ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Any achievement doesn’t depend solely on the individual efforts but on the
guidance, encouragement and cooperation of intellectuals, elders and friends.
A number of personalities have helped me. I would like to take this opportunity
to thank all of them.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. P.K. Singh Sir, DEAN, College of
Technology and Engineering (CTAE).

I pay my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S.S Meena Sir, HOD(FMP)&Training

Incharge to encourage me to the highest peak and to provide me the opportunity
to prepare the project.

I extend warm thanks to Mr. Kuldeep Singh for his constant his constant
encouragement, motivation and guidance.
 INTRODUCTION
Solar Training Centre, Jaipur, with its experience in erection &
commissioning of turnkey solar power projects is best placed to assist
industrial and commercial establishments save on power costs. We integrate
cutting edge solar technologies and equipments into our projects to increase
generation and work to ensure the highest levels of client satisfaction through
our support system. It is not just a company client relationship.
Vision: Renewable Energy has been a buzz word for at least the entire last
decade in India. 'Energizing India' is not just a tagline for us but a thought
that is ingrained within each of our team members.
Power outages hamper daily life and industries; we envisage every household
and industry with available roof space use the same for meeting part of its
power requirements, thus reducing the load on the grid and contributing to a
greener and far less polluted environment for future generations.
Mission: To become the leader in the development of large scale solar
installations, and solar plants and to promote the use of solar energy, thus
enabling it to reach the remotest corner of the country.
 CONTENTS
1. Acknowledgement
2. Introduction
3. Introduction About Renewable And Non Renewable Energy
4. Introduction About Solar Energy
5. Solar PV Module & its Types
5.1 Monocrystalline cell……………………………
5.2 Polycrystalline cell……………………………..
5.3 Thin film cell…………………………………...
5.4 Multi-Junction cell……………………………..
6. Working Of Solar Cell
7. Assembly of Solar Panel
7.1 Solar Panel…………………………………..
7.2 Battery………………………………………..
7.3 Charge Controller…………………………....
7.4 Charge Inverter…………………………….....
7.5 Solar Cable………………………….............
7.6 Mounting Structure…………………………
8. Introduction to On grid, Off grid, hybrid system
9. Net metering and Gross metering
10. Solar PV Installation
10.1 Site selection……………………………………
10.2 Array structure………………………………….
10.3 Orientation and positioning…………………..
10.4 Solar tracker……………………………………
10.5 Grounding…………………………………….
10.6 Commissioning and testing……………………
10.7 Safety equipment………………………………
11. Operation & maintenance
1.INTRODUCTION ABOUT RENEWABLE AND
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable Energy Resources –
A natural resource is one that can be used repeatedly and does not run out
because it is naturally replaced. A renewable resource, essentially, has an
endless supply such as solar energy, wind energy.
example:- Solar power plant, Wind power plant etc.
Non-renewable Energy Resources –
A natural resource such as coal, gas, or oil that once consumed, cannot be
replaced.
example:-Thermal power plant, Nuclear power plant , Diesel power plant etc.

Renewable Non-renewable Resources

Resources

It can be used It cannot be used again and again as it is limited which

again and again can be depleted one day.
throughout its
life.
It is environment-friendly
It is not
asenvironment-friendly
the as the amount of carbon
amount of carbon emission
emission is is high
low.
The total cost of The total cost of these resources is comparatively high.
these resources
is low.
Causes no harm Adversely affect the health of humans by emitting
to life existing smoke, radiations, carcinogenic or cancer causing
on the planet elements into the environment
earth.
e.g. Solar, wind,
e.g. coal, nuclear, oil, and natural gas
geothermal, 57
etc.
biomass etc.
2.Introduction of Solar energy

Solar energy is a sustainable and renewable form of power derived from the
sun's radiation. It is a clean and abundant source of energy that has been
harnessed by humans for various purposes for centuries. The sun emits an
immense amount of energy in the form of sunlight, and technological
advancements have enabled us to capture and convert this energy into
electricity or heat for residential, commercial, and industrial applications.
The primary ways to harness solar energy include photovoltaic (PV) systems
and solar thermal systems:
1. Photovoltaic (PV) Systems:
• Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity
using solar cells made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. When
sunlight strikes these cells, it generates an electric current through the
photovoltaic effect. PV systems are commonly used to generate electricity for
homes, businesses, and even large-scale solar farms.

