Architectures
Electric Vehicle Architectures
• Series Hybrid Architecture
• The ICE is used to generate electricity, which then powers the
electric motor. The wheels are driven only by the electric motor.
• Simplified transmission, potential for high efficiency in urban
driving.
• Example: Chevrolet Volt (first-generation PHEV).
Electric Vehicle Architectures
• Parallel Hybrid Architecture
• Both the ICE and the electric motor can drive the wheels directly,
either separately or in combination.
• Greater flexibility in power delivery, potential for improved
performance.
• Example: Toyota Prius.
Electric Vehicle Architectures
• Series-Parallel Hybrid Architecture
• Combines features of both series and parallel architectures. The
vehicle can operate as a series hybrid, a parallel hybrid, or a
combination of both.
• Optimizes efficiency and performance across different driving
conditions.
• Example: Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive.
Electric Vehicle Architectures
• All-Electric Architecture (BEV)
• Simplified architecture with a large battery pack, one or more
electric motors, and no ICE.
• High efficiency, fewer moving parts, lower maintenance costs,
zero emissions.
• Example: Tesla Model 3.
• Fuel Cell Architecture
• Uses a hydrogen fuel cell to generate electricity to power the
electric motor. Includes a battery for storing regenerated energy.
• Zero emissions, long range, quick refueling.
• Example: Toyota Mirai.
Electric Vehicle Architectures
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Energy management in electric vehicles (EVs) involves optimizing
the use of electrical energy stored in the battery to maximize
efficiency, performance, and range.
• Effective energy management strategies are crucial for enhancing
the overall driving experience and longevity of the vehicle.

• Key Components
• Battery Management System (BMS)
• Power Electronics
• Thermal Management System
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Battery Management System (BMS)
• Monitors and manages the battery pack’s health, charge, and
discharge processes. Ensures safety and optimal performance.
• Includes sensors, control units, and software algorithms.

• Power Electronics
• Controls the flow of electricity between the battery, electric motor,
and other components. Includes inverters and converters.
• Inverter (DC to AC conversion), DC-DC converter (voltage
regulation).
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Thermal Management System
• Maintains optimal temperature of the battery pack and electric
motor to prevent overheating and ensure efficient operation.
• Cooling systems, heat exchangers, and thermal sensors.
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Energy Management Strategies
• Regenerative Braking
• Load Management
• Drive Mode Selection
• Predictive Energy Management
• Battery State of Charge (SoC) Optimization
• Thermal Management
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration
• Charging Management
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Regenerative Braking
• Captures kinetic energy during braking and converts it back into
electrical energy, which is stored in the battery.
• Enhances overall energy efficiency and extends driving range.
• Load Management
• Prioritizes energy distribution to essential systems (e.g., drivetrain)
and manages non-essential loads (e.g., HVAC systems) to
conserve energy.
• Optimizes battery usage and improves range.
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Drive Mode Selection
• Allows drivers to select different driving modes (e.g., Eco, Sport)
that adjust power delivery and energy consumption.
• Enables drivers to optimize performance or efficiency based on
driving conditions and preferences.
• Predictive Energy Management
• Uses data from GPS, traffic conditions, and driver behavior to
predict energy needs and adjust power usage accordingly.
• Improves efficiency by anticipating changes in driving conditions
and managing energy proactively.
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Battery State of Charge (SoC) Optimization
• Monitors and manages the battery’s state of charge to ensure it
stays within optimal ranges, preventing overcharging or deep
discharging.
• Enhances battery lifespan and reliability.
• Thermal Management
• Regulates the temperature of the battery and motor to maintain
optimal performance and prevent thermal degradation.
• Ensures consistent performance and prolongs component life.
Energy Management Strategies in Electric Vehicles
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Integration
• Allows the vehicle to supply power back to the grid or to a home
during peak demand times or emergencies.
• Provides additional energy storage solutions and potential
financial incentives for vehicle owners.
• Charging Management
• Optimizes charging schedules based on electricity rates, battery
health, and grid demand.
