CE 406 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

LECTURE 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO TEST MATERIALS? CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS (CHB) - A concrete hollow block is a standard size rectangular block used in
building construction. CHB are some of the most versatile building products available because of the wide
MATERIAL AND TREATMENT SELECTION • Meet requirements of regulatory agencies. variety of appearances that can be achieved using them.
• Select appropriate materials and treatments for an application.
• Identifying specifications and settling of proper materials to be used in construction is one of • Evaluating product design or improvement specification. WOOD/TIMBER - Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also known
the most important things that the designer must consider. as “lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or lumber is a wood or firewood of growing trees. Any wood
• The quality of projects depends on the materials mechanical and physical properties and REGULATORY COMPLIANCE capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size can be termed as a timber or lumber.
quality of concrete to be delivered which is used by the designer in designing structure.
• Materials are tested by the manufacturing companies to ensure quality products being sell and • National Building Code of the Philippines REBAR/STEEL - Rebar (short for reinforcing bar) is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device
distributed. • National Structural Code of the Philippines in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension.
• American Society for Testing Materials Concrete is strong under compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the tensile
FACTORS FOR MATERIAL SELECTION • Department of Public Works and Highways strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often "deformed" with ribs, lugs or indentations to promote a
• Provincial Engineering Office better bond with the concrete and reduce the risk of slippage.
• Economic Factors • Local Government Unit
• Mechanical Properties • Department of Labor and Employment
• Physical Properties
• Construction/Production Considerations APPARATUSES AND EQUIPMENT IN LAB TESTING
NBCP - The National Building Code of the Philippines is the design code that aims to safeguard life, health,
• Aesthetic Characteristics and property regulating building location, design, materials and use. It encompasses a broader range of
1.) SIEVE SET - A sieve, or sifter, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material
building regulations, including structural design, safety, fire protection, accessibility and plumbing.
ECONOMIC FACTORS - The economic factors affecting the material selection process is not limited to the or for characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample of aggregates, sand, and other soil
cost of the material. Factors that need to be considered include: particles.
NSCP – The National Structural Code of the Philippines is the primary design code in the country that sets the
2.) BALANCE - To determine the mass or weight of the specimen.
essential guidelines for materials and load capacities to ensure the structural integrity of the project.
3.) BEAKER
• Availability and cost of raw materials
4.) SLUMP CONE - A metal mold in the form of a truncated cone with a top diameter of 4"(102mm),
• Manufacturing cost ASTM – ASTM International, formerly the American Society for Testing Materials, is a private organization
a bottom diameter of 8"(203mm), and a height of 12"(305mm), used to fabricate the specimen
• Transportation that establishes specifications for materials and methods of construction accepted as standards not only
for a slump test.
• Placing throughout the United States but worldwide.
5.) VARIOUS MOLDS
• Maintenance
a. Cube Molds
Numerical references to ASTM standards - for example, ASTM C150 for portland cement which is used in
MECHANICAL PORPERTIES - Mechanical properties describe the response of the material to external loads. making concrete - are found throughout building codes and construction specifications, where they are used
150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm
It is important to take into consideration the following: as a precise shorthand for describing the quality of materials or the requirements of their installation.
100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm
70.6 mm x 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm
• Loading conditions AASHTO - The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials is a standard setting body
b. Cylinder Molds
(1-2) Static and Dynamic which publishes specifications, test protocols, and guidelines that are in highway design and construction.
• Stress-Strain relations
6 x 12 in. (15.2 x 30.5 cm)
• Elastic behavior
4 x 8 in. (10 x 20 cm)
• Elastoplastic behavior
COMMON CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS c. Beam Molds
• Viscoelastic behavior
• Temperature and Time Effects 100 x 100 x 400
• Failure and Safety AGGREGATES - Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of coarse-grained to
