KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING.

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN
TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING.

ASSIGNMENT ONE
TETE 3204: ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

YEAR OF STUDY: THREE (3) SEMESTER: TWO (2)

GROUP MEMBERS
NAME REG. NO SIGNATURE
BABIRYE HAFSWA NDAGIRE 21/U/ETD/2284/PD
MUHOOZI JAMES 21/U/ETD/5115/PD
TUMWESIGE MATHIAS 21/U/ETD/9001/PD
ZZIWA ADRIAN 21/U/ETD/9437/PD
ANIRWOTH TIMOTHY 21/U/ETD/240/GV

LECTURER’S NAME: DR. BIRABWA DENISE JOANITAH

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 17TH APRIL, 2024

1
 1. (i) Discuss the geometry of a parabolic reflector and the significance of f/D ratio.
The figure below shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The point F is the focus (feed is
given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the
reflected rays where L represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say
that they are being collinear). Hence, the distance between F and L lie constant with respect
to the waves being focussed.

The reflected wave forms a collimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape.
The ratio of focal length to aperture size (i.e., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an
important parameter of parabolic reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.

A larger f/D ratio provides an opportunity for improved feed pattern shaping and
better suppression of cross-polarized radiation emanating from the feed

1. Determines the beam width and directivity: A lower f/D ratio results in a narrower
beam width and higher directivity while a higher f/D ratio leads to a wider beam
width and lower directivity.
2. Focusing Ability: A lower f/D ratio means that the reflector has a shorter focal length
compared to its aperture size, allowing for more focused and concentrated radiation
patterns.
3. Maximizing efficiency: High f/D maximizes the efficiency of transmission or
reception of a signal as it ensures that the incoming or outgoing waves are properly
focused and collimated.
4. Gain: The gain of the parabolic reflector antenna is inversely related to the value of
f/D ratio. Higher gain antennas often have lower f/D ratios as they concentrate more
energy into a narrower beam, increasing gain in that direction.
Pattern Symmetry: Maintaining an optimal f/D ratio helps in achieving symmetrical
radiation patterns with minimal side lobes and this ensures better performance in
terms of signal coverage and interference rejection

2
 (ii) With a neat diagram, explain the working principle of a parabolic reflector
antenna and the various types of feed used.
Working principle of a parabolic reflector antenna
Consider a parabolic reflector in receiving mode and where the feed element is
present at the focus. The crucial function of the parabolic reflector is to change the
spherical wave into a plane wave. So, at the focus when a feed antenna is placed
which is nothing but an isotropic source then the waves are emitted from the source.

The radiating element used at the focus is generally dipole or horn antenna, which are
used to illuminate the reflecting surface. Thus, the waves emitted from the source,
incident on the surface of the reflector and are further reflected back as a plane wave
of circular cross-section. This is represented below:

As we can see clearly in the above figure that the waves from the feed incidents at different
points on the parabolic surface. However, all the waves after reflection are collimated and the
plane waves travel in the direction parallel to the axis.
Types of feeds used;
Cassegrain Feed
Casse grain is another type of feed given to the reflector antenna. In this type, the feed is
located at the vertex of the paraboloid, unlike in the parabolic reflector. A convex shaped
reflector, which acts as a hyperboloid is placed opposite to the feed of the antenna. It is also
known as secondary hyperboloid reflector or sub-reflector. It is placed such that its one of the
foci coincides with the focus of the paraboloid. Thus, the wave gets reflected twice.
The figure below shows the working model of Cassegrain feed.