• Reduces charging costs and minimizes impact on the electrical
grid.
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Past: The Origins and Early Development
• Early Inception (1830s-1900s)
• The first electric vehicle was developed in the 1830s by Robert Anderson.
By the late 19th century, EVs were fairly popular, especially in urban areas,
due to their ease of use and quiet operation.
• Limited battery technology, short range, and the advent of the internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, which offered longer ranges and faster
refueling times.
• Decline (1910s-1960s)
• Mass production of ICE vehicles, improvements in gasoline engine
technology, and the development of infrastructure for gasoline fueling led
to the decline of EVs.
• Limited technological advancements in batteries and electric drivetrains
during this period.
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Present: Resurgence and Mainstream Adoption
• Revival (1990s-2000s)
• Rising environmental concerns, advancements in battery technology
(notably lithium-ion batteries), and regulatory support for reducing
emissions spurred renewed interest in EVs.
• The GM EV1 in the 1990s, followed by the introduction of the Toyota
Prius (hybrid) and the Tesla Roadster in the 2000s.
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Present: Resurgence and Mainstream Adoption
• Mainstream Adoption (2010s-Present)
• Significant increase in EV models available from various
manufacturers, with major players like Tesla, Nissan, BMW, and GM
leading the way.
• Improvements in battery technology (higher energy density, faster
charging), power electronics, and electric motors.
• Expansion of charging networks, both private (Tesla Supercharger)
and public (ChargePoint, Electrify America).
• Subsidies, tax breaks, and stricter emission regulations have
accelerated EV adoption.
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Future: Innovations and Integration
• Technological Innovations
• Battery Technology: Development of solid-state batteries with
higher energy density, faster charging times, and improved safety.
• Autonomous Driving: Integration of advanced driver-assistance
systems (ADAS) and autonomous driving technologies in EVs.
• Wireless Charging: Advancements in inductive charging to simplify
and expedite the charging process.
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Future: Innovations and Integration
• Market and Policy Trends
• Increasing Adoption: Projections indicate that EVs will constitute a
significant portion of new vehicle sales in the coming decades,
driven by declining battery costs and increased consumer
awareness.
• Global Regulations: Many countries are setting ambitious targets to
phase out ICE vehicles and promote zero-emission vehicles (e.g., the
EU, China, and several U.S. states).
 Past, Present & Future of EV
• Future: Innovations and Integration
• Sustainable Integration
• Renewable Energy Synergy: Integration of EVs with renewable energy
sources to create more sustainable and decentralized energy systems.
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology: Enabling EVs to act as energy storage
units, supplying power back to the grid during peak demand and
supporting grid stability.
• Urban Mobility
• Electric Public Transport: Expansion of electric buses, trams, and shared
electric mobility solutions (e.g., e-scooters, e-bikes).
• Smart Cities: Incorporation of EVs into smart city planning, enhancing
connectivity, and reducing urban congestion and pollution.
 Current Major Issues in EV
• Battery Technology and Cost
• Although battery technology has improved significantly, the high cost of
batteries remains a major barrier to the affordability of electric vehicles
(EVs). The production of lithium-ion batteries involves expensive raw
materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
• High battery costs increase the overall price of EVs compared to internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, limiting widespread adoption.
• Charging Infrastructure
• The availability and accessibility of charging stations are still limited in
many regions, especially in rural and underdeveloped areas. Additionally,
the speed of charging stations varies, with high-speed chargers being less
common.
• Insufficient infrastructure leads to range anxiety and inconvenience for EV
owners, hindering the transition from ICE vehicles to EVs.
 Current Major Issues in EV
• Range Anxiety
• Despite improvements, many EVs still have a limited driving range
compared to traditional ICE vehicles. Concerns about running out of
power without access to a charging station persist.
• Potential buyers may hesitate to purchase EVs due to fear of being
stranded, particularly on long trips.
• Charging Time
• Charging an EV takes significantly longer than refueling a gasoline vehicle.