medium-grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, 100 x 100 x 500
recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. 150 150 x 600
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Physical properties are the characteristics of a material that is taken into
consideration for its intended use. These are several physical properties of a material, but those of greatest
CEMENT - A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other
concern to a materials engineer include: 6.) HYDROMETER - An instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density) of
materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel
together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water. Usually made of glass
• Density and Unit Weight and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float
concrete.
• Thermal Expansion upright.
• Surface Characteristics 7.) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE - An instrument designed to exert a tensile, compressive, or
BITUMEN - Bitumen is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found
in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term transverse stress on a specimen under test.
PRODUCTION/CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS - Production considerations include the availability of the 8.) CONCRETE MIXER - A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or
asphaltum was also used.
material and the ability to fabricate the material into desired shapes and required specifications. Construction gravel, and water to form concrete.
considerations address all the factors that relate to the ability to fabricate and erect the structure on site. 9.) TAMPING ROD - Dimensionally accurate rods used to tamp fresh concrete cylinder molds and
CONCRETE - Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with
slump cones to eliminate voids and excess air.
a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time.
AESTHETIC CHARACTERISTICS - Aesthetic characteristics of a material refer to the appearance of the material. 10.) VIBRATOR - A vibrator is a mechanical device to generate vibrations. The vibration is often
generated by an electric motor with an unbalanced mass on its driveshaft.
Major ingredients of concrete are:
MATERIAL TESTING – Measurement of the characteristics and behavior of materials to be used in specifying 11.) THERMOMETER – Instrument for measuring and indicating temperature.
the suitability of materials to various applications. It is the examination of material properties with respect to 12.) VICAT APPARATUS – It is used to find out the consistency, initial setting time and final setting
1. Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
design and use of end product. time of the cement.
13.) LABORATORY OVEN – For drying and removing moisture from the specimen.
2. Fine aggregate (sand)
CATEGORIES OF MATERIAL TESTING 14.) STOPWATCH
15.) FUNNELS
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, gravel)
• Mechanical testing 16.) WIRE BASKET – For drying and sterilization of laboratory equipment and specimens.
• Testing for thermal properties 17.) BRUSHES
4. Water.
• Testing for electrical properties 18.) STEEL PAN
• Testing for resistance to corrosion, radiation and biological deterioration. 19.) HYDRAULIC JACK – Used to precisely lift and position laboratory experiment, like flasks for tests
• Non-destructive testing requiring precise height control.
CE 406 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
20.) SHOVEL aggregates because it’s impossible to expel all the air between particles, unless it’s conducted HARDNESS – is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body. Mohs scale is used to find the
21.) TROWEL by vacuum. hardness of material. It is a list of ten materials arranged in the order of increasing hardness. The hardness of
22.) WHEELBARROW • INDIRECT METHOD – the solid volume of a known quantity of aggregate is obtained by pouring metals and plastics is found by indentation of a steel ball.
23.) FIRST AID KIT the material into a calibrated tank partially filled with the water; the difference between the
apparent volume of material and volume of water displaced equals voids. ELASTICITY – is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions after the load is removed.
-End of Lecture 1- Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the deformation is proportional to the stress. Th ratio of unit
HYGROSCOPICITY – is the property of a material to absorb water vapor from air. It is influenced by air- stress to unit deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity.
temperature and relative humidity.
PLASTICITY – is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and retain this shape
LECTURE 2: PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS WATER ABSORPTION - denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed as after the load is removed.
percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
COEFFIECIENT OF SOFTENING – the ratio of compressive strength of material saturated with water to that in
DENSITY – is the mass of a unit volume of a homogenous material. dry state and describes the water resistance of materials. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER STRESS

