School of thoughts in psychology in detail

Psychology, the scientific study of mind and behavior, has evolved through
various schools of thought, each contributing unique perspectives and
methodologies. Here’s a detailed overview of the primary schools of thought
in psychology:

1. Structuralism

Founders: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener

Focus: Breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.

Methods: Introspection, a careful and systematic examination of one’s own

conscious experience.

Key Idea: Just as physical objects can be broken down into basic elements, so
can human consciousness.

Structuralism is an intellectual movement and theoretical approach that

emerged in the early 20th century, primarily within the fields of linguistics,
anthropology, and psychology. It is characterized by the belief that human
culture, behavior, and cognition can be understood in terms of underlying
structures and systems

Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B. Titchener

Key Idea: The human mind can be understood by analyzing the basic
elements of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings, and images.

Contribution: Wundt is often considered the father of experimental

psychology, and Titchener, his student, brought structuralism to the United
States, focusing on introspection to study the structure of the mind.

2. Functionalism

Founders: William James and John Dewey

Focus: How mental and behavioral processes function and enable organisms
to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Methods: Observation of behavior and introspection, often in naturalistic

settings.

Key Idea: Psychological processes have evolved for their adaptive purposes
and practical functions.
Functionalism is a theoretical framework in sociology and anthropology that
views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability. It is one of the major theoretical perspectives in these
disciplines, emphasizing the interdependence of various institutions and
practices in maintaining the overall social order.

### Key Principles of Functionalism:

1. **Society as a System**: Functionalism views society as a system of

interconnected parts, where each part has a specific function that
contributes to the stability and functioning of the whole.

2. **Functional Requirements**: Every social system has basic needs or

functional requirements that must be met for its survival (e.g., adaptation,
goal attainment, integration, and latency).

3. **Social Institutions**: Institutions such as family, education, religion, and

economy are seen as structures that fulfill essential functions. For example,
the family socializes children, education imparts knowledge, religion provides
moral guidance, and the economy supplies goods and services.

4. **Equilibrium and Stability**: Functionalism emphasizes the importance of

social stability and equilibrium. Changes in one part of the system will
prompt adjustments in other parts to maintain overall stability.

5. **Manifest and Latent Functions**: Sociologist Robert K. Merton

distinguished between manifest functions (intended and recognized) and
latent functions (unintended and unrecognized) of social activities and
institutions.

Major Theorists:

1. **Émile Durkheim**: Often considered the father of functionalism,

Durkheim focused on how societal cohesion is maintained and how societies
remain stable over time. His work on the division of labor, collective
conscience, and social solidarity are foundational to functionalist theory.

2. **Talcott Parsons**: A key figure in modern functionalism, Parsons

developed a detailed model of how societies function, including the AGIL
framework (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency).

3. **Robert K. Merton**: Merton contributed significantly to functionalist

thought with his concepts of manifest and latent functions and the idea of
dysfunctions, which are negative consequences of social structures.
Criticisms:

Functionalism has been critiqued for its tendency to justify the status quo
and its difficulty in accounting for social change and conflict. Critics argue
that it overlooks power dynamics and inequalities within society and may be
overly deterministic, neglecting human agency and the potential for social
transformation.

Despite these criticisms, functionalism remains a foundational perspective in

sociology and anthropology, offering valuable insights into the
interconnections and functions of social institutions.

3 - Psychoanalysis

Founder: Sigmund Freud

Focus: The influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Methods: Free association, dream analysis, and transference.

Key Idea: Human behavior is driven by unconscious desires, often rooted in

childhood experiences, and involves conflicts between different parts of the
psyche (id, ego, superego).

Psychoanalysis is a therapeutic approach and theory of mind developed by

Sigmund Freud in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It focuses on the
unconscious mind and aims to uncover repressed thoughts, emotions, and
memories that influence behavior and mental health. Key concepts in
psychoanalysis include:

1. **Unconscious Mind**: The part of the mind that contains thoughts,

memories, and desires not within the individual's conscious awareness
but which still influence behavior.
2. **Repression**: The process of pushing distressing memories,
thoughts, or desires into the unconscious mind to avoid anxiety.
3. **Defense Mechanisms**: Psychological strategies used by the ego to
protect against anxiety and the awareness of internal or external
stressors. Examples include denial, displacement, and projection.
4. **Free Association**: A therapeutic technique where the patient says
whatever comes to mind without censorship, which can reveal
unconscious thoughts and feelings.
5. **Transference**: The phenomenon where patients project feelings
about important figures in their lives onto the therapist.
 6. **Dream Analysis**: Interpreting the content of dreams to uncover
unconscious desires and conflicts.
7. **Oedipus Complex**: A theory that suggests a child experiences a
subconscious sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and rivalry
with the same-sex parent during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development.

