Urban

Geography
3rd semester
notes
Notes prepared by
Ayush kashyap [ admission year : 2023]
BA[Hons.] Geography
Bhim rao Ambedkar college , University of delhi

Now let’s start studying the notes

 UNIT – 1
NATURE AND SCOPE

1.1 Introduction
➢ URBAN: The buildup of the central city and the suburban realm – the city and the
surrounding environs connected to the city. Urban areas are normally marked by:
Higher literacy, educational achievements and vocational education
Higher standard of living, higher aspirations and more amenities and
services
Higher age of marriage
Lower ideal family size, greater use of family planning methods and lower
fertility
Better health infrastructure leading to lower mortality and fertility rates
Higher autonomy and empowerment of women
Lower impact of religiosity and supernatural beliefs
Greater impact of globalization, individualization and secularization
➢ Urban Geography is a sub-discipline of the larger field of human geography.
➢ Urban geography focuses on the city in the context of space throughout
countries and continents.
➢ The study of how people use space in cities.
➢ the branch of human geography concerned with the spatial aspects of:
(1) the locations, functional structures, size hierarchies, and intercity
relationships of national or regional systems of cities, and
(2) the site, evolution, economic base, internal land use, and social geographic
patterns of individual cities.
❖ Meaning and definitions
Urban geography includes the site, evolution, pattern and classification of towns –
G.TAYLOR
Urban geography is in fact the intensive study of towns and their development in all
their geographical aspects- L.D. STAMP
Urban geography is the geographical study of urban places which evolve, grow and exist
as service centres for their surrounding areas – G.S. GOSAL

Dickinson (1901) defines urban geography as the study of a city directing the
neighbouring region. He describes that the city behaves like a king in its hinterland.

For Mayer (1951) urban geography is concerned with the study of the economic base of
cities with interpretations of the associations between cities as man’s habitat and
economic activities within the cities and its hinterland.

Harold Carter (1972) is of the view that as the geographer deals with the study of the
uneven character of the earth’s surface; and considerable proportion of population
resides in urban settlements these settlements with its inhabitants and the buildings
together are of special interest to the urban geographer. Moreover, the problems faced
by the city dwellers are of utmost importance while studying urban geography.

1.2 History and Development of Urban Geography

➢ The earliest studies of urban geography focused on site and situation.
➢ This developed out of the man-land tradition of geography which focused on the
impact of nature on humans and vice versa.
➢ In the 1920s, Carl Sauer became influential in urban geography as he motivated
geographers to study a city's population and economic aspects with regard to its
physical location.
➢ In addition, central place theory and regional studies focused on the hinterland
(the rural outlying are supporting a city with agricultural products and raw
materials) and trade areas were also important to early urban geography.
➢ Throughout the 1950s and 1970s, geography itself became focused on spatial
analysis, quantitative measurements and the use of the scientific method.
➢ At the same time, urban geographers began quantitative information like census
data to compare different urban areas.
➢ Using this data allowed them to do comparative studies of different cities and
develop computer-based analysis out of those studies.
➢ By the 1970s, urban studies were the leading form of geographic research.
➢ Shortly thereafter, behavioural studies began to grow within geography and in
urban geography.
➢ Proponents of behavioural studies believed that location and spatial
characteristics could not be held solely responsible for changes in a city.
 ➢ By the 1980s, urban geographers became largely concerned with structural
aspects of the city related to underlying social, political and economic
structures.

➢ For example, urban geographers at this time studied how capital investment
could foster urban change in various cities.

➢ Throughout the late 1980s until today, urban geographers have begun to
differentiate themselves from one another, therefore allowing the field to be
filled with a number of different viewpoints and focuses.

➢ For example, a city's site and situation is still regarded as important to its
growth, as is its history and relationship with its physical environment and
natural resources.
➢ People's interactions with each other and political and economic factors are still
studied as agents of urban change as well.

Long drives in :-

*Villages
Teacher :- Students 30 minutes me aapka test hoga . Be prepared.
Students :-

1.3 Nature and Scope of Urban Geography

➢ Aurousseau (1924) was among the first ones who gave a framework for the subject matter
of urban geography. He is of the view that since this part of geography folds a large part
of human geography it fails to be a functional subject and therefore is not sure about the
nature of urban geography.
➢ But after analysing various accessions he concludes that the regional study of towns and
their functional study do form an important parameter of its scope.
➢ This gave energy to the ‘site and situation’ and ‘functional’ approaches within this
regulation. Urban geography is not about planning but is concerned with various factors
which are inherent to the spatial and geographical structure of the city upon which planning
should be based.
 ➢ Urban geography has become less fuse and so it has become very difficult to categorize
its scope. even so one can set forth the push of the urban geography (Northam, 1975)
as shown in figure 1.
➢ From this figure, the author specifies the various investigations that urban geography
should investigate.

A entails a relationship between a place and its people;

B involves the association between different places.

C is disturbed with the study of the relationship between people of different places and

D relates to the relations that exist within one place or among the people of one place.

➢ Emrys Jones (1966) various elements of cities. In his studies he has found some words, a
city is a geographical pool of roads and residences, a centre of trade and administration
unit, a type of society, even the cultural form of the mind of the urban people or the way
of lifestyle. Various characteristics that can form the scope and content of this
subdiscipline of geography have been outlined in the following picture.

➢ The scopes of the sub-discipline compose the study of the origin of urban settlements,
their morphology and their development, and their functions in and around their vicinity.
➢ With the increase in population and these settlements appear as the magnets of
economic, social, and political developments. Urban geography has a special focus with its
primary task being the study of the combination of activities in urban areas, tie in land
use, and other features.
➢ The main core is on the explanation of patterns and relationships among different cities
as well as that between urban and non-urban places. Urban geography studies the urban
centre in the context of geographical factors. The factors operate spatially to explain
processes – economic, socio-cultural, and political.
➢ But the subject of urban geography has its limited scope in the sense that it deals with
these processes in relation to only one phenomenon, i.e., town or city. Some of the general
principles on which a town is based on the subject matter.
➢ D. Stamp to cover the scope of urban geography is the study of the actual town itself,
i.e., the town as an entity. He further has added that the influence of the town on its
surrounding area to forms a significant aspect of the study. This means that ‘townscape’
and hinterland including ‘umland’ are vital issues for studying urban geography.
➢ One of the pioneer scholars in urban studies in India, R.L. Singh has stressed three
broad categories under the scope, viz.
(a) The physical structure of the city,
(b) The stage of its historical development,

Student 1 :- Mera breakup ho gya bhaiya , Mai suicide karne jaa rahan hu
Student 2 :-

Student 1 :-
1.4 Basic Concepts related to Urban Geography
To further understand the nature of urban geography, which became quite complex and
hybrid by the latter half of the Twentieth century certain basic concepts need to be
explored. These have been discussed in the following section:
1.4.1 Site-Situation Concept:
Dickinson's approach to a city is a natural start, but with the passage of time, the
natural situation of the city has been utilized by the resources available and the
area's adaptability and surrounding area. Its growth and expansion are sometimes
spread to spread the natural site so that it can be made beyond recognition. There
was little possibility of the development of true urban geography in this context.
The objective was limited, and it was not possible to explain complex economic work
and social order. It was further emphasized that the application of the 'site and
situation formula was meaningless "where there was no historical interest on the
site because the situation was seen in the context of the routes and not the
streams of the movement". Such examples dismissed the stereotype of 'site and
situation'.

1.4.2 Concept of Ecology:

During the two world wars, the concept of plant ecology came into being and
influenced geographical events. Robert Park (1925) in his book The City emphasised
that due to the increase in population in the city area, the ecological processes of
the city have changed. Urban ecology affected relations with the surrounding areas
of the city, and it had an impact on people and their environment. Several studies
emphasised the opportunities and constraints posed by the physical environment.
Simultaneously the political and economic processes involved in the production of
urban environmental infrastructures also became part of urban geography.

In recent years, the concept of the urban ecosystem has become an important
component of this sub-discipline. Along with this, the impact of urban societies on
sustainable development has also been taken within its fold. These concerns have led
to local scale initiatives.

1.4.3 Behaviouralism and Urban Centres:

Berry's argument about the city and its development is related to the behaviour of
its consumer, which is the perfect alternative to the use of land. It depends on
three variables, these are:
(1) Value of residential unit - purchase cost or rent?
(2) Quality of residence, and
(3) Relationship with work and place of the neighbourhood?
 Family income is an important component for the selection of a site in the city, and
it relies on the capabilities of its users to interact with space. As a general trend,
people with almost one-income groups make their choices for a similar place. In the
context of India, social relations and behaviour are the products of values and
culture. This gave birth to the 'Mohalla' or the community of similar behaviour.

1.4.4 Concept of Radicalism:

An important aspect of the urban world is the concept of 'total change' brought
into play by the development of new infrastructure like the metro; it has completely
changed the idea of consumers. These reactions also influence urban planning, and
the capitalist cities were now bound to think about the rights of the people.
Radicals believe that they provide the fundamental base on the lines of market
inequality and thus provided alternative systems of 'socialist city' - the planning
centre and the central direction for equality.

To conclude the discussion, urban geography is more than a mix of different

approaches. This is probably near a systematic geographic study rather than a
multi-dimensional analysis of its purpose. Now urban geography has become less
unified and so it becomes more difficult to present a neat structure. Whatever the
argument may be the fundamental concern is spatial and that also with relation to
the description and explanation of the pattern is core and that makes it important
even for urban geography like other sub-disciplines.
1.5 Theories of Urban Origin {reference carter}
➢ Harold Carter, a prominent British archaeologist, made significant contributions to the
study of urban origins through his research and writings. In his work, Carter proposed
several theories to explain the emergence and development of early cities.
➢ These theories shed light on the complex processes that led to the formation of urban
Centres in ancient societies and provide valuable insights into the factors that shaped
early urbanization.
➢ However, there are several prominent theories about urban origins:
a) Hydraulic theory
Proposed by Karl Wittfogel, this theory suggests that the development of irrigation
systems in arid regions led to the need for centralized control and social
organization, thus fostering the rise of cities.
The importance of irrigation for urban development, especially in the semi-arid
climates of the Middle East where the agricultural revolution took place, was
identified by Wittfogel (1957), who argued that the need for large-scale water
management required centralised co-ordination and direction, which in turn required
concentrated settlement.
The principal characteristics of a `hydraulic society' are that it:
1. permits an intensification of agriculture;
2. involves a particular division of labour;
3. necessitates co-operation on a large scale

b) Trade theory
This theory emphasizes the role of trade and commerce in driving urbanization.
Carter suggested that cities emerged as hubs of economic activity, where goods
from different regions could be exchanged and traded. The presence of markets,
workshops, and storage facilities in early cities supported this theory, highlighting
the importance of economic interactions in the development of urban Centres.

c) Religious Theory:
This theory posits that the rise of organized religion and the development of
religious institutions played a significant role in the emergence of cities. Religious
Centres often served as focal points for social gathering and cultural exchange.

d) Social Surplus Theory:

This theory suggests that the accumulation of surplus resources, such as food and
labour, enabled the development of specialized labour and social stratification,
leading to the formation of urban settlements.
 e) Power Control Theory:
This theory highlights the role of political power and centralized control in the
development of cities. Rulers and elites used urban Centres as bases of power and
control over resources and population.

f) Defence theory :
Another theory put forward by Carter is that urbanization was driven by the need
for defence. He argued that cities developed as fortified settlements to protect
against external threats, such as invasions or raids. The presence of walls,
fortifications, and other defensive structures in early cities supports this theory.

➢ Carter's theories offer valuable insights into the complex processes that
underpinned urban origins in ancient societies. By examining the interplay of
environmental, economic, and social factors, his work sheds light on the dynamic
forces that shaped early urbanization.
➢ Through a nuanced understanding of these theories, we can gain a deeper
appreciation of the rich history and evolution of urban centres around the world.
Harold Carter's contributions continue to inform scholarly debates and research
on urban origins, providing a lasting legacy in the field of archaeology.

Some other famous theories related to urban origin :-

1.6 Conclusion
➢ Urban geography has a distinctive focus with its primary concern being the study of the
association of activities in urban areas, an association of land use and other features. The
focus is on the interpretation of patterns and relationships among different cities as well
as that between urban and non-urban places. This gave energy to the ‘site and situation’ and
‘functional’ approaches within this regulation.
➢ Urban geography is not about planning but is concerned with various factors which are
inherent to the Page spatial and geographical structure of the city upon which planning
should be based.
➢ The scopes of the sub-discipline compose the study of the origin of urban settlements,
their morphology and their development, and their functions in and around their vicinity.
With the increase in population and these settlements appear as the magnets of economic,
social, and political developments.

Ayush :- Saloni , tune Saniya ke saath maar - peet kyu ki , kyu peeta use?
Meanwhile , saloni :-
 UNIT – 2
Urban Morphology and hierarchy

1.1 Introduction
➢ In a narrow sense, urban morphology refers to the study of physical arrangement or
structure of town.
➢ In a wider sense, it may be defined as a study of relationships of urban landscape with its
occupiers in terms of patterns and distribution of socio-economic and political activities.
➢ Hence, urban morphology is not only a study of layout of buildings, roads, institutions etc.
but it is also significant in defining socio-economic and political fabric of the urban
landscape.
❖ Shape of Urban Areas

• Shape of city refers to the general spread of residential and commercial

settlements in the city.
• The physical landscape plays most important role in determining shape of city.
For instance, city on a conical hill stations is likely to have Nebular Pattern. The
Ooty city in Tamil Nadu is a famous example of nebular pattern.
• The transport and communication network defines the shape of a city, also.
❖ Structure of Urban Areas

• Structure of urban area refers to the spatial distribution and layout of

administrative, commercial, industrial and residential buildings.
• Usually, the locations of commercial and residential buildings are in proximity to
each other to enable the workers to reach their workplace, easily.
• Similarly, the industrial units are in proximity to the large roadways and railways
to ensure easy import of intermediary goods and export of finished goods.