2. Solar Thermal Systems:

• Solar thermal technologies harness the sun's energy to generate heat.
This heat can be used for various applications, including generating electricity
through steam turbines, heating water for residential and industrial use, and
providing space heating or cooling. Common types of solar thermal systems
include concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar water heaters.

Uses of solar energy

Solar energy is utilized in various ways:
1. Electricity Generation: Through photovoltaic systems.
2. Water Heating: Solar thermal collectors for hot water.
3. Cooking: Solar cookers for food preparation.
4. Desalination: Solar power for converting seawater to freshwater.
5. Ventilation and Cooling: Powering ventilation and air conditioning.
6. Transportation: Integration into vehicles for charging and extending range.
7. Street Lighting: Solar-powered lights for public spaces.
8. Off-Grid Power: Providing electricity in remote areas.
9. Gadgets and Appliances: Small-scale solar panels for charging devices.
10. Agriculture: Powering water pumps and farm operations.
11. Space Exploration: Used in satellites, spacecraft, and space stations.
12. Education: Demonstrating renewable energy concepts in schools.

Advantages of Solar Energy:

1. Renewable: Endless and sustainable source of energy.
2. Environmentally Friendly: Low carbon footprint, reduces greenhouse gas
emissions.
3. Low Operating Costs: Minimal maintenance and operating expenses.
4. Reduced Energy Bills: Lower electricity costs for users.
5. Versatility: Can be used for electricity, heating, cooking, and more.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy:

1. Intermittent Availability: Depends on sunlight, day-night cycle, and
weather.
2. High Initial Costs: Installation can be expensive, although costs are
decreasing.
3. Land Use Concerns: Large-scale installations may require significant land.
4. Energy Storage Challenges: Efficient storage solutions are needed.
5. Dependency on Weather: Reduced efficiency on cloudy or rainy days.
3.Solar PV Module

Solar photovoltaic modules

A solar photovoltaic (PV) module, commonly referred to as a solar panel is a
device that converts sunlight directly into electricity using the photovoltaic
effect. This effect occurs when certain materials, such as silicon, absorb
photons from sunlight and release electrons, generating an electric current.
Overview of how a solar PV module works:
1.Absorption of Sunlight:
Solar panels are made up of many smaller units called solar cells, which are
usually made from silicon. When sunlight hits these cells, the photons
(particles of light) are absorbed by the silicon atoms.
2.Generation of Electric Current:
The absorbed photons knock electrons loose from the silicon atoms, creating
an electric current. This flow of electrons is what we know as electricity.
3.Electricity Conversion:
The electric current generated by the solar cells is direct current (DC).
However, most household appliances and the grid use alternating current (AC).
Therefore, the DC electricity generated by the solar panel is passed through an
inverter, which converts it into AC electricity.
4.Powering Electrical Devices:
The converted AC electricity can now be used to power electrical devices in
your home, business, or elsewhere. If the solar panel produces more electricity
than is currently being used, the excess can be fed back into the grid (if grid-
connected) or stored in batteries for later use.
Solar PV modules come in various shapes, sizes, and efficiencies, but they all
function based on the principles mentioned above.
They are commonly used in both residential and commercial applications to
generate clean and renewable electricity from sunlight.
 Fig. Solar PV System

IDENTIFICATION AND TRACEBILITY

Each PV module used in any solar power project must use a RF Identification
Tag (RFID), which must contain the following Information. The RFID will be
inside, the module laminated, but must be able to withstand harsh
environmental Condition
i.Name of the manufacturer of PV Module
ii.Name of the manufacturer of solar cells
iii.Month and year of the manufacturer (separately for solar cells and modules.
iv.Country of Origin (separately for solar cells and modules
v.I-V Curve for the module
vi.Peak wattage, Im, Vm for the module
vii.Unique Serial No and Model No of the Module
viii.Date and year of obtaining IEC PV module qualification certificate.
ix.Name of the test lab issuing IEC certificate
Advantages of Solar PV Modules:
1. Renewable and sustainable.
2. Low greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Low operating costs.
4. Reduced electricity bills.
5. Grid independence.
6. Scalable for various needs.
7. Long lifespan.
8. Ongoing technological improvements.
Disadvantages of Solar PV Modules:
1. Intermittent energy source.
2. High initial costs.
3. Land use concerns.
4. Aesthetic impact.
5. Energy storage challenges.
6. Manufacturing impact.
7. Limited efficiency in certain locations.
8. Resource dependency on specific materials.
Types Of Crystalline Silicon Cell
1.Monocrystalline: Monocrystalline solar cells are a type of photovoltaic
cell used to convert sunlight into electricity.
A monocrystalline solar cell is a semiconductor device made from a single
crystal structure of silicon. Silicon is the most common material used in solar
cells due to its semiconducting properties. In the case of monocrystalline cells,
the silicon used is a single, continuous crystal lattice structure, meaning the
entire cell is made from a single, unbroken piece of silicon.
.