Psychoanalysis has evolved over time and has influenced many other
psychological theories and therapies. However, it has also faced criticism for
its lack of empirical support and scientific rigor. Despite this, it remains an
important historical and conceptual foundation in the field of psychology.

In psychoanalytic theory, particularly as proposed by Sigmund Freud, the

three components of personality are the **id**, **ego**, and **superego**:

1. **Id**: The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the personality

that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories. It
operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of
its desires and needs.
2. **Ego**: The ego is the realistic part of the personality that mediates
between the desires of the id and the realities of the external world. It
operates on the reality principle, working to satisfy the id’s desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways.
3. **Superego**: The superego is the moral component of personality,
which incorporates the values and morals of society learned from
parents and others. It works to control the id’s impulses, especially
those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. The superego
strives for perfection, leading to feelings of pride or guilt.

These three components interact to shape an individual’s behavior and

personality.

1. Behaviorism

Founders: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner

Focus: Observable behavior and the ways it is learned.

Methods: Experimental research, primarily involving stimulus-response

relationships and conditioning.

Key Idea: All behaviors are acquired through conditioning (classical and
operant), and internal mental states are less significant compared to
observable behaviors.
Behaviorism is a psychological theory and approach to understanding human
and animal behavior. It emphasizes the study of observable behaviors rather
than internal mental states. Here are key points about behaviorism:

1. **Origins**: Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century, primarily

through the work of John B. Watson, who is often considered the father
of behaviorism. Watson argued that psychology should be a science
based on observable behavior, not on unobservable internal states like
thoughts and emotions.

2. **Key Figures**:

- **John B. Watson**: Promoted the idea that behavior can be measured,

trained, and changed. His famous “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated
that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans.

- **B.F. Skinner**: Expanded on Watson’s ideas with his theory of operant

conditioning, which explains how behaviors are influenced by their
consequences (rewards or punishments). Skinner’s work with rats and
pigeons led to the development of the Skinner box, a device used to study
operant conditioning.

3. **Main Concepts**:

- **Classical Conditioning**: Introduced by Ivan Pavlov, this concept

involves learning through association. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs
showed that a neutral stimulus (a bell) could elicit a conditioned response
(salivation) when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

- **Operant Conditioning**: Focuses on how behaviors are influenced by

their consequences. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and
punishment are key elements in shaping behavior.

- **Stimulus and Response**: Behaviorism is based on the idea that all

behavior is a response to external stimuli, and understanding these stimuli
can help predict and control behavior.

4. **Applications**:

- **Education**: Behaviorist principles are used in teaching and classroom

management. Techniques such as positive reinforcement (rewards for good
behavior) and negative reinforcement (removal of an unpleasant stimulus)
are common.
 - **Behavior Therapy**: Used to treat various psychological disorders,
behavior therapy employs techniques such as systematic desensitization,
aversion therapy, and token economies to modify problematic behaviors.

- **Animal Training**: Operant conditioning techniques are widely used in

training animals, utilizing rewards and punishments to shape desired
behaviors.

5. **Criticisms**:

- Behaviorism has been criticized for ignoring the mental processes

involved in learning and behavior. Critics argue that it overlooks the
complexity of human cognition, emotions, and the influence of genetic and
biological factors.

- The approach has been seen as overly deterministic, suggesting that

behavior is solely shaped by the environment and leaving little room for free
will.

Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has made significant contributions to

psychology and education, providing a scientific basis for understanding and
influencing behavior. Its methods and principles continue to be used in
various fields, reflecting its enduring impact.

2. Humanistic Psychology

Founders: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

Focus: Individual potential and personal growth.

Methods: Client-centered therapy, qualitative methods.

Key Idea: Humans have inherent potential for self-actualization, and

psychological growth occurs in a supportive environment that emphasizes
personal choice and self-determination.

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the

study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual. It emerged
in the mid-20th century as a reaction to the deterministic views of
psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which were dominant at the time. Here are
some key aspects of humanistic psychology:

1. **Holistic Approach**: Humanistic psychology focuses on the whole

person rather than breaking down behavior into smaller components. It
considers the individual as a whole, including thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.
 2. **Personal Growth**: This perspective emphasizes personal growth and
self-actualization. It believes that people have an inherent drive to
realize their full potential and capabilities.
3. **Free Will**: Unlike the deterministic views of behaviorism and
psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology posits that individuals have
free will and are capable of making choices that affect their lives and
personal development.
4. **Subjective Experience**: Humanistic psychologists are interested in
how individuals perceive and experience their world. They prioritize
understanding people’s subjective experiences over objective
measurements of behavior.

