Namibia University of Science and

Technology (NUST)
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
Department of Civil, Mining and Process Engineering
Bachelor of Engineering (All First Years)
Year 1, Semester 2
Workshop Practice 120 (WPR421S)

Lecturer: Mr. Abner K. Shifula Date: July 2024 – November 2024

1
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Common Electronic scale
These are used to measure the weight
Analytical Balance
Used to measure weight and covered by transparent glass in all 5
sides as to provide as wind proof.

2
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Weighing Scale or Platform weighing scale
Using this scale can measure bulk weight

3
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Sieves
• Sieve is the chief apparatus required for conducting the sieve
analysis. Sieve analysis is to classify the soil particles based on
their size of particles.

4
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Casagrande apparatus
• It is used to determine the moisture content at which clay soils pass
from plastic to liquid state.

5
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Concrete Slump Test
• The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the
workability of fresh concrete.

6
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Various Moulds (cube moulds, Cylinder moulds, Beam Moulds)
• Three types of moulds used in MTI lab for preparation of concrete
specimen.

7
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Hydrometer
• A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity (or relative
density) of liquids.

8
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Concrete Mixer
• A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines
cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel and water to form
concrete.

9
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Electric Oven
• Process applications for laboratory ovens can be annealing, die-
bond curing, drying.

10
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Penetration Test
•Test is carried out to determine the relative density, bearing
capacity, and settlement of granular soil.

11
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Consolidation Test
• The standard oedometer test, also referred to as consolidation test or
one-dimensional compression test is a laboratory test that
allows characterizing the soil stress-strain behaviour during one
dimensional compression of swelling.

12
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Triaxial Testing Equipment
•Determines cohesion and friction angle for earth static calculations
(e.g. stability of excavations and slopes, permissible angle to prevent
earth slides, permissible loading of subgrade by buildings)

13
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Shear box test
•A Shear Box is used for direct shear testing of soil specimens to
determine the shear strength of a soil sample.

14
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Sand pipe permeability test cell
• Measures permeability
• Allows to evaluate water flow in sub grade
•Allows to calculate resistance to hydraulic shear failure in building
construction

15
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Constant/Falling Head Permeameter
•Determines the Coefficient of Permeability of sand by constant head
method.
•Determines the Coefficient of Permeability of clay by falling head
method.

16
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Universal Soil Compactor/ Universal Extruder
•Determines degree of compaction in combination with Balloon Density
apparatus.
• Determines compactability of unbound material.

17
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
CBR Test Machine
• Measures bearing capacity of soils by determining CBR-value for
pavement design.

18
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Sand Equivalent Test Set
• Determines fine particles in granular soils and fine aggregate which
may damage concrete and asphalt

19
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Static Plate Bearing Test
• The test is performed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils
for allowable settlement under static loads at shallow foundation.

20
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Balloon Density Apparatus
• Determines field density by measuring volume of excavated unbound
material.

21
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Dynamic Plate Bearing Apparatus
• Provides an indirect method to determine compaction degree.
• Measures bearing capacity of unbound material.

22
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test
• Measures the soil strength attributes of penetrability and compaction.

23
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Los Angeles
• Used to characterize toughness and abrasion resistance of course
aggregates

24
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Methylen Blue Test Set
• Determines limit value that must be observed to prevent damage to
concrete

25
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Sand Equivalent
• Determination of cohesive particles in fine aggregate.

26
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Marshall Compactor
• Specimen are produced to be tested in the Marshall Test equipment.
• Equipment is used to measure stability and flow of Marshall
specimen.

27
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Ring and Ball
• Determines the softening point of bituminous materials. Softening point
is that temperature at which the specimen under test becomes soft
enough to allow a steel ball of specific dimensions to fall a required
distance under test conditions

28
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Penetration Test
• Test is carried out to classify bitumen.

29
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Benkleman Beam
• Determines load-bearing capacity of roads by measuring deflection caused
by a wheel load of 5 tons.
• Allows to prognosticate the service life of road pavements by repeated
measurements in periods of time.
• Serves as alternative to Falling Weight Deflectometer.