MATERIAL DENSITY WEATHERING RESISTANCE – is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for a long DUCTILITY – materials that possess this can be drawn out without necking down. Examples of these materials
Brick 2.5 - 2.8 period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength. are copper and wrought iron.
Granite 2.6 – 2.9
Portland Cement 2.9 – 3.1 WATER PERMEABILITY – is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure. Materials BRITTLENESS – brittle materials have little or no plasticity where they fail suddenly without warning. Examples
Wood 1.5 – 1.6 like glass, steel, and bitumen are impervious. of these materials are cast iron, stone, brick, and concrete.
Steel 7.8 – 7.9
FROST RESISTANCE – denotes ability of a water saturated material to endure repeated freezing and thawing STIFFNESS – stiff materials have high modulus of elasticity permitting small deformation for a given load.
with considerable decrease of mechanical strength.
BULK DENSITY – is the mass of a unit volume of a material in its natural state (with process and voids). FLEXIBILITY – materials that possess this have low modulus of elasticity and bend considerably without
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY – ability of the material to conduct heat. It is influenced by the nature of material, its breakdown.
MATERIAL BULK DENSITY structure, porosity, character of pores, and mean temperature at which heat exchange takes place.
Brick 1600 – 1800 TOUGHNESS – materials that possess this withstand heavy shocks and depends upon strength and flexibility.
Granite 2500 – 2700 THERMAL CAPACITY – is the property of a material to absorb heat described by its specific heat. It is of
Sand 1450 – 1650 concern in the calculation of thermal stability of walls of heated buildings and heating of a material, e.g., MALLEABILITY – materials that possess this can be hammered into sheets without rupture. This depends upon
Pine Wood 500 – 600 concrete for laying in winter. ductility and softness of the material.
Steel 7850
FIRE RESISTANCE – ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any appreciable COPPER - is the most malleable material.
deformation and substantial loss of strength.
Mostly, bulk density is less than density. However, with glass and dense stone materials, HARDNESS – materials that possess this can resist scratching and denting. For example, cast iron, chrome
they’re practically the same. Properties like strength and heat conductivity are greatly affected by a material’s • Fire-Resistive Materials steel, and any materials that are resistant to abrasion such as manganese.
density. • Non-Combustible Materials
-End of Lecture 2-
DENSITY INDEX – is the ratio between bulk density and density. It indicated the degree to which the volume REFRACTORINESS – denotes the ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high temperature
of a material I filled with solid matter. For almost all building materials, the index is less than 10 because there without melting or losing shape
are no absolute dense bodies in nature.
• Refractory Materials - (1580°C or more) LECTURE 3: MATERIALS FOR MAKING CONCRETE-II AGGREGATES
SPECIFIC OR UNIT WEIGHT – is the weight per unit volume of material. It can be used in civil engineering to • High-Melting Materials - (1350°C 1580°C)
determine the weight of a structure designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining • Low-Melting Materials - (below 1350°C) AGGREGATES – are the materials basically used as filler with binding material in the production of mortar and
concrete. They are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or manufactured from the
within limits regarding deformation.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE – is the ability of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis, seawater, and blast furnace slag, etc.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – ratio of mass/weight of a given volume of solids to the mass/weight of an equal volume gases.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
of water at 4oC.
DURABILITY – is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other factors
TRUE/ABSOLUTE SPECIFIC GRAVITY – the specific gravity if both the permeable and impermeable void are On the basis of Geological Origin:
excluded to determine the true volume of solids. * The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use.
* • NATURAL AGGREGATES – These are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous,
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Gravels and sand reduced to their present size by natural
APPARENT/MASS SPECIFIC GRAVITY – specific gravity if both the permeable and impermeable voids are agencies also falls in this category. The most widely used aggregate are from igneous origins.
included to determine the true volume of solids. It is the ratio of mass density of fine-grained material to the STRENGTH – is the ability of a material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by loads, the most • ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES – Broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic aggregates are
mass density of water common being compression, tension, bending, and impact. artificial aggregates.
a.) Brick Bats – suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation bases.
POROSITY – the degree to which the volume of the material is interspersed with pores. It is expressed as a COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – is found from tests on standard cylinders, prisms and cubes -- smaller for b.) Blast Furnace Slag – obtained from slowly cooling of the slag followed by crushing. It
ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen. Porosity is indicative of other properties like bulk density, homogenous materials and larger for less homogenous ones. has good fire resisting properties but are responsible for corrosion of reinforcement
heat conductivity, durability, etc. due to sulphure content of slag.
TENSILE STRENGTH – is found from tests on round bars or strips that of binding materials are of the shape of
VOID RATIO – defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids. figure eight On the basis of Size:

TWO CLASSES OF VOID MEASUREMENT METHODS BENDING STRENGTH – is found from tests on small bars supported at their ends and subjected to one or two • COARSE AGGREGATE – Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as coarse. They
concentrated loads which are gradually increased until failure takes place. are obtained by natural disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks. The maximum size of
• DIRECT METHOD – the most used direct method consists determining the volume of fluid in aggregate can be 80 mm.
order to fill the voids in a given quantity of material. It’s preferred to not use this on fine
CE 406 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
Aggregate more than 20 mm size are seldom used for reinforced cement concrete structural POROSITY – Porosity of rocks is generally less than 20 percent. The porous aggregate absorbs more moisture,
members. resulting into loss of workability of concrete at a much faster rate.

Depending on Particle Size Distribution:

• ALL-IN AGGREGATE – Naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and coarse • PORES – The entrapped air bubbles in the rocks during their formation.
sizes are known as all-in aggregate.
• GRADED AGGREGATE – Aggregate most of which passes through a particular size of sieve are MOISTURE CONTENT – The surface moisture expressed as percentage of the weight of the saturated surface
known as graded aggregate. For example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 20 mm means dry aggregate is known as moisture content. A high moisture content increases the effective water/cement
am aggregate most of which passes IS sieve 20 mm. ratio to an appreciable extent and may render the concrete weak.
• FINE AGGREGATE – Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve is defined as fine. The
smallest size of fine aggregate is 0.06 mm. BULKING – The increase in the volume of a given mass of fine aggregate caused by the presence of water is
known as bulking. The extent of bulking depends upon the percentage off moisture present in the sand and
On the basis of Shape: its fineness.