City girls after getting only 3K likes City boys after getting only 300 likes
1.2 kearsley modified burgess model
➢ Kearsley’s model of urban structure is a modified version of Burgess’ concentric zone
model that described a typical American city having five concentric zones of land use. G.
W. Kearsley stated that Burgess model is the basis for introduction to urban geography
and the structure of a city. He noted (Kearsley, 1983):

“…it is felt that the basis for a modern and relevant introduction to urban geography can
be built around the basic formulation in a way that retains the essential holism of
structure and society that characterizes the modern metropolis.”

➢ Kearsley’s model of the urban structure is a conceptual framework that describes the
typical patterns of urban development in Western cities that started taking place in the
20th century post-war.

➢ Kearsley tried to adapt the Burgess model to include modern aspects of urban change
such as inner city decline and decentralization. He also incorporated a few elements of
sector and multiple nuclei models, and emphasized the divide between the inner city and
out suburbs.

➢ As the cities started growing, several processes characterized the city that varied from
region to region. Extensive processes of clearances and redevelopments dominated the
Britain cities in the 1950-60s that altered the visuals of the city with high-rise towers.
These fossilized social patterns and the construction of suburban houses at the urban
periphery facilitated the exodus of a social stratum.

➢ The concept of new towns and satellite cities started coming to light in Britain, followed
by France. This stimulated a deeper understanding of the background of commuter
villages of the Burgess model and added a regional perspective to a single-city model.

➢ Further, with the decanting of the high-density inner city, various traditional industries
and other technological activities relocated to attractive rural locations, thereby making
these activities a suburban or even exurban process and eventually leading to ‘de-
urbanization’. With the commencement of de-urbanization, gentrification of the inner
city became more prominent as affluent households seek to restore the fabric of inner-
city environment.

➢ However, in response to the centralization of certain activities (especially in the tertiary

sector), various centres in and around London retained the character as islands of middle-
class rectitude. Around the same time, American cities also experienced a high influx of
relatively disadvantaged people.

➢ Looking for cheap accommodation and jobs in inner city services industries and cultural
influence, these formed identifiable ghettoes in the city. Gans (1962) pointed out that
coherent social groups are visible in cities along with a clear distinction between inner
cities and suburbs. He further stated that distinctive groups such as cosmopolites and
ethnic villagers are recognized within the inner city representing the rich who choose to
live close to the central business district (CBD), whereas the poor immigrant communities
were found within the Twilight Zone.
 ▪ Kearsley's Modifications

• Acknowledged that cities were becoming more complex and less rigidly structured.

• Introduced the concept of sector models to account for the growing importance of
transportation corridors and radial growth patterns.

• Recognized the influence of social factors in urban development, emphasizing how social
groups and class structures influence land use and housing patterns.

Suggested that urban growth could be influenced by factors like population growth, economic
development, and government policies.
 ▪ Kearsley's work emphasized the need to consider:

• The dynamism of urban growth: Cities are not static and evolve over time.

• The influence of technology: Transportation systems play a crucial role in shaping urban
structure.

• The importance of social factors: Socio-economic inequalities and demographics influence

urban patterns.

➢ Kearsley’s modified Burgess model has been successfully implemented in many cities
around the world, providing an effective tool for city planning. Despite its rigid structure,
it still allows for changes that can be made quickly if needed. However, there are some
limitations and challenges to consider when applying the model.
➢ It relies heavily on socio-economic data to determine which areas should have access to
amenities or services and does not take into account cultural diversity or environmental
impacts. Nevertheless, Kearsley’s Modified Burgess model accounts for suburban sprawl
and exurban development, allowing us to gain insight into the entire metropolitan city
structure.

*Kearsley
1.3 Multi Nuclei Model
Harris and Ullman proposed Multiple Nuclei Model in their paper The Nature of Cities
(1945) to explain the morphology of a city. They argued that the land use pattern is
much more complex than the model given by Burgess, Hoyt & Davis. They observed
that the land use pattern is neither in concentric zones or elongated corridors.

Basic Idea Behind Multiple Nuclei Model

• In fact, the land use pattern in cities develop around multiple Central
Business Districts (CBDs).
• To elaborate, it was argued that there is only one CBD, initially. With the
growth of the city size and expansion of economic activities, some of the
economic activities from primary CBD shift to other CBDs. The new CBDs
are less crowded and more accessible.
• Therefore, the city land-use is found in cellular pattern around these
CBDs.
1. Central Business District (CBD)

• This zone represents the Central Business District (CBD).

• It is the centre of all high end commercial activities.
• So, the land rent in CBD is very high. Therefore, land use is very
intensive.
• There are huge business offices and administrative building in this
area.
• CBD has negligible residential areas.
• All the transport networks converge in this zone.
2. Wholesale & Manufacturing

• Wholesale & Manufacturing zone is located in proximity to CBD

because this sector is dependent on CBD for provision of services.
• On the one hand, the CBD provides services like commercial permits,
financial services, transport services etc. to wholesale and
manufacturing units. On the other hand, the CBD is provided
interest and investment opportunity by this sector.
3. Low Class Homes

• This area is very crowded and inhabited by blue collared workers

with low income.
• The residential condition is poor.
• They live in proximity to wholesale & manufacturing to avoid cost of
commute.
• This area is well connected to their workplace.
• These workers are located in such a manner that they can provide
services to different sector of the economy such as wholesale,
heavy manufacturing, services to middle class etc. (see Fig.1)
4. Middle Class Homes

• This zone has the better residential properties occupied by mostly

white collared workers.
• The income of the residents is very good, therefore, they can
afford the housing in this zone.
• The properties in this zones are detached from each other.
• This zone is characterized by open spaces such as parks, gardens
and affluent markets.
5. High Class Homes

• This zone contains the large villas and bungalows of the porch class
in sub-urban area.
• It has open space, large gardens and golf courses.
• It is located farthest from the city but these people can commute
to CBD.
• Over time, some of the activities of CBD is relocated to suburbs.
These include large corporate offices, business activities, trading
etc.
• The high class shift their workplace to this new CBD to avoid long
hours of commute.
6. Heavy Manufacturing

• When the city grows horizontally, some of the heavy industries

come within the city limits.
• Due to pollution caused by these heavy industries, the
administration relocates these to periphery of the city surrounding
the working class home (zone 3).
7. Central Business District-2

• Over time, some of the activities of CBD is relocated to suburbs.

The new CBD is can be called as CBD-2. For instance, the CBD in
Delhi is Connaught place but Nehru Place also acts as a specialized
CBD.
• The new CBD emerges because the old CBD becomes very, crowded
and land rent becomes exorbitant.
• The corporate houses shift their offices to the new suburbs for
better environment for their employees.
8. Suburbs

• The whole city is surrounded by sub-urban zone which presents

mixed rural and urban land-use.
• This zone contain small town which acts as CBD for suburban area
and provides marketing services.
• The municipal corporation shifts the dirty land-use of city to
suburbs i.e. garbage landfill sites, illegal farmhouses, godowns,
criminal activities etc.
• This area provides milk and vegetables to the city center.
9. Industrial Suburb

• When the city continues to grow, the municipal corporation shifts

most of the polluting industries to suburban areas.
• The new suburban industrial area also serve as a new CBD where
workers from suburban area seek work.
Assessment of Multiple Nuclei Model
The multiple nuclei model is most realistic representation of a city. In reality,
there are multiple CBDs in a city where the workers go to work. The is mostly
true in case of large cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta etc. The economic
activities are divided among the multiple CBDs. Each CBD has their on
specialized function.

Application of Multiple Nuclei Model in Indian

Context
• Multiple Nuclei Model represents the city scape of Indian cities in
nuanced manner.
• In Fig. 1, it is clearly visible that the low class workers (Zone-3) live
alongside middle class workers (Zone-4). They provide domestic
services to middle class. The high class (zone-5) derives their
domestic workforce from the suburban area.
• Take the example of Delhi, it also has multiple specialized CBDs.
The Connaught Place is famous for shopping. Nehru Place provides in
computer services. Karol Bagh provides automotive services. Chawri
Bazaar provides whole services etc.
• The residential areas near these CBDs are very crowded.
• The Municipal Corporation of Delhi is trying to shift most polluting
industries to suburbs.
• The garbage landfill site is also located in outer Delhi.
It can be concluded from the above discussion that this model is most practical
model of urban morphology. It gives sufficient importance to the land-use
planning by the city planners. Hence, it has great relevance to study urban
morphology. Its only drawback is that this theory ignores the transport
networks and topography.
1.4 White’s model of the 21st century city
➢ White (1987) proposed a revision of the Burgess model that incorporates these
trends in order to guide our understanding of the twenty-first-century city.

➢ The model comprises seven elements:

1. Core.
2. Zone of stagnation.
3. Pockets of poverty and minorities.
4. Elite enclaves.
5. The diffused middle class.
6. Industrial anchors and public sector control.
7. Epicentres and corridors.

i. Core:
✓ The CBD remains the focus of the metropolis. Its functions may have changed over the
years but it still houses the major banks and financial institutions, government
buildings, and corporate headquarters as well as the region's main cultural and
entertainment facilities.
✓ A few large department stores retain flagship establishments downtown, but most
retailing has moved with the affluent population to the suburbs, with many remaining
outlets being specialty stores catering to daytime commuters.
 ii. Zone of stagnation:
✓ Burgess expected investors from the CBD to expand into the zone in transition, White
depicts the area as a zone of stagnation.
✓ He argues that rather than extending outwards spatially, the CBD expands vertically.
The lack of investment in the zone was compounded by the effects of slum clearance,
highway construction, and the relocation of warehousing and transport activities to
suburban areas.

iii. Pockets of poverty and minorities:

These comprise highly segregated groups living on the fringes of society, including the
homeless, addicts, dysfunctional families, the underclass, and members of minorities.

iv. Elite enclaves:

✓ Many of these areas surround the stagnation zone and may constitute modern 'slums'.
✓ The wealthy have the greatest choice of housing environment and are able to insulate
themselves from the problems of the metropolis.
✓ Most live in neighbourhoods on the urban periphery in expensive houses on spacious lots.

v. The diffused middle class.

The middle class is diffused, spreading to occupy most of the city metropolis. Generally, those
closest to the core are older areas occupied by those of lower socio-economic status (SES).

vi. Industrial anchors and public sector control:

✓ Industrial parks, universities, R&D centres, hospitals, business and office centres,
corporate headquarters and other large institutional property holders can exert a
major influence on patterns of land use and residential development.
✓ Institutional actors and other members of a local growth coalition can pressure city
government to modify zoning, lower taxes and construct infrastructure. The location of
such activity (e.g. the siting of a large shopping mall) is of considerable importance in
shaping the urban structure.

vii. Epicenters and corridors:

Epicenters are commercial centres which have taken over many of the functions of the old
CBD and are generally sited where main highways converge or develop as corridors along main
transport routes.
1.5 Concept and Theories of Hierarchy-Christaller
➢ Walter Christaller proposed his Central Place Theory in 1933. He aimed to rationalize
the distribution of cities over geographic space. He was concerned with the way the
settlement of different sizes evolve and are spaced out. It is a theoretical account of
size and distribution of settlements within an urban system where marketing is
predominant urban function.

❖Basic Idea Behind Central Place Theory

• Christaller’s theory is based on the study of Bavaria region of Germany.
• There is a hierarchy of settlements in urban system.
• Metro cities are placed at apex.
• Each city of higher order is surrounded by many cities of lower order. So, the
number of cities increase as we move from apex to the lower order.
• The functions of higher and lower order cities are different.
• This theory has theoretical elements of both Primate City and Rank Size Rule.

❖Assumptions
i. Isotropic Plain: This means that the cities are located in an homogenous plain
area without topographic undulations.
ii. The population is distributed evenly over this space.
iii. All of population demands the same goods e.g. clothing, healthcare etc.
iv. Distance decay: The people tend to fulfil their needs from the nearest city
possible. So, there is distance decay in context of interaction of people with a
certain city.
v. Identical Income: The income of the consumers is identical i.e. all consumers
have similar purchasing power.
vi. The cities are arranged in triangular lattice i.e. cities are distributed perfectly
evenly over space .

Fig. 1: Triangular Lattice in Central Place Theory. Source: Ortner & Zhang (2011)
 ❖Central Place Theory is based on four key concept

Fig. 2: Threshold, Complementary Area and Range of Goods

1. Threshold: It means that the minimum volume of business a firm will need to be able to
operate economically. It shows the amount of business need for the viability of a business
(Blue area in Fig.2).

2. Complementary Area: The city serves additional area over and above the threshold area.
This additional area is called complementary area (Orange area in Fig. 2).

3. Range of Goods: Range of goods means that maximum distance from which a consumer is
ready to travel to the city for purchasing a good. Greater range of good means that people
from farther places are ready to travel to city for purchasing a good and vice-versa. The
outer boundary of complementary area denotes the range of goods.