30
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Compressive Test Machine
• Determines the compressive strength of concrete

31
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Air Entrainment Meter
• Determines air content in fresh concrete.
• Allows to evaluate the durability of hardened concrete (steel corrosion in
coastal areas).

32
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Compressometer
• Determines stress/ strain-relations for hardened concrete.
• Allows calculation of Young’s modulus

33
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Bending Strength Tester
• Measure the greatest bending stress up to the rupture of the sample.

34
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Consistency Container
• Measures consistency of fresh concrete

35
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Rebound Hammer
• Used for testing the quality of hardened concrete in a structure.

36
 1. Introduction to Civil Eng. Material
Laboratory
Cylinder Capping Frame
• Used to prepare concrete cylinders for testing

37
 2. Workshop Health and Safety
Health and Safety Legislation
• The word legislation generally refers to a law that is made in
Parliament and often called an act.
• Health and safety acts state what should and shouldn’t be done by
employers and employees in order to keep work places safe.
• If an employer or an employee does something they shouldn’t, or
just as importantly , doesn’t do something they should, they could
face paying a large fine or even a prison sentence.
38
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Health and Safety Legislations
• Health and safety at work
• Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
• Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
• The Manual Handling Operations Regulations
• The Control of Noise at Work Regulations
• The Work at Height Regulations
• The Electricity at Work Regulations
• The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations
• Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations
39
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Health and welfare in the construction industry
The most common health and safety risks a construction worker faces are:
• Accidents
• Ill health
Accidents
• We often hear the saying ‘accidents will happen’, but when working in the
construction industry, we should not accept that accidents just happen sometimes.
• When we think of an accident, we quite often think about it as being no-one’s fault
and something that could not have been avoided. The truth is that most accidents are
caused by human error, which means someone has done something they shouldn’t
have done or, just as importantly, not done something they should have done.
40
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
• Accidents often happen when someone is hurrying, not paying enough attention to what
they are doing or they have not received the correct training.
• If an accident happens, you or the person it happened to may be lucky and will not be
injured. More often, an accident will result in an injury which may be minor (e.g. a cut or a
bruise) or possibly major (e.g. loss of a limb).
• Accidents can also be fatal. The most common causes of fatal accidents in the construction
industry are:
 Falling from scaffolding
 Being hit by falling objects and materials
 Falling through fragile roofs
 Being hit by forklifts or lorries
 electrocution
41
2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Accidents can happen if your work area is untidy 45

 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Ill health
• While working in the construction industry, you will be exposed to substances or situations that
may be harmful to your health. Some of these health risks may not be noticeable straight away
and it may take years for symptoms to be noticed and recognised.
Ill health can result from:
• Exposure to dust (such as asbestors), which can cause breathing problems and cancer
• Exposure to solvents or chemicals, which can cause dermatitis and other skin problems
• Lifting heavy or difficult loads, which can cause back injury and pulled muscles
• Exposure to loud noise, which can cause hearing problems and deadness
• Using vibratory tools, which can cause vibratory white finger and other problems with the
hands.
Everyone has a responsibility for health and safety in the construction industry but accidents and
health problems still happen too often. Make sure you do what you can to prevent them. 46
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Welfare facilities
Welfare facilities are things such as toilets, which must be provided by your
employer to ensure a safe and healthy workplace. There are several things
that your employer must provide to meet welfare standards are these are:
• Toilets
• Washing facilities
• Drinking water
• Storage or dry room
• Lunch area
47
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Manual handling
• Manual handling means lifting and moving a piece of equipment or material
from one place to another without using machinery. Lifting and moving loads
by hand is one the most common causes of injury at work.
• Most injuries caused by manual handling result from years of lifting items that
are too heavy, are awkward shapes or sizes, or from using the wrong
technique. However, it is also possible to cause a lifetime of back pain with just
one single lift.
• Poor manual handling can cause injuries such as muscles strain, pulled
ligaments and hernias. The most common injury by far is spinal injury. Spinal
injuries are very serious because there is very little that doctors can do to
correct them and, in extreme cases, workers have been left paralysed. 48
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
What you can do to avoid injury
The first and most important thing you can do to avoid injury from lifting is to receive proper manual
handling training. Kinetic lifting is a way of lifting objects that reduces the chance of injury.
Before you lift anything you should ask yourself some simple questions:
• Does the object need to be moved?
• Can I use something to help me lift the object?
• Can I reduce the weight by breaking down the load?.
• Do I need help?
• How much can I lift safely?
• Where is the object going?
• Am I trained to lift?
46
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
The correct technique when lifting:
• Approach the load squarely facing the direction of travel
• Adopt the correct posture (as above)
• Place hands under the load and pull the load close to your body
• Lift the load using your legs and not your back.
When lowering a load you must also adopt the correct posture and
technique:
• Bend at the knees, not the back
• Adjust the load to avoid trapping fingers
• Release the load 51
2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