Even with fast chargers, it can take 20-30 minutes to charge up to 80%,
while standard home chargers can take several hours.
• The longer refueling time can be inconvenient for users, especially those
with limited access to fast-charging stations or those living in apartments
without dedicated charging spots.
 Current Major Issues in EV
• Battery Degradation
• Over time, EV batteries degrade, losing their capacity and reducing the
vehicle's range. Factors such as high temperatures, frequent fast charging,
and deep discharge cycles can accelerate degradation.
• Battery degradation affects the long-term value and reliability of EVs,
leading to potential high replacement costs and concerns about vehicle
lifespan.
• Supply Chain and Raw Materials
• The production of EV batteries relies heavily on raw materials like lithium,
cobalt, and nickel, which have supply chain constraints and
environmental and ethical concerns.
• Dependence on a limited supply of raw materials can lead to price
volatility, supply shortages, and ethical issues related to mining practices.
 Current Major Issues in EV
• Environmental Impact of Battery Production
• The extraction and processing of raw materials for batteries, as well as
battery manufacturing, have significant environmental impacts, including
high energy consumption and pollution.
• While EVs offer lower emissions during operation, their overall
environmental footprint, including production and disposal, needs to be
considered and minimized.
• Policy and Regulatory Support
• Inconsistent policies and incentives across different regions can impact
the adoption rate of EVs. While some countries and states offer
substantial incentives, others lack supportive regulations.
• Lack of uniform and strong policy support can slow down the global
transition to electric mobility.
 Current Major Issues in EV
• Consumer Awareness and Perception
• Misconceptions about EVs, including concerns about performance,
reliability, and safety, persist among potential buyers.
• Overcoming these perceptions is crucial for increasing consumer
acceptance and adoption of EVs.
• Recycling and Disposal of Batteries
• Proper disposal and recycling of used EV batteries pose
environmental and logistical challenges. Efficient recycling
processes are still being developed and scaled.
• Addressing battery disposal and recycling is essential to minimize
environmental impact and recover valuable materials.
 Recent Development Trends
• Advancements in Battery Technology
• Solid-State Batteries: Research and development in solid-state
batteries are promising higher energy densities, faster charging
times, and improved safety over traditional lithium-ion batteries.
Companies like Toyota and QuantumScape are leading the charge in
this technology.
• Battery Recycling and Second-Life Applications: Innovations in
battery recycling processes and second-life applications
(repurposing used EV batteries for energy storage systems) are
gaining momentum, aiming to reduce waste and enhance
sustainability.
 Recent Development Trends
• Increased Range and Efficiency
• Improved Energy Density:
• Enhancements in battery chemistry and design have led to higher
energy densities, providing longer ranges.
• New models from manufacturers like Tesla, Lucid Motors, and others
are achieving ranges exceeding 300 miles on a single charge.
• Aerodynamics and Lightweight Materials:
• Automotive companies are focusing on improving vehicle
aerodynamics and incorporating lightweight materials such as
carbon fiber and aluminum to increase efficiency and range.
 Recent Development Trends
• Faster Charging Infrastructure
• Ultra-Fast Charging:
• Development of ultra-fast chargers, capable of charging an EV to
80% in 20 minutes or less, is expanding.
• Networks like Tesla Superchargers, Ionity, and Electrify America are
rapidly deploying these high-power charging stations.
• Wireless Charging:
• Progress in inductive charging technology allows for wireless
charging, simplifying the process and making it more convenient for
EV owners.
 Recent Development Trends
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology
• Bidirectional Charging: V2G technology enables EVs to supply power
back to the grid or to a home, providing energy storage solutions and
enhancing grid stability. This technology is being piloted and implemented
in various regions.
• Autonomous Driving Integration
• Integration of sophisticated ADAS and autonomous driving features in EVs
is becoming more common.
• Companies like Tesla, Waymo, and GM's Cruise are at the forefront,
incorporating features such as autopilot, self-parking, and full self-driving
capabilities.