Fig. Monocrystalline Panel

2.Polycrystalline: Polycrystalline solar cells are a type of photovoltaic cell

used to convert sunlight into electricity.
Polycrystalline solar cells are semiconductor devices made from
polycrystalline silicon, a material consisting of multiple crystal structures.
Unlike monocrystalline cells, which are fabricated from a single crystal
structure, polycrystalline cells are composed of multiple smaller crystals.

Fig. Polycrystalline Panel

3.Thin Film Cell:
Thin-film solar cells are a type of photovoltaic (PV) technology that involves
the use of thin layers of semiconductor materials to convert sunlight into
electricity. Unlike traditional crystalline silicon solar cells, thin-film cells are
made by depositing one or more thin layers of semiconductor materials onto a
substrate.

Fig. Thin film cell

4.Multi-Junction:
A multi-junction solar cell, also known as a tandem solar cell or multi-bandgap
solar cell, is a type of photovoltaic cell designed to improve the efficiency of
solar energy conversion. Unlike traditional solar cells that have a single p-n
junction, multi-junction cells have multiple semiconductor layers stacked on
top of each other, each designed to absorb a specific range of wavelengths of
sunlight.

Fig. Multi-junction cell

4.Working of Solar Cell

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, are devices that convert
sunlight directly into electricity. They are a key component in solar panels,
which are used to generate renewable energy.
Solar cell works using the concept of the PN junction:
1. Creation of the PN Junction: The basic building block of a solar cell is a
semiconductor material, typically silicon. The silicon is intentionally doped
with two different types of impurities to create a PN junction. The region on
one side of the junction is doped with a material that introduces extra electrons
(N-type, where N stands for negative), and the other side is doped with a
material that introduces extra "holes" (P-type, where P stands for positive).

Fig. P-type Semiconductor

Fig. N-type Semiconductor

 Fig. P-N Junction

2. Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs: When sunlight, composed of photons,

strikes the semiconductor material, it excites electrons in the N-type region.
These excited electrons move across the PN junction, creating electron-hole
pairs as they recombine with holes in the P-type region.
3. Separation of Charges: The PN junction creates an electric field due to the
difference in charge concentrations between the N-type and P-type regions.
This electric field acts as a barrier, preventing the recombination of electrons
and holes. Instead, the electrons are forced to move toward the N-type side,
and the holes toward the P-type side.
4. Flow of Current: The movement of electrons and holes in opposite
directions creates a flow of electric current. Metal contacts on the surfaces of
the solar cell allow this current to be collected and transferred to an external
circuit.
5. External Circuit: The electric current generated by the movement of charge
carriers within the solar cell can be utilized to power electrical devices or fed
into an external circuit. This is the electrical power output of the solar cell.
Photovoltaic Effect
•The photovoltaic effect is a process that
generates voltage or electric current in a
photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to
sunlight.
5.ASSEMBLY OF SOLAR PANEL SYSTEM

Parts of the Solar Panel-

1. Solar Panel
2. Battery
3. Charge Controller
4. Inverter
5. Solar Cable
6. Mounting Structure

1.Solar Panel
A solar panel, also known as a solar module or photovoltaic (PV) module, is a
device that converts sunlight into electrical energy using the photovoltaic
effect. Solar panels are made up of individual solar cells, typically made of
silicon, which generate direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to
sunlight.

Fig. Solar Panel

2. Battery
A battery is an energy source consisting of one or more electrochemical cells
and terminals on both ends called an anode (-) and a cathode (+).
Electrochemical cells transform chemical energy into electrical energy. Inside
the battery is an electrolyte, often consisting of soluble salts or acids, it serves
as a conductive medium, allowing the electric charge to travel through the
battery.

