Building Services Engineering

Engineering services within buildings account for ongoing energy use, greenhouse gas contribu-
tion and life safety provisions. This fully updated sixth edition of Chadderton’s leading textbook
is the perfect preparation for those intending to enter this increasingly important field.
Chapters addressing heating, climate change, air conditioning, transportation systems, water,
gas, electricity, drainage and room acoustics cover all the key responsibilities of the building
services engineer. As well as introductory material and the underpinning theory, practical
guidance is provided in the form of sample calculations and spreadsheets.
New material includes:

• Trends and recent applications in lowering the energy use by mechanical and electrical
services systems, heating, cooling and lighting of buildings.
• Case studies modelled from post-occupancy reports to provide realistic discussion topics.
• Examples of the use of photovoltaic solar panels, chilled beams, underfloor air distribution,
labyrinths, ground-sourced heat pumps, district heating and cooling, energy performance
certificates, energy auditing and wind turbines.
• Outlines of the concepts of global warming, carbon trading and zero carbon buildings.
• Exercises in each chapter and online self-study questions.

A significantly expanded companion website offers over 1,000 self-test questions, PowerPoint
slides for lecturers, and an instructor’s manual, enabling the rapid generation of lectures,
assignments, and tests. Building Services Engineering is the ideal textbook for students of building
services engineering, as well as a comprehensive guide for those about to start work in this field.

David V. Chadderton was formerly a Principal Lecturer in building services engineering at

Southampton Solent University, a Senior Lecturer at Oxford Brookes University, and lectured
in Melbourne and Ballarat. He has also worked as a self-employed energy auditor, and an energy
performance contracting engineer in Melbourne before retiring recently.

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 In this new edition, innovative technologies such as renewable energy systems have been included
which are particularly important to the understanding of energy reduction in mechanical and
electrical services. Outlining the concept of zero carbon buildings is another timely addition.
Runming Yao, University of Reading

. . .a well-structured, all-inclusive introduction of the essential materials for BSE study. On top of
the classic competencies required of building services engineers (i.e. air conditioning, electrical
installations, fire protection, and water services) the increasingly important contexts in which
building services engineers have a vital role to play (i.e. climate change, energy economics and
post occupancy), are also covered.
Joseph H.K. Lai, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

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 Building Services Engineering
Sixth edition

David V. Chadderton

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 First edition published 1991
by Spon
This sixth edition published 2013
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2013 David V. Chadderton
The right of David V. Chadderton to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Chadderton, David V. (David Vincent), 1944–
Building services engineering / David V. Chadderton. – 6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Buildings–Mechanical equipment. 2. Buildings–Environmental
engineering. I. Title.
TH6010.C4867 2012
696–dc23 2012004661

ISBN13: 978-0-415-69931-0 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-69932-7 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-12132-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Frutiger Light by

Cenveo Publisher Services, Bengaluru, India

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 Contents

List of figures xiii

List of tables xvii
Preface to sixth edition xix
Acknowledgements xxi
Units and constants xxii
Symbols xxiv

1 Climate change 1
Learning objectives 1
Key terms and concepts 2
Introduction 2
Weather 2
Climate 2
Climate change 3
The Carbon Plan 4
Carbon dioxide basics 5
DECC data 6
The Carbon Emission Analysis Tool (CEAT) 9
Zero carbon buildings 12
Green buildings 14
Embodied energy 16
Regulated and unregulated demands 17
The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) 2012 19
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 22
Taxing carbon 23
Conclusion 25
Questions 25

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 vi Contents

2 Post occupancy 30
Learning objectives 30
Key terms and concepts 30
Introduction 31
The Building Emission Performance Certificate 31
Post occupancy 32
Case study: Queens Building, De Montfort University, Leicester 35
Answers 36
Sustainability 38
Building shape 39
Small-scale generation 40
Questions 41

3 Built environment 49
Learning objectives 49
Key terms and concepts 49
Introduction 49
Human comfort 49
Environmental measurements 52
Questions 56

4 Energy economics 58
Learning objectives 58
Key terms and concepts 58
Introduction 58
Energy audit 59
Annual energy costs 64
Economic thickness of thermal insulation 68
Accounting for energy-economizing systems 69
The effect on gas consumption of thermal insulation in houses 70
Questions 71

5 Ventilation and air conditioning 73

Learning objectives 73
Key terms and concepts 74
Introduction 74
Ventilation requirements 74
Ventilation systems 75
Removal of heat gains 86
Psychrometric cycles 91
Air-conditioning systems 96
Vapour compression refrigeration 100
Absorption refrigeration cycle 102