• Synergy with Electric Drivetrains: The precise control offered by electric
drivetrains makes them particularly suitable for autonomous driving
technologies, enhancing safety and efficiency.
 Recent Development Trends
• Renewable Energy Integration
• Green Charging Solutions: Increasing integration of renewable
energy sources with EV charging infrastructure ensures that EVs are
powered by cleaner energy, reducing their overall carbon footprint.
• Smart Grid Integration: EVs are being integrated into smart grid
systems to optimize energy use and support grid stability through
demand response and energy storage capabilities.
 Well-to-Wheels Efficiency
Well-to-Tank Tank-to-Wheels
Generation Transmission 31% Plug-to-Wheels 23%
33% 94% 76%

31% 76% = 23%

Refining Transmission Pump-to-Wheels

82% 98%
80% 16% 13%
80% 16% = 13%
Source: http://www.nesea.org
 Introduction of EV chargers
• There are many ways in which an electric vehicle (EV) can be charged
depending upon the location and requirements.
• Currently, conductive charging technology, or plug-in(wired) charging,
is the mainstream technology in use.
• There are two types of fuels that can be used to charge an EV, namely,
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC).
• AC Charging:
• In AC charging, the converter is built inside the vehicle, known as an
“onboard charger”. The onboard charger converts power from AC to
DC and then feeds it into the vehicle’s battery. Today, this is the most
common way for charging electric vehicles.
 Introduction of EV chargers
• DC Charging::
• In case of DC charging, the DC charger has a converter inside the
charger itself and the power conversion happens outside the vehicle.
This means that the charger can feed power directly to the vehicle’s
battery and doesn’t need the onboard charger.
 Introduction of EV chargers
• Globally, the EV chargers are categorized broadly into 3 levels: 1) Level 1
AC Charging; 2) Level 2 AC Charging; and 3) DC Charging.
• Level 1: Known as slow AC charging, these are simple home sockets
used for AC trickle charging. The power rating of such chargers varies
between 1kW to 3kW.
• In North America, Level 1 charging is defined at 120V, whereas in
India, the home private chargers are generally used with 230V/15A
single phase plug, which can deliver a maximum of up to about 2.5kW
of power.
 Introduction of EV chargers
• Level 2: Known as fast AC charging, the level 2 charging supports both single
phase as well as 3 phase AC charging with the help of different charging
connectors available globally.
• In North America, the level 2 charging is defined at 208-240V, and the output
power varies between 3kW to 19kW AC.
• As far as India market is concerned, the chargers are available with the power
output ranging from 3.5kW to 22 kW supporting both single phase as well as 3
phase AC charging.
• DC Charging: These are known as fast chargers, as DC chargers bypasses the
need of onboard chargers inside the vehicle, thus the EVs can be charged
faster.
• The power rating of charger varies between 10kW to 400kW globally. The
charging time will depend upon many factors such as the power rating of
charger, size of battery, the C-rate of the battery etc.
• Many vehicles available in market today can achieve 80% charge within an
hour using the different DC chargers available currently.
Introduction of EV chargers
 Introduction of EV chargers
• Standards and Connector types for EV charging around the world:
• J 1772 (Type1) connector – North America
• Mennekes (Type 2) EV Connector – EU & Rest of Market (except China)
• CHAdeMO
• CCS1 & CCS2 EV Connector
• GuoBiao (GB/T)
• TESLA Connector: (AC and DC Combined)
Introduction of EV chargers
 Introduction of EV chargers
• In India, with respect to Level 1 AC charging, Government has notified
Bharat AC-001 standard based on IEC 60309 commando connector.
• The connector has 3 pins, and it can support only single-phase AC
charging. The connector doesn’t have any additional pins for the
communication between the vehicle and the charging equipment.
• As far as level 2 AC charging is concerned, the Government has
adopted the European Type 2 connector.
• With respect to DC charging, the government has notified Bharat DC-
001 standard based on GB/T standard of China for charging the
vehicles at 48/72V.