Batteries come in all shapes and sizes to suit various needs. They range from
miniature batteries used in wristwatches and hearing aids to several meters
wide, serving as an emergency power resource or storing renewable
energy from solar power plants and wind farms.

Fig. battery

Functions of Battery
• Storage for the night
• Storage during cloudy weather
• Portable power
• Surge for starting motors
Batteries are connected in series and parallel:
Series Connection:

1. Voltage Increase:
• Connecting batteries in series increases the overall voltage of the battery
bank.
• Positive terminal of one battery is connected to the negative terminal of
the next, and so on.
• The total voltage of the series-connected batteries is the sum of the
individual battery voltages.
2. Capacity Remains the Same:
• The capacity (measured in ampere-hours or watt-hours) of the battery bank
remains the same as that of an individual battery.
• The current remains constant across all series-connected batteries.
• Example: If you connect three 12-volt batteries in series, the total voltage
of the battery bank would be 3 12 volts = 36 volts.

Parallel Connection:
1. Capacity Increase:
• Connecting batteries in parallel increases the overall capacity (ampere-
hours or watt-hours) of the battery bank.
• Positive terminals are connected together, and negative terminals are
connected together.
• The total capacity of the parallel-connected batteries is the sum of the
individual battery capacities.

2.Voltage Remains the Same:

• The voltage across all parallel-connected batteries remains the same as that
of an individual battery.
• The current is distributed among the parallel-connected batteries.
• Example: If you connect three 12-volt batteries in parallel, the total
capacity of the battery bank would be 3 times the capacity of an individual
battery.

Series-Parallel Combination:

1.Voltage and Capacity Adjustment:

• In larger solar power plants, a combination of series and parallel
connections is often used.
• This allows designers to achieve the desired balance of voltage and
capacity for the specific application.
• Example: You might have several strings of batteries connected in series,
and these strings are then connected in parallel to increase both voltage and
capacity.

3. Charge Controller
Charge Controller is necessary since the brighter the sunlight, the more
voltage the solar cells produce, the excessive voltage could damage the
batteries. A charge controller is used to maintain the proper charging voltage
on the batteries. As the input voltage from the solar array rises, the charge
controller regulates the charge to the batteries preventing any overcharging.
Most quality charge controller units have what is known as a 3 stage charge
cycle that goes like this:

Fig. Charge controller

1. BULK: During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually
rises to the Bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw
maximum current. When Bulk level voltage is reached the absorption stage
begins.
2. ABSORPTION: During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk
voltage level for a specified time (usually an hour) whiles the current
gradually tapers off as the batteries charge up.

3. FLOAT: After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float
level (usually 13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance
current until the next cycle.
4.Charge Inverter

Inverters play a crucial role in solar power systems by converting direct current
(DC) electricity generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC), which
is used in most homes and businesses. There are various types of inverters
designed to meet different needs and applications in solar power systems. Here
are some common types of inverters:
1. String Inverters:
• Description: String inverters are commonly used in residential and
small commercial solar installations. They are called "string" inverters because
they are connected to multiple solar panels in a series (string).

2. Microinverters:
• Description: Microinverters are small inverters installed directly on
each solar panel. Each panel has its own microinverter, allowing for
independent operation.
3. Central Inverters:
• Description: Central inverters (also known as string inverters or
large inverters) are used in utility-scale solar power plants. They handle the
conversion for multiple strings of solar panels.
4. Power Optimizers with Central Inverters:
• Description: This configuration combines power optimizers at the
panel level with a central inverter. Power optimizers maximize the energy
harvest of each panel, and the central inverter converts the DC to AC.
5. Hybrid Inverters:
• Description: Hybrid inverters are designed to manage both solar
power and energy storage. They can charge and discharge batteries, allowing
for grid independence and backup power during outages.
6. Three-Phase Inverters:
• Description: Three-phase inverters are used in commercial and
industrial settings where three-phase power is standard. They can handle larger
loads and offer improved efficiency in such environments.

Fig. Inverter
5.Solar Cable
Solar cables, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cables, are specialized electrical
cables designed for use in solar power systems. These cables are used to
connect solar panels to inverters, batteries, and other components of a solar
energy system. Solar cables must be durable, weather-resistant, and capable of
handling the direct current (DC) electricity produced by solar panels.

