Degree in Building Services (DT026.

4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Department of Building Services

Degree in Building Services DT026
Dublin Institute of Technology
Bolton Street
Dublin 1

Control Engineering (Section A Only)

Forth Year Course
Version 2.0

Lecturer: Dr. John McGrory

School of Control Systems and Electrical Engineering,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Room 10, Kevin Street, Dublin 8.
Phone: +353-(0)1-402-2848
E-Mail: john.mcgrory@dit.ie
Web Site: http://eleceng.dit.ie/jmcgrory/

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Notes from the author.

Each semester is 15 weeks in duration. This includes one week for revision and
two weeks for exams. This equates to only 12 weeks teaching. Assuming this
course is disseminated using four lectures per week, two for each section, this
means that there are only twenty-four contact hours per section involved (not
including laboratory time or your private study time for this subject). Therefore,
onus is on you from the beginning to perform to the best of your ability. The term
“luck” refers to that which happens beyond a person's control. Passing the exam
and handing in satisfactory laboratory reports is not a matter of “luck” it is a matter
of effort and work. Remember woulda coulda shoulda are the last words of a fool.

As a caveat to students, the contents of these notes should not be considered the
complete course. Items raised during the lectures are just as important and
revenant and you should note them for yourselves. These notes are provided
before the lecture takes place. This allows you read ahead and to make the best
use of your contact time with the lecturer.

Section B is contained in another document. Keep the notes separate, as both

sections are to be attempted for the examination.

In the diagram below you can see my office (Room KEG-010) location in Kevin
Street. Beside my office in Room KEG-012 in Kevin Street is where the laboratory
is located. So “yes” you have to get to Kevin Street for the laboratories once every
three or four weeks.

So let’s get through it and work hard,

John McGrory

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Table of Contents
NOTES FROM THE AUTHOR. .................................................................................................................... 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. 3

OBJECTIVES OF THIS COURSE:............................................................................................................... 6

AIM: ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
OBJECTIVE: ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
COMPLETION TIME .......................................................................................................................................... 6
SYLLABUS: ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION: ............................................................................................................................. 6
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA: .................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 1, ELEMENTARY CONTROL FUNCTIONS.......................................................................... 7
AIM OF CHAPTER ............................................................................................................................................ 7
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER .................................................................................................................................. 7
OUTSIDE AIR ................................................................................................................................................... 8
CONSTANT MINIMUM OUTSIDE AIR.................................................................................................................. 8
OA ECONOMY CYCLE – TEMPERATURE CONTROL............................................................................................ 9
THE ECONOMY CYCLE SCHEDULE .................................................................................................................... 9
ENTHALPY CONTROL .................................................................................................................................... 14
ROOM PRESSURE CONTROL WITH DAMPER CONTROL..................................................................................... 19
STRATIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................... 21
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 2, HEATING AND COOLING COILS.................................................................................... 24
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 24
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 24
CONTROL OF HEATING COILS........................................................................................................................ 25
REHEAT CONTROL ........................................................................................................................................ 25
JUST AS A REMINDER "ENERGY EFFICIENT" HUMIDIFICATION. ......................................................... 26
THE TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON HUMIDIFICATION: ................................................................................. 26
SENSIBLE HEATING, AND COOLING ALONG COOLING, OR HEATING COIL ........................................................ 29
FROST PROTECTION....................................................................................................................................... 30
AFTER HEAT COILS ........................................................................................................................................ 32
LIMITS OR OVERRIDE TO CONTROL THE SUPPLY AIR. ..................................................................................... 35
CONTROL OF COOLING COILS ........................................................................................................................ 35
CONTROL OF CHILLED WATER (CW) COILS ................................................................................................... 44
CONNECTING CHILLED WATER IN COILS IN PARALLEL OR COUNTER FLOW ................................................... 44
THE AIR WASHER ......................................................................................................................................... 46
TWO STAGE EVAPORATIVE COOLING ............................................................................................................ 48
NON-ADIABATIC HUMIDIFICATION PROCESS .................................................................................................. 48
STEAM HUMIDIFIERS (ELECTRICAL) .............................................................................................................. 50
PRESSURE WATER HUMIDIFIERS (ELECTRICAL) ............................................................................................ 51
CHEMICAL DEHUMIDIFICATION..................................................................................................................... 51
CONTROL ...................................................................................................................................................... 53
CONTROL OF ELECTRIC HEATERS ................................................................................................................. 54
CONTROL OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS........................................................................................................ 56
CAPACITY OF SPEED CONTROL OF COMPRESSOR............................................................................................ 56
STAGED COMPRESSION .................................................................................................................................. 56
SCROLL COMPRESSOR. .................................................................................................................................. 56
CYLINDER UPLOADING. ................................................................................................................................. 57
INLET VANE CONTROL OPERATES AS PER FANS.............................................................................................. 58
AIR COOLING CONDENSERS ........................................................................................................................... 60

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

WATER COOLED CONDENSERS....................................................................................................................... 63

CONTROL OF COOLING TOWERS..................................................................................................................... 63
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................ 64
CHAPTER 3, COMPLETE CONTROL SYSTEM .................................................................................... 65
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 65
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 65
THE SINGLE ZONE SYSTEM WITH VARIABLE OA QUANTITY FOR ECONOMY CYCLE. ....................................... 66
CONTROL OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) ...................................................................................................... 68
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) CONTROL.................................................................................................... 70
Room control ........................................................................................................................................... 70
Discharge temperature control................................................................................................................ 70
Mixed Air Temperature control .............................................................................................................. 71
OA Variable Flow Rate (VFR) Control .................................................................................................. 71
Fan Control ............................................................................................................................................. 72
REHEAT SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................... 75
Commercial application........................................................................................................................... 75
Industrial applications............................................................................................................................. 77
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................ 77
CHAPTER 4, HEAT RECOVERY CONTROL SYSTEM ........................................................................ 78
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 78
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 78
AIR-TO-AIR HEAT RECOVERY IN VENTILATION SYSTEMS ............................................................................ 79
CHAPTER 5, PACKAGED PRESSURISATION AND FILLING SYSTEM .......................................... 81
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 81
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 81
PACKAGED PRESSURISATION AND FILLING UNIT ........................................................................................... 82
CHAPTER 6, BOILERS AND CHILLERS................................................................................................. 83
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 83
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 83
PUMPS ........................................................................................................................................................... 84
CENTRAL BOILER AND CHILLERS CIRCUITS .................................................................................................. 85
Boiler control. .......................................................................................................................................... 85
Common Header single boiler................................................................................................................. 86
Frost protection........................................................................................................................................ 86
Multiple boilers in sequence (Parallel connection) ................................................................................ 87
Boilers connected in Series ..................................................................................................................... 88
Modular Boilers, Wall Hung type ........................................................................................................... 89
Based load................................................................................................................................................ 90
Heating inertia......................................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 7, SIZING VALVES FOR WATER SERVICE ...................................................................... 92
AIM OF CHAPTER .......................................................................................................................................... 92
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER ................................................................................................................................ 92
SIZING VALVES FOR WATER SERVICE ............................................................................................................. 93
Example 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 94
PUMPS ........................................................................................................................................................... 96
CIRCULATION SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................................................... 96
Example 2 ................................................................................................................................................ 96
Example 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 97
ACTUAL PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................................ 98
THREE-PORT VALVE ...................................................................................................................................... 99
TWO-PORT VALVES ..................................................................................................................................... 102

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

VALVE AUTHORITY ..................................................................................................................................... 105

Example ................................................................................................................................................. 105
Example ................................................................................................................................................. 107
THREE-PORT CONTROL VALVES AND VALVE AUTHORITY ............................................................................ 110
CAVITATION AND FLASHING........................................................................................................................ 111
Cavitation in liquids............................................................................................................................... 111
Flashing in liquids................................................................................................................................. 113
Avoiding cavitation ................................................................................................................................ 113
CHAPTER 8, FLOW CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................................ 116
AIM OF CHAPTER ........................................................................................................................................ 116
OBJECTIVE OF CHAPTER .............................................................................................................................. 116
FAST OPENING CHARACTERISTIC ................................................................................................................. 119
LINEAR CHARACTERISTIC ............................................................................................................................ 119
Example ................................................................................................................................................. 120
REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................................... 123

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................................................................................ 124

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Objectives of this course:

Aim:
The aim of the module is to achieve an appropriate knowledge and understanding
of the principles of the subject matter and reach a level of appropriate academic
competence in descriptive, analytical and computational elements and apply this
knowledge in the optimisation of engineering solutions.

Objective:
On completion of the course the student will be able to:
1. Appropriately comprehend the principles involved.
2. Apply the principles in a logical and appropriate manner.
3. Where appropriate, measure and evaluate empirically the major issues.
4. Analyse and compute some of commonly encountered models in a
manner, which leads towards a resolution of the situation presented.
5. Evaluate the often-competing potential solutions so as to formulate an
optimum and appropriate solution.

Completion Time
Chapters 1 to 2 xx Hours
Chapters 3 to 8 xx Hours
Chapters 9 to 12 xx Hours
Chapter 12 to 15 xx Hours

Syllabus:

1. Introduction of Control Theory

2. The principles of Operation of Electronic control equipment.
3. Direct Digital Control.
4. Building Management Systems
5. Communications Networks
6. Communications Systems

Method of Instruction:
Instruction is by lecture sessions.

Assessment Procedures and Criteria:

As per syllabus.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Chapter 1, Elementary Control Functions

Aim of Chapter
The aim of this chapter is to describe a variety of environment and structure
characteristics of buildings and show how control must focus on measurable
components, even though they are not always the exact aspects being
controlled. By appropriately comprehending these characteristics improved
solutions can be incorporated into designs from the beginning rather than
retrofitting them later.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Differentiate between constant minimum outside air and variable
outside air is discussed in terms of heating and the economy cooling
cycle. This includes aspects of the controls used to provide these
facilities.
(b) Distinguish between Temperature and Enthalpy from a sensing and
control perspective in order to be able to provide an appropriate and
cost effective control system.
(c) Apply the pressure control and stratification of air streams principles
in a logical and appropriate manner.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Outside air
Outside air (OA) is defined as “air that is brought into the ventilation system from
outside the building and, therefore, has not been previously circulated through the
system” [Cupton, 1989]. The use of OA within buildings varies from:

• Commercial buildings with 80% recirculated air (RA), and 20% OA,
• Laboratories with 100% OA.

Some applications such as ventilation to toilet areas, special manufacturing

processes may require 100% OA. Some areas such as electroplating shops and
chemical laboratories may require to be kept at (-ve) pressure (partial vacuum) to
prevent leaking of dangerous chemicals or substances in the air to other locations
in the building.

Constant minimum outside air.

An application of the constant minimum outside air is a simple on/off control
interlocked with the supply fan as shown in Figure 1.1. The damper in the RA duct
is a simple balancing damper. OA may also need a balancing damper.

Recirculation
Manual Temperature
Panel
Filter
T

OA

MD Balance
Manual
Motorised
Damper
ON/OFF
Supply Fan Interlocked
to damper motor

Figure 1.1 Constant minimum outside air example.

This example is a very crude way of ensuring the constant minimum OA, but
should only be used where the OA requirement is fixed and the economy “free
cooling cycle” is not required due to the size of the plant.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

OA economy cycle – temperature control

A typical ratio of OA to RA in a fixed or two positioned OA damper would be 20:80.
A typical the supply air (SA) temperature would be 14oC, and RA temperature of
24oC. Hence the balance would be:

Sensible Heat (OA) + Sensible Heat (RA) = Sensible Heat (SA)

0.2Ms × CP × TOA + 0.8Ms × CP × TRA = Ms × CP × TSA

0.2 × TOA + 0.8 × 24 = 14
0.2 × TOA + 19.2 = 14
TOA = −26 DegC
So, when the outside OA temperature is above -26°C the supply temperature of
14°C cannot be provided and the temperature of 14°C has to be provided by
mechanical cooling of the air. This is very wasteful in energy. It is therefore clear
that while the OA temperature is at or below 14°C the temperature of 14°C can be
provided without mechanical cooling hence the so called economy cycle.

The normal arrangement is for three dampers (i.e. the OA, the Exhaust Air (EA)
and the RA. The OA and RA operate in unison with the recirculation air in the
appropriate position.

The economy cycle schedule

Based on the 20% OA and 80% RA with supply at 14°C and return at 24°C the
following equation holds where X is the OA fraction, CP is the specific heat
capacity, and Ms is the mass flow rate of the supply air.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

( x) × Ms × CP × TOA + (1 − x) × Ms × CP × TRA = Ms × CP × TSA

( x) × Ms × CP × TOA + (1 − x) × Ms × CP × TRA = Ms × CP × TSA
x × TOA + (1 − x)TRA = TSA
x × TOA + (1 − x)24 DegC = 14 DegC
x × TOA + 24 DegC − x × 24 DegC = 14 DegC
x × TOA = 14 DegC − 24 DegC + x × 24 DegC
x × TOA = 10 DegC + x × 24 DegC
10 DegC + x × 24 DegC
TOA =
x
Using the above formula it is possible to calculate the OA temperature TOA for
various mixing ratios of OA.
X 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
TOA -26.0 -9.3 -1.0 4.0 7.3 9.7 11.5 12.9 14.0

Table 1.1 Mixing ratio of OA

Consider for example 50% OA and 50%RA

0.5 × Ms × CP × TOA + 0.5 × Ms × CP × TRA = Ms × CP × TSA
0.5 × Ms × CP × TOA + 0.5 × Ms × CP × TRA = Ms × CP × TSA
0.5 × TOA + 0.5 × TRA = TSA
(0.5 × +4 DegC ) + (0.5 × (+24 DegC ) = 14 DegC
This is not a linear relationship but a curve relationship as shown graphically in
Figure 1.2.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

In this region the

OA makes some
contribution to
mechanical cooling

MAX 100%OA

Usual control modification MIN

at design OAT

20%OA

Supply Air Return Air

Design Air Temperature Temperature
Temperature 14DegC 24DegC
OAT

Figure 1.2 Mixing Ratio to temperature

As it is possible to supply the building without mechanical cooling while the OAT
remains below the design supply air temperature, the chillier can remain off.
Therefore an “enabling stat” is fitted in the OA duct to enable the chillers to operate
only when the OAT reaches the design supply air temperature typically 14°C in
commercial buildings as shown in Figure 1.3.