4. Central goods and services: Certain goods and services can only be provided by larger
cities only. This means that people from smaller cities and towns must travel to large city
for purchase of a central good. For example, for a heart surgery, people have to travel to
large cities.

❖Two Key Principles of Central Place Theory

1. Principle of Centralization: All matter in the universe has a core i.e. tissues has
nucleus, earth has core etc. It signifies relationship between central place and
its periphery.
2. Principle of Hierarchy: It means that most phenomena in the universe is
arranged in certain hierarchy. For example, satellites, planets, stars, galaxies
etc. are arranged in universe in certain hierarchy. Similarly, cities have
hierarchy.
 ❖Working of Theory
➢ As assumed, the settlements are equidistant on an isotropic plain.

Fig. 3: Formation of Hexagons in Central Place Theory

These settlements will serve a circular area around them but in this case there is an area
which remains unserved between these circular areas (See Fig. 3). To solve this problem,
Christaller overlapped these area which led to problem of overlapping range of goods. He
divided this overlapped area into half and came up with hexagonal pattern. Hexagons fit
perfectly into each other (Fig. 3).

Fig. 4: Hierarchy of Central Places

As seen in Fig. 4, the apex central place has six cities of second order located at the nodes of
the hexagons around it. Similarly, cities of second order has cities of third order located at
the nodes of hexagons. One must notice that the size of cities may vary but they are still
located in a triangular lattice.
 ❖ Principles of Arrangement and Numbering of Cities
Christaller formulated three principles to study the hierarchical spatial structure of urban
system.

1. Marketing Principle (K = 3)

Cities have certain central function and serve the area around it. According to this principle,
the cities are located at hexagonal node. This principle states that each city serves one third
of three complimentary areas of three lower order cities.

K = 1 +(1/3 * 6) = 3

Therefore, the number of cities at each lower hierarchy will be three times more than the
preceding order of cities. The number of cities will be like 1, 2, 6, 18, 54, 162…. and so on.

2. Transport Principle (K = 4)

This principle offers to provide the most efficient and quick route between different cities.
It states that the cities will be located in the middle of each side of hexagons rather than
nodes. Therefore, each city will serve the complimentary area of two of the lower order cities.

K = 1 +(1/2 * 6) = 4

The number of cities at each lower order will be three four times the number of preceding
order or cities. The number of cities will be like 1, 2, 8, 32, 128…. and so on.

3. Administrative Principle (K = 7)

This principle states that each higher order city will serve the administrative needs of all the
peripheral cities of lower order along with its own needs.

K = 1 +(1/1 * 6) = 7

The number of each subsequent order of cities will be seven times the number of preceding
order of cities. the number of cities will be like 1, 6, 42, 294… and so on.

The readers should understand that these principles can not be applied alongside each other.
We use these principles individually to understand urban landscape.
 ❖ Criticism of central place theory

i. This theory has unrealistic assumptions, so, the conditions assumed for
operation of this theory are rare.
ii. Consumers and sellers are not always rational. Consumers take decisions based
on social networks and personal biases. For instance, a person may go for
shopping to a farther city instead of a nearer city, just because a friend has a
shop in that city.
iii. This theory assumes isotropic plains but in reality space is undulated and cities
are not equidistant.
iv. It ignores the factors determining the location of industries. Usually, the
locations favorable for industrial location becomes the central locations.
v. The distance in itself does not determines consumer choices because Transport
networks determine the choice of consumer for marketing purposes.
vi. This theory is suitable in a agricultural region where land is flat and transport
cost determines the range of goods.
vii. It ignores the agglomeration of industries and economic activities. Sometimes,
there is only one large city and large number of smaller cities of similar size. So,
the hierarchy as explained by Christaller does not exist.
viii. The evidence supporting this theory is limited to experience of German cities
and range of 150 goods, so, it is difficult to generalize its conclusions.
ix. Some regions are resource rich and some are resource scarce. Resources are
non-ubiquitous in nature. So, cities can develop at resource rich regions only.

❖ Relevance of Central Place Theory

Central place theory is gold standard in field of spatial analysis. The scholars have criticized
this theory widely but it still retains the relevance in world.

i. The theory is relevant in Indian context. India has State capital with district
capitals around them. District capital has towns around them and the towns
have large villages around them. This shows that India has hierarchy of urban
settlements within states.
ii. Certain services are only available in metro cities i.e. heart surgeon are only
available in large cities or good universities are located in Delhi etc.
iii. Transport cost do determine the consumer’s choice. The consumer interact
lower with farther cities and more with nearer city. It points towards principle
of distance decay.
iv. With development of modes of communication and information, the consumers
are able to make rational choices. For instance, people can compare the price of
a good on online shopping platforms such as Amazon, Flipkart etc. and compare
that price with physical markets. This way, a consumer can make rational
decision.
v. Number of towns in each hierarchy in real world does not match the number of
cities stated by central place theory. However, the hierarchy of cities do exist.
Student :- Sir chapter khatam ho gya na ?
Meanwhile teacher :-

1.6 Urban morphology of Delhi

• Introduction
The national capital territory of Delhi Delhi is the most important economic & cultural hub of
the Indian sub-continent and is known for its centralised distance from the major geographical
features of the Indian subcontinent namely the Himalayan Ranges & Aravalli range.
The city has always been a favourable case from the geographical & political point of view and
has been an all-time favourite among all the ruling dynasties starting as early from the
Mahabharata period all the way till Britisher chooses Delhi as their capital city. Delhi has been
a major urban economic centre with ever-increasing urban growth and sprawl while sharing
borders with the states of Haryana, Rajasthan & Uttar Pradesh.

• Geography of Delhi

Delhi is bound by the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains in the North and East, by the Thar Desert in
the West and by the Aravalli hill ranges in the South. Delhi has a flat terrain with a low NNE-
SSW existing Ridge area which remains as an extension to the Aravalli hill ranges entering Delhi
from the southwest direction all the way from the state of Rajasthan. The ridge area is
predominantly visible on the south side of the city extending up to the Okhla area & disappearing
below the Yamuna floodplains which belong to the Northeast side of the city. (NIDM) In view
of the major geographical features identified in the city, it has been further divided into 3
segments which include the ridge, the floodplains & the plains.
 • The Ridge of Delhi
Ecologically it’s beneficial as it acts as a physical barrier between the extremities of the Thar
desert and the plains of Delhi by restricting the inflow of dust and wind from the desert side.
The ridge area is easily identified with the presence of the historical Tughlaqabad fort, standing
at the highest point in the ridge area of Delhi. It has a dominant presence in the landscape of
Delhi city, encircling the city on the northwest and west. The ridge covers a 35km stretch from
the southern parts of the city all the way to the western parts occupied by the Yamuna River
and offers a uniformly distributed drainage pattern due to its topography across the city.
It also contains a number of perennial tanks & pits which act as groundwater collection &
recharging points throughout its stretch while helping in the sustenance of green areas bearing
natural forests which in turn affect the surrounding air temperatures and act as breathing lung
areas to the city. The Delhi ridge is characterized bio tropical thorny secondary forest
commonly known as rakes or an arid, open scrub forest. The ground thorn is seasonal and the
thorny shrubs occur in widely spaced clumps supporting a number of twines and climbers. The
ridge & the vegetation are critical for the following functions:
• Assimilation Of Gaseous Pollutants
• Ground Water Recharge
• Prevention Of Erosion & Siltation
• Maintenance Of Biodiversity (CSE)

• The Yamuna Flood Plain of Delhi

The river Yamuna is located where the city falls towards its west side and is considered the
major source of drinking water and other sacred rituals in the city. Apart from the Yamuna as
a major source of water, Delhi has 3 canal systems working within its peripheries namely the
Agra canal, Hindan canal & western Yamuna canal serving as secondary water bodies. The Yamuna
River is the primary water source that flows into the city from Wazirabad to Okhla barrage
while covering a length of 22kms and forming a floodplain area of around 97square kilometres
which forms part of 7% of the total area of Delhi. These floodplains are also known by the name
of Khadar. (NIDM)
Apart from river & canal water sources, the city relies heavily on groundwater sources whose
availability is governed by the hydrogeological conditions of Delhi characterised by the alluvial
formations and quartzitic hard rocks. As per the geological formations, 90% of the Delhi area
has fresh water availability at 60 m depth with drinkable quality whereas only 10 % of the area
under the ridge section has saline and brackish waters. (Govt.)
 • The Plain of Delhi
The areas other than Yamuna flood plains and the ridge area falls under the fertile plains also
known as Bangar which consists of major areas of Delhi city including old Delhi, New Delhi &
Delhi cantonment. (Online) The figure shows the alluvial formations which overlay the ridge
bedrock. The plains of Yamuna have a distinct river deposit making it extremely fertile whereas
the alluvial plains bear different characteristics on either side of the ridge on its eastern &
western sides having variations in yielding prospects. The nearly closed Chattarpur alluvial basin
covering an area of about 48 Km ² is occupied by alluvium derived from the adjacent quartzite
ridge. (CSE)

• Geomorphology of Delhi

Delhi has a distinct geo-morphological setting,

with natural features of varied characteristics,
where Delhi ridge and the river Yamuna are the
most significant landscape features which
connect Delhi to the surrounding regional
landscape. Further Delhi area has been
classified into seven landforms as follows:
• Mehrauli Fathepur Beri Plateau
• Masudpur Wazirabad Ridge
• Najafgarh Older Alluvial Plain (Dabar)
• Delhi Older Alluvial Plain(Bangar)
• Sandy Upland Plain
• Yamuna Older Flood Plain
• Yamuna Active Flood Plain

Each of these units has different geological characteristics

which have been attained through a long span of geological time.
Out of these seven units, Delhi’s older alluvial plain was
recognised as the most suitable site for the development of the
city on account of its advantageous geomorphic settings. This
north-south range forms a triangular plain with the river Yamuna
in the east Badarpur-Mehrauli range of the Aravalli as the base.
It is this triangle, as shown in figure 3 that has been the cradle
of so many ruling dynasties in the Indian subcontinent.
Further, Delhi lies in the Indo-Gangetic Geosyncline, converted into a flat plain by rigorous
sedimentation. The floor of the Gangetic trough (without all the sediments) shows corrugated
inequalities and buried ridges (shelf faults). This leads to severe seismic threat of liquefaction
especially along the river Yamuna areas making them extremely vulnerable to damage even in
case of moderate earthquakes as the presence of alluvial soils amplifies earthquakes. Whereas
the belt running from central Delhi towards the West and South-West areas of Delhi faces a
moderate to high threat across the belt as shown in Figure. However, the Ridge stays
comparatively safer owing to the characteristics of its rocky base. (NIDM)

• Historical Profile of Geographical Development in Delhi

Delhi evolved through centuries presenting a mosaic of distinct capitals & villages with
a topographical /geographical context. The character of planning was primarily of
introverted nature to compete with the hostile climate & the political insecurity. The
capital has elaborated water harvesting systems, tanks, walled landscaped areas,
orchards, water gardens, agricultural surroundings, etc. which defined its historic fabric.
The setting of the development was based on ecological parameters and thus the
interventions made were optimum & sustainable. (Jain, 2009)

The cities of Delhi in chronological order moved from south to north because the cooler
breezes blew from mountains and each king as he started his city wished to avoid the buildings
of his predecessors which might obstruct these breezes.
As a consequence, we find that the successive extensions of the Qutub site followed by Firoz
shah’s & Humayun’s cities found north of this and Shahjahanabad exists beyond them. Towards
the east of the river were the vast farmlands with an ensured supply of water from the river
and the flow of poorvai (eastern) winds in proximity to the settlements. (Dhawale, 2010)

• Development of Urban Landscape

Delhi’s regional landscape shows an interrelationship between natural ecology & cultural ecology.
From the legendary city of Indraprastha to the 20th century Lutyen’s Delhi, several cities of
Delhi came up which were all located within this natural triangle. It starts from the legendary
city of Indraprastha around 5000 BC followed by the city formed by King Hasti known as
Hastinapur.
In 736 AD the Tomar Dynasty Founded the city called
Lal Kot near the Qutub Minar area. This city was
conquered by the Chauhan king in 1180 and was renamed
as Qila Rai Pithora. Further to this Qutub-ud-din
Ayebak established Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Followed
by the settlements of the Mughal city
of Shahjahanabad in 1639 and lastly,
Lutyen’s Delhi came into existence. (Parichay)
 • Planning of Lutyen’s Delhi

Britishers Transferred their capital from Calcutta to Delhi as a stamp of autocratic rule. The
primary reason was Delhi’s geographical position at the centre of northern India (Equidistant
from Bombay and Calcutta) and its historic importance (important seat of the Mughal Empire;
for Hindus- Mahabharata-era city of Indraprastha). It is named after the British architect
Edwin Lutyen’s (1869– 1944), who was responsible for its architectural design, under the British
Empire in the 1920s & 1930s. This city became to be known as New Delhi in comparison to the
old existing Mughal City in Delhi known as Shahjahanabad.
The new city was planned in strict accordance with the geographical feasibility that the terrain
of Delhi has to offer. It was located at the (then available) highest point on the Delhi ridge
known as Raisina Hill for physical domination in comparison to the previous settlements of Delhi.
This was a deliberate planning attempt to utilise the existing natural boundaries offered by the
ridge on the west and by river Yamuna offering limitations of extension towards the eastern
periphery. The site included the slope area and the plain area that lies between the ridge &
Yamuna flood plains offering slopes and contour for a well-drained condition.
The area between the ridge & the old city of Qutub Minar was designated for future expansion
in view of providing due importance to the historic past of Delhi. While the eastern & southern
margins contained other historic monuments. A broad crescent from Shahjahanabad and Kotla
Firoz Shah, south to Tughlaqabad and the Qutub with tombs of Safdarjung and Lodi’s as well as
Jantar Mantar in the foreground provides a view of the site.
The city was essentially planned with sightlines, view axis, avenues & lush landscapes using
geometric symmetry through triangles & hexagons. In order to connect with natural & historic
remnants of the city three visual corridors were planned for visually connecting the new
settlement complex with Jama Masjid, Indraprastha & Safdarjung Tombs respectively, as shown
in Figure.