• ROUNDED AGGREGATES – They are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce FINENESS MODULUS – It is the numerical index of fineness, giving some idea about the mean size of the
minimum voids (about 32 percent) in the concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area particles in the aggregates.
to the volume, and the cement paste required is minimum.
• IRREGULAR AGGREGATES – They have voids about 36 percent and require more cement paste The Fineness Modulus varies between…
as compared to rounded aggregate.
• ANGULAR AGGREGATES – They have sharp, angular, rough particles with maximum voids • 2.0 to 3.5 for fine aggregate
(about 40 percent) • 5.5 to 8.0 for coarse aggregate Function of Sand: The functions of sand are to achieve economy by its use as adulterant in mortar, prevent
• FLAKY AGGREGATE – They are sometimes wrongfully called as elongated aggregate. The least • 3.5 to 6.5 for all-in aggregate shrinkage and development of cracks in mortar, furnish strength to mortar against crushing and allow carbon
lateral dimension of flaky aggregate should be less than 0.6 times the mean dimension. dioxide from the atmosphere to penetrate the fat lime mortars necessary for its air hardening.
Higher F.M. aggregate result in harsh cement mixes and lower F.M. result in uneconomical concrete
mixes. Effect of Gradation: The grading of fine aggregate has a great influence on workability or mortar. Very fine
sand and very coarse sand have been found to be unsatisfactory for making mortar and concrete. Very fine
Based on Unit Weight: DELETERIOUS MATERIALS AND ORGANIC IMPURITIES – Substances such as organic matters, clay, shale coal, sand results in poor mortar and is uneconomical, whereas very coarse sand produces a harsh mix affecting
iron pyrites, etc. which are weak, soft, fine, or may have harmful physical or chemical effects on the workability. When all graded (consisting of particles of different sizes) the voids are minimized.
UNIT WEIGHT B. DENSITY aggregates are considered to be deleterious.
AGGREGATE SP. GRAVITY EXAMPLES
(kN/m3) (kg/m3) Effect of Impurities: The impurities such as clay, dust and organic materials are harmful for mortar and
Normal-weight Sand, Gravel, SOUNDNESS – Soundness is the ability of the aggregate to resist changes in volume as a result of changes in concrete and in any case should not exceed 4 percent.
2.5 – 2.7 23 -26 1520 – 1680
Granite physical conditions.
Heavy-weight 2.8 – 2.9 25 – 29 >2080 Magnetite Effect by Entertaining Air in Concrete: The quantity of fine aggregate required for making concrete mix can
Dolomite, THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE – Heat and thermal conductivity are detrimental in case of mass be reduced by entertaining air.
Light-weight 12 <1120
Purnice concrete. Coefficient of expansion affects the concrete in general since the coefficient of thermal expansion
of concrete increases with that of coarse aggregate. COARSE AGGREGATE – These may be uncrushed, crushed or partially crushed gravel or stone most of which
is retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve. They should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clear and free from veins and
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATE adherent coatings. The functions of coarse aggregate are almost same as that of fine aggregate.
FINE AGGREGATE – Sand (>0.07 mm) is used as a fine aggregate in mortar and concrete. It is granular form of
silica. It is used for mix design is known as standard sand. Sand used in mortars for construction purposes
STRENGTH – The strength should be at least equal to that of the concrete. Rocks commonly used as -End of Lecture 3-
should possess at least 85 percent of the strength of the standard sand mortars of like proportions and
aggregates have a compressive strength much higher than the usual range of concrete strength. Hardness of
aggregate is tested by abrasion test. The abrasion value is restricted to 30 percent for wearing surfaces and consistency.
LECTURE 4: CEMENT
50 percent for other purposes.
CLASSIFICATION OF SAND CEMENT – Cement is a dry powdery substance made by calcining lime and clay, mixed with water to form
STIFFNESS – The modulus of elasticity of concrete is approximately equal to the weighted average of the mortar or mixed with sand, gravel and water to make concrete. It is a binder material. Once hardened, cement
moduli of the cement paste and the aggregate, as such the modulus of the coarse aggregate has an important delivers sufficient strength to erect large industrial structures.
influence on the stiffness of the concrete. Depending on Source:
TYPES OF CEMENT
BOND STRENGTH – Due to the difference between the coefficients of thermal expansion of paste and • Natural Sand – resulting from natural disintegration of rocks or deposited by streams.
aggregate and to the shrinkage of the cement paste during hardening, concrete is in a state of internal stress • Crushed Stone Sand – produced by crushing hard stones WHITE CEMENT - White cement is made by removing coloring oxides like iron, manganese, and chromium. It