The SA temperature is sensed and transmits a signal to the controller. The

controller is also supplied with the RA temperature (RAT) from the building and the
OAT. While the OAT is below the set point of the supply air the OA damper
modulates – opening incrementally to maintain the supply air temperature when
OAT>RAT then return OA to the minimum position. Usually, if the OAT is < the
design winter temperature of the OA approximately -2°C in Dublin it also
modulates to the min OA position. During all these operations the EA damper
modulates as the exact position of the OA and the RA damper modulates but in the
opposite position.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Set Point = OA Design

SA 14DegC Winter
Temperature

Controller

EA OA

Outside
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper

T
Damper

T MD MD T

RA SA

MD

Recirculation
Air Motorised
Damper

Figure 1.3 Enabling stat fitted in the OA duct

At any given time the controller is receiving in data on the:

• OAT
• RAT
• SAT

If the OAT > RAT then Min OA Damper

Min EA Damper
Max RA Damper

If the OAT < Design Winter OAT then Min OA Damper

Min EA Damper
Max RA Damper

If the OAT < Set point SAT to building then Max OA Damper
Max EA Damper
Min RA Damper

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

If the OAT > Design Winter < Set point SAT to building then
Modulate OA Damper
Modulate EA Damper
Modulate RA Damper

To give the set point of the SA temperature, generally all OA dampers are
interlocked with the supply operation to close when the fan is off as shown in
Figure 1.4.

The operation of the minimum OA damper setting can be either built into the
software – stops at a set angle, or use a separate minimum OA damper – on/off
with the modulating damper going then to fully closed. In order to operate with
software setting the correct angle of the blade must be determined during
commissioning – by measurement. This might not always be that easy hence the
alternative.

EA OA

Modulating with
ON/OFF interlocked with controller
Supply Fan Motorised
Motorised Damper Damper

MD

RA

SA

MD MD

Mixing Air
Recirculation Motorised
Air Motorised Damper
Damper

ON/OFF
Supply Fan Interlocked
to damper motor

Figure 1.4 Interlocking damper to fan

The control schedule described is to be used with a VAV system (VAV stands for
Variable Air Volume or also known as VFR - Variable Flow Rate). VAV boxes
provide constant or variable air depending on the temperature demands of the
space. As the temperature rises the VAV damper opens to send a designed
amount of airflow to the room. It supplies a constant (say 14°C) air temperature all
year round.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

MAX 100%OA

VFR
VFR

MIN MIN
20%OA

Supply Air Return Air

Design Air Temperature Temperature
Temperature 14DegC 24DegC
-2 DegC
OAT

Figure 1.5 VFR results overview

However an economy cycle with a constant air volume (CAV) system can give
problems with heating costs in winter. With a CAV system the supply temperature
is varied at a constant VFR. With a CAV single zone system for example it may be
required to supply air to the building above room temperature let alone above
14°C. In such cases the approach is to sense the room temperature (TRoom). If
the TRoom < the room set-point, then heating is required, the dampers modulate
to minimum. If the TRoom > the room set-point then cooling is required, the
dampers modulate to the schedule previously described.

Enthalpy Control
Heat sources internal to the building such as people, lights, computers, copy
machines, motors, printers and other equipment causes the temperature inside a
structure to continuously increase. Heat soaked up by the building structure may
also continue to heat the building long after the OA temperature has dropped.
There are times when the OA temperature is lower than the temperature inside.
Whenever the cooling system is calling for cooling and the temperature outside is
cool enough it is economical to shut off the compressor and bring in cool outside
air to satisfy the cooling needs of the building. Consider when the OA temperature

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

is close to the desired SA temperature then the EA and OA dampers are fully
opened, and the RA air damper is completely closed. Under these conditions,
100% OA enters the building and the chiller can be shut off, because there is no
need for cooling the air. Such is the function of an air economiser system and night
purging. Strictly speaking the economiser mode should be used whenever the
enthalpy difference between the OA and the SA is less than the enthalpy
difference between the RA and the SA. It is assumed for this module that you are
familiar with psychometric chart as shown in Figure 1.6!!!! Seven different
components shown on the one diagram is a lot of detail to take in.

Figure 1.6 Psychometric chart overview

This is because the enthalpy is the energy and not just the temperature of the air
as shown in Figure 1.7. The term “enthalpy” means, total heat. The enthalpy
control measures both sensible and latent heat in the air and only allows outside
air to be used for cooling if the air is both cool and dry enough to satisfy the space
conditions. However, it is difficult to measure enthalpy so usually just the air
temperatures are used if the humidity is not a large factor. The economiser mode
is sometimes used at night to cool off a building mass in preparation for the next
days cooling load. This is called “night purging” [Curtiss et al., 2002].

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

This refers Energy

Just refers to Temperature

Figure 1.7 Temperature or Energy

There is one drawback to this type of control system. Even though the thermostat
acknowledges that the outside air temperature is low enough to cool the building,
the OA may be too humid to provide adequate comfort for the building occupants.
The occupants will feel cool but clammy. The solution is an economiser that adds a
second control which works in harmony with the outdoor thermostat and measures
the OA humidity. Such a control is called an “enthalpy” control.

If the indoor thermostat calls for cooling and the outside air enthalpy (total heat) is
low enough then the economiser brings in this cooler and less humid air and uses
it for cooling instead of operating the compressor. Using the outside air for cooling
is less expensive than operating the compressor to provide cooling.

So an enthalpy control is a control which checks to see if both the temperature

(sensible heat) and the humidity (latent heat) are low enough to be used for
cooling. This combination provides for the greatest comfort at the least cost. Not all
economisers use enthalpy controls. Some just check the outside air temperature
and do not check the outside air humidity. Those controls do not provide the same
levels of comfort as enthalpy controlled economisers.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Enthalpy or heat content is a description of thermodynamic potential of a system,

which can be used to calculate the "useful" work. It is often contested that instead
of sensing the TOA and the TRA the enthalpy of these air streams should be
sensed instead.

Figure 1.8 Typical controls & sensors for economiser system

In Figure 1.8 the typical controls and sensors used in an economiser system. This
is able to provide the minimum OA during occupied periods when it is warm
outside, to use outdoor air for cooling when appropriate by means of a temperature
based economiser cycle and to operate fans and dampers under all conditions.
The numbering system used in the figure indicates the sequence of events as the
air-handling system begins operation.

1. The fan control system turns on when the fan is turned on. This may be by a clock
signal or a low temperature space condition.

2. The space temperature signal determines if the space is above or below the set-point. If
above the economiser feature will be activated to control the outdoor and mixing
dampers. If below, the OA damper is set to its minimum position.

3. The mixed air PI controller controls both sets of dampers (OA/RA and EA) to provide the
desired mixing air temperature.

4. The OA temperature rises above the cut-off point for economiser operation, the OA
damper is returned to its minimum setting.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

5. The supply fan is off the OA damper returns to its NC position and the RA damper
returns to its NO position.

6. The supply fan is off the exhaust damper also returns to its NC position.

So in the case where the OA temperature is >RA temperature, the RA would be

taken in preference to OA. However taking RA which has a higher enthalpy would
put a higher load on the plant and we actually ought to take the OA instead. So it is
suggested the sensors in these locations should be enthalpy rather than dry bulb
temperature.

Dublin Relative Humidity 2005

The difficultly is that enthalpy sensors are more expensive and also may need
more maintenance than the dry bulb temperature sensors. So are they really
required? In Ireland probably not, the RA from the building is unlikely to exceed
24DecC and 60% RH which has an enthalpy of 53kj/kg. The summer time design
external condition in Dublin is typically 24.5°C and 10g/kg moisture content. This
has a specific enthalpy of 50kj/kg and a Wet Bulb (WB) temperature of 18°C.
Hence while the OA temperature is < 24°C its enthalpy will be almost < the RA
enthalpy and it is very seldom that the OA enthalpy would be above the RA
enthalpy, while the OA temperature is > RA temperature. Hence in the Irish
conditions temperature sensing alone is sufficient. Also cost effective.

The problem generally only arises in very humid coastal regions. The most humid
cities on earth are generally located closer to the equator, near coastal regions.
Cities in South and Southeast Asia seem to be among the most humid such as
Kolkata, India, Bangkok and Thailand.

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Degree in Building Services (DT026.4), Control Engineering (Section A)

Room pressure control with damper control

One effect of “free cooling cycle” is that pressure in the room may change. Room
pressure can be controlled by cycling the dampers, but free cooling control is
generally then not used. Usually with CAV systems room pressure is set up at
commissioning in commercial applications. But in industrial applications where
room pressure is critical then exclusive control of dampers by means of pressure
sensors is generally adopted as shown in Figure 1.9.

EA OA

Outside
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
Damper

MD MD

RA

SA

MD
Set point of
Recirculation difference
Air Motorised pressure
Damper input

Designated damper controller

Stabiliser Delays Reaction

Controller

Other room
Pressure pressure or
Room Pressure
pressure
Sensor reference sensed Sensor
pressure

Figure 1.9 Room pressure control with dampers

Pressure in the space is generally controlled with reference to pressure in an

adjacent space (+15Pa -15Pa) or with reference to outside pressure. If the room
pressure is falling, the OA damper opens and the exhaust damper closes slightly,
therefore more air is supplied than is removed from the space and the pressure
rises in the room. Recirculation quantity will rise as the exhaust is restricted, which
could reduce the effectiveness of the throttling of the exhaust.

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Throttling of the exhaust alone may not therefore reduce the extract from the room.
Room pressure is corrected simply by increasing the supply fan. If the recirculation
damper however is also throttled as the exhaust is throttled and the OA damper
opened then the pressure is more effectively restored as shown in Figure 1.10 and
as per air flow chart in Figure 1.11.
EA OA

Outside
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
Damper

MD MD

RA

SA

MD
Set point of
Recirculation difference
Air Motorised pressure
Damper input

Room

Figure 1.10 Room pressure control

The capacity of the extract fan is more effectively reduced as both dampers are
controlled.
∆P 1 ∆P
2

2 1

Q
Q
Supply 1 2 Exhaust 1 2

Figure 1.11 Supply-Exhaust fan curves

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Stratification
In larger mixing boxes with colder OA intakes can be a problem. Air stratification is
the tendency of two or more airstreams to remain separated. This commonly
occurs in central air handling units in commercial and industrial building as return
and outside air are introduced into the mixing box of the air handling unit. Whether
a significant temperature difference exists between the two air streams or not,
these two air streams tend to remain separated due to the inherent
momentum/velocity of each stream. The presence of air stratification creates many
challenges in proper design and operation of air handling units. Among the most
notable problems are:

• Freeze-Stat Trips & Frozen Coils

• Poor Temperature Control Accuracy
• Insufficient Fresh Air Distribution
• Poor Economizer Operation
• Uneven Velocity Profile

The only way to positively address each of these issues related to air stratification
is properly mixing the return and outside air streams.
OA at a low
temperature Supply Air in
EA of 4DegC this branch is
not at the mixed
Outside temperature
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
T

Damper

T MD MD T

RA at
24DegC SA

MD
Separation or Stratification of
hot RA and cool OA. Incorrect
Recirculation Mixing
Air Motorised
Damper

Figure 1.12 Air stratification

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A solution to the stratification problem is to force the air streams to mix with baffling
as in Figure1.13, or stirring fans in the chamber as in Figure 1.14 or rearranging
the RA inlet to force the opposed air streams to mix as in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.13 Baffling

The concept of baffling is based on introducing a folded sheet metal plate structure
that forces a turbulence and mixing of air streams.
OA at a low
temperature
EA of 4DegC Supply Air in
this branch is
Outside now Mixed
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
T

Damper

T MD MD T

RA at
24DegC SA

MD Supply Air in
Separation or Stratification of
hot RA and cool OA. Incorrect this branch is
Recirculation Mixing now Mixed
Air Motorised

Figure 1.14 Stirring fans

Stirring fans are mechanical propellers that are placed into the mixing box of the
AHU. As they rotate they mix the air flow streams. This is a similar concept to
overhead cooling/mixing fans which are attached to light fittings. Figure 1.14 is a
crude representation of the propeller. Industrial implementations are more efficient.

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MD

MD

MD
Plan View of the system

Figure 1.15 Rearranging the RA inlet

By rearranging the location of the RA inlet to the mixing box it is possible to force a
mixing of the air streams. This does cause some inefficiency in the ductwork and
fans but may not be excessive when compared to installing a mixing fan.