3
Working of a Cassegrain Antenna
When the antenna acts as a transmitting antenna, the energy from the feed radiates through a
horn antenna onto the hyperboloid concave reflector, which again reflects back on to the
parabolic reflector. The signal gets reflected into the space from there. Hence, wastage of
power is controlled and the directivity gets improved.
When the same antenna is used for reception, the electromagnetic waves strike the reflector,
gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and from there, it reaches to the feed. A wave
guide horn antenna presents there to receive this signal and sends to the receiver circuitry for
amplification.
Aaxial /front/Focal Feed System: This involves placing a radiating element, such as a
dipole or waveguide horn antenna, at the focal point of the parabolic reflector. The energy
from the radiating element illuminates the reflecting surface, resulting in a narrow beam and
high gain.
Off-Axis or Offset Feed System: In this type of feed system, the feed is located off-centre
from the dish’s centre, outside of the main beam area. This arrangement helps avoid
obstructions to the beam and is commonly used in applications like home satellite dishes.
Gregorian Feed
This is another type of feed used. A pair of certain configurations are there, where the feed
beamwidth is progressively increased while antenna dimensions are held fixed. Such a type
of feed is known as Gregorian feed. Here, the convex shaped hyperboloid of Cassegrain is
replaced with a concave shaped paraboloid reflector, which is of course, smaller in size
These Gregorian feed type reflectors can be used in four ways;
• Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F1.
• Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F2.
• Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (convex).
• Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (concave but the feed being very
near to it.)
The figure clearly depicts the working pattern of all the types of reflectors.

4
 2. (i) Explain the image theory & its application in detail.
Image Theory:
Image theory is used to analyse the behaviour of antennas near conductive surfaces, such as
the Earth or metal plates.
When an antenna is placed close to a ground plane, the radio waves it emits reflect off the
surface, creating an “image” of the antenna behind the plane. This image antenna behaves as
if it were a real antenna located at an equal distance behind the ground plane, contributing to
the overall radiation pattern observed at a distant point.
The fields above a perfect ground plane from primary source acting in the presence of the
perfect ground plane are found by summing the contributions of the primary source and its
image, each acting in free space.
Application
• Image theory is used in monopole antenna. By image theory, a monopole generates
the exact same fields above the ground plane as a dipole.
• Helps in predicting how radio waves interact with conductive surfaces and how they
contribute to the overall radiation pattern of the antenna system.
• Used to optimize antenna performance, especially in scenarios where reflections from
nearby surfaces significantly impact signal propagation.
(ii) Explain the construction & and working principle of the pyramidal Horn antenna. A
pyramidal Horn antenna having aperture dimensions of a=5.2 cm & b=3.8 cm is used at
a frequency of 10 GHz. Calculate its Gain and Half Power Beam width.
Design and Shape:
A pyramidal horn antenna is a type of aperture antenna specifically designed for microwave
frequencies.
Its structure resembles an inverted pyramid or a flared waveguide.
The flared portion can take various shapes, such as square, conical, or rectangular.
The horn’s end widens gradually, allowing for better impedance matching between the
waveguide (typically 50 Ω) and free space (377 Ω).

5
Working Principle:
When electromagnetic waves enter the waveguide, they experience impedance mismatch at
the open entry.
Diffraction effects at the waveguide edges further limit the radiating capacity.
To overcome these drawbacks, the waveguide’s end is flared into an electromagnetic horn
shape.
This smooth transition minimizes impedance mismatch and reduces diffraction.
By changing the waveguide into a horn structure, the impedance discontinuity is eliminated,
resulting in better directivity.
The horn antenna efficiently converts guided waves into free-space radiation.
Calculation.
a = 5.2cm = 0.052m, b = 3.8cm=0.038m, frequency = 10 GHz
10𝐴𝑝
𝐺= 𝜆^2
Where, Ap = Physical Aperture
Ap = 0.052*0.038
= 0.001976m
𝑐
𝜆=𝑓
3×10^8
𝜆 = 10 ×10^9

𝜆 = 0.03𝑚
10(0.001976)
𝐺=
(0.03)^2

=22.9556
51𝜆
Half-power beam width, 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 𝐷
51∗𝑂.𝑂3
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 0.052

𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 29.4

6
3.(i) Using neat diagrams, discuss the various feed techniques for rectangular
patch antennas.