Fig. Solar Cable

6.Solar Mounting Structure

The mounting structure of a solar panel is a framework or support system that
holds the solar panels in place, securing them to a surface such as a roof,
ground, or other structures. The design and type of mounting structure can vary
depending on the installation location and specific requirements.
Type of Mounting Structure

Fig. Roof Top Mounting Fig. Ground Mounting

Fig. Top of Pole Mounting Fig. Super Mounting

6.INTRODUCTION OF OFF GRID, ON GRID AND
HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

Off Grid Solar System

An off-grid solar system is a solar panel system that generates electricity,
stores that power in solar batteries, and runs independently from the power
grid. These systems encourage off-the-grid living, a lifestyle centered
around energy independence and self-sustainability.

Living “off the grid” has become more popular recently because of the rising
cost of energy, fuel, food, and other necessities.

Solar energy is a sustainable form of green energy that can power your home
independently from the electrical grid. However, off-grid solar systems
require different components compared to grid-tied (sometimes called on-
grid) systems.

Advantages:
1. Energy Independence: Operates independently of the electrical grid.
2. Power in Remote Areas: Suitable for locations without access to grid
power.
3. Backup during Outages: Provides power during grid failures.
4. Environmental Impact: Low environmental footprint.
Disadvantages:
1. Higher Initial Costs: Requires batteries for energy storage, increasing
upfront expenses.
2. Limited Energy Storage: Dependent on battery capacity, which may limit
continuous power supply.
3. Maintenance Challenges: Requires regular maintenance of batteries and
off-grid components.
4. Energy Waste: Excess energy may go unused if not stored or used
efficiently.

Hybrid Solar Systems

An alternative to off-grid solar systems is a hybrid system, which remains
tied to the grid but includes a solar battery bank to store excess energy.
Hybrid systems can be a happy medium between off-grid systems and grid-
tied systems that don’t have solar storage options.

With a hybrid solar system, you can increase your home’s energy
independence by using electricity that you store during times of high
production. Meanwhile, if inclement weather impacts your system’s energy
production or you run out of stored power, you can pull power from the grid.
On Grid Solar System

On-grid solar power system is a solar power generation system where it is

connected to the utility grid. The electricity produced by the system is routed
to the grid from where it is used to run the various appliances. The
installation of the same is also fuss-free and easy to maintain.

The arrangement of solar modules absorbs the sunlight on them and convert
them into electricity. The current generated here is Direct Current (DC). The
solar inverter then converts the DC to Alternating Current (AC), thus making
it power the electrical items.

This electricity is then routed to the grid where it is supplied for day to day
use. An important feature is a net meter. It is a device that records the energy
supplied to the grid and the energy consumed. At the end of each month, the
outstanding is recorded and the consumer is provided with a bill.

Advantages of On-Grid Solar:

1. Cost savings through net metering.
2. Reliable power supply from the grid.
3. No need for expensive energy storage.
Disadvantages of On-Grid Solar:
1. Dependency on the grid for power.
2. No backup during grid outages.
3. Initial setup costs may include grid connection fees.
7.NET METERING AND GROSS METERING
CONCEPT

Net Metering Solar System

Net metering is a billing mechanism that credits solar energy system owners
for the electricity they add to the grid.

For example, if a residential customer has a PV system on their roof, it may

generate more electricity than the home uses during daylight hours. If the
home is net-metered, the electricity meter will run backwards to provide a
credit against what electricity is consumed at night or other periods when
the home's electricity use exceeds the system's output.

Gross Metering Solar System

Gross metering is a mechanism in which the entire energy generated by your
solar system is exported to the grid at a certain rate. In this case, the energy
generated from your system is not consumed by you in any capacity.

Once the energy is generated from your solar system it is transferred to the
grid, and the grid further sells the energy to the power consumers at a certain
tariff rate.

Fig. Gross metering

8.SOLAR PV INSTALLATION

1.Site Selection
Selecting the site for a solar power plant is a crucial step in ensuring the
project's success and optimizing its performance. Several factors need to be
considered during the site selection process.
Environmental factors:
• Solar radiation: This is the most critical factor. Look for areas with high
average insolation hours and minimal cloud cover.
• Temperature: Ideally, aim for moderate temperatures. Extreme heat can
reduce panel efficiency.
• Slope and land cover: Choose flat or slightly sloped land with minimal
vegetation or obstructions.
• Wind speed: Moderate wind can be beneficial for cooling panels, but
excessive wind can be detrimental.
• Precipitation: Moderate rainfall is acceptable, but avoid areas prone to
flooding or hailstorms.