Questions on Chapter 1.

Q1.1 Describe the term “free air cooling” and elaborate on the difficulty in
installing it.

Q1.2 Explain why is enthalpy sensing and control is not normally implemented in
Ireland and describe conditions in which it should be used.

Q1.3 One of the effects of “free cooling cycle” is room space pressures are
generally controlled with reference to adjacent spaces. Describe some of
the consequences in not regulating this space pressure.

Q1.4 In air handling units with large mixing boxes and a very cold Outside Air
(OA) supply, stratification of the air can be a problem. Describe the
stratification phenomenon and discuss three ways in which it can be
reduced.

Q1.5 Describe using a process diagram (including sensors, actuators, controllers

and interconnections) and written description of the process a system with
Supply Air (SA), Outside Air (OA), Exhaust Air (EA) and Return Air (RA) that
can control and regulate the air pressure.

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Chapter 2, Heating and cooling coils

Aim of Chapter
This chapter focus on the heating and cooling of buildings, both for air quality
improvement and for actual room temperature regulation. For air quality to be
correct, the temperature and humidity of the environment of the air being
supplied and the that of the air in the room needs to be carefully controlled.
This chapter revises the heating and cooling aspects of building services with
the addition of control systems.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify from a control perspective the key functions of equipment
used in HVAC systems and commercial refrigeration systems.
(b) Distinguish between forms of humidification and discuss the energy and
cost issues relating to their selection.
(c) Recognise and interpret the significance of frost to building equipment
and fabric and explain whys in which it can be reduced through careful
design.
(d) Describe techniques of controlling the refrigeration cycle with a view
to energy conservation verses controllability accuracy.
(e) Distinguish between electricity usage as a prime heating or
complementary heating source.

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Control of Heating Coils

The normal medium for supplying hot water (HW) heating coils is Low Pressure
HW (LPHW) typically 28-71°C. Although “Heat Recovery Water” at the about 45-
40°C is increasingly being used. Direct fired gas may also be used occasionally
e.g. swimming pools, but control and efficiency needs to be checked first.

Generally steam coils should be avoided. If steam is the source of heat availability
it is better to use this to generate LPHW at 82°C for use in the coils.

Cold Air + + Warmed Air

Set at
82DegC
Control T

Steam Supply

S.V.

T
S.V.

Set at
90DegC
HL
S.T.

Figure 2.1 Heating Coils using steam

Reheat Control
Occasionally the heating requirements are divided into PREHEAT and
AFTERHEAT coils in the AHU. If adiabatic humidification is being provided then
this separation is essential in countries where the OA temperature are not
frequently < ODecC.

(a) Adiabatic humidification occurs when water vapour is added to

the atmosphere.
(b) Specific humidity will increase, along the wet bulb temperature
line. Reduction in dry bulb temperature will happen as, the

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evaporated water will absorb heat. A humidifier will perform this

function.
(c) Adiabatic dehumidification occurs similar to dehumidification,
but on the opposite direction.

Figure 2.2 Adiabatic moisture addition or removal

Just as a reminder "ENERGY EFFICIENT" HUMIDIFICATION.

There are often misconceptions that some humidification systems require
significantly less energy to operate than others. While some energy savings
between different types of humidifiers exist, large differences in overall facility
energy consumption many times do not materialise. Often times, when two
different humidification systems are compared, only the energy required to operate
the humidifiers is considered. This is not the entire picture. Different humidification
systems affect the entire HVAC system energy usage differently.

The two schools of thought on humidification:

One type of humidification that most people are probably aware of is isothermal
humidification. With isothermal humidification, steam is injected into an air-handling
unit or directly into the space that is to be humidified as shown in Figure 2.3.
Water can be boiled with electric resistance, natural gas, or some other heat
source to make steam. The other method of humidification is called adiabatic
humidification. This method of humidification atomizes water into very small
droplets. This can be done by forcing pressurized water through very tiny nozzles
(high pressure humidification) or by vibrating a pan of water at very high
frequencies (ultrasonic humidification). The droplets are then injected into the air-
handling unit or directly into the space that is to be humidified. The atomized water
droplets are then evaporated into the air to increase the relative humidity.

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Figure 2.3 Steam humidification

Many companies are advertising that the adiabatic humidification technologies are
extraordinary energy savers. The fact is, when strictly comparing only the
humidifier, an isothermal (boiling) unit will always use more energy than an
adiabatic (evaporating) unit of equal capacity. But the energy implications are
significantly more complex than this. The small droplets of water introduced by an
adiabatic humidification system are not evaporated into the air for free. The water
droplets absorb heat from the air to evaporate. We have all experienced heat
absorption from evaporation. When we sweat, the moisture on our skin evaporates
absorbing heat from our body to keep us cool, just as the water droplets absorb
heat from the air during adiabatic humidification. Kg for Kg, evaporating water
droplets requires nearly as much energy input as boiling.

Adiabatic humidification can offer an advantage if humidification is required at the

same time that cooling is needed. Believe it or not, some type of cooling is needed
most of the year for many air-handling systems in some particular countries.

This type of humidification will provide a free cooling effect along with the
humidifying. However, during the heating season adiabatic humidification can
result in increased space-heating energy. More heat may be required to maintain
the desired space temperature. Isothermal humidification, on the other hand, does
not significantly affect the temperature of the surrounding air.

There may be several reasons to choose one type of humidification over the other,
including energy usage. Every system should be considered case-by-case to
determine what is right for your application. Remember, when analysing the energy
consumption of a humidification system, it is important to look at the whole picture.
Focusing just on the humidifiers can lead to some misleading results.
Generally preheat coils are used with all OA plants. Where plants use recirculation
however with a “hold off stat” set at 18°C (senses the return air from the building)

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preheat may not be required. The recirculation mixing chamber acts as a preheat
coil. In this case only an after-heater is used.

Where large quantities of OA are used, unless a preheat coil is used very cold air
at <0°C is passing through the plant (and may damage it) until it reaches the
heating coil. Freezing may occur in filters or in cooling coils themselves. It is
common to place the last heating battery downstream of the cooling coil in order to
allow some control of Relative Humidity (RH). The cooling battery can reduce the
air temperature below the sensible cooling load, to remove sufficient moisture and
then reheat to the ∆t between the supply and return air required for the sensible
cooling load as shown in Figure 2.4.

- + C
A B

Moisture Content
A
lb
t Bu
e
W

B C

Dry Bulb
∆t Supply-Return

Figure 2.4 Cooling battery to reduce air temperature below sensible cooling
load

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Sensible heating, and cooling along cooling, or heating coil

(a) Sensible cooling happens when the cooling or air, does not alter
the specific humidity. However, the relative humidity will increase.
Sensible cooling can only happen under condition that, the
cooling coil's temperature, is not lower than the dew point
temperature of entering air
(b) Sensible heating is similar to sensible cooling (alteration in dry
bulb temperature), but dry bulb temperature is increased in this
case.
The condition that has to be met is, there should be no water
within the heating system, to avoid increase in specific humidity

Figure 2.5 Steam humidification

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Frost Protection
Research has shown that water flowing in a coil at velocities > 0.7m/s will not
freeze, once the air temperature is >-30°C. Hence the general principle of frost
protection in heating systems is to use two sensors. An OA sensor which brings in
the pumps at about +8°C if they are not already on and an immersion thermostat in
the boiler return which brings on the boiler at about +4°C.

Boiler

Temperature Set at 12DegC –

Or <= the design cooling
Panel
supply air temperature to the
Filter
building
T

OA

+ + SA

MD T +4DegC

Figure 2.6 Control of preheat coil on all OA plant

Normal control of preheating coils is to raise the temperature after the preheat coil
to a minimum low temperature (the minimum design supply temperature for
cooling, for example). For instance the preheat coil always heats the air to 12°C,
all year round, while the plant is on. This temperature clearly needs to be below the
min supply temperature for cooling, or equal to the low limit settings of the supply
air, as shown in Figure 2.6.

The frost protection of the coil is provided by a thermostat which is located

downstream of the coil. This is set to +4°C and locks out the supply fan if the air
temperature is < +4°C at this point. This means the heating system has failed for
whatever reason. Another option is to use the temperature sensor to open the
valve to provide circulation but this is not effective if the pump is off at the time or is
faulty. It is also common in OA plants to interlock with the ON/OFF control of the
intake damper.

A wind velocity of 8m/s which is common on Ireland will produce a velocity

Pressure of 38Pa. This is sufficient to move significant quantities of air through the
plant and duct, and may cause the coils to freeze when the plant is off as shown in
Figure 2.7. A solution other than just using isolation dampers is to use a
“Penthouse” louver as shown in Figure 2.8.

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∆P

38Pa

VFR, possible if wind Q

only is driving force at
8m/s

Figure 2.7 Wind velocity

Figure 2.8 Penthouse louver

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After heat coils

All heating coils and chilled water (-) cooling coils may be controlled by:
(i) A diverting valve (common) Figure 2.9
(ii) A mixing valve (accurate) Figure 2.10
(iii) A two port valve Figure 2.11

LPHW Return

+4DegC LPHW Supply

Diverting Valve
Panel
Filter
T

OA

+ SA

MD T

Figure 2.9 Diverting valve arrangement

LPHW Return

LPHW Supply

Mixing Valve
Panel
Filter
T

OA

+ SA

MD T

Figure 2.10 Mixing valve arrangement

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LPHW Supply
DPS
LPHW Return

Two Port Valve

Panel
Filter
T

OA

+ SA

MD T

Figure 2.11 Two-Port valve arrangement

Each of these may have the usual possibility of:

(i) ON/OFF control
(ii) Proportional control
(iii) Proportional and integral control

(ii) and (iii) are referred to as modulating, and all of these methods of control have
been discussed in section B of this course.

Note: generally counter flow arrangements – water flowing back and air flowing
forward. In a single zone system the after heat coil is controlled from a room
temperature sensor as shown in Figure 2.12. Otherwise it is controlled from a plant
temperature sensor as shown in Figure 2.13. In a reheat system the reheat coil is
controlled from a room temperature sensor.
Room Sensor, Single Zone system

Boiler

Panel
Filter
T

T
OA SA

MD T

Figure 2.12 Two-Port valve arrangement

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Figure 2.12 Single zone room sensor to valve directly arrangement

Boiler

Plant Sensor for Multi-zone

system alternative OA. Sensor
Panel on a schedule bases
Filter
T

OA SA

MD T

Figure 2.13 Multi zone room sensor to valve directly arrangement

In a reheat system the reheat coil is controlled from a room temperature sensor as
shown in Figure 2.14.

Boiler

Room Sensor
Controls valve

Panel T
Filter
T +

OA SA

+ Room Sensor
Controls valve

T
MD T
+
Room Sensor
Controls valve

Figure 2.14 Preheat and reheat system control arrangement

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Limits or override to control the supply air.

It is sometimes necessary to put a limit on the minimum and maximum
temperature which the plant delivers in response to controls located remotely from
the plant, for example in a room or in a zone somewhere. Hence low limit (LL) and
high limit (HL) may be set in the software to the temperature of the air delivered
from the plant. A typical low level would be 12°C and a high level would be 50°C. If
LPHW is at 82°C it would deliver air at up to 75°C. Which is far too high and would
probably trip all the fire dampers? This could happen under fault conditions. A
typical low level limit would be 12°C as the cold water flow temperature (CWFT) of
5°C could produce air at 7°C which would probably cause condensation in the
room. Hence supply temperature must be sensed – even in plants in which coils
are controlled from the room.

Control of cooling coils

These are generally confined to the air handling unit. Very occasionally re-cooling
coils are used, but these are certainly not at all as common as reheating coils.
Occasionally when chemical dehumidifiers are use re-cooling may be used. Re-
cooling deserves investigation in certain climates it may be a preferable approach
to reheating.

There is one argument for re-cooling – cooling is using mainly electrical energy –
heating using fossil. Fossil is about 30% the cost of the electrical production,
therefore it is better to use fossil directly. Therefore would it make more sense to
heat everything up first and then trim with the cooling rather than the other way
around!

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Control of Direct Expansion (DX) type evaporator coils.

In a similar fashion to heating coils evaporator coils could be controlled using a
basic two position control or more sophisticated control. So let’s discuss the basic
two position control aspect.

Figure 2.15 Direct Expansion (DX)

Refrigerant flowing through the coil tubes is controlled by an expansion device,

usually a Thermostatic Expansion Valve ("TEV" or "TXV").

The TXV is mounted at the coil just ahead of the refrigerant distributor, and
automatically feeds just enough refrigerant into the coil to be completely converted
(boiled) from liquid to gas as shown in Figure 2.15. The TXV is controlled by a
temperature sensing bulb mounted on the coil outlet (suction) connection. Proper
operation of the TXV depends on the bulb sensing the required amount of
superheat in the refrigerant gas at the coil outlet (superheat = the number of
degrees above the boiling point temperature of the refrigerant).

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TEV

Refrigerant Load

SA
Room

Refrigerant
Return
T
Return Temperature

Figure 2.16 Cooling coil control

TEV measures the refrigerant to the coil in order to maintain a specific temperature
(generally 1°C). This ensures that only refrigerant in a gaseous state enters the
compressor. The control of the most basic form is via an ON/OFF solenoid valve
and the control arrangement is shown in Figure 2.16.