The four most popular feed techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe
(both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non-
contacting schemes).
Micro strip (Offset Micro strip) Line Feed. In this type of feed technique, a
conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the micro strip patch

Coaxial Feed. The Coaxial feed or probe feed is one of the most common
techniques used for feeding micro strip patch antennas.
It involves connecting a coaxial cable to the patch antenna where the inner
conductor is linked to the patch and the outer conductor is connected to the ground
plane. It provides efficient feeding and minimizes spurious radiation.

Aperture Coupled Feed. In aperture coupling, the radiating micro strip patch
element is etched on the top of the antenna substrate, and the micro strip feed line is
etched on the bottom of the feed substrate in order to obtain aperture coupling.

Proximity Coupled Feed. This type of feed technique is also called as the
electromagnetic coupling scheme. Two dielectric substrates are used such that the
feed line is between the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper
substrate.

7
(ii) Find the diameter of a dish antenna that will form a beam having 0.5 degree
half power beam width (HPBW) at a frequency of 8.2 GHz. Assuming an
efficiency constant of 0.6, calculate the antenna gain & effective aperture.

Given that
HPBW=0.5, F= 8.2GHz, k=0.6
Antenna Gain =? Effective Aperture Ae =?
51𝜆
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 =
𝐷

𝑐
𝜆=
𝑓

3 ∗ 108
𝜆=
8.2 ∗ 109
𝜆 = 0.0366m
51𝜆
𝐷=
0.5
51𝜆
𝐷=
0.5
𝐷 = 102 ∗ 0.0366
D = 3.7332metres
4𝜋𝐴
But, 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘. 𝜆2

П∗0.03662
Where, 𝐴 =
4

A= 10.946m
Therefore,
G = 61610.451

Effective aperture=0.6*10.946

Ae = 6.5676m

8
 4.(i) Explain in detail the different types of reflector antennas
Reflector antennas are antennas made up of highly curved reflecting surface that focuses the
electromagnetic waves at the reception and transmission ends.
Reflector antennas are classified based on the geometrical shape of their reflecting surfaces:
Plane Reflector
The plane reflector antenna includes a primary antenna & reflecting surface which is very useful to
emit electromagnetic energy in the preferred direction however is not feasible to collimate energy
within the forward direction. This reflector is also known as a flat sheet reflector & it is considered
one of the simple reflectors that direct the EM wave in the suitable direction.
Plane Reflector Antenna

In this antenna, the plane metallic sheet is arranged at a particular distance from the feed point. For
the inward radio waves, it performs as a plane mirror & permits them to experience reflection
throughout it. A plane reflector possesses difficulty in collimating the overall energy within the
forward direction. So, to handle the pattern characteristics, impedance, directivity & gain of the
system, the active element’s polarization with its position about the reflecting face is used.
Corner Reflector
The corner reflector antenna includes a minimum of two or three conducting flat surfaces which are
intersecting mutually meeting at a corner. So, in this type of antenna, the feed element is either a
dipole or a collection of collinear dipoles. The corner reflector type antenna is mainly used to attain
collimation of electromagnetic energy within the forward direction. So, it is used to suppress radiation
in the side & backward directions.

Corner Reflector
This reflector is a modified version of the plane reflector to show maximum radiation in the forward
direction. Mostly, the plane reflector shape is modified by combining two level sheets to form a
corner. These are used to improve the directing capacity of EM energy in the forward direction to
decrease the gain of the back-reflected wave.
This type of antenna is often used for radar applications.

9
Cylindrical Reflector
The antenna reflector which is created with a cylindrical shape is known as a cylindrical reflector. The
reflector’s cylindrical shape simply allows you to focus the signal on the surface of the antenna. These
reflectors are broadly used wherever wide-angle vertical coverage & sharp azimuthal beams are
necessary like line sources & airborne navigational antennas.