This settlement essentially comprised three sections as shown in Figure.

• The government complex is situated at the top of the Raisina hills with radiating
axis known as Rajpath, Janpath & Sansad Marg as the major connecting corridors.
• The Commercial District popularly called Connaught palace was a centre for
commerce & trading, based on a radial planning pattern.
 • The Residential district is referred to as a bungalow zone showcasing social
stratification having dedicated areas of residence for Brown sahibs & upper-grade
White sahibs.

• Post-Independence Development in Delhi

Contrary to the planning practices followed during the pre-independence period in Delhi, the
city was now entering a new modern age of development & urban sprawl. In the post-
independence era during 1951, the city of Delhi Delhi was declared a Part-C state having its own
Council of Ministers and a Legislature. In 1953 the States Reorganization Commission suggested
the formation of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi such that the national capital remains under
the direct effective control of the national government itself.
Later in 1957, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi Act was enacted by Parliament and the
Municipal Corporation was finally formed in 1958 with elected members. Later under the Delhi
Development Act, of 1957 the Delhi Development Authority was created leading to the creation
& publication of Delhi’s first-ever Master Plan in 1962 catering to the duration from 1961 to
1981.
Table: Comparison of Master Plans For Delhi (DDA)

Master Plan 1962 Master Plan 2001 Master Plan 2012

Initiation of modern planning Prepared with a perspective of 20 Extensive modifications with a

which aimed towards the years (upto1981) and was aimed to futuristic perspective to 2021 with
integrated development of the cater increasing population & increasing population density and the
city. Envisage development of changing requirements of the city. addition of 5 new cities along with
Urbanisable area of 448 This envisaged expanding the existing urban areas, about 978
square kilometres by 1981 Urbanisable area of Delhi to 688 square kilometre of the total area
square kilometres

Urban population of Accommodate 12.2 million urban It projected population growth of

4.6millions. populations by the year 2001 23million by the year 2021

• Urban Extension in Delhi

As per the current scenario New Delhi Delhi today is an amalgamation of historically traditional
&contemporary urban space, including organic settlements of Shahjahanabad, the Bungalow
Zone of Lutyen’s Delhi and the Post-Independence growth with respect to Delhi’s Master Plan.
The urban morphology of Delhi depicts an irregular grid pattern around the centre and grid
patterns around it, whereas the functional zoning includes recreational zones, political areas and
a residential zone close to the Central Business District. (cities & urban Geography)
The urban extensions of Delhi can be easily categorised under rural & urban growth patterns.

• Urban Growth in Delhi

Delhi has 9 urban zones (as shown in Figure 10) including Zone A for housing the old city. Zone
B includes Karol Bagh & city extensions. Zone C is known as civil lines. Zone D comprises
Lutyen’s Delhi. Zone E is Trans Yamuna area. Zone F is popularly referred to as the New
Delhi Delhi area. Zone G is mainly an industrial area carrying the Najafgarh drain. Zone H is
characterised by well-planned residential localities. Zone M mainly covers the Rohini sub-city.
Zone O has ecological significance due to the presence of the Yamuna River. (MPD2021, 2013)

• Rural Growth in Delhi

Delhi has 6 rural zones (as shown in Figure 11) starting from Zone J located in south Delhi. Zone
N contains the proposed urban extensions. Zone K includes the Dwarka sub-city. Zone P is known
for Narela urban extension project. Zone L is dedicated to smart city development to upgrade
infrastructure. (MPD2021, 2013)
The city has evolved over the ages going through several phases of growth. Owing to its ever-
increasing pressure of urban growth has led to its current form demarcating the present-day
metropolitan area of Delhi while exhibiting vast expansion on built-up space within and even
beyond its boundaries. The expansion within the premises of Delhi city is demarcated by the
proposed development of million-plus sub-cities suggested by Master plan 2021 including cities
like Rohini & Dwarka. While the outside boundary expansions are referred to the adjoining cities
of Faridabad, Gurgaon, Ghaziabad and Noida as the second set of development under the
segment of million-plus cities. (Richa Sharma, September 2013)
1.7 Conclusion
➢ Urban geographers have made important contributions in the field of spatial
transformations that have been witnessed by urban landscapes in the material
and symbolic aspects during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Some of
the landmarked attempts in this direction were the analyses of urban
morphology done by Burgess, Hoyt, Harris and Ullman.
➢ Although cities at present have changed significantly since the models were
developed; yet they are frequently cited in debates of urban morphology even if
to dismiss their continued relevance. That is very true say that a large extent of
each city possesses a distinctive combination of varying types of land uses, but a
common pattern is can be traced some time. The models provided by Burgess,
Hoyt, Harris and Ullman, today are part of the philosophy of urban geography
and one needs to discuss them in order to understand the basic foundations of
this field.

Ayush :- Piya didi , ye flower pot toot gya humse , ab hum kya karenge ? Muumy daantengi
Meanwhile, Piya didi :-

Mummy :- Ayush tu pitega ab

Meanwhile , Ayush :-
 UNIT – 3
Urban issues in mega cities of india

3.1 Introduction
➢ India's urban landscape is a vibrant tapestry of bustling metropolises, burgeoning towns,
and rapidly evolving settlements. The success of these urban centres hinges on the
provision of adequate and accessible basic services, forming the very foundation of a
thriving and inclusive urban life.
➢ These services encompass a spectrum of essential needs, impacting the well-being,
productivity, and overall quality of life for millions of urban dwellers.

3.2 Urban Basic services in India

Urban basic services in India are essential for ensuring the well-being and quality of life for
its vast urban population. These services cover a wide range of aspects, including:

I. Infrastructure: The Backbone of Urban Living

Adequate infrastructure serves as the bedrock upon which urban development rests.
This encompasses a range of essential services that facilitate everyday life:

Water Supply: Access to clean and safe drinking water is paramount. This necessitates
efficient water treatment plants, robust distribution networks, and effective leak
management to combat water scarcity and ensure public health.
 Sanitation and Waste Management: Proper sanitation systems are crucial for maintaining
a healthy environment. This includes efficient sewage networks, waste collection and
disposal mechanisms, and readily available public sanitation facilities.

Electricity: Reliable and affordable electricity supply is essential for homes, businesses,
and public services. This requires investment in power generation, transmission, and
distribution systems.

Transportation: Efficient and accessible public transportation systems are critical for
urban mobility. This includes well-maintained roads, public buses, trains, metro networks,
and non-motorised transport options to reduce congestion and enhance connectivity.
Housing: Affordable and adequate housing options are crucial for a healthy urban
environment. This includes addressing homelessness, overcrowding, and ensuring access to
safe and habitable living spaces.

II. Public Health and Education: Investing in Human Capital

Investing in public health and education fosters a healthier and more productive urban
population:

Healthcare: Accessible and affordable healthcare facilities, including hospitals, clinics, and
primary care centres, are crucial for promoting physical and mental well-being. This
requires adequate infrastructure, trained medical professionals, and affordable treatment
options.
Education: Quality education from primary to higher education is crucial for human
development. This includes investing in schools, colleges, and universities, ensuring
accessible and quality education for all, regardless of socioeconomic background.

III. Governance and Public Safety: Ensuring Order and Security

Good governance and public safety are essential for fostering a safe and secure urban
environment:

Law Enforcement: Effective police force for maintaining law and order, crime prevention,
and public safety. This requires robust policing strategies, community engagement, and
efficient investigation mechanisms.
Public Administration: Efficient and transparent government services, including municipal
administration, property registration, and licensing. This requires effective service
delivery, responsive mechanisms, and a commitment to transparency and accountability.
Disaster Management: Preparedness for natural disasters and emergencies is crucial for
ensuring urban resilience. This includes early warning systems, evacuation plans, emergency
response mechanisms, and community preparedness programs.
3.3 Challenges and issues related to urban basic services
While urban basic services are vital for a healthy and functional city, their delivery often
faces numerous challenges, hindering their effectiveness and equity. Here's a deeper dive into
these challenges:

1. Rapid Urbanization and Population Growth:

Strain on Infrastructure: India's rapid urbanization places immense pressure on existing

infrastructure, leading to overstretched resources and inadequate capacity for water
supply, sanitation, electricity, and transportation.
Housing Shortages: The influx of migrants seeking better opportunities creates housing
shortages, leading to overcrowding, informal settlements, and a lack of basic amenities.
Uneven Development: Rapid growth often leads to uneven development, leaving some areas
with better access to services than others, creating spatial inequalities and exacerbating
poverty.

2. Funding and Investment:

Limited Resources: Urban local governments often face budget constraints, limiting their
ability to invest in maintaining and expanding infrastructure and services.
Prioritization Challenges: Limited funding requires difficult choices, often leading to
prioritization of certain services over others, potentially neglecting crucial needs.
Private Sector Involvement: While private sector involvement can be beneficial, it also
raises concerns about affordability, accessibility, and equity in service delivery.
3. Inefficient Management and Corruption:

Poor Planning and Coordination: Lack of comprehensive urban planning and coordination
between different agencies can lead to fragmented services, duplication of efforts, and
inefficiencies.
Bureaucracy and Red Tape: Complex bureaucratic processes and excessive paperwork can
hinder the efficient delivery of services and create delays in project implementation.
Corruption and Mismanagement: Corruption and mismanagement can divert resources,
compromise quality, and hinder the equitable distribution of services, impacting the most
vulnerable communities.

4. Inequality and Social Exclusion:

Disparities in Access: Marginalized communities, including those from lower

socioeconomic backgrounds, often face greater challenges in accessing basic services due
to location, affordability, and discrimination.
Lack of Representation: The voices of these communities are often underrepresented in
decision-making processes, leading to a lack of tailored solutions and equitable service
provision.
Social and Cultural Barriers: Social and cultural barriers, such as language differences,
gender disparities, and caste-based discrimination, can create obstacles for certain groups
in accessing services.

5. Environmental Challenges:

Pollution and Congestion: Urban growth often leads to increased pollution (air, water, and
noise) and traffic congestion, negatively impacting public health and quality of life.
Resource Depletion: The increasing demand for water, energy, and land puts strain on
natural resources, leading to depletion and environmental degradation.
Climate Change Impacts: Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to climate change
impacts, such as extreme weather events and rising sea levels, requiring adaptation
strategies for infrastructure and service resilience.

6. Technological Gaps:

Digital Divide: Inequalities in access to technology and digital literacy can hinder the
effective implementation of digital solutions for service delivery, potentially excluding
marginalized communities.
Outdated Infrastructure: Lack of investment in modernizing and integrating technology
in existing infrastructure can limit efficiency, responsiveness, and data-driven decision
making.
Cybersecurity Concerns: The increasing reliance on technology raises concerns about data
security and privacy, necessitating robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive
information.
 ➢ Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach, including:

• Comprehensive Urban Planning:

Developing long-term plans that
consider population growth, resource
management, social equity, and
environmental sustainability.
• Increased Investment: Allocating adequate funding for infrastructure development, service
expansion, and maintenance.
• Good Governance: Strengthening institutions, promoting transparency and accountability, and
reducing corruption.
• Community Engagement: Involving residents in decision-making processes, ensuring their
needs are reflected in service provision.
• Innovative Solutions: Exploring technological solutions, such as smart city initiatives, to
enhance service delivery, improve efficiency, and enhance citizen engagement.

➢ The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to address these challenges
and improve urban living conditions:
• Smart Cities Mission: A flagship program aimed at developing 100 smart cities with
integrated infrastructure, technology, and citizen services. This initiative focuses on
innovative solutions for sustainable urban development, efficient service delivery, and citizen
engagement.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: A national cleanliness campaign focusing on sanitation, waste
management, and public hygiene. This initiative has led to significant improvements in waste
management, toilet construction, and public awareness regarding hygiene.
• Housing for All by 2022: A mission to provide affordable housing for all urban citizens. This
initiative aims to address the housing deficit, promote affordable housing projects, and
improve living conditions for low-income families.
• National Urban Health Mission: A program to improve urban health services, particularly for
the poor and marginalized. This initiative focuses on strengthening health infrastructure,
providing quality healthcare, and promoting health awareness programs.
3.4 Case study of Chennai

➢ Chennai residents are facing the worrying prospect of a water crisis as summer heat

intensifies — Veeranam Lake, one of the city’s primary water sources, has already run

dry.

➢ The water storage in Veeranam Lake was recorded at zero million cubic feet (mcft) on

April 15, 2024, according to data by the Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and

Sewerage Board (CMWSSB). Last year, on the same date, the lake held 687.40 mcft of

water, while its total capacity is 1,465 mcft.

➢ Veeranam Lake serves as a crucial drinking water source for Chennai. However, its

supply was halted on February 28, 2024, due to the lack of inflow from the Mettur

dam, pushing the reservoir into dead storage.