In this basic system the LLTS is a low level temperature sensor is simply an on/off
solenoid valve as shown in Figure 2.17. Otherwise the process can be
accomplished with temperature sensors and a minimum limitation set at the supply
air.

Room
temperature
LLTS sensor
Electrical
Coil

Spring

Figure 2.17 On/off solenoid valve

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Controllability is limited and is best used at <85kw load (small load) and where
load is stable (industrial load or internal load the building). Improved control is
obtained, but at great expense, with multistage coils, initially two stages as shown
in Figure 2.18.

TEV ON/OFF

Refrigerant Load
TEV

ON/OFF

Two Stage
Thermostat

Refrigerant
Return
T

Figure 2.18 Two-stage cooling coils

Just to put an image to the equipment being used Figure 2.19 shows thermostats
which have one, two, three and four stages. Alternatively a temperature sensor set
at two different limits can be used in sequence.

Figure 2.18 Two-stage cooling coils

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Room temperature sensed 22-24 = Valve No. 1

24-26 = Valve No. 2

In this case the lower limit can be override the output signal if the supply goes
below say 12°C

The alternative is to use a modulating Back Pressure Valve (BPV). The back
pressure valve shown in Figure 2.19 is for fixed pressure settings but motorised
versions of this valve are available which allow the modulating of the back
pressure setting.

BACK PRESSURE / RELIEF REGULATOR

Figure 2.19 Back Pressure Regulator

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When installed in the control system the valve works by raising the evaporator
pressure and hence temperature, therefore reducing the heat transfer as shown in
Figure 2.20 and Figure 2.21. As the room temperature falls, the BPV throttles
thereby increasing the refrigerant temperature and reducing the heat output of the
evaporator.

TEV

Refrigerant Load

SA
Room

Refrigerant T
Return Temperature
Return

Modulating Back Pressure Valve

Figure 2.20 Back Pressure Regulator location

∆P-Across BPV

Figure 2.21 Back Pressure Regulator P-h diagram

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Generally a small portion of the fluid entering the evaporator is in vapour form. By
using Hot Gas Bypass Pressure valve (HGBP) this portion can be artificially
increased as shown in Figure 2.22. Hot gas bypass used for capacity control is
provided to maintain a constant evaporator pressure when the system load
decreases.

If the compressor does not have an unloading mechanism (reduced volume flow
capability), the hot gas bypass allows the evaporator temperature to remain
constant. This also provides a constant volume flow, at the appropriate evaporating
temperature, to the compressor.

When the system load decreases (less cooling or heating required) without a hot
gas bypass valve or capacity control, the evaporating temperature will be reduced,
since the compressor is still pumping the same volume (m^3/min). As cooling can
only be provided by evaporating refrigerant, this reduces the coil capacity.
Generally on/off solenoids are used on situations in which a series of parallel
evaporators are in operation. The advantage is that the compressor can be kept
running because of the constant volume flow.

Figure 2.22 Hot gas bypass valve

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Keys to successful implementation for Figure 2.22 (A) only:

(Note reference to OIL refers to refrigerant/oil).
(1) Position the HGBP valve above the discharge line, near the compressor. If
the system includes pump-down, provide a means to shut off refrigerant
flow.
(2) Pitch the line upstream of the HGBP valve to drain oil back into the
discharge line.
(3) Pitch the line downstream of the HGBP valve toward the evaporator, away
from the valve.
(4) If the HGBP line includes a riser, regardless of height, provide a drain leg of
the same diameter as the riser. Add an oil-return line 25 mm from the
bottom of the trap; use tubing that is 6 mm and at least 3000 mm long. Pre-
charge the trap with oil.
(5) Divert hot gas to each active distributor at the expected operating points for
hot gas bypass.
(6) If the HGBP line feeds multiple distributors, provide a check valve for each
distributor.
(7) Insulate the entire length of the HGBP line.

Keys to successful implementation for Figure 2.22 (B) only:

(Note reference to OIL refers to refrigerant/oil).

(1) Position the HGBP valve above the discharge line, near the compressor. If
the system includes pump-down, provide a means to shut off refrigerant
flow.
(2) Pitch the line upstream of the HGBP valve to drain oil back into the
discharge line.
(3) Pitch the line downstream of the HGBP valve toward the suction line, away
from the valve.
(4) Assure that the evaporator and suction line freely drain to the suction-line
HGBP connection.
(5) Site the suction-line HGBP connection upstream of the pilot-line tap for the
HGBP valve and at least 5 ft (1.5 m) upstream from the compressor inlet.
Angle the connection into the suction flow.
(6) Attach the remote bulb for the liquid-injection valve to the suction line,
downstream of the HGBP connection.
(7) Provide a solenoid valve upstream of the liquid-injection valve. Synchronize
the operation of the HGBP and liquid-line solenoid valves.
(8) Insulate the entire length of the HGBP line.

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Control of chilled water (CW) coils

Chilled water cooling coils are controlled as per LPHW heating coils by:
(1) Two port valves
(2) Three-port diverting
(3) Three-port mixing

The most common form of control is 3 port diverting although 2 port is becoming
more common to save energy of the pump. 3 port mixing is rarely used on CW
coils (more uncommon that with heating coils). As with heating coils it gives more
accurate control of the air-off-temperature (i.e. the air coming off the cooling unit).
However, it has the disadvantage of eliminating latent cooling at port load which
may be a disadvantage in many situations where RH control is important.

Connecting chilled water in coils in Parallel or Counter Flow

Does the direction of the flow into the coil matter? In Figure 2.32 the two types of
flow are discussed.

Counter Parallel
Flow Flow
Temp Temp
27 27 Air
Air

11 13 13
Water
Water 6 11
6

Distance Distance

Figure 2.23 Counter flow or Parallel flow

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Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)

For Counter Flow For Parallel Flow

(27 − 11) − (13 − 6) (27 − 6) − (13 − 11)
= =
 (27 − 11)   (27 − 6) 
ln   ln  
 (13 − 6)   (13 − 11) 
9 19
= =
0.82 2.35
= 10.97 = 8.08

8.08
The Heat Transfer in the parallel arrangement is = ×100 = 74% of that in the in
10.97
the counter flow, therefore this is very significant.
It has been shown that a change from parallel to counter flow can result in the CW
temperature increasing by 3°C without any decrease in the heat transfer as shown
in Figure 2.24.
Counter Parallel
Flow Flow
Temp Temp
27 27 Air
Air

14 13 13
Water
Water 9 11
6

Distance Distance
Figure 2.24 Distance-Temperature Flow

Hence more efficient coils can be produced and energy saved by increasing the
coefficient of performance (COP) (i.e. temperature of the chilled water).

Where Q is the useful heat supplied by the condenser and W is the work
consumed by the compressor. (Note: COP has no units, therefore in this equation,
heat and work must be expressed in the same units). Note that counter flow has an
impact with cooling coils as they are deep 6-14 rows, but not so much with heating
coils which have 2-4 rows.

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The Air Washer

Most basic – the desert cooler as shown in Figure 2.25

Eliminator

Evaporation Rate
100

A B

100

Mw

Figure 2.25 Desert cooler

Figure 2.26 Desert cooler

Generally no thermostatic control other than fan and pump interlocked and manual
on/off control of the circuit.

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B’
B
A

Figure 2.27 Psychometric diagram for desert cooler

As the efficiency of the process is almost constant at all conditions the OFF
condition depends on the ON condition as shown in Figure 2.27. Generally used
for “relief-cooling”, what ever cooling can be obtained is taken. Generally used
where cooling is required all year (for example North-Africa). In theory it might be
thought that control could be exercised by putting a modulating control on the
pump, but as the pump circulates many multiples of the evaporator, there would be
little impact on the rescaling off condition. Speed control of the fan is an option but
this is often ruled out based on cost. Figure 2.28 shows an operation diagram of
the desert cooler.

Figure 2.28 Operational diagram for desert cooler

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Two stage Evaporative Cooling

With two stage operation you can switch from single to two stages and this gives
some control and better efficiency flexibility.

Another option is to add a heating coil to the process as shown in Figure 2.29,
which initially seems incorrect. However as the degree of evaporation depends on
the incoming condition wet bulb temperature the heating coil can control this and
therefore control the degree of evaporation by controlling the coil condition

Heating

Eliminator

A + B C Room

No Heating C’
coil C

A B B’

Figure 2.29 Pre-heating before desert cooler

Hence more or less cooling can be obtained. This is a more effective way then
trying to control the circulation pump.

Non-adiabatic humidification process

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In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process in which no

heat is transferred to or from the working fluid. The term "adiabatic" literally means
impassable, corresponding to an absence of heat transfer. Non-adiabatic
humidification is where heat does transfer to the passing medium as part of the
humidification. The system shown in Figure 2.30 details the heating or cooling of
the process air to obtain the desired supply air state.

Heating

Eliminator
Space Humidity Sensor

E L + S Room

Heat
Removed

Heat Added E-summer

CW L
S
LPHW
E-winter
Controller

Figure 2.30 Non-adiabatic humidification

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Steam Humidifiers (electrical)

High Level Relative Humidity Sensor

RH
RH

Room

Heater Room or more often

the return air sensed

Figure 2.31 Steam humidification

High level sensor as shown in Figure 2.31 is required in the duct as at high levels
of humidity condensation can occur in the duct.

Water treatment may be necessary with some systems to avoid the nozzles
clogging as the nozzle aperture is quite fine as shown in Figure 2.32, for example
areas where there is high calcium content.

Figure 2.32 Steam humidification

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Pressure Water Humidifiers (electrical)

Compressed air
Relative Humidity Sensor
Water
RH

Room

Figure 2.33 Steam humidification

An alternative to the steam humidifier is to use a combination of compressed air

and water as shown in Figure 2.33. These combine in the nozzle, increases the
liquids velocity and when passed through the fine aperture a very fine mist is
produced. This system avoids the addition of heat to the air as is the case with the
steam. But some people consider the lack of the steam heating to be a cost
saving, but in reality the cost of running the compressor can be comparable and so
no real saving will be achieved.

Chemical Dehumidification
In some environments a combination of high temperature and high humidity defies
a remedy by convectional air-conditional air-conditioning, which is biased towards
temperature rather than humidity. Dehumidification is merely a by-product of
bringing the temperature down below the due point of the air causing
condensation. A desiccant is a hygroscopic material whether it is liquid or solid,
which can extract moisture from humid air, gas, and liquids. Hygroscopy is the
ability of a substance to attract water molecules from the surrounding environment
through absorption. Liquid desiccants work by absorption where moisture is taken
up by chemical action. Solid desiccants have a large internal area capable of
absorbing significant quantities of water by capillary action. Examples of efficient
desiccants are:
• Silica Gel
• Activated Alumina
• Lithium salts
• Triethylene glycol

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This is generally used where low relative humidity areas are encountered, typically
less than 40% are required. To achieve very low humidification using refrigerants
requires very low evaporating conditions, hence the coefficient of performance
(COP) falls dramatically and the capital cost is high. The chemical dehumidification
process reduces the moisture content of the air by absorption, but increases the
sensible temperature as shown in Figure 2.34. The vapour in the air is absorbed as
water in the chemical. Hence it gives it latent heat and the dry bulb (DB)
temperature rises as a result.

This method of dehumidification requires a heating stage in the process. This is to

dry or regenerate the desiccant material and requires a temperature range of 60-
90°C. One option is to supply the heat by means of evacuated tube solar
collectors, backed up by natural gas when insolation is inadequate (Insolation is a
measure of solar energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is
commonly expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/m²/day)).
Alternatively waste heat, for example from a combined heat and power (CHP) unit
may be exploited. As an alternative to air-conditioning, desiccant dehumidification
can be used in conjunction with evaporative cooling. After being dried by the
revolving desiccant wheel the air passes through a heat exchange such as a
thermal wheel for cooling as shown in Figure 2.35. If necessary, further cooling
may be achieved by an evaporative cooler before the air is supplied to the building
as discussed earlier.

A B
Moisture Content

ulb
tB A
We

Dry Bulb

Figure 2.34 Dehumidification using desiccant material

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T RH

Air Conditioning units

Supply air to
Room
EA
the building

Desiccant Wheel
Interlocked with Fan
Return Air

Heat for regeneration

Air Inlet

Exhaust Air

Sustainability at the Cutting Edge: Emerging Technologies for Low Energy by Peter F. Smith

Figure 2.35 Dehumidification using rotating desiccant material

The process needs to cool the air after drying, as the latent heat temperature rises.
If the wheel is rotating the absorbed moisture in the wheel must be removed from
the chemical so that the process can begin again a reprocessing cycle is used.

Control
The room thermostat controls the cooling coil while the room RH stat controls the
regenerated air heater, the approach being that drying the supply air falls off as the
air is not regenerated. The desiccant wheel is usually interlocked with the fan such
that it rotated only when the fan is on.

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Control of Electric Heaters

These are often used for convenience in application which may have a short
intermittent running time, for example ventilation of a meeting in use < 1000
hours/year, in which the capital cost of a LPHW coil and connections to boilers is
not warranted.

Special control is required, because if insufficient air passes the coil it could burn
out the coil element.
Hence
(i) Heater is interlocked with fan.
(ii) Differential Pressure Switch (DPS) is used to confirm airflow is
adequate before the power is allowed to the heater element.