• As far as high voltage charging is concerned, the government has
adopted the Japanese “CHAdeMO” and the European “CCS 2”
connectors.
 EV Drive cycle
• An Electric Vehicle (EV) drive cycle refers to a standardized test
procedure that simulates real-world driving conditions to evaluate the
performance of an electric vehicle.
• These drive cycles are used to measure various parameters such as
energy consumption, range, emissions (for hybrid vehicles), and
overall efficiency.
• Common EV Drive Cycles
• Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS): Also known as the
FTP-72, this cycle represents city driving with frequent stops, starts,
and idling periods. It consists of low-speed, stop-and-go driving
scenarios.
 EV Drive cycle
• Highway Fuel Economy Test (HWFET): This cycle represents
highway driving conditions, featuring higher speeds with fewer stops
compared to urban cycles.
• New European Driving Cycle (NEDC): This cycle includes urban and
extra-urban driving segments. It was widely used in Europe before
being replaced by the WLTP.
• Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP): This
is a more modern and realistic driving cycle compared to NEDC,
including a mix of low, medium, high, and extra-high-speed driving
phases.
• Japanese 10-15 Mode Cycle: This cycle represents urban driving
conditions typical in Japan, including a series of accelerations,
decelerations, and idling periods.
EV Drive cycle
EV Drive cycle
 EV Drive cycle
• Parameters Measured in EV Drive Cycles.
• Energy Consumption: The amount of electrical energy consumed
during the cycle, usually measured in kWh per 100 km.
• Range: The distance the vehicle can travel on a single charge.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of the vehicle's powertrain, often expressed
in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) or kilometers per liter
(km/L).
• Emissions: For plug-in hybrids or range-extended EVs, emissions of
pollutants like CO2, NOx, etc., are measured.
 EV Drive cycle
• Importance of EV Drive Cycles.
• Regulatory Compliance: Manufacturers must meet certain
standards and regulations, which are verified through standardized
drive cycles.
• Consumer Information: Provides prospective buyers with
comparable data on vehicle performance, helping them make
informed decisions.
• R&D and Optimization: Engineers use drive cycle data to improve
vehicle designs, optimize energy management systems, and enhance
overall efficiency.
 Tractive Effort
• Tractive effort refers to the force exerted by a vehicle's drive wheels on the
road surface to propel the vehicle forward.
• In the context of electric vehicles (EVs), tractive effort is crucial for
understanding the vehicle's performance, particularly in terms of
acceleration, hill climbing, and towing capacity.
• Key Components Affecting Tractive Effort
• Electric Motor Torque
• Gear Ratio
• Wheel Diameter
• Factors Influencing Tractive Effort
• Vehicle Weight
• Road Conditions
• Aerodynamic Drag
• Tire Grip
 Tractive Effort
• Components of Tractive Effort
• Aerodynamic Drag (F_d): This is the resistance caused by air friction
as the vehicle moves. It increases with the square of the vehicle's
speed.
 Tractive Effort
• Components of Tractive Effort
• Rolling Resistance (F_r): This is the resistance due to the contact
between the vehicle's tires and the road surface.
 Tractive Effort
• Components of Tractive Effort
• Gradient Resistance (F_g): This is the resistance due to the slope of
the road.
 Tractive Effort
• Components of Tractive Effort
• Inertia (F_i): This is the force needed to accelerate the vehicle.
Newton's second law applies here.
 Tractive Effort
• Components of Tractive Effort
• Total Tractive Effort
• The total tractive effort (F_t) required to move an EV is the sum of all
these resistive forces:

• Electric Motor Performance

• The performance of the electric motor, in terms of providing tractive
effort, depends on the motor torque (T) and the radius of the wheels
(r):
 Tractive Effort
• Impact of Tractive Effort on EV Performance
• Acceleration: Higher tractive effort allows for faster acceleration.
• Gradeability: The ability to climb slopes is directly influenced by the
available tractive effort.
• Efficiency: Efficient management of tractive effort helps in optimizing
energy consumption and extending the range of the EV.
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics
Vehicular dynamics