➢ The other reservoirs are also experiencing a decline. On April 15, the storage in Poondi

lake was 1,323 mcft out of a total capacity of 3,231 mcft. Cholavaram Lake had 216

mcft, with a total capacity of 1,081 mcft.

➢ Puzhal lake recorded 2,808 mcft out of a total capacity of 3,300 mcft. Kannankottai

Thervoy Kandigai had 408 mcft, against a total capacity of 500 mcft.

Chembarambakkam lake held 2,578 mcft, with a total capacity of 3,645 mcft.

➢ On April 5, 2024, Down To Earth reported that water levels in Cauvery basin were

classified as deficient by Central Water Commission (CWC). Water levels in the basin

dropped to 21 per cent from 23 per cent the week before.

➢ As April progresses, Chennai residents are bracing themselves for the frightening

prospect of worsening water scarcity. Borewells in Medavakkam, a neighbourhood

already suffering from the shortage, are running dry, leaving residents with few

options other than relying on dwindling groundwater or expensive private water tankers.

This demonstrates the severe lack of piped water supply in the area.

➢ Chennai uses a variety of water sources, including surface water, groundwater and

desalinated seawater. According to CMWSSB data, the average groundwater level in

January this year was 3.46 metres, rising to 4.22 metres in February and then to 4.91

metres in March. The city also relies on three desalination plants: one in Minjur with a
 capacity of 100 million litres per day (MLD) and two in Nemmeli with capacities of 110

MLD and 150 MLD, respectively.

➢ This year, the water supply authority appears to be more confident in its ability to

meet Chennai’s water needs until September-October. A senior official from CMWSSB

stated, “We have enough surface water to supply Chennai until September-October.

The total storage level of surface water is 13.222 tmc, with the current storage level in

these sources being 7.746 tmc. Last year’s storage level around the same time was

9.262 tmc.”

➢ Despite a monthly demand of 2,232 MLD, CMWSSB supplies 1,070 MLD, albeit with a

persistent demand-supply gap. Chennai, with a population of 9 million, suffers from a

chronic imbalance in water demand and supply. Historically, CMWSSB has provided 830

MLD per day, up from 525 MLD in 2019, which was supplied on alternate days.

➢ According to a joint study conducted in October last year by Anna University, Chennai

and the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai’s widening water demand-

supply gap is expected to reach nearly 466 MLD by 2030, exacerbated by factors such

as rapid urbanisation and climate change.

➢ Professor L Elango, the study’s lead author, emphasised the city’s acute water scarcity,

particularly during the summer months, citing depleted groundwater sources, seawater

intrusion and insufficient rainfall. By 2030, Chennai’s water demand is expected to

reach 2,365 MLD, with an estimated supply of 1,988 MLD by 2040 and 2,049 MLD by

2050.

➢ The study forecasted that the unmet demand would rise to about 717.5 MLD by 2040

and a substantial 962 MLD by 2050.

➢ Elango advocated for a multifaceted approach to water resource management,

emphasising the importance of groundwater recharge, desalination expansion and the

use of reclaimed water to address the growing deficit.

➢ The study’s findings suggested that implementing various interventions concurrently

could significantly reduce the gap between water supply and demand, with a projected

drop to 110 MLD by 2030, 250 MLD by 2040 and 454 MLD by 2050.
➢ But to address the city’s water deficit, concerted efforts are required to prioritise

groundwater recharge and reclaimed water utilisation, as well as water consumption

reduction.

➢ However, there are concerns that even initiatives like rainwater harvesting and the

implementation of desalination plants, may not be enough, said BV Mudgal, a retired

professor from the Centre for Water Resources at Anna University.

➢ There’s a critical need for sustainable solutions to safeguard water access, he said.

Highlighting the city’s heavy reliance on rainfall, Mudgal noted that while the average

annual rainfall, which is 900-1,000 mm, remains relatively constant, the demand for

water surpasses the available supply due to population growth, a trend expected to

persist.

➢ “There’s an urgency to augment the water supply, as Chennai’s own rainfall alone cannot

meet the escalating demand,” Mudgal said, advocating for the utilisation of wastewater

from industries and underscores the importance of regular conservation efforts.

3.5 Housing problems and slums
India's rapid urbanization has led to a housing crisis, marked by a significant housing
deficit and the proliferation of slums. This complex issue presents a multifaceted
challenge, impacting the lives of millions and demanding comprehensive solutions.

a) Housing Deficit:

Growing Demand: India's rapidly growing population, coupled with urbanization, has led to a
significant housing deficit. Millions of people lack access to adequate and affordable
housing, particularly in urban areas.
Inadequate Supply: The rate of housing construction hasn't kept pace with the growing
demand. This is further exacerbated by high land prices, construction costs, and complex
regulations.
Affordability Issues: The cost of housing has been escalating, making it increasingly
difficult for low- and middle-income households to afford decent housing options.

b) The Rise of Slums:

Forced Migration and Poverty: A substantial number of people migrate to urban centres
seeking better opportunities, often forced into slums due to limited access to affordable
housing.
Lack of Basic Amenities: Slums are characterized by inadequate infrastructure,
overcrowded living conditions, poor sanitation, and a lack of access to basic services like
clean water, electricity, and healthcare.
Vulnerability and Marginalization: Residents of slums are often vulnerable to exploitation,
social exclusion, and displacement, facing challenges in accessing education, employment,
and social security.
 ❖ Challenges and Consequences:

Public Health Crisis: Overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions in slums contribute to
the spread of diseases, posing a significant public health threat.
Social and Economic Inequalities: Slums perpetuate social and economic inequalities,
hindering opportunities for education, employment, and upward mobility for their residents.
Urban Sprawl and Environmental Degradation: Uncontrolled slum growth can contribute
to urban sprawl, environmental degradation, and strain on urban infrastructure.
Social Unrest and Crime: Poverty, inequality, and lack of basic services in slums can
create social unrest, crime, and conflict within urban areas.

❖ Government Initiatives:

Housing for All by 2022: A flagship program aiming to provide affordable housing to all
by 2022, focusing on low-income households and slum dwellers.
Slum Redevelopment Schemes: Various schemes are implemented to improve living
conditions in slums, including infrastructure upgrades, housing construction, and community
development programs.
Land Acquisition and Planning: Efforts are underway to address land acquisition
challenges, streamline planning processes, and encourage the development of affordable
housing projects.

❖ Addressing the Housing and Slum Crisis:

Affordable Housing Solutions: Developing innovative and cost-effective housing models

that cater to diverse income levels and family sizes.
Inclusive Urban Planning: Integrating slums into city planning, providing them with access
to basic services, infrastructure, and social amenities.
Community Participation: Empowering slum dwellers to participate in decision-making
processes related to their housing and development.
Financial Inclusion: Improving access to financial services, such as microfinance and
housing loans, to enable slum dwellers to improve their housing conditions.
Land Tenure Security: Providing secure land tenure for slum dwellers, offering them
ownership rights and preventing forced evictions.
Strengthening Social Safety Nets: Expanding social safety nets to provide essential
support and services for vulnerable communities.

The housing and slum crisis in India is a complex challenge, requiring a multifaceted
approach that addresses the root causes and provides sustainable solutions. By
promoting inclusive urban planning, affordable housing, communities.
3.6 Case study of Mumbai

➢ Mumbai, India's commercial hub, is

a city of stark contrasts. While it
boasts a vibrant economy and
glittering skyscrapers, it also
houses one of the largest slum
populations in the world. The
problems of Mumbai's slums are a
microcosm of the urban distress
faced by many developing cities,
highlighting the urgent need for
equitable development and a focus
on the needs of the most
vulnerable.

❖ The Reality of Mumbai's Slums:

Dharavi: The Iconic Slum: Dharavi, one of the largest slums in Asia, is a sprawling
informal settlement home to over a million people. It stands as a stark symbol of the
challenges faced by Mumbai's slum dwellers.
Overcrowded and Unsanitary Conditions: Slums are characterized by cramped living
spaces, lack of adequate sanitation, and limited access to clean water, creating a breeding
ground for diseases and posing serious public health risks.
Lack of Basic Amenities: Essential services like electricity, sanitation, and healthcare
are often inadequate or inaccessible, leaving slum dwellers vulnerable to disease,
exploitation, and marginalization.
Informal Economy: Many slum residents engage in informal economic activities, often
lacking legal protection, decent working conditions, and access to social security.
Vulnerability to Displacement: Slum dwellers face constant threats of eviction or
displacement, often without adequate compensation or alternative housing, leaving them at
the mercy of authorities and developers.

❖ Specific Challenges in Mumbai:

Limited Land Availability: Mumbai's limited land availability and high property prices
make it difficult to provide adequate housing options for slum dwellers, perpetuating their
precarious living conditions.
Lack of Legal Recognition: Many slums lack legal recognition, hindering access to basic
services and making it difficult for residents to secure land ownership or improve their
living conditions.
Informal Housing Sector: The informal housing sector thrives in Mumbai, with many slum
dwellers renting cramped spaces or living in makeshift shelters, often without secure
tenure or adequate living standards.
Lack of Infrastructure: Slum areas often lack access to proper roads, sanitation
systems, and public transportation, isolating residents and hindering economic
opportunities.
Social Stigma and Exclusion: Slum dwellers often face social stigma and exclusion, leading
to limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, perpetuating a
cycle of poverty.

❖ Consequences of Slum Life:

Public Health Crisis: Poor sanitation and overcrowding contribute to the spread of
diseases, posing a significant public health threat to slum residents and the city as a whole.
Social and Economic Inequality: Slums perpetuate social and economic inequalities,
hindering the opportunities for slum dwellers to break out of poverty and access a better
quality of life.
Environmental Strain: Uncontrolled growth of slums can lead to environmental
degradation, pollution, and strain on urban infrastructure, impacting the city's overall
sustainability.
Social Unrest and Crime: Poverty, inequality, and lack of opportunities in slums can
create social unrest, crime, and conflict within urban areas, impacting public safety and
social cohesion.

❖ Moving Forward: Addressing the Slum Crisis:

Comprehensive Slum Redevelopment: Implementing holistic slum redevelopment programs

that prioritize the needs of residents, ensuring their participation in planning, offering
adequate compensation, and providing access to decent housing.
Legal Recognition and Tenure Security: Granting legal recognition to slums and providing
residents with secure tenure, enabling them to improve their living conditions and access
essential services.
Infrastructure Development: Investing in infrastructure upgrades, such as sanitation
systems, roads.
Teacher :- Binod beta tumhaare dost ko itni jaldi gussa kyu aata hai?
Meanwhile , Binod :-
3.7 Heat Islands
❖ What is an Urban Heat Island?

▪ Urban heat island may be defined as the local and temporary phenomenon in which
certain pockets within a city are experiencing higher heat load than its
surrounding area.

▪ This rise of heat basically happens due to buildings and houses of cities made up
of concrete where the heat is trapped and not able to dissipate easily.

▪ Urban heat island is basically induced due to trapped heat between

establishments made up of concrete.

▪ The temperature variation can range between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius.

❖ Why are Cities Hotter than Rural Areas?

▪ It has been observed that greener localities experienced lower temperatures than
non-green localities.

▪ Green vegetation like plants, trees and forests are prominent factors to regulate
the incidences of the urban heat islands.

▪ Rural areas are blessed with more green cover in the form of plantations,
farmlands, forests, and trees than urban areas.

▪ Transpiration is the phenomena which the plants carry to regulate the

temperature.

▪ In urban areas is the basic cause of Urban Heat Island in urban areas.

o Frequent construction of Highrise structures, roads, parking spaces,

pavements, and public transportation transit lines have accelerated
the incidences of urban heat islands.

▪ It occurs by black or any dark colored material.

o Buildings in cities are often made of glass, bricks, cement, and

concrete. All of them are dark-colored materials, which attract and
absorb more heat

❖ What are the Causes of Urban Heat Island?

▪ Manifold increase in construction activities: For building simple urban dwellings

to complex infrastructures, carbon absorbing material like asphalt and concrete is
needed for the expansion of cities. They trap huge amounts of heat which
increases the mean surface temperatures of urban areas.

▪ Dark surfaces: Many buildings found in urban areas have dark surfaces, thereby
decreasing albedo and increased absorption of heat.
 ▪ Air conditioning: Buildings with dark surfaces heat up more rapidly and require
more cooling from air conditioning, which requires more energy from power plants,
which causes more pollution. Also, air conditioners exchange heat with atmospheric
air, causing further local heating. Thus, there is a cascade effect that contributes
to the expansion of urban heat islands.

▪ Urban Architecture: Tall buildings, and often accompanying narrow streets,

hinder the circulation of air, reduce the wind speed, and thus reduce any natural
cooling effects. This is called the Urban Canyon Effect.

▪ Need for mass transportation system: Transportation systems and the

unimpeded use of fossil fuels also add warmth to urban areas.

▪ Lack of Trees and green areas: which impedes evapotranspiration, shade and
removal of carbon dioxide, all the processes that help to cool the surrounding air.

❖ How can Urban Heat Islands be Reduced?

▪ Increase Area Under Green Cover: Plantation and effort to increase the area
under green cover are the primary requirement to cut heat load within urban
areas.

▪ Passive Cooling to Reduce Urban Heat Islands: Passive cooling technology, a

widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital
alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial
buildings.

o The IPCC report cites ancient Indian building designs that have used
this technology, which could be adapted to modern facilities in the
context of global warming.