48
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Fire and fire-fighting equipment

Fires can start almost anywhere and at any time but a fire needs three
things to burn. These are:
1. Fuel
2. Heat
3. Oxygen

49
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Fires can be classified according to the type of material that is involved:
• Class A – wood, paper, textiles etc.
• Class B – flammable liquids, petrol, oil etc.
• Class C – flammable gases, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), propane etc.
• Class D – metal, metal powder etc.
• Class E – electrical equipment

58
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Fire-fighting equipment
There are several types of fire-fighting equipment, such as fire blankets and fire
extinguishers. Each type is designed to be the most effective at putting out a particular
class of fire and some types should never be used in certain types of fire.
Fire extinguishers
A fire extinguisher is a metal canister containing a substance that can put out fire. The are
several different types and it is important that you can learn which type should be used on
specific classes of fires. This is because if you use the wrong type, you may make the fire
worse or risk severely injuring yourself.

Fire extinguishers are now all one colour (red) but they have a band of colour which
shows what substance is inside. 59
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Water
• The coloured band is red and this type of extinguisher can be used on Class A
fires.
• Water extinguishers can also be used on Class C fires in order to cool the area
down.
• A water fire extinguisher should NEVER be used to put out an electrical or
burning fat/oil fire. This is because electrical current can carry along the jet of
water back to the person holding the extinguisher, electrocuting them.
• Putting water on to burning fat or oil will make the fire worse as the fire will
‘explode’, potentially causing serious injury. 52
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Water fire extinguisher

53
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Foam
• The coloured band is cream and this type of extinguisher can also be
used on Class A fires.
• A foam extinguisher can also be used on a Class B fire if the liquid is not
flowing and on a Class C fire if the gas is in liquid form

54
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Foam fire extinguisher

55
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Carbon dioxide (𝑪𝟎𝟐)

• The coloured band is black and the extinguisher can be used on Class
A, B, C and E fires.

56
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Dry powder
• The coloured band is blue and this type of extinguisher can be used on
all classes of fire. The powder puts out the fire by knocking down the
flames.

57
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Fire blankets
• Fire blankets are normally found in kitchens or canteens as they are good at
putting out cooking fires.
• They are made of a fireproof material and work by smothering the fire and
stopping any more oxygen from getting to it, thus putting it out. A fire blanket
can also be used if a person is on fire.
• It is important to remember that when you put out a fire with a fire blanket,
you need to take extra care as you will have to get quite close to the fire.
58
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

A fire blanket

59
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Safety signs
Safety signs can be found in many areas of the workplace and they are
put up in order to:
• warn of any hazards
• prevent accidents
• inform where things are
• tell you what to do in certain areas. 60
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Types of safety signs

There are many different safety signs but each will usually fit into one of
four categories:
Prohibition Signs
• These tell you that something MUST NOT be done.
• They always have a white background and a red circle with a red line
through it.
61
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

A prohibition sign

62
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Mandatory Signs
• These tell you that something MUST be done.
• They are also circular but have a white symbol on a blue background.

63
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Warning Signs
• These signs are there to alert you to a specific hazard.
• They are triangular and have a yellow background and a black border

64
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Information Signs
• These give you useful information like the location of things (e.g. a first
aid point}.
• They can be square or rectangular and are green with a white symbol.