The electrical diagram is shown in Figure 2.36.

Contactor

Interlock
T High Limit

+ Room

DPS

Figure 2.36 Electric Heaters arrangement

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Star or Delta configuration

Star Delta

Fan interlock

Figure 2.37 Electric heaters electrical arrangement

The configuration of the heater elements can be either star or delta. The star
needs an additional neutral to complete the circuit as shown.

Various forms of control for the electrical elements are possible including:
(i) Staging the heater (possible across phases not recommended if large).
(ii) Solid state controller, involving alteration of the voltage chopping the
cycle, frequency generated.
(iii) Transformer type, reduces the voltage, hence current and wattage.

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Control of Refrigeration systems.

Capacity of speed control of compressor.
This has now become very important with the development of compressor
technology.

Methods of controlling compressors are:

• Staging, where multiple compressors are used.
• Cylinder uploading
• Speed selection (scroll compressors)
• Inlet vanes (centrifugal)

Staged compression
Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between
stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-
stage coolers cause condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are
present. The compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan.

Scroll Compressor.
The flow rate capacity for scroll compressors can be controlled by varying the
speed at which the scroll rotated. Use the following hyperlink to see it in operation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_compressor

Figure 2.38 Scroll Compressor

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Cylinder uploading.
Cylinder uploading is a method of holding the discharge valve open on one or two
of the cylinders of a multi-cylinder compressor. The discharge stroke therefore
does not build up the pressure on these cylinders and hence capacity is reduced.

Figure 2.39 Cylinder uploading

Figure 2.39 illustrates the pistons of a car engine, but can also be used to
demonstrate the operation of a cylinder compressor. The main difference is that no
fuel is added so no need for a spark plug, and that the main crankshaft (C) is
turned by an electric motor (not the combustion of the fuel). (E) Exhaust camshaft,
(I) Intake camshaft, (S) Spark plug which does not exist in the compressor
approach, (V) Valves an inlet and outlet, (P) Piston, (R) Connecting rod, (C)
Crankshaft, (W) Water jacket for coolant flow because when a gas is compressed
it heats up in accordance with the Combined Gas Law.

Whenever we are dealing with problems that have initial and final conditions.
The link below will also show a moving image of the system.

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cshaft.gif/300px-
Cshaft.gif

Figure 2.40 multi-cylinder arrangement

Inlet vane control operates as per fans.

Inlet guide vanes are more efficient than butterfly valves by pre-swirling the air to
help minimize power consumption by allowing lower turndown. Figure 2.41
illustrates a standard inlet vane arrangement.

The internals are sealed to prevent contamination from ambient conditions. The
stainless steel vanes virtually eliminate corrosion.

Figure 2.41 Inlet vane arrangement

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All refrigeration compressors operate between two pressure limits or settings or the
high pressure and low pressure sensors. When considering control keep this in
mind! For the condenser to maintain its pressure it must received gas to be
condensed at the same rate as it has the ability to condense the gas.

HP LP

Figure 2.42 Compressor HP and LP

As the Variable Flow Rate (VFR) of the refrigerant falls the speed of the
compressor is reduced to match the VFR of the refrigerant being generated. The
capacity of the condenser must also be turned back to prevent the condenser
pressure falling as volume of gas produced from the compressor falls. Likewise if
the load on the evaporator falls then the volume of gas produced is reduced the
compressor and condenser must now reduce in capacity to match the volume of
gas being generated as illustrated in Figure 2.43. This is what the controls of the
system are designed to do.

Condenser

TEV
Evaporator

Compressor Return
T

T
T

Speed Control Temperature

Room

Figure 2.43 Compressor to cooling coil arrangement

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Air cooling condensers

Generally speaking the condenser fans start on/off with the compressor on/off. An
illustration of the arrangement is shown in Figure 2.44 where the coils carry the
refrigerant medium. The fins attached to the coils are used to maximise the contact
of the air passing over the coils in order to cool the keep the refrigerant medium in
the plates. The cool air entering the coil is heated up by the warm refrigerant
medium and this warmer air leaves the system.

Coils Conduction fins

Warmed air after passing over plates

To evaporator:

Condensed Vapour

Liquid

Cool air Vapour from compressor

Figure 2.44 Air cooled condenser arrangement

Heat is rejected to the ambient air the temperature of the ambient air varies from
about -2°C to +25°C in Dublin. Hence a given condenser designed to reject its full
load at 25°C (say refrigerant at 45°C) would have far greater capacity at say +5°C
(∆t = 40k) than at ∆t = 20k design. So the capacity to reject heat of the condenser
must be reduced to match the ambient conditions and load available. This is
referred to Lead Pressure control.

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In its simplest form the fans are simply switched on in turn. In a more sophisticated
form the speed of the fans is controlled using a variable speed drive as shown in
Figure 2.45.
Coils Conduction fins
Warmed air after passing over plates

To evaporator:

Condensed Vapour

Liquid

P
Cool air Vapour from compressor

Rotation, Increases air flow

over the fins and coils

Figure 2.45 Forced air cooled condenser arrangement

The basic from of control is to hold a particular set point pressure and reduce the
air flow rate over the coil as the condenser pressure would start to fall. This form of
control however does not give any energy benefits.

This is possible as with falling ambient conditions it should be possible to maintain

the design ∆t (20k) at lower condenser pressures. Hence if the ambient is 15 DecC
then a condenser temperature of 35DecC should be possible to reject the same
load. This would increase the coefficient of performance (COP) of the refrigerant
process.

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Coils Conduction fins

Warmed air after passing over plates

To evaporator:

Condensed Vapour

Liquid

OA temperature P
Cool air T
Vapour from compressor

Controller
Rotation, Increases air flow
over the fins and coils

Figure 2.46 Forced air cooled condenser arrangement with controller

The OA temperature sensor senses the OA condition and the controller “reads” a
suitable set point for the pressure.

12
11
10
Required 9
pressure
in Bar 8
7

5 10 15 20 25 30
OA Temperature

Figure 2.47 Change in pressure to OA temperature

Hence the system can be controlled in this way.

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Water cooled condensers

An alternative to the air cooled condenser is the water cooled condenser. In this
example the condenser is enclosed in a pocket of circulating water. Water enters
the condenser coils at say 27°C and leaves the condenser at 33°C. The water at
the higher temperature is delivered to the spray bars of the cooling tower and
atomises the water. As the atomised water in the cooling tower falls the cool air
comes in and cools down the droplets, thus cooling the water collecting at the
bottom. The volume of air passing through the tower can be controlled by the fan
speed. An alternative approach is to use a 3-port diverting valve arrangement
which acts by maintaining the water temperature above the set point of 27DecC.

Warm Air leaving

Fan to force air through tower

Spray Bar
Indirect cooling, where the cooling is
performed away from the condenser

Cool OA
Cool OA entering tower
entering tower Water droplets T
Cooled water circulates around the cooling fins
Cooled Water Say, 27DegC entering

3-port valve

To evaporator:

Condensed Vapour

Liquid

Warm water leaving the condenser Vapour from compressor

Say, 33DegC leaving

Figure 2.48 Water cooled condenser

Control of cooling towers.

The degree of control necessary depends on the annual load pattern. Towers
designed to operate only in the summer months may have sufficient control with
fan speed alone. Summer towers are usually drained in the winter time. Where
towers are designed to be operated in the winter then additional control and freeze
protection may be required. As the minimum speed is limited by the necessity to
reject heat from the motor the min speed is usually limited to 20%. Also when the
fan is off some heat may be rejected. Hence the necessity to provide additional
control such as the diverting circuit as this allows a full range of possible control.

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Frost immersion heaters in additional to trace heating may be required. Glycol

(Ethylene Glycol is an alcohol based chemical compound widely used as
automotive antifreeze) is not used in towers as it is a recirculation system and is
not an evaporating systems.

Questions on Chapter 2.

Q2.1 Air handling plant is susceptible to damage from frost. Describe at least two
ways using automated control how air handling plant can be protected
against frost.

Q2.2 There are often misconceptions that some energy efficient humidification
systems require significantly less energy to operate than others. Take for
example steam verses pumped atomised spray. While some energy
savings between different types of humidifiers exist, the larger savings in the
overall facility energy consumption never materialise. Discuss this
argument.

Q2.3 Define what is meant by control valve authority and indicate how this
quantity is determined for a heating coil controlled by:

A mixing valve.

A diverting valve.

Two port valve.

Q2.4 Describe the operation and control of a direct expansion type evaporator
coil.

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Chapter 3, Complete Control System

Aim of Chapter
Building on the fundamental aspects introduced in chapter 1 an 2, this chapter
focus on system as a whole whilst tying into the natural environment data such
as TRY data . It includes aspects that affect the systems design such as
variable air volume and variable flow rate. Temperature control of the duct
and/or rooms and issues relating to speed and accuracy of control are also
developed.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify from a control perspective the key functions of equipment in
single zone HVAC systems.
(b) Distinguish between variable flow rate and variable air volume systems.
(c) Recognise and interpret the significance of constant speed verses
variable speed fan control.
(d) Describe techniques incorporating Test Reference Year (TRY) data into
a systems design and distinguish between energy conservation verses
controllability accuracy.

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The single zone system with variable OA quantity for economy cycle.
A variable OA system for a single zone is shown in Figure 3.1

EA

Outside OA
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
Damper

T MD MD
Heating Cooling

RA

+ - SA

T
MD

Recirculation
Air Motorised Duct
Damper T
sensor
Limiter

Room
3 Output
Sequence Controller

Set point for Set point for

Temperature Temperature
Room Delivery

Figure 3.1 Single zone system with variable OA

The normal arrangements for operating this type of system are:

If the Room Temperature < Room Set point Temperature then,
(i) Stop cooling
(ii) Decrease OA
(iii) Increase Heating

If the Room Temperature > Room Set point Temperature then,

(iv) Stop heating
(v) Increase OA
(vi) Increase cooling

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Note the set point of the room temperature can be varied manually at the controller
similar to that shown in Figure 3.2. This can also be done automatically in
response to an OA temperature sensor. This may help to save energy.

Figure 3.2 Thermostat for room

23
23
22
21
Set Point
of Room 20

19
18
26

0 25 30
OA Temperature

Figure 3.3 Room Set-point to OA Temperature

The duct temperature sensor as shown in Figure 3.1 is a limiter and typically it
prevents the supply air from going below 12°C, even though the load on the room
may be heavy.

A point to note is the sequence of the response.

If Room Temperature > Room Set point Temperature then the sequence is:
(i) Cooling coil valve opens
(ii) Chilled water admitted
(iii) Air is cooled
(iv) Colder supply air will eventually reduce the Room Temperature and the
valve will close.

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This process will take time. In the meantime the room air temperature will have
risen still further. The time delay depends on

(i) The length of the ducting involved

(ii) The location of the Temperature room sensor
(iii) The thermal storage features of the room.

Remember the concept of PID in the lecture notes for section B. This means that
the control could utilise the proportional, integral and derivative parts of the PID
controller.

In large spaces this delay can lead to a wide controlled band in the room. One way
for shortening this band is to use the supply air temperature sensor as the
controller (duct temperature as apposed to the room temperature). But to use the
room temperature to reset the set point of duct temperature.
Hence as follows:
Room set point temperature = 23°C
Duct set point temperature = 14°C
Room temperature = 25°C
Duct temperature = 14°C

So with the duct set point temperature reset to 12°C, the cooling valve would open
quickly to satisfy the duct temperature. The process is quicker because the control
loop is very short and independent of the length of duct or absorption in the space.
Therefore in effect what happens is that the room condition is not allowed to get as
far out of control as it could.

Control of Relative Humidity (RH)

This area is broadly divided into two applications.

(i) Commercial: minimum RH 30%, maximum 65%

(ii) Industrial, narrow limits of say 40% to 50%.

In the case of the commercial application low and high limit humidity sensors are
used usually in the return duct. The high limit humidity sensor is also an input to a
sequence controller and overrides control of the cooler coil by the air temperature
sensor using a selector relay.

For most of the time there is no input signal form the RH sensor, therefore the
selection relay simply puts the temperature sensor input as the output. When the
RH rises above 65% the RH sensor now controls the cooling coil and
dehumidifying the air. This removed moisture from the air but over cools the room.
The reheat coil now activates to restore room temperature. So for this to occur the
heating coil must be placed after the cooling coil.

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With modern controllers this selector relay function is built into the sequence
controller and does not appear as a separate “relay”. Methods of implementing this
with the PLC or controller are also discussed in Section B under the parts relating
to ladder logic and sequence diagrams.

As the moisture for outside air in Dublin is 10g/kg and the moisture content for
room air at 23°C is 11.5g/kg. The chances of having an RH above 65% is very rare
unless the VFR is very low as discussed earlier. Addition of up to 1.5g/kg is
possible.

Also at a room temperature of 23DecC the minimum room moisture for 30% RH
the moisture content is 5.2g/kg and at -1°C the moisture is 3.4g/kg, requiring an
addition of 1.8g/kg is required.

Now, if the ASHRAE standard of 25% RH is required then the minimum moisture in
the room is 4.4g/kg and only an addition of 1.0g/kg is required to bring the system
within limits.

Except in high occupancy rooms humidity control in commercial buildings is not

often provided. A scheduling of the room temperature from 20°C in winter to 24°C
in summer is often a better approach.