▪ Other methods of heat mitigation include using appropriate construction

materials.

o Roof and terraces should be painted in white or light colors to reflect

heat and reduce the absorption.

o Terrace plantation and kitchen gardening should be promoted.

❖ What has NASA said about India's Urban Heat Islands?

▪ NASA has observed that higher incidences of heat islands in urban parts of Delhi
is occurring.

o Temperatures were significantly higher in the urban part of Delhi than

in surrounding farm areas.

▪ The image was acquired by NASA's Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer

Experiment (Ecostress), which revealed a massive red spot over Delhi and smaller
red patches around neighboring cities Sonipat, Panipat, Jind, and Bhiwani.

o Ecostress is a radiometer-equipped device that was sent to

the International Space Station in 2018 by NASA.

o Ecostress is primarily responsible for assessing the temperature of

plants, as well as knowing their water requirements and the influence
of the climate on them.
3.8 Conclusion
The provision of adequate basic services is crucial for the well-being and development
of India's urban population. While significant progress has been made, challenges
remain. Sustained investment in infrastructure, health, education, and public safety,
along with effective governance and equitable service delivery, are essential to ensure a
sustainable and inclusive urban future for all citizens. Addressing the issues of
inequality, environmental sustainability, and rapid urbanization will be crucial for
creating vibrant, resilient, and prosperous resident for living .

Aman : Kya baat hai Ayush bade khush lag rahe ho?
Ayush : GTB nagar me bhandara laga tha wahin se aa rahan hoon poori sabzi khaake .
Meanwhile, Aman : Ruko mai bhi jaa rahan hu khaane .
 UNIT – 4
Urban planning and governanace

4.1 Introduction
➢ A master plan or a development plan or a town plan may be defined as a general plan for the
future layout of a city showing both the existing and proposed streets or roads, open
spaces, public buildings etc. A master plan
is prepared either for improvement of an
old city or for a new town to be developed
on a virgin soil.
➢ A master plan is a blueprint for the future.
It is an comprehensive document, long-
range in its view, that is intended to guide
development in the township for the next
10 to 20 years.

4.2 Master planning in India

➢ India has a long history of planned development. The planning approach in India is based
upon the Town and Country Planning Act of United Kingdom.

➢ In the beginning, the statutory process of Development Plan (Master Plan) followed in India
derived its base from the erstwhile comprehensive plans system under the 1947 Town and
Country planning Act of United Kingdom.

➢ Central Town and Country Planning Organization or TCPO drafted the Model Town and
Regional Planning and Development Law in 1962, which formed the basis for various States
to enact Town and Country Planning Acts, with modifications to suit local conditions.

❖ Need and objectives :

Urban centres tend to grow in most haphazard and disorderly manner leading to traffic
congestion and infrastructure failure.

Going by the count half of the metro cities' population is the victim of most 'degraded
quality of life' .
 Inefficient use of natural and manmade resources .

Large cities are growing at an alarming pace compared to a smaller town which is slowly
declining with improvement in technology and infrastructure as per the act .

❖ Role :
Develop a phasing and implementation schedule and identify priorities for action

Act as a framework for regeneration and attract private sector investment.

Conceptualize and shape the three-dimensional urban environment.

Define public, semiprivate, and private spaces and public amenities.

Determine the mix of uses and their physical relationship.

Engage the local community and act as builder of consensus

❖ Components (DDA ACT) :

Dictates space requirements for various uses and allocates land for the same

Spells out the policies, guidelines as per the vision, goal and objectives of the plan

Studies on the present status and the future growth prospects

Proposals of developments as per status requirements

Layout of development code in the form of Zoning regulations and building bye laws.

Phasing of the development process and economic breakdown/layout

Plan implementation process and bodies.

Boys in urban areas and their expressions :-
❖ Process:
❖ Criticism:
4.3 AMRUT

Student :- Ye scheme kisne shuru kiya tha ?

Teacher :- Inhone shuru kiya tha……

➢ The main objectives of the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) are mentioned below:

• To ensure a proper supply of water and a sewage connection in every household.

• To develop green and well maintained open spaces and parks to increase the amenity
value of the cities.
• To reduce pollution by switching to public transport or through the construction of non-
motorized transport facilities such as walking and cycling.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) aims in covering
around 500 cities that are having a population of over one lakh with notified
municipalities.
 ➢ The AMRUT Mission consists of the following major components:

• Capacity building
• Reform implementation
• Water supply and management of sewerage and septage
• Drainage of stormwater
• Improvement in urban transport facilities
• Development of green spaces and parks

➢ The Mission was launched on June 25, 2015, with an overall budget of Rs. 1 lakh crore
allocated for the development under this scheme. Of which, State action plans
amounting to Rs. 77,640 crores for basic infrastructure projects were approved,
against which projects worth Rs. 79,772 crores have been grounded. So far, i.e., as of
June 2021, work worth Rs. 52,477 crores (66%) has been carried out
➢ Based on the data released by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) in
June 2021, the following progressions have been made under this scheme:
• Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) capacity worth 1,240 MLD have been created,
of which 907 MLD is being recycled/ reused. Another, 4,800 MLD STP capacity
is under development
• Energy audits of water pumps has been completed in 396 cities in 27
States/UTs. 11,385 water pumps are identified for replacement, of which 667
pumps have been replaced
• Online Building Permission System (OBPS) with seamless integration with
internal/ external agencies has been made operational in 2,465 towns including
452 AMRUT cities. India’s rank in Ease of Doing Business (EODB) in construction
permits has jumped to 27 in World Bank’s Report (DBR)-2020 from 181 in 2018.

People after getting benefits from AMRUT scheme :-

 ➢ The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation aims in covering around
500 cities that are having a population of over one lakh. To be selected under the
AMRUT Scheme, the cities/towns falls under the following categories:

• All the cities and towns that are having a population of one lakh or above as per the
census of 2011 with notified municipalities and also including the civilian areas.
• All the capital cities or towns of States/ UTs that are not falling under the above
criteria.
• The cities or towns that are classified as Heritage Cities by the Ministry of Housing
and Urban Affairs under the HRIDAY Scheme.
• Thirteen cities and towns that fall on the stem of the main rivers and having a
population of more than 75,000 but less than 1 lakh.
• Ten Cities belonging from the hill states, islands, and tourist destinations. Only one city
from each of these states can be selected under the AMRUT scheme .

Source : The Hindu , Published - April 15, 2021 11:30 pm IST – Kozhikode
4.4 UN – Habitat
➢ The United Nations Human Settlements Programme is the United Nations programme for
human settlements and sustainable urban development. It was established in 1977 as an
outcome of the first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements and Sustainable
Urban Development held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1976

➢ UN-Habitat, the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, is a global agency

dedicated to promoting socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities, with the
goal of providing adequate shelter for all. It plays a crucial role in shaping the urban future
and tackling challenges related to urbanization, housing, and sustainable development.

❖ Mission and Mandate:

Promoting Sustainable Urban Development: UN-Habitat aims to promote

sustainable urban development that benefits all, focusing on providing adequate
shelter, promoting equitable access to urban services, and improving the quality
of life for urban dwellers.
Addressing Global Urban Challenges: The agency works to address a range of
urban challenges, including poverty, inequality, environmental degradation,
climate change, and disaster risk reduction, promoting inclusive and resilient
urban development.
Supporting National and Local Governments: UN-Habitat provides technical
assistance, capacity building, and policy advice to national and local governments,
assisting them in developing and implementing sustainable urban development
strategies.

❖ Key Areas of Work:

Housing and Shelter: Promoting affordable and adequate housing for all, addressing
homelessness, and improving housing conditions in slums and informal settlements.
Urban Planning and Design: Supporting the development of sustainable urban plans,
including urban renewal, infrastructure development, and green infrastructure solutions.
Urban Governance and Management: Strengthening urban governance, improving public
service delivery, and promoting participatory decision-making processes.
Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation: Assisting cities in preparing
for and responding to natural disasters and adapting to the impacts of climate change,
building urban resilience.
Sustainable Urban Mobility: Promoting integrated transportation systems, reducing
reliance on private vehicles, and promoting walking, cycling, and public transportation.
Environmental Sustainability: Promoting sustainable urban practices, including waste
management, water conservation, and reducing carbon emissions.
❖ Notable Initiatives:

New Urban Agenda: A global framework for sustainable urban development

adopted in 2016, providing a roadmap for achieving inclusive, safe, resilient, and
sustainable cities by 2030.
World Urban Forum: A biennial global platform for discussing and sharing
knowledge and experiences on sustainable urban development, bringing together
governments, urban practitioners, and civil society.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): UN-Habitat plays a key role in
supporting the implementation of the SDGs, particularly those related to
sustainable cities and communities, poverty reduction, and environmental
protection.
 ❖ Significance of UN-Habitat:

Global Leadership: UN-Habitat serves as a global leader in promoting

sustainable urban development, providing a platform for collaboration, knowledge
sharing, and policy advocacy.
Technical Expertise: The agency possesses extensive technical expertise in
urban planning, housing, infrastructure, and environmental management, providing
valuable assistance to countries around the world.
Advocacy and Policy Support: UN-Habitat advocates for the needs of urban
dwellers and works with governments and other stakeholders to develop and
implement policies that promote sustainable urban development.

❖ Challenges and Opportunities:

Funding Constraints: UN-Habitat faces challenges in securing adequate funding

to effectively implement its programs and initiatives, particularly in the face of
competing global priorities.
Urbanization Dynamics: The rapid pace of urbanization and the increasing
complexity of urban challenges necessitate a dynamic and adaptable approach to
urban planning and development.
Collaboration and Partnerships: Building effective partnerships and
collaborations with governments, civil society organizations, and other
stakeholders is crucial for achieving impactful outcomes.

UN-Habitat is a vital organization in shaping the future of our cities and towns. By
promoting sustainable urban development and addressing the challenges of urbanization,
it plays a critical role in creating more equitable, resilient, and thriving urban
environments for all.
4.5 Urban local bodies
➢ Our Constitution provides a clear mandate for Democratic Decentralisation not only
through the Directive Principles of State Policy but more specifically through
the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution which seek to create an institutional
framework for ushering in grassroot democracy through the medium of genuinely self-
governing local bodies in both urban and rural areas of the country.

Normal citizen :- sir road kab tak Banega ?

Municipal officer :- application submit kar diya hai sab under process hai kuch dinon me
confirmation aa jaayegi .
Meanwhile same officer to peon after 10 minutes , :

The Urban Local Government consists of eight types of Urban local bodies.

▪ Municipal Corporation:

o Municipal corporations are usually found in big cities such as

Bangalore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, etc.

▪ Municipality:

o The smaller cities tend to have the provision of municipalities.

• The Municipalities are often called upon by other names

such as the municipal council, municipal committee,
municipal board, etc.
▪ Notified Area Committee:

o Notified area committees are set up for the fast-developing towns

and the towns lacking the basic amenities.

• All the members of the notified area committee are

nominated by the state government.

▪ Town Area Committee:

o The town area committee is found in the small towns.

• It has minimal authority such as street lighting,

drainage roads, and conservancy.

▪ Cantonment Board:

o It is usually set up for a civilian population living in the cantonment

area.

• It is created and run by the central government.

▪ Township:

o Township is another form of urban government to provide basic

facilities to the staff and workers living in the colonies established
near the plant.

• It has no elected members and is merely an extension

of the bureaucratic structure.

▪ Port Trust

o Port trusts are established in the port areas such as Mumbai,

Chennai, Kolkata, etc.

• It manages and takes care of the port.

• It also provides basic civic amenities to the people living in

that area.

▪ Special Purpose Agency:

o These agencies undertake the designated activities or specific

functions belonging to the municipal corporations or municipalities.
❖ What are the Problems Faced by Urban Local Bodies?

▪ Financial Paucity:

o Financial stringency has become the biggest hurdle in good governance

at ground level.

o Dependence on Intergovernmental Transfers:

• The Urban local government heavily depends on the state

governments for getting grants-in-aid out of the
consolidated fund of state.

o Acute Share in Revenue:

• Generally, their source of income is

inadequate as compared to their functions. Their chief
sources of income are the varied types of taxes.

• However, taxes collected by the urban bodies are not

sufficient to cover the expenses of the services
provided.

• Though they can impose certain new taxes, the elected

members of these local bodies hesitate in doing so
for fear of displeasing their electorate.

▪ Unplanned Urbanisation:

o In absence of proper planning, the Municipal Services find it

difficult to cope with the increasing needs of the population, both
qualitatively and quantitatively.

• The administrative machinery of local bodies is

insufficient. Judicious use of land is not being made,
colonies are set up without proper facilities such as
schools, parks and hospitals, the growth of slums is not
checked, traffic congestion.

• This also leads to urban

poverty, unemployment and ecological
degradation.

▪ Excessive Control of State Government:

o The State Government takes control of the Urban local bodies which
are legislative, administrative, judicial and financial keeps urban
municipal governments subordinate units rather than functioning as
institutions of self-governance.
 • Municipalities need to balance their budgets, by law, and
any municipal borrowing has to be approved by the
state government.

• Unlike the Centre and the States, no

distinction is made between revenue
expenditure and capital expenditure at the
Urban Local Government level.

▪ Multiplicity of Agencies:

o Formation of single purpose agencies under the direct supervision of

the state government and without any accountability towards urban
local government. The municipal bodies have to contribute to the
budget to these agencies while having no control over them.

• Example: State Transport Corporation, State Electricity

Board, Water Supply Department etc.