Spherical reflectors.
A spherical reflector is designed with a spherical surface similar to a cylindrical reflector which means
these reflectors are elements of spherical surfaces. The size of the reflector in this antenna is one-half
of the spheres. These are mainly used for collimating the energy from the active elements toward the
forward direction.
A spherical antenna provides omnidirectional coverage

Spherical Reflector
Rod Reflector

This is a type of antenna that has the rod shape. A rod-type reflector is mainly utilized in a Yagi-Uda
antenna. This reflector is arranged at a particular distance in the back of the driven element within
the antenna & generally, it has a length above the driven element length that is a half-wave dipole.
The reflector in the antenna simply provides inductive reactance thus guiding the radiated field in the
backward direction to the driven element to decrease the losses because of the back-reflected wave.
So, it helps in improving the gain.

Rod Reflector in Yagi-Uda Antenna

10
Parabolic Reflector
A type of reflector antenna that is designed in a paraboloid structure by using the parabola properties
is known as a parabolic reflector. In this antenna, the active element is present which focuses the main
axis to reflect the radiated wave in a parallel direction to the main axis.

Parabolic Reflector
As shown in the above diagram, the waves produced by the horn antenna are incident over the
reflector. This reflector simply reflects them to form a plane wavefront. These waves are cancelled in
other directions because of path & phase differences. So, in this way, the parabolic reflector antenna
changes from spherical to plane wave.
This is the most common type since it achieves high gain and directivity.
It is used in satellite dishes, radio telescopes, and radar systems.

ii) Give the advantages and disadvantages of reflector antennas.

Advantages
The advantages of reflector antenna include the following.
• These are versatile.
• They have outstanding radiation performances.
• The parabolic type antenna has high gain and high directivity.
• The parabolic reflector decreases minor lobes.
• The amount of wastage of power is fairly low as compared to other antennas.
• It provides flexibility while arranging the feed element.
• The parabolic reflector provides easy beam adjustment.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of reflector antennae include the following.
• The reflector antenna needs to be balanced to keep away from obstruction of the feed
point.
• The parabolic type antenna design is a complex procedure.
• The surface distortions in parabolic reflector antenna can take place in an extremely
large dish. So, this can be decreased with a broad mesh in place of a continuous
surface.
• This antenna size is quite large and the overall cost is also high.
• To achieve the best performance results, the feed should be placed exactly at the focus
of the parabolic antenna. This is difficult to achieve practically.

11
(iii) Explain the various feeds used in reflector antennas?
Reflector antennas use different types of feeds to focus and direct radio waves onto
the reflector surface for transmission or reception. Some common types include:
Dipole Feed: This is a simple feed consisting of a straight conductor, usually perpendicular to
the reflector surface. It emits or receives electromagnetic waves directly to or from the
reflector.
Horn Feed: Horn feeds have a flared opening that helps to match the impedance of the feed
to that of free space, minimizing signal reflections. They provide good efficiency, high
productivity and low sidelobes.
Parabolic Dish Feed: In parabolic dish antennas, the feed is often located at the focal point
of the parabolic reflector. This type of feed is usually a horn or a dipole placed at the focal
point to maximize the antenna's gain.
Feed Arrays: Multiple feeds arranged in an array can be used to achieve specific radiation
patterns or polarization characteristics. These arrays can include dipole arrays, patch arrays,
or other configurations.
Helical Feed: Helical feeds consist of a helical antenna mounted in front of the reflector.
They are used in satellite communication antennas and provide circular polarization.
Each type of feed has its own advantages and is chosen based on factors like the desired
radiation pattern, frequency of operation, and antenna size constraints.
(iv) Derive the expression for the radiation resistance of the reflector antenna.