Infrastructure and technical factors:

• Proximity to existing grid connection: Connecting to existing power lines
reduces transmission losses and costs.
• Land availability and ownership: Secure land with clear ownership and
minimal legal hurdles.
• Accessibility and transportation: Ease of access for construction and
maintenance equipment is crucial.
• Soil conditions: Stable, well-draining soil is preferred for foundation
construction.

Socio-economic factors:
• Land use and zoning: Ensure the chosen site complies with local land-use
regulations and zoning permits.
• Community impact: Consider potential visual or environmental impact on
nearby communities and address concerns proactively.
• Permitting and approvals: Understand and navigate the permitting process
for solar plant construction.
Tools and resources:
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS tools can help analyze and
overlay various data layers to identify suitable sites.
• Consulting firms: Specialized firms can assist with site selection,
feasibility studies, and permitting processes.
 2.Array Structure
PV Panel Structure
i.Wherever required, Suitable number of PV panel structures shall be provided.
ii.Structural material shall be corrosion resistant and electrolytically compatible
with the materials used in the module frame, its fasteners, nuts and bolts.
Galvanizing should meet ASTM A-123 hot dipped galvanizing or equivalent
which provides at least spraying thickness of 70 microns as per IS5909, if steel
is used.
iii.Aluminum extruded frame structures with adequate strength and in accordance
with relevant BIS standards can also be used with proof that the design of the
structure can withstand the wind speed of 200 km per hour as per BIS
Standards.
iv.Structures shall be supplied complete with all members to be compatible for
allowing easy installation at the rooftop site.
v.The Structure shall be made out of either Galvanized steel or steel or
Aluminum member as per design to be submitted by firm. The structures shall
be designed to allow easy replacement of any module.
vi.The structures shall be designed for simple mechanical and electrical
installation. There shall be no requirement of welding or complex machinery
at the installation site.
vii.The supplier shall specify installation details of the PV modules and the
support structures with appropriate diagrams and drawings. Such details shall
include, but not limited to, the following:
a) Determination of true North at the site
b) Array tilt angle to the horizontal, permitted tolerance
c) Details with drawings for fixing the modules
d) Structure installation details and drawings
e) Electrical grounding (earthing)
f) Safety precautions to be taken.

Fig. Array Structure (Galvanized Steel)

3.Solar Panel Orientation and Positioning
Solar Panel Azimuth and Zenith Orientation
Solar PV modules and panels work best when their absorbing surface is
perpendicular to the suns incoming rays. The position of the sun in the sky can
be plotted using two angles, azimuth and zenith and the angle of the solar panel
orientation relies upon these two values.

Solar Panel Orientation – Azimuth Orientation

Azimuth – This is the compass angle of the sun as it moves through the sky
from East to West over the course of the day.
Generally, azimuth is calculated as an angle from true south. At solar noon
which is defined as an azimuth angle of zero degrees, therefore Azimuth = 0o,
the sun will be directly south in the northern hemisphere and directly north in
the southern hemisphere.

Solar azimuth angles to the east of due south are negative in nature, with due
east having an azimuth angle of -90o. Solar azimuth angles to the west of due
south are positive in nature, with due west having an azimuth angle of +90o. In
general however, the azimuth angle required for the correct solar panel
orientation varies with the latitude and time of year.
Solar Panel Orientation – Zenith Orientation
Zenith – This is the angle of the sun looking up from ground level or the
horizon. The zenith angle of the sun varies throughout the day in the form of
an arc with the sun reaching its maximum elevation (also called solar altitude)
around midday. The suns elevation is defined as 0 o at sunrise and sunset, and
90o at midday when the sun is directly overhead.

However, the elevation of the sun at midday is different between the summer
solstice and the winter solstice representing the longest and shortest days of the
year as the suns path forms an arc across the sky represent representing either
spring or spring or autumn.