▪ Low level of People’s Participation:

o Despite a relatively higher level of literacy and educational standard,

city dwellers do not take adequate interest in the functioning of the
urban government bodies.

• The multiplicity of special purpose agencies and other

urban bodies confuses the public about their role
boundaries.

Public : sir ye pipeline ka kaam kab tak complete hoga kuch soche hai?
Meanwhile , Government :
❖ How can We Empower Urban Local Governments?
▪ Making Urban Local Bodies Financially Independent:

o For the ULB to be independent and financially secure, fiscal

decentralisation is very crucial.

o Strengthening Municipal Revenue:

• All Finance Commissions have recognized the need

to augment property tax revenue to improve municipal
finances. Especially:

• The 12th Finance Commission encouraged the

use of the Geographical Information
System (GIS) and digitization to improve
property tax administration.

• The 13th Finance Commission mandated the

setting up of the State Property Tax
Board as one of the conditions necessary for
performance grant eligibility of states.

• The aim of the State Property

Tax Board is to help municipal
corporations and municipal
councils put in place a transparent
and efficient property tax
regime.

• The 14th Finance Commission recommended

that municipalities be enabled to levy vacant
land tax.

▪ Better Financial Database:

o Lack of maintenance and audit of accounts at the local level leaves

no verifiable financial data for municipalities leading to a denial of
performance grants.

• Both the 13th and the 14th Finance Commissions included

better data availability as a conditionality for accessing
performance grants.

▪ Ensuring Active Citizen Participation:

o For transparency and accountability in the governance process, there

needs to be active citizen participation.

• To ensure this, ULBs can create functional,

decentralised platforms such as area sabhas and ward
 committees, which facilitate discussion and deliberation
between elected representatives and citizens.

▪ Creating Citizen Grievance Redressal Mechanism:

o ULBs can establish a technology-enabled platform to register

complaints, which will make city governments responsive to the
needs of citizens.

• Through this mechanism, citizens should also be allowed to

provide feedback and close complaints.

• Addressing these structural and architectural problems of

urban governance will ensure effective service delivery
in cities, improving the quality of life for its citizens.

4.6 Conclusion
Urban planning and governance are inextricably linked, forming a symbiotic
relationship that shapes the development, function, and quality of life in cities.
Effective governance is essential for implementing urban plans and achieving
desired outcomes, while well-crafted plans provide a framework for good
governance.

Krishna :- Bhai Aman Rs.10 bhej dena Bus ke ticket ka , us din maine diya tha?
Aman :- Ha bhai de dunga .
Krishna :- Ha maine bas yaad dila diya tumhe .
Meanwhile Aman to krishna :-
 UNIT – 5
Futuristic cities
5.1 Introduction
The concept of a futuristic city often
involves imagining urban environments that
incorporate advanced technology, sustainable
practices, and innovative design. Some key
elements of the futuristic city concept may
include:

1. Advanced Technology: Futuristic cities

are often envisioned with cutting-edge technologies integrated into various aspects of urban
life, such as smart infrastructure, autonomous vehicles, advanced public transportation
systems, and energy-efficient buildings.

2. Sustainable Design: Future cities are often designed with a focus on sustainability,
incorporating features such as green spaces, renewable energy sources, efficient waste
management systems, and eco-friendly architecture to minimize environmental impact.

3. Smart Infrastructure: Futuristic cities may feature interconnected networks and smart
systems that optimize resource management, enhance public services, and improve overall
quality of life for residents.

4. Vertical Urbanism: With the growing population density in urban areas, futuristic cities
may explore vertical urbanism concepts, including skyscrapers that integrate residential,
commercial, and green spaces within a single structure.

5. Urban Mobility: Future cities aim to address transportation challenges by

incorporating innovations such as high-speed public transit, pedestrian-friendly infrastructure,
and seamless integration of various modes of transportation.

6. Resilience and Adaptability: Given the potential challenges posed by climate change and
other global issues, futuristic cities often emphasize resilience and adaptability in their design
and planning to withstand future uncertainties.

These are just a few examples of the broad range of ideas and concepts that are often
associated with the vision of a futuristic city. The specific details and features of futuristic
cities can vary widely depending on technological advancements, societal needs, and cultural
influences.
5.2 New Urbanism
➢ New urbanism is a movement that started initially in the United States which became
popular all over the world over the last few decades. This is a movement that promotes
walkable and diverse neighbourhoods that are environmentally friendly.
➢ There are various key principles and elements that are included in the concept of New
Urbanism. Real estate planning and development along with local government planning for
the neighbourhoods are included in New Urbanism.
➢ New Urbanism is a concept that can be adopted by real estate developers planning a single
building or construction and New Urbanism can be the guiding principle of planning and
development of towns and cities.

❖ Key concept of New Urbanism :

The following are some of the basic concepts of New Urbanism:

1. Walkability : A major factor which is the part of New Urbanism is creating walkable
communities and neighbourhoods. Communities should have all basic needs and most facilities
and infrastructure that are necessary within walking distance from the residential areas of
the community. The basic concept is that people should be able to walk to work; walk to
school and most needs should be within walking distance of residential houses. A general rule
of the walkability principle of New Urbanism is that in a community everything should be in
a 10 minutes walking distance. Buildings are often close to the streets and have windows,
porches, and doors close to the street. Narrow roadway grids are often used to park cars.

2. Connectivity Factor : Connectivity plays an important role in New Urbanism as the basic
concept is walkability. This means there has to be a series of interconnected roads streets
which ease traffic concerns and also provide the citizen’s roads to walk from one place to
another. Along with streets that are used for road traffic, communities that are planned
under this concept have narrow roads, boulevards, and alleyways where there is hardly any
or no road traffic where people can easily walk from one place to another without traffic.
Also, these streets are often lined with trees to provide shade for pedestrians as they walk
from one place to another.

3. Structure of the Neighbourhood : The basic concept is that people living in these
communities should be able to walk and not require a car to reach work, school, shopping
centres, community centres and other facilities. The structure of New Urbanism
neighbourhoods is that there are a defined centre and defined edges of a neighbourhood.
This means that in the centre of the neighbourhood which is 10 minutes walking distance
from the edges there is a town centre. In the centre area, there are retail establishments,
government buildings, transport hubs and other commercial establishments which are easily
accessible in walking distance from the edges of a neighbourhood planned under this concept.
4. Diversity : New urbanism gives a lot of importance to a diverse group of people living in one
neighbourhood. This means there should be neighbourhoods and communities with people of
every age, income level, background, racial ethnicity, and cultures. This movement is called
New Urbanism and is all about racial harmony, the intermingling of people with different
background and also people of different ages, young and old living together.
5. Environmentally Friendly Urban Development : In the 21st century, being environmentally
friendly is not just a trendy concept but the protection of the environment is so important
today that without environmental sustainability human survival is going to be in jeopardy in
the future. The concept of walkability and everything is in a 10 minutes walking distance is
to limit the use of cars and transport facilities that contribute to environmental
protection. Greater use of bicycles and a good network of public transport and limited use
of conventional fuels is another concept of New Urbanism. New Urbanism includes a
sustainable farming effort in nearby farmlands and also consumption of local produce.
6. Density of Population : If a community has to flourish with the entire neighbourhood within
walking distance, the density of population within the New Urbanism community is high.
Buildings, shops, schools and residential areas are within walking distance of each other. This
is only possible if the community lives in a smaller area and the density of population within
that area is high.
7. Mixed Housing & Aesthetic Urban Planning : New Urbanism includes housing development
with residential properties big and small, various types of housing and also housing at various
price points. The principles of New Urbanism include an emphasis on the aesthetic charm and
beautification of the community infrastructure and real estate. The urban planning should
be done in such a way that the residents are comfortable and the overall look of the
neighbourhood is beautiful.
8. The Objective to Improve Quality of Life : The overall objective of New Urbanism is to
improve the quality of life for the residents in communities and neighbourhoods.
Environmental protection and urban planning in a sustainable way is the future of planning
towns and cities all over the world.

Student 1 :- Bhai kal sir ne new urbanism padhaya tha uske kya kya components the?
Student 2 :- walkability , connectivity aur diversity aur…………… ummmmm…………..
Meanwhile , Student 1 :-
❖ Benefits of New Urbanism

• There are many benefits to the government, to residents, and businesses of New
Urbanism. If everything is within walking distance for residents it is very
convenient to live in such a neighbourhood.
• People can buy everything nearby, children can walk to schools and people can even
walk to work. The use of cars is limited and so it saves money and time for the
residents living in these neighbourhoods.
• This urban planning concept stress on planning environmentally friendly
neighbourhoods and innovation is a key factor in achieving this goal. By reducing
the dependence on cars, dependence on conventional fuels is limited.
• Businesses in these neighbourhoods have a higher chance of getting customers
who live close by because New Urbanism is based on the high density of population
within the neighbourhoods.
• New Urbanism promotes a mixed society with people of all ethnicities, age groups,
and income backgrounds. It also promotes the concept of residential homes of all
types in one neighbourhood. This means cheaper homes are available in areas
where there are also high-end residential homes. A mix of people living together
in harmony is the future of the world that we live in today.
• It encourages people to walk every day. As this concept prescribes an urban
planning model where people can walk from one place to another without needing
cars, it is a very healthy concept as walking every day is good for health.

➢ There are hundreds of neighbourhoods in cities and countries all over the world that have
adopted elements of the concept of New Urbanism. Australia, Canada, United States,
Europe and some countries in Asia have neighbourhoods with New Urbanism as a basic
concept of urban planning.

➢ New Urbanism aims to improve the quality of life, encourages environmental

sustainability and makes neighbourhoods more aesthetically appealing.

➢ This concept of New Urbanism in planning can be used by a developer building a single
home and can be used by communities, neighbourhoods, towns, and cities as a concept for
urban planning. This type of planning is a futuristic concept that more and more urban
planning experts are using as a sustainable option in the 21 st century.
5.3 Some futuristic cities

Ladka :- mai aapki beti se bahut pyaar karta hu .

Sasurji :- Lekin tum dono ka gotra same hai to teri shaasi nhi hogi usse
Ladka :- To ab mai kya karuunga?
Sasurji :- Aaj meri beti ki engagement hai mere pasand ke ladke ke saath .
Ladka :- Haa to………?
Sasurji :-

a) Compact city
▪ Compact city refers to the urban model associated with a more densified occupation,
with consequent overlapping of its uses (homes, shops and services) and promotion of
the movement of pedestrians, cyclists and public transport
users. Amsterdam and Copenhagen are known examples of such a model.
▪ Opposite of the dispersed city, the compact city has some captivating characteristics,
in addition to its high density and mixed-use developments, such as: continuous and
contained urban development, delimited by legible boundaries; high local and regional
accessibility; different centralities; smaller infrastructure networks (water,
electricity, sanitation); greater control over government oversight, among others.
b) Virtual city
▪ The virtual reality of cities is the current historical period of urban progress and a kind
of interconnected co-activity between innovative virtual elements, elements of the city
and its urban parts according to the affected relationships of social, financial, cultural,
spatial, political and local features.
▪ Where contemporary concepts of virtual reality were presented by the philosophical
corps without clarifying their role comprehensively in the urban development processes
of cities, so the research aimed to determine the roles of the ideas of the virtual world
and the virtual city in the work of both specialists and decision makers, and the urban
development processes of traditional and historical cities, where the research
information methodology compares theoretical architectural and urban models to
intersect with the basic concepts related to the virtual city, the research reached
multi-level roles in terms of impact and degrees of complexity, which contribute to an
innovative reproduction of urban development processes.

c) Network city
▪ In today’s global network economy, knowledge corridors link major knowledge-intensive
nodes or hubs to form network cities. European examples include the Cambridge-London
and Stockholm-Uppsala corridors as well as Randstad Holland.
▪ The Kansai region of Japan is another example of a network city. Analytical tools for the
analysis of knowledge exchange processes between different centres are also under
development

d) Global city
▪ A global city, also known as a power city, world city, alpha city, or world centre, is
a city that serves as a primary node in the global economic network. The concept
originates from geography and urban studies, based on the thesis that globalization has
created a hierarchy of strategic geographic locations with varying degrees of influence
over finance, trade, and culture worldwide. The global city represents the most complex
and significant hub within the international system, characterized by links binding it to
other cities that have direct, tangible effects on global socioeconomic affairs.

▪ The criteria of a global city have varied over time. Depending on the source, common
features include a high degree of urban development, a large population, the presence
of major multinational companies, a significant and globalized financial sector, a well-
developed and internationally linked transportation infrastructure, local or national
economic dominance, high quality educational and research institutions, and a globally
influential output of ideas, innovations, or cultural products. Quintessential examples,
based on most indices and research, include New York City, London, Paris, and Tokyo.
 e) Inclusive city
▪ Inclusive cities support the urban population by creating more welcoming and intuitive
places that help increase the quality of life and create a more positive experience of the
built environment and public spaces for everyone.
▪ This is especially important in supporting a vibrant and dynamic tourism industry, which
is a key revenue generator for Georgia and other countries in Central and West Asia.
Inclusive cities address the needs of persons with disabilities (PWDs) ensuring equal
access to all urban services. ADB’s developing member countries (DMCs) should be
increasingly aware of the needs of PWDs and the elderly.
▪ The inclusive urban area guidelines will help create a barrier-free, accessible, and
inclusive city with a better quality of life for all its inhabitants, including PWDs, the
elderly, women, and children

When teacher gave marks more than students expectation .