12
 5. (i) With a diagram, describe the working principle of the slot antennas and
explain its radiation mechanism. Derive the expressions for the radiation
resistance of this antenna
Working principle.
A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with one or more holes or slots
cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by a driving frequency, the slot radiates
electromagnetic waves in a way similar to a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot, as
well as the driving frequency, determine the radiation pattern

Radiation mechanism.
A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with one or more holes or slots
cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by a driving frequency, the slot radiates
electromagnetic waves in a way similar to a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot, as
well as the driving frequency, determine the radiation pattern.
Radiation is produced from both sides of the conductive sheet. If the 'slot' is 'boxed' with
depth d =λ/4, the radiation available is outwards from the opening of the box.
As usual if more gain and directivity is required then it is common to have arrays of slot
instead of single slot

13
ii) Derive the expressions for the radiation resistance of this antenna

14
 6. Discuss the construction and design of a Yagi uda array. Show that the
impedance of a Folded dipole is 300Ω.
A Yagi–Uda antenna, commonly known as a Yagi antenna, is a directional antenna consisting
of multiple parallel elements in a line, usually half-wave dipoles made of metal rods. Yagi–
Uda antennas consist of a single driven element connected to the transmitter or receiver with
a transmission line, and additional "parasitic elements" which are not connected to the
transmitter or receiver: a so-called reflector and one or more directors. It is simple to
construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 10 dB. The Yagi-Uda antennas typically
operate in the HF to UHF bands (about 3 MHz to 3 GHz), although their bandwidth is
typically small, on the order of a few percent of the centre frequency
The driving element is often a folded dipole, which by itself would have a driving point
impedance of about 300 ohms to the feeder; but this is reduced by the shunting effect of the
other elements, so a typical Yagi-Uda has driving point impedance in the range 20-90 ohms.
The size (lengths and diameters) and the spacing of each of the elements have a direct effect
on the antenna parameters and therefore can be optimized to control the different antenna
parameters.

Generally, a folded dipole has an input impedance given as

2𝑍𝑡𝑍𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ( )
2𝑍𝑡 + 𝑍𝑑
Where Zin the input impedance of the folded dipole, Zt the transmission line characteristic
impedance and Zd the impedance of a half wave dipole of the same length as the folded
dipole.
𝜆
When the folded dipole has a length of , Zt tends to infinity such that;
2
2𝑍𝑡𝑍𝑑
Zin = lim (2𝑍𝑡+𝑍𝑑)
𝑍𝑡→∞

Zin = 4Zd

15
And for a regular dipole, the characteristic impedance is approximately 73 ohms, making the
impedance of the folded dipole 292 ohms, approximately 300 ohms.

7. (i) What is an Antenna array?

An antenna array is a set of multiple connected antennas of similar type which work
together as a single antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves. They radiate more in
desired direction with high gain, by combining their individual radiations in desired
direction and cancelling the radiation in undesired direction.
(ii) What are the advantages of antenna arrays?
• Beam forming: Antenna arrays can steer the main radiation beam in a desired direction
by adjusting the phase and amplitude of signals fed to each element. This enables
directional communication and reception, enhancing signal strength and reducing
interference.

• Signal strength increases: Antenna arrays combine signals from multiple antenna
elements, effectively increasing the overall signal strength. This is particularly
beneficial in scenarios where the received signal is weak due to distance, obstructions,
or interference.
• High directivity is obtained: Antenna arrays can focus their radiation pattern in
specific directions through techniques such as beamforming. This high directivity
allows for precise targeting of signals towards desired receivers, improving
communication range and quality.
• Minor lobes are reduced: Antenna arrays are designed to minimize the generation of
minor lobes, which are undesired radiation patterns that can cause interference and
reduce signal quality. By controlling the phase and amplitude of individual antenna
elements, antenna arrays can suppress minor lobes, leading to cleaner and more
focused radiation patterns.
• High Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is achieved: Antenna arrays can enhance the
signal-to-noise ratio by focusing the antenna's radiation pattern towards the desired
signal and minimizing reception from unwanted directions. This improves the clarity
and reliability of received signals, particularly in noisy or congested environments.
• High gain is obtained: Combining signals from multiple antenna elements allows
antenna arrays to achieve higher gain compared to a single antenna. This increased
gain enhances both the transmit and receive capabilities of the antenna system,
extending communication range and improving link quality.
• Power wastage is reduced: Antenna arrays can optimize the transmission and
reception of signals, reducing power wastage by focusing energy towards desired
directions and minimizing leakage or scattering towards unwanted directions. This
improves the efficiency of the antenna system and conserves power resources.
• Better performance is obtained: Overall, the advantages of antenna arrays culminate
in improved performance across various metrics, including communication range,
reliability, spectral efficiency, and interference rejection. By leveraging these benefits,
antenna arrays enable more robust and efficient communication systems in diverse
applications and environments.