5. **Key Figures**:

- **Abraham Maslow**: Known for his hierarchy of needs, which outlines a

progression of human needs from basic physiological needs to self-
actualization.

- **Carl Rogers**: Developed client-centered therapy, which emphasizes

the therapist’s role in providing a supportive environment that facilitates the
client’s self-discovery and personal growth.

5. **Therapeutic Approach**: Humanistic therapy focuses on creating a

non-judgmental, empathetic, and accepting environment. It aims to
help clients understand their feelings, find meaning, and achieve
personal growth.
6. **Criticisms**: While humanistic psychology has contributed
significantly to the understanding of human behavior, it has been
criticized for lacking empirical evidence and being too idealistic and
subjective.

Humanistic psychology has had a profound impact on therapy, education,

healthcare, and understanding human motivation and behavior. It
emphasizes the potential for growth and the importance of self-awareness
and self-exploration in leading fulfilling lives.

3. Cognitive Psychology

Founders: Ulric Neisser, Jean Piaget

Focus: Mental processes such as perception, memory, language, and

problem-solving.
Methods: Experimental research, computer modeling, and cognitive
neuroscience.

Key Idea: The mind operates like a computer, processing information through
various stages to produce outputs (behavior).

4. Gestalt Psychology

Founders: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler

Focus: Perception and problem-solving.

Methods: Experimental research on perception and learning.

Key Idea: The whole of anything is greater than its parts; humans perceive
patterns and whole forms rather than merely a collection of parts.

Gestalt psychology is a theory of mind that proposes that humans naturally

perceive objects as organized patterns and unified wholes, rather than as
separate parts. This perspective was developed by German psychologists in
the early 20th century, including Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt
Koffka.

### Key Principles of Gestalt Psychology:

1. **Figure-Ground**: People tend to separate objects (the figure) from

their surrounding background (the ground). For example, in a visual
scene, some objects will stand out as the main focus (figure), while
others recede into the background (ground).
2. **Proximity**: Objects that are close to each other are perceived as a
group. For instance, in a cluster of dots, we are likely to perceive
groups based on the distance between the dots.
3. **Similarity**: Objects that are similar in appearance are often
perceived as a group. This could be based on shape, color, size, or
other attributes.
4. **Continuity**: People prefer to see continuous lines and patterns. For
example, we are more likely to perceive a series of points or lines as a
smooth path rather than a series of disjointed segments.
5. **Closure**: The mind tends to fill in missing parts of a visual image to
perceive a complete object. For instance, we can recognize a circle
even if part of it is missing.
6. **Symmetry**: Symmetrical images are perceived as part of the same
group. This principle helps in organizing complex scenes into simpler
forms.
 7. **Common Fate**: Elements moving in the same direction or at the
same rate are perceived as a unit. For example, a flock of birds flying
together is seen as a single entity.

### Applications of Gestalt Psychology:

- **Visual Perception**: Understanding how we perceive visual elements and

how our brain organizes these elements into meaningful patterns.

- **Design and Art**: Using Gestalt principles to create visually appealing

and easily comprehensible designs.

- **Problem Solving**: Recognizing patterns and structures in problems to

find solutions.

- **Cognitive Psychology**: Studying how people understand and interpret

sensory information.

Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its
parts and that our minds tend to perceive complex patterns in a holistic
manner.

5. Evolutionary Psychology

Founders: Influenced by Charles Darwin

Focus: How evolutionary principles like natural selection influence behavior

and mental processes.

Methods: Comparative research, analysis of human and animal behavior, and

genetic studies.

Key Idea: Psychological traits and behaviors have evolved to solve recurrent
problems in human ancestral environments.

6. Biological Psychology (Neuroscience)

Focus: The biological underpinnings of behavior and mental processes.

Methods: Brain imaging, neurochemical analysis, and genetic research.

Key Idea: Behavior and mental processes can be explained by brain

structures and biochemical processes.

7. Social Psychology

Focus: How individuals are influenced by their social environments and group
dynamics.
Methods: Experimental research, surveys, and observational studies.

Key Idea: Social interactions, socialization, and social structures significantly

impact individual behavior and thought processes.

8. Cultural Psychology

Focus: How cultural contexts influence human behavior and mental

processes.

Methods: Cross-cultural studies, ethnographic research, and comparative

analysis.

Key Idea: Culture shapes psychological processes, and psychological theories

must account for cultural variability.

Each of these schools of thought has contributed to the development of

psychology, offering unique insights and methodologies that continue to
inform research and practice in the field today.