Then , students feelings be like :-
5.4 Sustainable city
➢ A sustainable city is a city that is designed,
developed, and managed to have a minimal
impact on the environment while promoting
economic prosperity, social equity, and a high
quality of life for its residents.
➢ Sustainable cities prioritize the well-being of
both current and future generations by
integrating environmental, social, and
economic considerations into urban planning
and development. In this essay, we will
explore the key features, benefits, and
challenges of creating sustainable cities, as well as examples of successful sustainable
urban initiatives.

➢ One of the fundamental aspects of a sustainable city is its commitment to

environmental sustainability. This includes reducing carbon emissions, promoting
renewable energy sources, preserving natural resources, and minimizing waste.
Sustainable cities often prioritize public transportation systems to reduce reliance on
cars and decrease traffic congestion and air pollution.

➢ Efficient public transportation not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also
improves air quality and reduces the city's carbon footprint. Additionally, sustainable
cities invest in green building practices, such as energy-efficient design, water
conservation measures, and the use of sustainable materials. By implementing these
practices, sustainable cities aim to reduce energy consumption, water usage, and overall
environmental impact.

➢ Another key aspect of sustainable cities is their focus on social equity and inclusivity.
Access to affordable housing, healthcare, education, and other essential services for
all residents is a priority in sustainable urban development. This ensures that the
benefits of urban development are shared equitably among all members of the
community. Furthermore, sustainable cities promote active transportation options such
as cycling and walking by investing in infrastructure that supports these modes of
travel. This not only reduces reliance on fossil fuels but also promotes physical activity
and improves public health.
➢ Economic sustainability is also a critical component of sustainable cities. These cities
seek to create a thriving economy while minimizing negative impacts on the environment
and society. One way they achieve this is by investing in renewable energy sources such
as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.
➢ By transitioning to renewable energy, sustainable cities reduce their dependence on
fossil fuels and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change. Additionally,
sustainable urban development often involves the preservation of green spaces, parks,
and natural habitats. These areas not only improve air quality and provide recreational
opportunities for residents but also support biodiversity and ecosystem health.

➢ While the benefits of sustainable cities are numerous, there are also challenges
associated with their development. One of the primary challenges is the need for
significant investment in infrastructure and technology to support sustainable
practices. This includes funding for public transportation systems, renewable energy
projects, green building initiatives, and other sustainability-focused programs.

➢ Additionally, transitioning to a sustainable urban model often requires changes in policy,

regulations, and public behaviour. Encouraging residents to embrace active
transportation, reduce energy consumption, and adopt sustainable practices can be a
complex and ongoing process.

➢ Despite these challenges, numerous cities around the world have made significant
strides in creating more sustainable urban environments. For example, Copenhagen,
Denmark is renowned for its extensive network of cycling infrastructure, which has led
to high rates of cycling among residents and significantly reduced carbon emissions
from transportation. Curitiba, Brazil is celebrated for its innovative bus rapid transit
system, which has improved public transportation accessibility and reduced traffic
congestion. Meanwhile, Vancouver, Canada has implemented stringent green building
standards and invested in renewable energy projects to reduce its environment.

➢ In conclusion, sustainable cities are characterized by their commitment to

environmental sustainability, social equity, and economic prosperity. By prioritizing
public transportation, green building practices, renewable energy sources, and social
inclusivity, these cities aim to create thriving urban environments that meet the needs
of current residents without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. While there are challenges associated with creating sustainable cities,
numerous successful examples demonstrate that with strategic planning, investment,
and community engagement, it is possible to build cities that are environmentally
friendly, socially equitable, and economically prosperous.
5.5 Smart city

➢ Smart cities are implementing smart

technologies in everything from street
lamps and drones to robotics
and building information modelling (BIM).
And that’s just the beginning. The
growth of the Internet of Things (IoT)
is what makes smart cities just that —
smart.

➢ IoT describes the network of physical objects that use sensors, software, and other
technologies to connect and exchange information with other systems by using the
internet. Smart cities use such devices to collect and analyse data to improve
infrastructure, public utilities, government-provided services, and the overall city life
experience.

➢ In fact, the value of IoT in smart cities is expected to reach $735 Billion by 2030, proving
that cities are eager to embrace new tech that promotes sustainable growth.

❖ Characteristics of Smart Cities

➢ Collaborating with big-name developers like IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco and innovative
startups, smart cities can track valuable data like weather, traffic, and resources. Then,
they use it to optimize their energy use, utilities, safety, transportation, waste
management, and public services. Let’s take a closer look at some of these smart city
features.

i. Safer Streets

Connected street cameras, body cameras, and commercial vehicles’ dashcams are all monitoring
activity and sharing data in real-time. This data gives first responders and city officials the
information they need to easily detect, respond to and prevent road accidents, violations,
traffic jams, and even potholes.
 ii. Improved Infrastructure

In smart cities, an improved infrastructure allows resources to go further and allow for
heightened safety preparedness. For example, resources like garbage collection can only be
stretched so far in a typical city, making trash collection inaccessible for many. However, some
smart cities are now using waste sensors to detect garbage levels and determine who needs
garbage pick up and who doesn’t. Doing this allows garbage collectors to maximize their
collection routes and serve more businesses and homes.

But improved infrastructure doesn’t stop with city services. It also allows for better city
safety and structure, like structural sensors and smart earthquake detection to warn the
public about incoming natural disasters well before they hit.

iii. Better Utilities

Every home and business needs access to tap water, but what if your city went above and
beyond to test and monitor it? Or what if the city monitored water levels, so city officials
could become immediately aware of water leaks? This is a reality in some smart cities.

City lighting is also becoming increasingly smarter and more cost-effective, with LED lamp
posts that adjust their brightness depending on the time of day and the weather conditions.

Smart cities are also adopting a “smart grid,” where energy consumption is analysed to offer
optimal electricity supplies at the right time to the right places.

iv. Healthier Environment

Using air pollution sensors, smart cities can effectively monitor carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions and car pollution. This monitoring allows city dwellers to redirect their traffic flow
to avoid breathing in toxins, airborne illnesses, and other pollutants that can be detrimental to
a person’s health.

v. Improved Transportation

Smart cities are all about efficiency. For many, transportation is a considerable efficiency
waster. But with improved transportation methods like driverless cars, smart parking meters,
and real-time traffic monitoring, people in some smart cities are getting time back in their day
when they no longer have to waste time sitting in congested areas or looking for an open
parking meter.
vi. Prioritized Public Safety

If a city is striving to make itself more liveable, it has to guarantee better law enforcement
and emergency response to increase public safety. Smart cities are using emergency cameras
to give dispatchers and first responders optimal routes to scenes like car accidents, fires,
natural disasters, crime scenes, and other emergencies. Smart city features are always
evolving as cities adapt and adopt new technologies.

❖ How Does a Smart City Work?

Smart cities use four key elements to become more liveable as larger amounts of people
continue to move to urban areas.
1. Collection: Real-time data is collected by smart cameras and sensors.

2. Analysis: Data is analysed to understand and identify pain points and what can be
improved.

3. Communication: Once data is collected and analysed, solutions are proposed to decision-
makers and city officials.

4. Action: Action plans are put in place to improve the quality of life for the city
population.

These elements are the stepping stones to the innovations we see in smart cities today. As
cities incorporate this methodology, city living across the world can become smarter, more
sustainable and more efficient.
❖ Smart City Examples

A. Seoul, South Korea

It shouldn’t be a surprise to see this city at the top of the list, as Seoul, South Korea was
awarded Smart City of 2022 at Smart City Expo World Congress. Seoul is home to the highest
broadband penetration rates and fastest internet speeds of all major cities across the globe.
The city is highly admired for its advanced e-governance system that gives them access to an
array of databases, government services, and online citizen engagement opportunities.

Seoul is also known for its highly advanced public transportation. Recent additions have
included air quality filters, free phone changers, and enhanced wifi in passenger cars. To top it
off, Seoul will soon be the first city to offer a car-hailing service with autonomous driving
vehicles by partnering with Hyundai Motor Group.
What Makes It Smart: Seoul, South Korea, prioritizes the health and well-being of its
citizens, and they seek ways to make living and publicly commuting in the city a more efficient
and pleasant experience.

B. Copenhagen, Denmark

Copenhagen’s journey to becoming a smart city is based largely on becoming more green and
eco-friendly. In fact, Copenhagen’s main target is to become a carbon-neutral city by 2025.

Copenhagen authorities collect data about citizens, businesses, and real estate trends and use
this digitized information to offer free access to public data to drive innovation for smart
solutions that would benefit the city and its citizens.

What Makes It Smart: Copenhagen, Denmark, is actively encouraging citizens to innovate and
create smart solutions that offset the effect urbanization has on climate change.

C. London, England

London, England is home to several smart city initiatives. The Civic Innovation Challenge aims
to encourage and support entrepreneurs and start-ups to develop smart solutions to the issue
the city faces as a result of growing urbanization.

Another initiative is Connect London, which set a goal to provide 5G connectivity and
modernize the city by fitting lamp posts with automated sensors and offering more electric
vehicle charging stations.

The London Plan provides more details on how the city plans to innovate and adapt to an ever-
growing population by improving healthcare, transportation and energy management.

What Makes It Smart: London is aware of its ever-growing population and is taking steps to
implement already available technologies while supporting innovations that make city living
more connected and convenient.
 D. New York, New York, USA

New York City’s smart city project first took place in 2020, when hundreds of smart sensors
were installed throughout the city. The goal of these sensors is to collect data and help
manage city services like waste management and collection. The city is also taking steps to
modernize outdated utilities, like replacing pay phone booths with wifi-enabled phone charging
stations.

New York is also concerned about public safety and is testing software that uses historical
data, terrain modelling and other collected data to predict and quickly respond to crime.

What Makes It Smart: While there is still room for improvement, New York is making great
strides in strengthening its public resources like city-owned utilities and law enforcement.

E. Oslo, Norway

Oslo, like Copenhagen, has set its sights on becoming more sustainable and eco-friendly. One
smart city improvement includes hundreds of thousands of LED lights that can intelligently
adjust the amount of lighting based on current needs.

Oslo also plans to switch all vehicles in the city to electric-only by 2025. Considering the size
and population of the city (about 1,086,000), this might seem like a lofty goal; however, their
plan is well underway with data showing they are on track to reach this goal.

Not only are electric vehicles making a difference in Oslo’s transportation system, but the city
also monitors cars to better understand traffic flow and find ways to reduce traffic
congestion.

As Oslo grows, it embraces green building practices to allow for population growth without
compromising its eco-friendly values.

What Makes It Smart: While sustainable cities and smart cities are not the same, Oslo is a
great example of how smart city technologies can create a more sustainable living environment
within a metropolitan area.
 F. Singapore, The Republic of Singapore

Singapore is often considered the world’s smartest city. With its advanced economy,
Singapore’s smart city initiatives seek to raise productivity. One example is their switch to a
digital healthcare system that uses wearable devices and video consultations to care for
patients remotely.

Singapore is also known for its plethora of sensors that can track information about the daily
lives of citizens or track a certain area to know when it’s busiest. This data helps city officials
understand the needs of their citizens solely based on their routines.

And lastly, Singapore is developing an eco-smart forest city that is vehicle-free and only
walkable or cyclable. With over 42,000 homes planned, this no-vehicle zone is sure to draw
some attention from eco-friendly city dwellers.

What Makes It Smart: Singapore is devoted to creating a technologically and environmentally

friendly advanced city that, in a lot of ways, is far ahead of the curve. Singapore breeds new
technologies and does not hesitate to put them to the test if they believe the tech will
benefit its citizens.

❖ Smart City Challenges

While the goal of a smart city is to make city living more accessible, making these large-scale
updates and using tech that collects and shares large amounts of data can come with plenty of
challenges along the way. Here are five main challenges and concerns people have with smart
city initiatives:
1. Transparency: Collected and shared data must be accurate and shared in real time.

2. Availability: Cities are responsible for installing sensors and smart cameras, but must
also offer a reliable way for individuals and businesses to receive the data.

3. Integrity: Data must not be manipulated by officials to paint the city in a more positive
light.

4. Confidentiality: Some collected data may not be intended for public consumption. Cities
are responsible for keeping sensitive data private and secure from outside attacks.

5. Accountability: Cities are responsible for who sees what data and how it’s used. Where
there is highly-sensitive data, user logs should be enforced to ensure accountability for
who accessed the data and how they plan to use it.
 ❖ The Importance of Smart Cities

✓ Big cities are becoming more aware of their growth. For example, London, England is
projected to be home to 9.8 million people by 2043, an increase of 800 thousand people
when compared with 2021. With that amount of growth, current cities do not have what
it takes to make city living habitable.

✓ Smart cities use intelligent technology, connected devices, and instantaneous data to
solve real-world problems. From reducing energy use to alleviating traffic congestion,
smart cities are positively changing the lives of urban residents worldwide.

✓ Countries, towns, cities, and governments have realized the potential and impact of
smart cities. Investment in smart cities is rapidly growing, as global spending on these
revolutionary initiatives and digital technologies are expected to hit $2.6 trillion
worldwide by 2026. Additionally, construction jobs in cities across the U.S. are booming
to meet this demand.

✓ With cost, sustainability, and efficiency benefits, smart city technologies are no longer
part of the distant future. They are quickly becoming essential for cities to thrive and
support a healthy, ever-growing population.

✓ With the right technology and equipment, the construction industry is ready to take
the next steps into the future as cities become smarter and more accessible for their
citizens.

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