65
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

• Most signs only have symbols that let you know what they are saying.
• Others have some words as well, for example, a no smoking sign might
have a cigarette in a red circle, with a red line crossing through the
cigarette and the words 'No smoking' underneath.

A safety sign with both symbol and words 66

 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a form of defence against accidents
or injury and comes in the form of articles of clothing.
• This is not to say that PPE is the only way of preventing accidents or injury.
• It should be used together with all the other methods of staying healthy and
safe in the workplace (i.e. equipment, training, regulations and laws etc.).
• PPE must be supplied by your employer free of charge and you have
responsibility as an employee to look after it and use it whenever it is required.
77
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Types of PPE
• There are certain parts of the body that require protection from hazards during work
and each piece of PPE must be suitable for the job and used properly.
Head protection
• There are several different types of head protection but the one most commonly used
in construction is the safety helmet (or hard hat).
• This is used to protect the head from falling objects and knocks and has an adjustable
strap to ensure a snug fit.
• Some safety helmets come with attachments for ear defenders or eye protection.
• Safety helmets are meant to be worn directly on the head and must not be worn over
78
any other type of hat.
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
A safety helmet

79
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Eye Protection
Eye protection is used to protect the eyes from dust and flying debris. The
three main types are:
• Safety goggles - made of a durable plastic and used when there is a
danger of dust getting into the eyes or a chance of impact injury.

70
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

• Safety spectacles - these are also made from a durable plastic but give
less protection than goggles. This is because they don't fully enclose
the eyes and so only protect from flying debris.

71
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

• Face shields - again made of durable plastic, face shields protect the
entire face from flying debris. They do not, however, protect the eyes
from dust.

72
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Foot protection
• Safety boots or shoes are used to protect the feet from falling objects
and to prevent sharp objects such as nails from injuring the foot. Safety
boots should have a steel toe-cap and steel mid-sole.

73
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Hearing protection
Hearing protection is used to prevent damage to the ears caused by very
loud noise. There are several types of hearing protection available but the
two most common types are earplugs and ear defenders.
• Ear-plugs - these are small fibre plugs that are inserted into the ear and
used when the noise is not too severe. When using ear-plugs, make
sure that you have clean hands before inserting them and never use
plugs that have been used by somebody else.
74
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

• Ear defenders - these are worn to cover the entire ear and are
connected to a band that fits over the top of the head. They are used
when there is excessive noise and must be cleaned regularly.

Ear plugs Ear defenders 85

 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Respiratory protection
• Respiratory protection is used to prevent the worker from breathing in
any dust or fumes that may be hazardous. The main type of respiratory
protection is the dust mask.
• Dust masks are used when working in a dusty environment and are
lightweight, comfortable and easy to fit. They should be worn by only
one person and must be disposed of at the end of the working day.
Dust masks will only offer protection from non-toxic dust so, if the
worker is to be exposed to toxic dust or fumes, a full respiratory system
86

should be used.
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

A dust mask

77
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Hand protection
• There are several types of hand protection and each type must be
used for the correct task. For example, wearing lightweight rubber
gloves to move glass will not offer much protection so leather gauntlets
must be used.
• Plastic-coated gloves will protect you from certain chemicals. To make
sure you are wearing the most suitable type of glove for the task, you
need to look first at what is going to be done and then match the type
of glove to that task. 78
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Safety gloves