High limit humidity is provided by a steam humidifier generally as shown in Figure

3.4. Humidifier placed in the discharge duct at the fan exit.
Clouds of steam in air stream

Steam
humidifier
using Low Limit
electrical in return air
element controls
the steam RH
humidifier

Low Limit
in return air
duct

Figure 3.4 Steam Humidity

When sizing a humidifier do not size it to add enough steam for the design room
condition, but just to add enough for the minimum condition at the design OA
winter condition. Saving from moisture at design air condition of 3.4g/kg to about
5.2g/kg.

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Variable Air Volume (VAV) control

Controller 3
EA
OA
Outside
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper Set point
Damper Controller 1

MD MD T3
T1

RA

+ + SA

MD Heating Cooling

MD
Recirculation
Air Motorised
Damper

Controller 2 T2 Room

Figure 3.5 Control of the VAV system

Room control
Temperature sensor T2 senses the room temperature and controller C2 controls
the damper actuator. The set point of the room temperature and the high and low
VFR is set at the controller C2.

Discharge temperature control

This would typically be controlled to 12°C set point. The chiller (-) and heater (+)
are adjusted in sequence to do this. A common modification is to fit a discriminator
relay. This receives an input from all the room temperature sensors and gives as
an output the highest of the inputs. If no room is at the maximum setting say 25°C
then the set point of T1 at C1 is adjusted upwards. This has the result:
(a) Saving energy
(b) Avoiding low turndown, i.e. turnover quantities of air in the room.
(c) Possible disadvantage of using more fan energy as the VFR is
greater than it would otherwise be.

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Mixed Air Temperature control

Temperature sensor T3 senses the condition of the mixed air prior to cooling or
heating, and C3 controls the 3 dampers to give the required condition. The set
point of C3 is equal to C1 as this is the minimum temperature required to be
supplied, this gives free cooling up to typically 12°C OA temperature. The reset
line from the discriminator relay can also be used here to raise the set point if
possible.

OA Variable Flow Rate (VFR) Control

Set-point of VFR
0-10Vdc signal Controls
measures VFR Min Limit
Controller
MD

Transducer

Grid Sensor, also known as a Wilson Flow Grid

Figure 3.6 Grid Sensor

The grid sensor measures static and velocity pressure across the width of the duct
as shown in Figure 3.6. From this by calibration the VFR can be inferred. The
transducer converts this VFR to a 0-10Vdc signal. The controller has the set-point
of the VFR set. This is the calculated required minimum VFR for effective
ventilation.

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The arrangement acts as a minimum limit on the OA damper. This will allow the
VFR at the damper to go above this set point but not below. Hence the damper
acts to mix the quantities to get the correct free cooling but only when it does not
compromise the ventilation.

Fan Control
The speed of the return air fan is controlled to be a certain % of the supply fan. The
measurement of air can be completed in many ways using a turbine (Figure 3.7),
varying resistance (Figure 3.8) and pressure tube as shown in Figure 3.6 etc.

Controller

1/3
2/3

There are various measurements of air flow:

Turbine/vane
Pressure tubes,
etc.

Figure 3.7 Turbine Sensor

Figure 3.8 Resistance Sensor

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Control of the fan speed and air volume can be performed in a number of different
ways (i.e. variable speed drives or adjustable vanes etc). In Figure 3.9 a
comparison of the different types of ways which are used to vary the volume of air
through a fan. The ideal relationship where Power proportional to Q is shown as a
dashed line. (a) is where the fan speed is constant and the ductwork is changed in
some way to achieve the change in volume. (b) is where the duct work is fixed and
the speed of the motor is the only thing that changes.

Figure 3.9 Constant Speed Fan or Variable Speed Fan

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of

an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the
electrical power supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type
of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-
frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, micro-drives or
inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are
sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. Figure
3.10 shows an image of the VSD and also shows the AC incoming wave being
sliced up into pulses. It is important to note that the motor acts on the principle of
magnetism and it is not essential for the incoming wave to be a sine AC. It can be
+ and – pulses, with the amplitude and frequency of the wave being used to
generate the equivalent magnetism affect in the motor.

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Figure 3.10 Variable Speed Drive

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Reheat system

Controller 2
EA
OA
Outside
Exhaust Air
Air Motorised
Motorised Damper
Damper

MD MD T3
Ts

RA

+ + SA

MD Heating Cooling

+
Recirculation
Air Motorised
Damper

Room
TR

Reset line (highest of inputs chosen) Controller 1

TRx

TR1
Discriminator TR2
Controller

Room conditions Inputs

Figure 3.11 Reheat System

The reheat system is a lot simpler than the VAV control. There are two main
options as shown in Figure 3.11.
(i) Systems use primarily for room sensible temperature control, usually in
commercial applications.
(ii) System used primarily for room RH accurate control (industrial
application)

Commercial application
Sequence controller controls the supply temperature in the normal way. Typically
supply temperature would be 14°C. The supply temperature can be reset upwards
when no room is on a full load.

The test reference year (TRY) was developed as a replacement for energy
analyses. It produces a set of data which measures the temperature for every hour
in a year and produces a cumulative % in relation to the temperature. The dry bulb
temperature for Dublin is given in Figure 3.12 (a). The dry bulb temperature is
shown under the Bin column ranging from -8 to 26Deg C, the number of hours is
given under the Frequency column which sums up to 8760 Hours (24hr/day by 365
days of the year 24x365=8760Hrs). This shows for how many hours the
temperature was reached. Similar TRY data is available for the Wet Bulb in a given
year is also given in Figure 3.12(b).

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Note from test reference year (TRY) data shown below that a supply temperature it
design of 14DecC gives a cumulative % of 87.8%, while the 12°C gives 68.4% on
a TRY bases. Hence if 14°C is chosen as a reheat supply temperature it is not
necessary that energy inefficient. Also with a load analyser fitted the energy waste
can be reduced still further. Hence the combination of the sequence controller and
the discriminative/load analyser gives a more energy efficient system.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.12 Dry Bulb and Web Bulb Test Reference Year

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Industrial applications
With this arrangement the sensor should be fitted downstream of the cooling coil
and set to control the off moisture content at a constant level. This is done by
setting the dry bulb sensor so called dew point sensor. This is based on the idea
that the “off” coil condition is 95% saturation. Hence a dry bulb sensor can control
the supply moisture content in this way. If the RH in the space is too high the duct
sensor set point can be reset downwards. If RH in the space is too low then
humidification is introduced.

95%

9.5

8.5
7.3

10 12 14

Figure 3.12 Dew point sensor

Questions on Chapter 3.

Q3.1 Describe changes which can be incorporated into a single zone system to
make better use of the economy cycle.

Q3.2 Explain why temperature control is used in AHUs in some countries, where
enthalpy controls is used in others to provide a higher efficiency system.

Q3.3 Distinguish between a Constant Air Volume (CAV) and a variable Air
Volume (VAV) system. Elaborate on why one is more energy efficient that
the other.

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Chapter 4, Heat Recovery Control System

Aim of Chapter
In the majority of air conditioning systems low pressure hot water (LPHW)
and refrigeration coolant are the primary ways in which heat is transferred to
and from the air. This chapter focuses on ways in which heat can be recovered
from normally exhausted warm air.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify key components and issues in air to air heat recovery systems
and complications associated with the dynamics from a control
perspective.
(b) Recognise and interpret the significance of face and bypass for heat
recovery control.

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Air-to-Air Heat Recovery in Ventilation Systems

A heat recovery unit, also known as a recuperator, transfers heat (some units also
moisture) from the exhaust air stream over to the supply air stream, thus reducing
the heat loss due to ventilation, and reducing the need to condition the cold supply
air. Conversely, in hot and humid outdoor conditions, a heat recovery unit can keep
heat (some units also moisture) outside, thus reducing air conditioning costs.

Figure 4.1Air-to-Air Heat Recovery

However the control of the air-to-air heat recovery unit as shown in Figure 4.1 is
difficult because there is no way to limit the air flow and therefore the heat. An
alternative arrangement is to add a damper as shown in Figure 4.2, where it acts
as a bypass. It may not be accurate but is capable of allowing an element of
control.

MD

Figure 4.2 Air-to-Air Heat Recovery with bypass

This is only needed to divert the incoming stream, not the exhaust. A good linear
type control depends in good damper authority sizing. The tendency with the
system is that as the damper opens slightly most of the air tends to go through the
damper.

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100% Fully Open

Damper position

20%

0% Open, Fully closed

100
80%
Flow thro the damper

Figure 4.3 Damper position to flow rate

Figure 4.3 illustrates a scenario where 20% opening of the damper would result in
an 80% flow through the damper.

A better control of the incoming and exhaust air would be using a face and bypass
arrangement, similar to that shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Face and Bypass arrangement

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Chapter 5, Packaged Pressurisation and Filling System

Aim of Chapter
From first year engineering and leaving cert physics the observable fact of
water expanding when it gets warmer has been taught and demonstrated.
Large commercial water distribution systems rely heavily on water as the
primary conduit for heat distribution. However, with continuously adjusting,
switching and modulating of valves on the system in order to keep control the
amount of water and pressure careful control is needs to ensure this aspect
of the system is kept in control. This chapter focuses on the pressurisation
and filling of the water distribution systems.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify key components and issues pressurisation and filling system.
(b) Recognise and interpret the significance of continuously varying
pressure systems.

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Packaged Pressurisation and Filling unit

Before describing further the common heating systems, it is important to discuss
the controls used to ensure the water systems continue to have adequate water
reserves. The system illustrated in Figure 5.1 is used only to fill and pressurise the
water in the system. These systems are available off the shelf as a package plant.
Some contain methods to dose the water with different types of chemicals and
detergents. The mains water enters the storage tank through the ball valve. The
pump pressurises the water but is controlled via the Low/High pressure sensors
and the Operational Pressure sensor. There is a bypass loop also which is shown
as an alternative to quickly fill the system is the pump is damaged or inoperable
due to maintenance. In some cases there is a level sensor in the water storage
tank to indicate if low or high water levels are present. The purpose of the
expansion vessel is to maintain a constant pressure in the system.

Low Pressure sensor

Diaphragm Type Expansion Vessel High Pressure sensor

Mains water supply

PL PH POP

LSV
Pump (perhaps multistage)
But not a circulating pump

System
to be
filled Anti Gravity Loop

Figure 5.1 Pressurisation system

Typical settings would be:

PL set at 1 bar
POP set at 2 bar
PH set at 4 bar
SV set at 5 bar

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Chapter 6, Boilers and Chillers

Aim of Chapter
All true air condition systems require conditioning of the air, either by cooling
or heating the air. Not all of this conditioning is just to adjust temperature
and some is to aid in removal or addition humidity to the system with more
efficiency. This chapter focuses on the boiler and chillers pipe work
arrangements and subsequent control aspects associated with altering the
thermal/energy state of the air.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify key components and issues in boiler connection and control.
(b) Recognise and interpret the significance of thermal inertia in selecting
and controlling boiler.

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Pumps
The flow of water around a heating system is maintained using pumps. The pumps
can be arranged in series or in parallel. Both arrangements have different impacts
on the flow and total head as shown in Figure 6.1.

Pumps in Series Pumps in Parallel

Figure 6.1 Boiler and shunt pump

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Central boiler and Chillers Circuits

Boiler control.
Some pointers to note:
(1) Distinguish between high heat inertia boilers and low heat inertia boilers.
(2) Distinguish between the fuels used for firing.
(3) Distinguish between single boilers and multiple boilers in a sequence.
(4) Heat dissipation stats.

Cast iron sectional boilers have a very high heat capacity in metal and water
content. Small natural gas fired wall hung boilers have a copper heat exchanger
and have a very low heat capacity. Fire tube steel boilers have a less cast iron, but
still have a massively high inertia.

Shunt pumps are required if:

(1) Low return waste temp

(2) Oil fuel with sulphur content

The shunt raises the return water temperature to prevent sulphuric acid from
attacking the rear of the boiler. Shunt arrangement is sized to raise the return
water temperature by diverting the water around the boiler as shown in Figure 6.2.

Shunt
T
Boiler

Figure 6.2 Boiler and shunt pump

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Common Header single boiler

S.V.

T
Boiler

LSV

Package pressurisation
and filling unit
Supply when needed

Figure 6.3 Single Boiler and multiple loads

Primary pump interlocked with the boiler. This primary pump is sized on the bases
of the total simultaneous circuit demand +5%. This would typically result in

Boiler _ kW
= kg / s
(82 − 71) × 4.2

The specific heat capacity for water is 4.186 kj/kg ≈ 4.2 kj/kg and the 82 and 71 are
the ring main temperatures in °C.

More information is available on http://www.jbc-controls.co.uk/jbctrssn2.htm.

Frost protection
Immersion thermostat in the boiler return is usually set at 4°C and brings on the
burner. Air thermostat outside set at 4-8°C at a set OA temperature to protect the
building and system from frost damage when the boiler is off.

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Multiple boilers in sequence (Parallel connection)

S.V.

T T
Boiler #2
Boiler #1

T
Boiler Sequence
Controller

Figure 6.3 Boilers in Parallel

The arrangement is shown in shown in Figure 6.3. Return water temperature is

sensed. When the temperature of the return water falls below a set level the
second boiler is brought on. Typically set at 71°C if the flow is set at 82°C. If the
return temperature is 76°C then it is possible to meet demand with one boiler
running.