even if no external forces are present. • Crushed Gravel Sand – produced by crushing natural gravel is manufactured using oil fuel instead of coal. It is used for floor finishes, plastering, and ornamental work, it
replaces glazed tiles in swimming pools and helps fix marbles and tiles.
NOTE: The rougher the surface texture, the better the bond.
Depending on Mineralogical Composition: COLORED CEMENT - Colored cement is made by mixing pigments with ordinary cement. Chromium oxide
SHAPE AND TEXTURE – The shape influences the properties of fresh concrete more than when it has produces green, cobalt gives blue, and iron oxide creates brown, red, or yellow shades. Manganese dioxide
hardened. Rounded aggregates are highly workable but yield low strength concrete. Same in the case with • Quartz adds black or brown. It is used for finishing floors, walls, window sills, and roofs.
irregular-shaped aggregate. Flaky aggregate requires more cement paste, produce maximum voids which are • Feldspar
not desirable. Angular shape id the best. QUICK SETTING CEMENT - Quick-setting cement is made by reducing gypsum, adding aluminum sulfate, and
• Carbonaceous varieties
finely grinding the mix. It begins setting in 5 minutes and hardens within 30. It is used for concrete in static or
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – The specific gravity of most natural aggregate lies between 2.6 – 2.7. A low specific gravity slow-moving water.
may indicate high porosity and therefore poor durability and low strength. Depending on Size:
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT - This cement is produced by increasing lime content a burning at high
BULK DENSITY – The bulk density of aggregate depends upon their packing, the particle shape and size, the temperatures. Fine grinding is essential. While its setting time matches Portland cement, it gains strength
• Coarse Sand – Fineness Modulus of 2.90 – 3.20
grading and the moisture content. early, allowing faster formwork removal and speeding up construction.
• Medium Sand – Fineness Modulus of 2.60 – 2.90
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 • Fine Sand – Fineness Modulus of 2.20 – 2.60
VOIDS – The void ratio is calculated as: 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 1 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
CE 406 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
LOW HEAT CEMENT – In mass concrete works like dams, heat from cement hydration can't disperse easily, USES OF CEMENT LECTURE 5: TESTING OF AGGREGATES
causing cracks. To prevent this, low-heat cement is used, with 5% tricalcium aluminate and 46% dicalcium
silicate. CEMENT SLURRY – used for filling cracks. FINENESS MODULUS – a single figure which is the sum of cumulative % retained on a series of sieves having
a clear opening half that of the preceding one. It is usually determined for finer aggregates.
CEMENT MORTAR – used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
∑ (𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑠)
𝐹. 𝑀. =
POZZOLANA CEMENT – Pozzolana is a volcanic powder from Italy, also derived from shales and clay. It makes CEMENT CONCRETE – used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges. water tanks, 100
up 10-30% of this cement, offering sulphate resistance, low heat release, and high-water tightness. While it tunnels, docks, harbors etc.
has high tensile strength, its compressive strength is low. It is used in mass concrete and sewage works. NOTE: The larger the fineness modulus, the coarser the aggregate.
CEMENT – used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles etc. It is used for
EXPANDING CEMENT – This cement expands as it sets due to added sulphoaluminate and a stabilizing agent. manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. Cement is useful for the construction • Coarse aggregate – 2.90 to 3.20
It is used to fill cracks in concrete structures. of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc. • Medium sand – 2.60 to 2.90
• Fine sand – 2.20 to 2.60
HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT – It is made by calcining lime and bauxite, offering high resistance to sulphate and
acid attacks. It gains strength within 24 hours and is used for underwater work.
PHYSICAL TEST
BLAST FURNACE CEMENT – Pig iron production generates slag as a waste product, which is used to make
cement by grinding clinkers with 60-65% slag. This cement is similar to ordinary cement but cheaper due to FINENESS TEST - The degree of fineness of cement is a measure of the mean size of its grains.
the use of waste material. It's durable but gains strength slowly, requiring a longer curing period.
• SIEVE METHOD – 90-micron sieve
ACID RESISTANT CEMENT – This cement is made by adding acid-resistant aggregates like quartz, quartzite, • AIR PERMEABILITY METHOD – also known as Nurse and Blains method
sodium silicate, or soluble glass. It offers good resistance to acid and water, making it ideal for chemical • SEDIMENTATION METHOD – Wagner turbidimeter method
factory construction.