79
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…

Reporting accidents
When an accident occurs, there are certain things that must be done. All
accidents need to be reported and recorded in the accident book and the
injured person must report to a trained first aider in order to receive
treatment. Employer must report to the HSE any accident that results in:
• Death
• Major injury
• An injury that means the injured person is not at work for more than
90
three consecutive days
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
The accident book
The accident book is completed by the person who had the accident or, if this is not possible, someone
who is representing the injured person. The accident book will ask for some basic details about the
accident, including:
• who was involved
• what happened
• where it happened
• the day and time of the accident
• any witnesses to the accident
• the address of the injured person
• what PPE was being worn
• what first aid treatment was given. 91
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Risk assessments
• A risk assessment is where the dangers of an activity are measured against
the likelihood of accidents taking place. People carry out risk assessments
hundreds of times each day without even knowing it.
• For example, every time we cross the road we do a risk assessment without
even thinking about it.
• In the construction industry, risk assessments are done by experienced
people who are able to identify what risks each task has. They are then able
to put measures in place to control the risks they have identified.
• At some point in your career, you will have to carry out a risk assessment.
You will be given proper training in how to do this but, until then, it is still
important that you understand how risk assessments work. 92
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Below is an example of an everyday situation (crossing the road) and how a risk assessment
would be carried out for this.
Step 1
• Identify the hazards (the dangers) - in this situation the hazards are vehicles travelling at
speed.
Step 2
• Identify who will be at risk - the person crossing the road will be at risk, as will any drivers
on the road who might have to swerve to avoid that person.
Step 3
• Calculate the risk from the hazard against the likelihood of an accident taking place - the
risk from the hazard is quite high because if an accident were to happen, the injury could
be very serious. However, the likelihood of an accident happening is low because93the
chances of the person being hit while crossing are minimal.
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Step 4
Introduce measures to reduce risk- in this case crossing the road at traffic lights
or pedestrian crossings reduces risk.
Step 5
Monitor the risk - changes might need to be made to the risk assessment if there
are any changes to the risks involved. In our example, changes might be traffic
lights being out of order or an increase in the speed limit on the road.

84
 2. Workshop Health and Safety cont…
Step 4
Introduce measures to reduce risk- in this case crossing the road at traffic lights
or pedestrian crossings reduces risk.
Step 5
Monitor the risk - changes might need to be made to the risk assessment if there
are any changes to the risks involved. In our example, changes might be traffic
lights being out of order or an increase in the speed limit on the road.

85
 3. Index Properties cont…
Grain-size distribution
• Mechanical analysis also known as, particle size analysis is a method of separation
of soils into different fractions based on particle size.
• It gives the percentage of various sizes of soil grains present in a given dry soil
sample.
• It is shown graphically and particle size distribution curve.
• Particle size analysis is done in two stages
1. Sieve analysis
2. Sedimentation analysis
86
3. Index Properties cont…

87
 3. Sieve Analysis
• Sieve analysis is done for coarse-grained soils, i.e particle size greater than 75μ.
• The coarse grained soil can be further sub divided into; gravel fraction (size > 4.75 mm) and
sand fraction (75μ < size < 4.75 mm).
• Sieves are wire screens having square openings.
• Sieves are designated by size of square opening, in mm or microns ( 1μ = 10 𝑚
10 𝑚𝑚).
• For soil fraction retained through 4.75 mm sieve, i.e gravel fraction, a set of coarse sieves of
sizes 80 mm, 40mm, 20 mm, 10 mm and 4.75 mm is required.
• For soil fraction passing through 4.75 mm sieves, second set of sieves of sizes 2 mm, 1mm
600μ, 425μ, 212μ, 150μ and 75μ are used.
88
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
• The sieves are stacked one over the other with decreasing size from to bottom.
• A receiver, know as pan is placed at the bottom of the smallest sieve.
(a) Dry Sieve Analysis
• This is suitable for cohesionless soils, with little or no fines.
• The soil sample is taken in suitable quantity. The large the particle size, the greater
is the quantity of soil required
• The sample should be oven dry. It should not contain any lump.
• The sample is sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve.
89
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
• The portion retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction or plus 4.75 mm material.
• The gravel fraction is sieved through the set of coarse sieves manually or using a
mechanical shaker. Hand sieving is normally done.
• The weight of soil retained on each sieve is obtained.
• The minus 4.75 mm fraction is sieved through a set of fine sieves using mechanical
shaker. Normally, 10 minutes of shaking is sufficient for most soils.
• The mass of the soil retained on each sieve and pan is obtained to the nearest 0.1
gram.
• The mass of the retained soil is checked against the original mass.
90
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Plus 4.75 mm size Minus 4.75 mm size