16
(iii) A uniform linear array contains 50 isotropic radiation elements with an inter
element spacing of λ/2. Find the directivity of broadside form of arrays.
𝑑 𝜆
Directivity, 𝐷 = 2𝑁 ( 𝜆 ), where N = 50 and d = 2
𝜆
𝐷 = 2(50) (2𝜆)
𝐷 = 50 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 = 10 log(50)
𝐷 = 16.99 𝑑𝐵
Therefore, the directivity of the uniform linear array is 16.99 dB

(iv) Define Pattern Multiplication.

The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point sources is the product of the
pattern of the individual source and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources having
the same locations, relative amplitudes, and phase as the non-isotropic point sources.
Pattern multiplication is also known as array factor multiplication, it is a fundamental concept
in antenna theory used to analyse the radiation pattern of an antenna array.
(v) What are the conditions to obtain the end fire array pattern?
An array is said to be end fire if the direction of maximum radiation coincides with the array
axis. Thus, for an array to be end fire,=0 and θ= 00 or θ = 1800 in the maximum direction.
• Uniform Spacing: The antenna elements in the array must be uniformly spaced along
the array axis. This means that the distance between adjacent elements is constant.
• Half-Wavelength Spacing: The spacing between adjacent elements should ideally be
half of the wavelength of the operating frequency. This spacing helps in achieving
constructive interference along the end-fire direction.
• Equal Amplitude Excitation: Each antenna element in the array should be excited
with the same magnitude of current. This uniform excitation ensures that the radiation
from each element adds up constructively in the desired direction.
• Phase Progression: The phases of the signals fed to each antenna element should be
progressively shifted along the array axis. This phase progression creates a phased
array effect, with the resultant radiation pattern steered towards the end-fire direction.
• Element Factor: The individual antenna elements should exhibit directive properties,
such as dipole or Yagi-Uda elements, to contribute to the overall directionality of the
array.
By meeting these conditions, an end-fire radiation pattern can be achieved, where the
maximum radiation occurs along the axis of the array, in the direction of the last element.

17
8. (i) What is a binomial array?
A binomial array refers to an antenna array configuration where the spacing between adjacent
elements follows a binomial sequence. This sequence determines the distances between the
elements in the array, typically based on specific mathematical formulas.
In a binomial array, the spacing between adjacent elements is not constant but rather varies
according to a predetermined pattern. The binomial sequence often follows a mathematical
expression involving binomial coefficients, which are coefficients that appear in the
expansion of powers of binomials.
(ii) Draw the pattern of a 10-element binomial array with spacing between the elements
of 3𝜆/4 and 𝜆/2.

900
3𝜆/4 𝜆/2

1800 00

Type equation here.

2700
(iii) What is tapering of arrays?
Tapering of array is a technique used for reduction of unwanted side lobes. The
amplitude of currents in the linear array source is non-uniform; hence the central
source radiates more energy than the ends. Tapering is done from centre to end.
It is done to antenna arrays to achieve specific goals related to performance
enhancement, security, adaptation, calibration, or interference mitigation.

18
(iv) Obtain the expression for the field and the radiation pattern produced by an N
element array of infinitesimal size with distance of separation λ/2 and currents of
unequal magnitude and phase shift 180 degrees.