Solar Panel Orientation and Tilt

The sky (solar azimuth), the sun also moves up and down (solar zenith)
throughout the year making it difficult to provide a fixed solar panel
orientation. Then for maximum conversion of sunlight into solar electricity,
solar panels need to be mounted at an angle for them to point directly at the
sun. Depending upon how the panel is mounted, it may be kept at a permanent
angle, or adjusted throughout the year to take full advantage of the suns solar
energy. Adjustment of a static mounted photovoltaic solar system can result in
10% to 40% more power output yearly making a considerable difference to the
charging time for batteries.
Solar Panel Orientation
Solar Panel Orientation refers to our azimuth setting. Most of the energy
coming from the sun arrives in straight line. A solar panel or solar array will
ray will capture more energy if it is facing directly at the sun, perpendicular to
the straight line between the position of the panels installation and the sun.
Then we need to have the solar panel turned towards the terrestrial equator
(either facing south in the northern hemisphere, or north in the southern
hemisphere) so that during the day its orientation allows the panel to catch the
greatest possible amount of solar radiation possible.
There are different ways of achieving the required solar panel orientation. We
could just point the PV panel or array due south or north using a compass, find
the central angle between the summer and winter azimuth settings or more
accurately position the panels relative to the central solar noon.
The solar noon refers to the highest position of the sun as it arcs across the sky
and is different to 12:00 o’clock noon or midday as a measurement of time.
generally the solar noon occurs between 12:00 o’clock and 14:00 o’clock
depending upon the location.
It is very important when positioning and aligning a solar panel or array that
no part of a solar panel or solar array are ever shaded from the sun as we need
100% solar radiation across the panel. Check that the elements that surround
the panel or array (trees, buildings, walls, other panels, etc.) to be sure that they
will not cast a shadow on the panels at any time of the day or year.

Solar Panel Tilt

Solar Panel Tilt refers to our zenith or elevation setting. Once the best azimuth
position is found, the next parameter that is key to producing the most solar
electricity is the elevation of the PV panel. being about 62o and the minimum
angle for the winter solstice about 15o.For a fixed solar installation, it is
preferred that the PV panels are installed with a centralised tilt angle.
4.Solar Tracker
Tracking the position of the sun in order to expose a solar panel to maximum
radiation at any given time is the main purpose of a solar tracking PV system
giving the best solar panel orientation at all times of the day.
A solar tracking system can track the movement of the sun across the sky from
sunrise to sunset creating optimal power output for a longer period and can also
accommodate for seasonal changes of the sun direction.

Fig: Automatic Solar Tracking

System
The ideal solar tracking arrangement for a solar panel would be a motor-driven
equatorial mount, similar to those used with sophisticated telescopes or
satellite dishes. This would allow the PV panel to follow the suns rotational
path all day, every day of the year giving it the best solar panel orientation and
generating the maximum possible output maximum possible output power.
5.Grounding
A ground system provides four primary functions:

1. To help disperse or divert energy from lightning strikes.

2. To provide safety in case some problem or fault energizes the cabinet or
chassis of equipment with dangerous voltages.

3. To provide a controlled RF return path for end-fed (single wire feed) or

poorly configured or improperly designed transmission-line fed antennas.
4. To provide a highly conductive path for induced or directly coupled
radio-frequency currents, rather than having them flow in lossy soil.

A ground normally will not help reception. The exception is an antenna

system design problem or installation problem causing the antenna system
to be sensitive to common mode feedline currents. If adding a station
ground helps reception or transmission, there is an antenna system flaw.

A ground will not reduce the chances or number of lightning strikes. A

properly installed and bonded entrance ground can only reduce or eliminate
lightning damage from hits.

6.Commissioning and Testing:

Thoroughly test the entire PV system to ensure that all components are
functioning properly. Check for any wiring issues, monitor voltage levels, and
confirm that the system is safely and efficiently generating power.
Commissioning and testing of a solar panel or a complete photovoltaic (PV)
system are critical steps to ensure proper functionality, efficiency, and safety.
1.Visual Inspection:
Perform a visual inspection of the entire solar panel installation. Check for any
physical damage, loose connections, or abnormalities in the wiring. Ensure that
all components are securely mounted.
2.Electrical Continuity Testing:
Verify the electrical continuity of the wiring and connections. Ensure that there
are no open circuits, short circuits, or loose connections that could affect the
performance of the solar panel system.
3.Insulation Resistance Testing:
Measure the insulation resistance of the electrical components to ensure that
there are no electrical leaks or faults. This test helps prevent the risk of
electrical shock and fire hazards.
4.Grounding System Check:
Confirm that the grounding system is properly installed and functional.
Grounding is essential for electrical safety, providing a path for excess
electrical current to safely dissipate into the ground.
5.Voltage and Current Measurement:
Measure the voltage and current output of the solar panels. This can be done
using a multimeter or other testing equipment. Compare the measured values
with the expected values from the system design to ensure proper performance.
6.Inverter Testing:
If the solar panel system includes an inverter, test its functionality. Confirm
that the inverter is converting DC power from the solar panels into AC power
accurately. Check for any error codes or issues indicated by the inverter.
7.Battery System Testing:
If the system includes energy storage with batteries, test the charging and
discharging cycles. Verify that the batteries are receiving and delivering power
as expected. Check the performance of the charge controller.
8.Performance Monitoring System:
If a monitoring system is installed, ensure that it is set up and functioning
correctly. This system may provide real-time data on energy production,
system efficiency, and any potential issues.
9.Load Testing:
Conduct load testing to simulate real-world conditions and assess how the solar
panel system performs under different loads. This can help identify any issues
related to system capacity and response.
10.Final Inspection:
If required by local authorities or regulations, schedule a final inspection to
verify compliance with safety standards and building codes.
7.Safety Equipment
Over-Current Protection of PV Systems
According to the National Electric Code, every wire that carries current
needs to be protected from exceeding its rated capacity. In fact, each
ungrounded electrical conductor within a PV system needs to be protected
by overcurrent devices such as fuses or circuit breakers. If the current
through a given circuit exceeds the rated amperage, the fuse or breaker will
engage and stop any potential problems down the line such as wires melting,
fire, etc. The
maximum overcurrent protection is nothing more than the maximum
amperage each wire within your system can carry.

Fuses
With the positive and negative cables securely fastened to the battery
terminals, and the solar panel outside and exposed to the elements, any cable
connection failure is most likely to happen near the solar panel rather than
at the battery. If the end of the negative cable touch any exposed metal of
the positive cable (or vice versa), a short circuit will occur. Huge amounts
of electric current will flow potentially causing sparks, melting the cable,
and/or even causing the battery to explode.

FIG. showing a typical battery and solar panel connection

With an appropriately rated fuse fitted in the positive cable as near to the
battery as possible any short circuit will be over within a split second before
any serious damage can be done.
 Fig. Showing Fuses

DC circuit-breakers
In addition to fuses, protection of photovoltaic modules is provided by string
circuit- breakers. They protect photovoltaic modules from fault currents. For
example, in large systems they prevent regeneration from intact modules to
modules with a short-circuit. Their advantage over fuses is that they are
immediately ready for use after a trip and when the cause of the trip has been
remedied.

Fig: Showing Circuit Breakers

9.OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
SCOPE OF OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF SPV POWER
PLANT FOR A PERIOD OF 10 YEAR FROM DATE OF
COMMISSIONING
Regular operation & maintenance of the SPV Power Plant for a period of ten
years after commissioning along with supply of consumable items as and when
necessary and submission of daily performance data of the power plant shall
come, under the operation & maintenance contract. The break down
maintenance of the entire system including supply of necessary spare parts, if
any, are already under the cove the coverage of warranty clause of the specific
condition for a period of 120 months from date of commissioning of power
plant.

Maintenance of solar plant

• Regular cleaning of solar panels.
• In normal conditions, where there isn’t too much dust or dirt, cleaning is
carried out on a fortnightly basis.
• Brushes without hard bristles should be used for cleaning.
• Modules are wiped off properly.
• Monitoring energy production.
• Check for ground erosion near the footings of a ground mount system.
• Check for loose hanging wires in the array.
• In Inverter ventilation is provided via a filter, and this filter needs to be
frequently cleaned.
• Ensure that there is no gap between the male and female connector.
• For O&M of solar plant check following electrical parameters after
cleaning of solar panels.
• Periodic cleaning of solar modules, preferably once every fortnight or as
per site conditions. As this task has to be done by the beneficiary, the vendors
shall apprise the beneficiary on the importance and proper technique for
cleaning.
• Immediate replacement of defective Modules, Invertors/PCUs and
other equipment as and when required.
THANK YOU