91
3. Sieve Analysis cont…

92
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
(b) Wet Sieve Analysis
• If soil contains a substantial quantity (say, more than 5%) of fine particles, a wet
sieve analysis is required.
• All lumps are broken into individual particles.
• A representative soil sample in the required quantity is taken and dried in an oven.
• The dried sample is taken in a tray and soaked with water.
• The slurry is then sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve and washed with a jet of
water.
93
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
• The material retained on the sieve is gravel fraction. It is dried in an oven and sieved
through set of coarse sieves.
• The material passing through 4.75 mm is sieved through a 75μ sieve. The material is
washed until wash water becomes clear.
• The material retained on 75μ sieve is collected and dried in an oven. It is then sieved
through the set of fine sieves 2 mm, 1 mm, 600μ, 425μ, 212μ, 150μ and 75μ.
• The materials finer than 75μ (passed through 75μ sieve) is taken for sedimentation analysis.
• The material retained on pan is equal to total mass of soil minus the sum of masses material
retained on all sieves
94
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Particle Size Distribution Curve
• The particle size distribution curve also know as a gradation curve, represents the
distribution of particles of different sizes in the soil mass.
• The percentage finer N than a given size is plotted as ordinate and particle size as
abscissa.

95
3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Semi-log graph

96
1. Sieve Analysis cont…

97
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Grading of soils
• The distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called grading.
• The grading of soil can be determined from the particle size distribution curves.
• The provided figures on the next slide shows the particle size distribution curves of different
soils.
• A curve with a hump, such as curve A, represents the soil in which some of the intermediate
size particles are missing. Such soil is called gap-graded or skip graded.
• A flat S-curve such as curve B, represents a soil which contains the particles of different sizes in
good proportion. Such a soil is called well graded soil.
• A steep curve, like curve C, indicated a soil containing particles of almost same size. Such soils
are called uniform soil.
98
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
• The particle size distribution curve also reveals whether a soil is coarse-grained or fine grained.
• A curve situated higher up and to the left (curve D) indicates a relatively fine- grained soil whereas a
curve situated to the right curve (curve E) indicates a coarse-grained soil.
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
• The uniformity of a soil is expressed qualitatively by a term known as Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
• The Uniformity Coefficient is a measure of the slope of the grading curve in the range from D10 to D60
and is given by ;
Cu = , where D60 = particle size such 60% of soil is finer than the size

D10 = particle size such 10% of soil is finer than this size. D10 is also known as the
effective size.
99
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
• The larger the value of Cu , the more is the range particles.
• Soil with a value of Cu less than or equals to 3, are uniform soils).
• Soils with Cu value of greater than or equals 4, are well-graded.
• The soils is sad to be:
 Uniform soil if Cu 5
 Medium Uniform soil if Cu is between 5 and 15.
 Non Uniform if Cu 15
• On average
 For sands Cu = 10 to 20
 For silts Cu = 2 to 4
 For clays Cu = 20 to 100
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1. Sieve Analysis cont…

101
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) or Coefficient of gradation (Cg) or Index of curvature
• The coefficient of curvature characterizes grading curve in the range form D10 to D60
given by;

• Cc =
• D30 particle size corresponding to 30% finer.
• For well-graded soil, Cc lies between 0.5 and 2.0
• Gap graded can not be identified by Cu only Cc is also required to detect it.Cc 0.1
indicates a possible gap-graded soil.
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103
 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Computation of percentage finer
• Percentage finer – Percentage of particles finer than a particular size.
• % retained on a particular sieve = x 100

• Cumulative % retained = (sum of % retained on all sieves of larger seizes) and (%

retained on that particular sieve)
• % finer than the sieve under reference = 100% - Cumulative % retained

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 3. Sieve Analysis cont…
Problems

105
 4. Consistency
• When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling.
• This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding the clay particles.
• In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils
with varying moisture contents.
• At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow
like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into four basic
states
 solid,
 semisolid,
 plastic, and
 Liquid
• The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid to semisolid state takes place is defined as the shrinkage limit.
• The moisture content at the point of transition from semisolid to plastic state is the plastic limit, and from plastic to liquid state is the
liquid limit.
• These parameters are also known as Atterberg limits. 106
 4. Consistency
Consistency tests are used to:
• Classify soils
• Indicate soils with poor plastic qualities
• Estimate the strength of the soil (Plasticity Index or PI)

107
 4. Consistency
• A schematic diagram (side view) of the liquid limit device is show in figure a below.