19
20
 9. Two identical radiators are spaced d=3𝜆/4 meters apart and fed with currents of
equal magnitude but with 1800 phase difference. Evaluate the resultant radiation and
identify the direction of maximum and minimum radiation.

21
10. (i) Derive the expression for the field produced by a linear array and deduce it for an
end fire array.
For linear array:
A linear array with N identical isotropic sources spaced at equal distance, d along z-axis.
Let 𝐸𝑛 be the electric field contribution form the nth source at point P.
1
E decreases with distance 𝑟𝑛

The path length difference Δ𝑟𝑛 = dcos𝜃 , where 𝜃 is the direction of observation relative to
the array axis.

Phase difference, 𝜑𝑛 = k. Δ𝑟𝑛 = k.dcos𝜃 , where k is wavelength

2𝜋
K= ; is the wavelength
𝜆
The total electric field (E):

E = ∑𝑁−1
𝑛=0 (𝐸𝑛 𝑒
𝑗𝜑𝑛
)
For end fire array, a progressive phase shift is introduced between the currents in each
element as we mov along the array.

𝜑𝑛 = β*n, where b is the phase shift constant introduced (constants)

Therefore, E for endfire array = ∑𝑁−1
𝑛=0 𝐸𝑛 𝑒
(𝑗(𝑛β+𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

(ii) Compare End fire and broadside array.

Similarities:
• Both the end fire array and broadside array are linear and are resonant, as they consist
of resonant elements.
• Due to resonance, both the arrays display narrower beam and high directivity.
• Both of these arrays are used in transmission purposes.
• Neither of them is used for reception, because the necessity of covering a range of
frequencies is needed for any kind of reception.

22
 Differences:
Broadside array End fire array
Array elements are fed with the currents of Array elements are fed with the currents of
equal amplitude and in phase equal amplitude and out of phase,

Maximum radiation is perpendicular to the Maximum radiation is directed the array axis
direction of array axis

Have omnidirectional properties in the plane Have directional characteristics with

perpendicular to the array axis and high maximum directivity along the axis of the
directivity in the broadside direction. array.
Used in radar and long-distance Used in applications where directional
communication where a wide coverage in coverage along a specific axis is needed such
one plane is required. as radio broadcasting and Wi-Fi access points

11. Define array factor for linear array. Derive Array factor of a Uniform linear array.
Explain the significance of array factor.
The array factor quantifies the effect of combining radiating elements in an array without the
element specific radiation pattern taken into account.
Array factor of a uniform linear array
Electric field for n sources:
𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 2
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑜 𝜃 , where is the phase difference
sin2

Maximum electric field, E = 𝐸𝑜 n

𝐸𝑡
Array factor =
𝐸𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

Significance of array factor:

The array factor shapes the radiation pattern by manipulating the phase shift between
elements, the directionality of the radiation pattern ca be controlled.
The concept of array factor is used in designing and analysing of linear arrays which enables
engineers to predict the radiation pattern and optimize array performance.

23
12. Derive the expressions for field pattern of broad side array of n point sources.
Let’s denote the field radiated by the ith source as Ei(θ) where θ is the angle with respect to
the broadside direction.
The total field E(θ) at any point in space due to the N sources can be expressed as the sum of
the fields from each source.

E(θ) = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 Ei(θ)

For broadside array, all sources are in phase with same amplitude an only differ in direction.
Assuming all sources identical and equally spaced
Ei(θ) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗𝜑

E(θ) = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝐸𝑜 𝑒
𝑗𝜑

E(θ) = NEo𝑒 𝑗𝜑
Where Eo is amplitude of field radiated by each source and 𝜑 is the phase factor

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13. For a 2-element linear array separated by a distance d=3𝜆/4, derive the field
quantities and draw its radiation pattern for the phase difference of 45 0

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14. Obtain the maxima, minima and half power points of two radiating point
sources fed with equal in magnitude and phase current

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