SULPHATE RESISTANT CEMENT – Sulphate-resistant cement is produced by keeping the tricalcium aluminate
content below 5%. It is used in structures exposed to alkaline conditions, such as canals and culverts. CONDITIONS AFFECTING FINENESS TEST:

FLY ASH BENDED CEMENT – Fly ash, a byproduct of thermal stations consists of fine particles that contribute • Chemical composition and degree of calcination affect fineness.
to air pollution. Thermal power stations spend significant money to control and dispose of it. A beneficial • Clinker high in iron or silica is harder to grind.
disposal method is blending fly ash with cement under controlled conditions. Today, cement factories either • Grinding time and machinery type influence fineness.
produce their fly ash or source it from other stations, using 20-30% for blending. • Fineness increases with age, if moisture absorption is controlled.

PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Tricalcium silicate 40% IMPORTANCE OF FINENESS

Dicalcium silicate 30%
Tricalcium aluminate 11% • Finer cement provides more surface area for hydration, enhancing strength.
Tetracalcium aluminate 11% • Improves early strength development and cohesiveness of concrete mix.
• Reduces water bleeding during compaction with vibrators.
• Over-grinding can lead to higher water demand and shrinkage cracks.
NOTE: Cement may contain small impurities like calcium oxide and magnesium oxide. When water is added,
tricalcium silicate reacts first, causing the initial set and generating heat. Tricalcium silicate hydrates early,
providing strength in the first 28 days, while dicalcium silicate hydrates slowly, contributing to long-term
strength. Felite is relatively inactive.
SIEVE METHOD - The sieve method involves using a standard sieve (typically a 90-micron sieve) to separate
fine particles from coarser ones in a cement sample. It is a simple and direct way to measure the coarseness
or fineness of cement grains.

PHYSICAL TEST ON CEMENT

AIR PERMEABILITY METHOD - The fineness of cement is measured by its specific surface area (cm^2/g or
m^2/kg). It is determined using the Lea and Nurse apparatus or Wagner turbidimeter. Higher fineness
SOUNDNESS TEST - It is conducted by sieve analysis. 100 grams of cement is taken and sieved through IS sieve
improves cement reactivity and strength development.
No. 9 for fifteen minutes. Residue on the sieve is weighed. This should not exceed 10 per cent by weight of
sample taken.
WAGNER TURBIDITY METER METHOD - Developed by L.A. Wagner. Cement is dispersed in a kerosene-filled
rectangular glass tank. Parallel light rays pass through the solution, reaching a photoelectric cell. Turbidity is
SETTING TIME - Initial setting time and final setting time are the two important physical properties of cement.
measured by recording the current generated by the cell. Readings are taken at intervals as particles settle to SPECIFIC GRAVITY - is the ratio of the weight of a unit volume of material to the weight of the same volume
Initial setting time is the time taken by the cement from adding of water to the starting of losing its plasticity.
determine surface area and particle size. Results are expressed in square cm per gram. of water at 20oC to 25oC. It is used in certain computations for concrete mix design or control work, such as
Final setting time is the time lapsed from adding of the water loss of plasticity.
absolute volume of aggregate in concrete.
TENSILE STRENGTH – The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette test method or by split tensile
• LE CHATELIER APPARATUS – Is used for conducting soundness test.
strength test. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐺=
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST - Determines its ability to withstand compressive loads. A mortar mix (cement
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design. By this test, the
and sand) is molded into cubes, cured, and then subjected to increasing pressure in a machine until failure.
quality and quantity of concrete can be controlled and the degree of adulteration can be checked. ABSORPTION – The water absorption of aggregate is determined by measuring the increase in weight of an
The maximum load divided by the cube’s surface area gives the compressive strength, ensuring the cement
oven dry sample when immersed in water for 24 hours. The ratio of the increase in weight to the weight of
meets quality standards for construction.
-End of Lecture 4- the dry sample expressed as % is known as ABSORPTION OF AGGREGATE.
CE 406 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
OTHER FORMULAS FOR TESTING OF AGGREGATES:

𝑨 𝑩
Bulk Specific Gravity = 𝑮𝑺𝞭 = Bulk SSD Specific Gravity =
(𝑩−𝑪) (𝑩−𝑪)

𝑨 𝑩−𝑨
Apparent Specific Gravity = 𝑮𝑺𝞭 = (𝑨−𝑪)
Absorption (in percent) = ( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨

ABRASION – LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST is a common test method used to indicate aggregate toughness
and abrasion characteristics.

(𝑀ₗ - Mₒ
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ( ) × 100
𝑀ₒ

MI = Original sample mass (g)

Mo = Final sample mass (g)

ROCK TYPE L.A. ABRASION LOSS (by percent weight)

GENERAL VALUES
Hard, Igneous Rocks 10
Soft limestones and sandstones 60
RANGES FOR SPECIFIC ROCKS
Basalt 10 to 17
Dolomite 18 to 30
Gneiss 33 to 57
Granite 27 to 49
Limestone 19 to 30

-End of Lecture 5-