All boilers have their own operation and high level

thermostat which maintains the outlet water
temperature by controlling the burner. Operating B1

thermostat is set typically at 82°C and the high level ∆P

thermostat at about 90°C. B1+B2

In some cases boilers may have on/off two port

valves to control the flow of water thro the idle boiler.
Care is needed as this will change the pressures as Q

the boiler is the main resistance in the primary circuit.

(Remember it is the boiler in parallel not the pump)

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Boilers connected in Series

Normal direction of flow
Manual Bypass valve

S.V.

T Boiler #2
Boiler #1

T
Boiler Sequence
Controller

Figure 6.4 Boilers in Series

The return water thermostat is set at 71°C and the flow at 82°C. In this
arrangement as shown in Figure 6.4 boilers may operate by a sequence controller
in the normal way. Alternatively the boiler thermostat can be set differently with
Boiler 2 being set at 82°C and Boiler 1 being set at 76°C. This latter method is not
favoured as the boiler settings can be easily changed at the dial and the boiler
cannot be used in isolation, except with the bypass as shown.

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Modular Boilers, Wall Hung type

T
Boiler Sequence
Controller

Figure 6.5 Modular Boilers

Normally used with wall hung gas boilers. Modules fire in sequence in response to
load demand. Low inertia system with good energy efficiency. This arrangement
also has the advantage that further modules can be added if demand increases in
the future. Be careful of the changes in system pressure as a result of the circuits
being run in parallel.

Advantages:
• Low inertia
• Flexibility
• Small space required

Disadvantage
Very little heat stored therefore not suitable for high based load applications say
hospitals, it is more suited to an office application.

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Based load

Load Load

Base Load

Base Load

Time Time

High Base Load Low Base Load

Figure 6.6 Base load

The base load refers to the on going minimum load experienced by the system.
For example buildings such as hospitals and swimming pools have continuously
long periods where the heat in the system needs to be maintained at a high level.
The heating of pool water is ongoing 24hr/7 and the heating of the hospital space
is 24hr/7. This causes the base load to be high. However office buildings are
heated up by the sun during daylight and most of the workers would work 8-7 so
the building heating load is not maintained throughout the day.

Heating inertia
Modern office buildings have insulation fitted to the inside of the building as shown
in Figure 6.7 Case III. This means that the office space is the only heating load on
the system not the heating of the building itself. However this means that the
building will also lose it heat just as quick. This is termed heating Inertia. If the
heating is placed on the outside of the building then the walls will have to be
heated up before the space really heats up. This takes time and energy. The
building will also take longer to cool as the heat has to return to the building from
the walls.

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Figure 6.7 Heating Inertia

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Chapter 7, Sizing valves for water service

Aim of Chapter
All true air condition systems require conditioning either by cooling or heating
of the air. Not all of this conditioning is just to adjust temperature, some is
to aid in removal or addition humidity to the system with more efficiency and
other “conditioning” activities. This chapter focuses on the boiler and chillers
pipe work arrangements and subsequent control aspects associated with
altering the thermal/energy state of the air.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Select valves based on flow and pressure characteristics.
(b) Identify the issues that Valve authority has to control and system
operation.
(c) Recognise the difference between diverting and mixing valve
arrangement.

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Sizing valves for water service

In order to size a valve for a water application, the following must be known:
The volumetric flow rate through the valve.
The differential pressure across the valve.

The control valve can be sized to operate at a certain differential pressure by using
a graph relating flow rate, pressure drop, and valve flow coefficients.

Alternatively, the flow coefficient may be calculated using a formula. Once

determined, the flow coefficient is used to select the correct sized valve from the
manufacturer's technical data.

For liquid flow generally, the formula for Kv is shown in Equation 7.1.

Equation 7.1
Where:
Kv = Flow of liquid that will create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m3/ h bar)
= Flow rate (m3/h)
G = Relative density/specific gravity of the liquid (dimensionless). Note: Relative
density is a ratio of the mass of a liquid to the mass of an equal volume of water at
4°C
∆P = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)

Sometimes, the volumetric flow rate needs to be determined, using the valve flow
coefficient and differential pressure.

Rearranging Equation 7.1 gives:

For water, G = 1, consequently the equation for water may be simplified to that
shown in Equation 7.2.

Equation 7.2

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Example 1
10 m3/h of water is pumped around a circuit; determine the pressure drop across a
valve with a Kv of 16 by using Equation 7.2:

Equation 7.2
Where:
= 10 m3/h
Kv = 16

Alternatively, for this example the chart shown in Figure 7.1, may be used. (Note:
a more comprehensive water Kv chart is shown in Figure 7.2):

1. Enter the chart on the left hand side at 10 m3/h.

2. Project a line horizontally to the right until it intersects the Kv = 16
(estimated).
3. Project a line vertically downwards and read the pressure drop from the 'X'
axis (approximately 40 kPa or 0.4 bar).
Note: Before sizing valves for liquid systems, it is necessary to be aware of the
characteristics of the system and its constituent apparatus such as pumps.

Figure 7.1 Extract from the water Kv chart

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Figure 7.2 Water Kv chart

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Pumps
Unlike steam systems, liquid systems require a pump to circulate the liquid.
Centrifugal pumps are often used, which have a characteristic curve similar to the
one shown in Figure 7.3. Note that as the flow rate increases, the pump discharge
pressure falls.

Figure 7.3 Typical pump performance curve

Circulation system characteristics

It is important not only to consider the size of a water control valve, but also the
system in which the water circulates; this can have a bearing on which type and
size of valve is used, and where it should be positioned within the circuit.

As water is circulated through a system, it will incur frictional losses. These

frictional losses may be expressed as pressure loss, and will increase in proportion
to the square of the velocity. The flow rate can be calculated through a pipe of
constant bore at any other pressure loss by using Equation 7.3, where 1 and 2
must be in the same units, and P1 and P2 must be in the same units. 1, 2, P1 and
P2 are defined below.

Equation 7.3
Where:
1 = Flow rate at pressure loss P1

2 = Flow rate at pressure loss P2

Example 2
It is observed that the flow rate ( 1) through a certain sized pipe is 2500 m3/h when
the pressure loss (P1) is 4 bar. Determine the pressure loss (P2) if the flow rate ( 2)
were 3500 m3/h, using Equation 7.3.

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It can be seen that as more liquid is pumped through the same size pipe, the flow
rate will increase. On this basis, a system characteristic curve, like the one shown
in Figure 6.3.4, can be created using Equation 7.3, where the flowrate increases in
accordance to the square law.

Figure 7.4 Typical system curve

Example 3
A manifold of PN6 flanged pipework was designed to distribute 3,000m3/h of water
with a pressure loss of 5bar. However, during commissioning when the system
was set up exactly as per the design the flow rate was measured as 4,900m3/h and
the pipework flanges were leaking. Determine the pressure loss in the system and
comment on why the flanges were leaking and make a brief comment on the
design itself.

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2
V1 P1
2
=
V2 P2
2
V2
P2 = P1 × 2
V1
4900 2
P2 = 5bar ×
3000 2
2401 × 10 4
P2 = 5bar ×
9 × 10 6
P2 = 5bar × 2.68
P2 = 13.34bar
The flanges are rated to 6bar pressure. They should be able to hold for short
durations 1.5 times the PN pressure of 6bar. That would be 9 bar, but only for short
durations such as starting and stopping of a pump where some water hammer can
occur. Specifying a the use of a PN6 when the design was near 5bar meant there
was very little room for error, allowance for contamination, blockage, increased
pipe resistance over time or future proof adjustment.

Actual performance
It can be observed from the pump and system characteristics that as the flow rate
and friction increase, the pump provide less pressure. A situation is eventually
reached where the pump pressure equals the friction around the circuit, and the
flow rate can increase no further.

If the pump curve and the system characteristic curve are plotted on the same
chart - Figure 7.5, the point at which the pump curve and the system characteristic
curve intersect will be the actual performance of the pump/circuit combination.

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Figure 7.5 Typical system performance curve

Three-port valve
A three-port valve can be considered as a constant flow rate valve, because,
whether it is used to mix or divert, the total flow through the valve remains
constant. In applications where such valves are employed, the water circuit will
naturally split into two separate loops, constant flow rate and variable flow rate.
Ensure to check CIBSE Guide H pg 3-13 section 3.3.4 for more information.

The simple system shown in Figure 7.6 depicts a mixing valve maintaining a
constant flow rate of water through the 'load' circuit. In a heating system, the load
circuit refers to the circuit containing the heat emitters, such as radiators in a
building.

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Figure 7.6 Mixing valve (constant flow rate, variable temperature)

The amount of heat emitted from the radiators depends on the temperature of the
water flowing through the load circuit, which in turn, depends upon how much
water flows into the mixing valve from the boiler, and how much is returned to the
mixing valve via the balancing line.

It is necessary to fit a balance valve in the balance line. The balance valve is set to
maintain the same resistance to flow in the variable flow rate part of the piping
network, as illustrated in Figures 7.6 and 7.7. This helps to maintain smooth
regulation by the valve as it changes position.

In practice, the mixing valve is sometimes designed not to shut port A completely;
this ensures that a minimum flow rate will pass through the boiler at all times under
the influence of the pump.

Alternatively, the boiler may employ a primary circuit, which is also pumped to
allow a constant flow of water through the boiler, preventing the boiler from
overheating.

The simple system shown in Figure 7.7 shows a diverting valve maintaining a
constant flow rate of water through the constant flow rate loop. In this system, the
load circuit receives a varying flow rate of water depending on the valve position.

The temperature of water in the load circuit will be constant, as it receives water
from the boiler circuit whatever the valve position. The amount of heat available to

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the radiators depends on the amount of water flowing through the load circuit,
which in turn, depends on the degree of opening of the diverting valve.

Figure 7.7 Diverting valve (constant temperature in load circuit with variable
flow)

The effect of not fitting and setting a balance valve can be seen in Figure 7.8. This
shows the pump curve and system curve changing with valve position. The two
system curves illustrate the difference in pump pressure required between the load
circuit P1 and the bypass circuit P2, as a result of the lower resistance offered by
the balancing circuit, if no balance valve is fitted. If the circuit is not correctly
balanced then short-circuiting and starvation of any other sub-circuits (not shown)
can result, and the load circuit may be deprived of water.

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Figure 7.8 Effect of not fitting a balance valve

Two-port Valves
When a two-port valve is used on a water system, as the valve closes, flow will
decrease and the pressure upstream of the valve will increase. Changes in pump
head will occur as the control valve throttles towards a closed position. The effects
are illustrated in Figure 7.9.

A fall in flow rate not only increases the pump pressure but may also increase the
power consumed by the pump. The change in pump pressure may be used as a
signal to operate two or more pumps of varying duties, or to provide a signal to
variable speed pump drive(s). This enables pumping rates to be matched to
demand, saving pumping power costs.

Two port control valves are used to control water flow to a process, for example,
for steam boiler level control, or to maintain the water level in a feed tank.

They may also be used on heat exchange processes, however, when the two-port
valve is closed, the flow of water in the section of pipe preceding the control valve
is stopped, creating a 'dead-leg'. The water in the dead-leg may lose temperature
to the environment. When the control valve is opened again, the cooler water will
enter the heat exchange coils, and disturb the process temperature. To avoid this
situation, the control system may include an arrangement to maintain a minimum

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flow via a small bore pipe and adjustable globe valve, which bypass the control
valve and load circuit.

Two-port valves are used successfully on large heating circuits, where a multitude
of valves are incorporated into the overall system. On large systems it is highly
unlikely that all the two-port valves are closed at the same time, resulting in an
inherent 'self-balancing' characteristic. These types of systems also tend to use
+variable speed pumps that alter their flow characteristics relative to the system
load requirements; this assists the self-balancing operation.

Figure 7.9 Effect of two-port valve on pump head and pressure

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When selecting a two-port control valve for an application:

If a hugely undersized two-port control valve were installed in a system, the
pump would use a large amount of energy simply to pass sufficient water
through the valve.

Assuming sufficient water could be forced through the valve, control would
be accurate because even small increments of valve movement would
result in changes in flow rate. This means that the entire travel of the valve
might be utilised to achieve control.

If a hugely oversized two-port control valve were installed in the same

system, the energy required from the pump would be reduced, with little
pressure drop across the valve in the fully open position.

However, the initial valve travel from fully open towards the closed position would
have little effect on the flow rate to the process. When the point was reached
where control was achieved, the large valve orifice would mean that very small
increments of valve travel would have a large effect on flow rate. This could result
in erratic control with poor stability and accuracy.

A compromise is required, which balances the good control achieved with a small
valve against the reduced energy loss from a large valve. The choice of valve will
influence the size of pump, and the capital and running costs. It is good practice to
consider these parameters, as they will have a bearing on the overall lifetime cost
of the system.

These balances can be realised by calculating the 'valve authority' relative to the
system in which it is installed.

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Valve authority
Valve authority may be determined using Equation 7.4.

DP1 DP2

Equation 7.4
Where:
N = Valve authority
∆P1 = Pressure drop across a fully open control valve
∆P2 = Pressure drop across the remainder of the circuit
∆P1 + ∆P2 = Pressure drop across the whole circuit

Valve authority expresses the ratio between pressure drop across the control valve
compared to the total pressure drop across the whole circuit.
The value of N should be near to 0.5 (but not greater than), and certainly not lower
than 0.2.
This will ensure that each increment of valve movement will have an effect on the
flow rate without excessively increasing the cost of pumping power.