• This device consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber base.

• The brass cup can be dropped onto the base by a cam operated by a crank.
• To perform the liquid lid test, one must place the soil paste in the Casagrande cup.
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4. Consistency

109
 4. Consistency
• A groove is then cut at the center of the soil pat with the standard grooving tool as
shown in figure b.

• Using the crank-operated cam, the cup is lifted and dropped from a height of 10
mm.
• The moisture content, in percent, required to close a distance of 12.5 mm along the
bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit as shown in figure
c and d 110
4. Consistency

111
4. Consistency

112
 4. Consistency
• It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7 mm
closure of the grove in the soil pat at 25 blows.
• Hence , at least three tests for the same soil are conducted at varying moisture
contents, with the number of blows, N, required to achieve closure varying between
15 and 35.
• Figure in the next slide shows photographs of the soil pat in the liquid limit device
before (a) and after the test (b).

113
4. Consistency

114
 4. Consistency
• The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding number of blows
are then plotted on the graph paper as show below.

• The relationship between moisture content and number of drops is approximated as

a straight line. This is referred to as the flow curve.
• The moisture content corresponding to N = 25, determined from the flow curve,
gives the liquid limit of the soil. 115
4. Consistency

116
 4. Consistency
• From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1949) at the
Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, proposed an empirical equation of the form
LL = WN( )tan𝛽
where N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 12.5 mm groove closure
WN = corresponding moisture content
tan𝛽 = 0.121 (but note that tan b is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)
• The equation above generally yields good results for the number of blows between 20 and 30.
• For routine laboratory tests, it may be used to determine the liquid limit when only one test is run for a soil.
• This procedure is generally referred to as the one-point method.
• The reason that the one-point method yields fairly good results is that a small range of moisture content is
involved when N = 20 to N = 30.
117
 4. Consistency
• Table below shows the values of the term ( )0.121 given in the equation for N = 20
and N = 30.

118
 4. Consistency
Plastic Limit (PL)
• The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into threads of 3.2
mm in diameter as shown below.

• The plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.
• The plastic limit test is simple and is performed by repeated rollings of an ellipsoidal-sized soil mass by hand on a ground
glass plate.
• The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil, or
PI = LL – PL
119
4. Consistency

120
 4. Consistency
Burmister (1949) classified the plasticity index in a qualitative manner as follows:

PI Description
0 Non plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
6-10 Low Plastic
11-20 Medium Plastic
21-40 Highly Plastic
40 Very high plastic

Rolling of soil mass on ground glass plate to determine plastic limit 121
 4. Consistency
• The Plasticity Index (PI) is important in classifying fine-grained soils (see next
slide).
• It is fundamental to the Casagrande Plasticity chart, which is currently the basis for
the Unified Soil Classification System(USCS) (which you will learn in the next
chapter).

122
4. Consistency

123
 4. Consistency
Problems

124
 4. Consistency
Linear Shrinkage Limit (LS)
• Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it.
• With continuing loss of moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture will result in no further volume change
• The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass ceases to change is defined as Linear Shrinkage.
• Linear Shrinkage is performed in the laboratory with a rectangular trough tray.

• The inside of the tray is coated with petroleum jelly and is then filled completely with wet soil.
• Excess soil standing above the edge of the dish is struck off with a straightedge.
• The soil pat in the dish is then oven-dried.
• The specimen is then allowed to cool and then its longitudinal shrinkage Ls is measure to the nearest milli metre. If the specimen cracks into pieces, firmly
hold the separate parts together and measure the shrinkage Ls.
• LS = shrinkage in mm as measures (Ls) x f where:
.
• f= x
.
where N is the number of taps/blows required for the groove closure for the final determination in the liquid limit test.
125