Example
A circuit has a total pressure drop (∆P1 + ∆P2) of 125 kPa, which includes the
control valve.
a) If the control valve must have a valve authority (N) of 0.4, what
pressure drop is used to size the valve?
b) If the circuit/system flow rate ( ) is 3.61 l/s, what is the required
valve Kv?

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Part a) Determine the ∆P

Equation 7.4

Consequently, a valve ∆P of 50 kPa is used to size the valve, leaving 75 kPa (125
kPa - 50 kPa) for the remainder of the circuit.

Part b) Determine the required KV

Equation 7.2
Where:
= 3.61 l/s (13m3/h)
∆P = 50 kPa (0.5 bar)

Alternatively, the water KV chart (Figure 7.2) may be used.

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Example
A heating coil has a load of 100kW. The coil is supplied with hot water from a boiler
at 82°C and which returns to the boiler at 71°C. The coil is controlled by a diverting
valve and it has a water pressure drop of 30kPa at the design load. The control
valve is required to have an authority of 0.5. Using the Landis and Staefa data
sheet extract below select a suitable valve size for this application.

Modulating control valve PN16, M3P...FY

c/w magnetic actuator for hot and chilled water with positioning control and position feedback

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Q = m c ∆T
where Q is the heat energy put into or taken out of the substance, m is the mass of
the substance, c is the specific heat capacity, and ∆T is the temperature
differential.
So
Q = 100kW
m = ?
c = 4.194 at 75°C
∆T = 82-71 = 11°C

Rearranging this calculation so we can find m:

m = 2.168kg/s
Which is 0.00222m^3/s or 2.22 l/s

∆Pv
0.5 =
∆Pv + 30kPa
∴ ∆Pv = 30kPa
The flow rate is 0.0022m^3/s x3600(second to minutes to hours) = 7.992m^3/hr

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7.99m^3/hr

M3P DN32
Kvs 12
Or
M3P DN40
Kvs 20

30kpa

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Three-port control valves and valve authority

Three-port control valves are used in either mixing or diverting applications. When
selecting a valve for a diverting application:

A hugely undersized three-port control valve will incur high pumping costs,
and small increments of movement will have an effect on the quantity of
liquid directed through each of the discharge ports.

A hugely oversized valve will reduce the pumping costs, but valve
movement at the beginning, and end, of the valve travel will have minimal
effect on the distribution of the liquid. This could result in inaccurate control
with large sudden changes in load. An unnecessarily oversized valve will
also be more expensive than one adequately sized.
The same logic can be applied to mixing applications.
Again, the valve authority will provide a compromise between these two extremes.
With three-port valves, valve authority is always calculated using P2 in relation to
the circuit with the variable flow rate. Figure 7.10 shows this schematically.

Figure 7.10 Valve authority diagrams showing three-port valves

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Note: Because mixing and diverting applications use three-port valves in a

'balanced' circuit, the pressure drop expected over a three-port valve is usually
significantly less than with a two-port valve.

As a rough guide:
A three-port valve will be 'line sized' when based on water travelling at
recommended velocities (Typically ranging from 1 m/s at DN25 to 2 m/s at
DN150).
10 kPa may be regarded as typical pressure drop across a three-port
control valve.
Aim for valve authority (N) to be between 0.2 and 0.5, the closer to 0.5 the
better.

Cavitation and flashing

Other symptoms sometimes associated with water flowing through two-port valves
are due to 'cavitation' and 'flashing'.

Cavitation in liquids
Cavitation can occur in valves controlling the flow of liquid if the pressure drop and
hence the velocity of the flow is sufficient to cause the local pressure after the
valve seat to drop below the vapour pressure of the liquid. This causes vapour
bubbles to form. Pressure may then recover further downstream causing vapour
bubbles to rapidly collapse. As the bubbles collapse very high local pressures are
generated which, if adjacent to metal surfaces can cause damage to the valve trim,
the valve body or downstream pipe work. This damage typically has a very rough,
porous or sponge-like appearance which is easily recognised. Other effects which
may be noticed include noise, vibration and accelerated corrosion due to the
repeated removal of protective oxide layers.

Cavitation will tend to occur in control valves:

On high pressure drop applications, due to the high velocity in the valve
seat area causing a local reduction in pressure.

Where the downstream pressure is not much higher than the vapour
pressure of the liquid. This means that cavitation is more likely with hot
liquids and/or low downstream pressure.
Cavitation damage is likely to be more severe with larger valves sizes due to the
increased power in the flow. Figure 7.11 shows the damage to an impeller due to
the

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Figure 7.11 Damage to an impeller due solely to cavitation

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Flashing in liquids
Flashing is a similar symptom to cavitation, but occurs when the valve outlet
pressure is lower than the vapour pressure condition. Under these conditions, the
pressure does not recover in the valve body, and the vapour will continue to flow
into the connecting pipe. The vapour pressure will eventually recover in the pipe
and the collapsing vapour will cause noise similar to that experienced with
cavitation. Flashing will reduce the capacity of the valve due to the throttling effect
of the vapour having a larger volume than the water. Figure 7.12 illustrates typical
pressure profiles through valves due to the phenomenon of cavitation and flashing.

Figure 7.12 Cavitation and flashing through a water control valve

Avoiding cavitation
It is not always possible to ensure that the pressure drop across a valve and the
temperature of the water is such that cavitation will not occur. Under these
circumstances, one possible solution is to install a valve with a valve plug and seat
especially designed to overcome the problem. Such a set of internals would be
classified as an 'anti-cavitation' trim.

The anti-cavitation trim consists of the standard equal percentage valve plug
operating inside a valve seat fitted with a perforated cage. Normal flow direction is
used. The pressure drop is split between the characterised plug and the cage
which limits the pressure drop in each stage and hence the lowest pressures
occur. The multiple flow paths in the perforated cage also increase turbulence and
reduce the pressure recovery in the valve. These effects both act to prevent
cavitation occurring in case of minor cavitation, or to reduce the intensity of

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cavitation in slightly more severe conditions. A typical characterised plug and cage
are shown in Figure 7.13.

Figure 7.13 A typical two-port valve anti-cavitation trim

The pressure drop is split between the orifice pass area and the cage. In many
applications the pressure does not drop below the vapour pressure of the liquid
and cavitation is avoided. Figure 7.14 shows how the situation is improved.

Fig. 7.14 Cavitation is alleviated by anti-cavitation valve trim

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Figure 7.15 A typical two-port valve with anti-cavitation trim

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Chapter 8, Flow characteristics

Aim of Chapter
The proportion of valve movement to the actual orifice opening is based on the
profile of the plug and seat of the valve. There are a number of different
options available and they part to play on the control characteristics of the
system. This chapter focuses on the valve flow characteristics.

Objective of Chapter
On completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
(a) Identify the issues the shape of the plug and seat have on the
operational characteristics of the valve

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All control valves have an inherent flow characteristic that defines the relationship
between 'valve opening' and flow rate under constant pressure conditions. Please
note that 'valve opening' in this context refers to the relative position of the valve
plug to its closed position against the valve seat. It does not refer to the orifice
pass area. The orifice pass area is sometimes called the 'valve throat' and is the
narrowest point between the valve plug and seat through which the fluid passes at
any time. For any valve, however it is characterised, the relationship between flow
rate and orifice pass area is always directly proportional.

Valves of any size or inherent flow characteristic which are subjected to the same
volumetric flow rate and differential pressure will have exactly the same orifice
pass area. However, different valve characteristics will give different 'valve
openings' for the same pass area. Comparing linear and equal percentage valves,
a linear valve might have a 25% valve opening for a certain pressure drop and flow
rate, whilst an equal percentage valve might have a 65% valve opening for exactly
the same conditions. The orifice pass areas will be the same.

The physical shape of the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes referred to as
the valve 'trim', causes the difference in valve opening between these valves.
Typical trim shapes for spindle operated globe valves are compared in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 The shape of the trim determines the valve characteristic

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In this Tutorial, the term 'valve lift' is used to define valve opening, whether the
valve is a globe valve (up and down movement of the plug relative to the seat) or a
rotary valve (lateral movement of the plug relative to the seat).

Rotary valves (for example, ball and butterfly) each have a basic characteristic
curve, but altering the details of the ball or butterfly plug may modify this. The
inherent flow characteristics of typical globe valves and rotary valves are compared
in Figure 8.2.

Globe valves may be fitted with plugs of differing shapes, each of which has its
own inherent flow/opening characteristic. The three main types available are
usually designated:

Fast opening.

Linear.

Equal percentage.
Examples of these and their inherent characteristics are shown in Figures 8.2.

Figure 8.2 Inherent flow characteristics of typical globe valves and rotary
valves

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Fast opening characteristic

The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in flow rate for a
small valve lift from the closed position. For example, a valve lift of 50% may result
in an orifice pass area and flow rate up to 90% of its maximum potential.

A valve using this type of plug is sometimes referred to as having an 'on / off'
characteristic.

Unlike linear and equal percentage characteristics, the exact shape of the fast
opening curve is not defined in standards. Therefore, two valves, one giving a 80%
flow for 50% lift, the other 90% flow for 60% lift, may both be regarded as having a
fast opening characteristic.

Fast opening valves tend to be electrically or pneumatically actuated and used for
'on / off' control.

The self-acting type of control valve tends to have a plug shape similar to the fast
opening plug in Figure 8.1. The plug position responds to changes in liquid or
vapour pressure in the control system. The movement of this type of valve plug
can be extremely small relative to small changes in the controlled condition, and
consequently the valve has an inherently high rangeability. The valve plug is
therefore able to reproduce small changes in flow rate, and should not be regarded
as a fast opening control valve.

Linear characteristic
The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve lift (H), at a constant differential pressure. A linear valve
achieves this by having a linear relationship between the valve lift and the orifice
pass area (see Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3 Flow / lift curve for a linear valve

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For example, at 40% valve lift, a 40% orifice size allows 40% of the full flow to
pass.

Equal percentage characteristic (or logarithmic characteristic)

These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve lift
increases the flowrate by a certain percentage of the previous flow. The
relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow rate) is not linear
but logarithmic, and is expressed mathematically in Equation 8.1:

Equation 8.1
Where:
= Volumetric flow through the valve at lift H.
(ln τ) H Note: 'In' is a mathematical function known as 'natural
x =
logarithm'.
Valve rangeability (ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable
τ =
flow rate, typically 50 for a globe type control valve)
H = Valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open)
max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve

Example
The maximum flow rate through a control valve with an equal percentage
characteristic is 10 m3/h. If the valve has a turndown of 50:1, and is subjected to a
constant differential pressure, by using Equation 8.1 what quantity will pass
through the valve with lifts of 40%, 50%, and 60% respectively?

Where:

max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve = 10 m3/h

H = Valve lift (0 closed to 1 fully open) = 0.4; 0.5; 0.6
τ = Valve rangeability = 50

Equation 8.1

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The increase in volumetric flow rate through this type of control valve increases by
an equal percentage per equal increment of valve movement:
When the valve is 50% open, it will pass 1.414 m3/h, an increase of 48%
over the flow of 0.956 m3/h when the valve is 40% open.
When the valve is 60% open, it will pass 2.091 m3/h, an increase of 48%
over the flow of 1.414 m3/h when the valve is 50% open.
It can be seen that (with a constant differential pressure) for any 10% increase in
valve lift, there is a 48% increase in flow rate through the control valve. This will
always be the case for an equal percentage valve with rangeability of 50. For
interest, if a valve has a rangeability of 100, the incremental increase in flow rate
for a 10% change in valve lift is 58%.

Table 8.1 shows how the change in flow rate alters across the range of valve lift for
the equal percentage valve in the Example with a rangeability of 50 and with a
constant differential pressure.

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Table 8.1 Change in flow rate and valve lift for an equal percentage
characteristic with constant differential pressure

Figure 8.4 Flow rate and valve lift for an equal percentage characteristic with
constant differential pressure for the Example

A few other inherent valve characteristics are sometimes used, such as parabolic,
modified linear or hyperbolic, but the most common types in manufacture are fast
opening, linear, and equal percentage.

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Reference

Cupton Guy W., (1989). “HVAC Controls, Operations & Maintenance”, published
by Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0442237324.

Curtiss Peter, S., Breth Newton, (2002). “HVAC Instant Answers”, published by
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0071387013.

Ashrae Handbook, “Fundamentals”, published documentation of the American

Society of heating, refrigeration and air conditioning engineers ASHRAE, ISBN 1-
883413877

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Glossary of terms
Outside air (OA) - air that is brought into the ventilation system from outside the
building and, therefore, has not been previously circulated through the system.

Recirculated air (RA) - air that is brought through the ventilation system from inside
the building and, therefore, has been previously circulated through the system.

VAV Variable Air Volume

VFR Variable Flow Rate

CAV Constant air volume

SA supply air

Enthalpy - total heat. The enthalpy control measures both sensible and latent heat
in the air and only allows outside air to be used for cooling if the air is both cool
and dry enough to satisfy the space conditions.

Night purging –the economiser mode is sometimes used at night to cool off a
building mass in preparation for the next days cooling load.

Low limit (LL)

High limit (HL)

Thermostatic Expansion Valve ("TEV" or "TXV").

The LLTS is a low level temperature sensor.

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