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 Contents vii

Solar-powered cooling 105

Ventilation rate measurement 105
Materials for ventilation ductwork 106
Sick building syndrome (SBS) 106
Air temperature profile 107
Questions 110

6 Heat demand 113

Learning objectives 113
Key terms and concepts 113
Introduction 113
Thermal resistance of materials 114
Thermal transmittance (U value) 114
Heating plant load 118
Thermal transmittance measurement 120
Questions 127

7 Heating 132
Learning objectives 132
Key terms and concepts 132
Introduction 133
Heating equipment 133
Hot-water heating systems 137
Oil-firing equipment 145
Combustion 146
Flues 148
Electrical power generation 148
District heating 150
Building energy management systems 152
Geothermal heating 155
Questions 155

8 Water services 159

Learning objectives 159
Key terms and concepts 160
Introduction 160
Water treatment 160
Base exchange 161
Demineralization 162
Cold-water services 162
Hot-water services 164
Pipe sizing 168
Materials for water services 176

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 viii Contents

Solar heating 177

Drain systems 179
Surface water drainage 186
Below-ground drainage 191
Questions 195

9 Electrical installations 200

Learning objectives 200
Key terms and concepts 201
Introduction 201
Electricity distribution 201
Circuit design 202
Cable capacity and voltage drop 208
Construction site distribution 209
Construction site safety 211
Safety cut-outs 213
Electrical distribution within a building 216
Testing 219
Telecommunications and networks 220
Lightning conductors 220
Questions 222

10 Lighting 229
Learning objectives 229
Key terms and concepts 229
Introduction 230
Natural and artificial illumination 230
Definition of terms 234
Maintenance 234
Utilization factor 235
Air-handling luminaires 237
Colour temperature 238
Lamp types 238
Control of lighting services 242
Questions 242

11 Condensation in buildings 249

Learning objectives 249
Key terms and concepts 249
Introduction 250
Sources of moisture 250
Condensation and mould growth 251
Vapour diffusion 251

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 Contents ix

Temperature gradient 256

Dew-point temperature gradient 260
Installation note 263
Questions 264

12 Gas 268
Learning objectives 268
Key terms and concepts 268
Introduction 268
Gas pipe sizing 269
Gas service entry into a building 272
Flue systems for gas appliances 273
Brick chimney 274
Free-standing pipe 274
Balanced flue 274
Built ducts 275
Fan-diluted flue 275
Boosted flue 275
Ignition and safety controls 275
Questions 277

13 Plant and service areas 279

Learning objectives 279
Key terms and concepts 280
Introduction 280
Mains and services 280
Plant room space requirements 281
Computer servers 284
Lifts 285
Pipe, duct and cable supports 292
Plant connections 295
Coordinated service drawings 295
Boiler room ventilation 295
Questions 297

14 Fire protection 300

Learning objectives 300
Key terms and concepts 300
Introduction 300
Fire classification 301
Portable extinguishers 302
Fixed fire-fighting installations 303
Carbon dioxide 306

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 x Contents

Fire detectors and alarms 307

Questions 308

15 Room acoustics 312

Learning objectives 312
Key terms and concepts 313
Introduction 313
Acoustic principles 314
Sound power and pressure levels 315
Sound pressure level 315
Absorption of sound 316
Reverberation time 317
Plant sound power level 321
Transmission of sound 321
Sound pressure level in a plant room 323
Outdoor sound pressure level 324
Sound pressure level in an intermediate space 325
Sound pressure level in the target room 326
Noise rating 327
Questions 332

16 Mechanical transportation 340

Learning objectives 340
Key terms and concepts 340
Introduction 340
Transportation systems 341
Lifts 341
Paternoster 343
Escalator 343
Passenger conveyors 344
Driving machinery 344
Questions 347

17 Question bank 350

Learning objectives 350
Key terms and concepts 350
Introduction 350
Question bank 351

18 Understanding units 356

Learning objectives 356
Key terms and concepts 356
Introduction 356
Questions 357

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 Contents xi

19 Answers to questions 365

1 Climate change 365
2 Post occupancy 366
3 Built environment 367
4 Energy economics 367
5 Ventilation and air conditioning 367
6 Heat demand 368
7 Heating 368
8 Water services 369
9 Electrical installations 369
10 Lighting 370
11 Condensation in buildings 371
12 Gas 371
13 Plant and service areas 372
14 Fire protection 372
15 Room acoustics 372
16 Mechanical transportation 373
17 Question bank 374
18 Understanding units 374

References 376
Index 378

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[14:16 13/10/2012 Chadderton-FM.tex] Chadderton: Building Services Engineering Page: xii i–xxvi
 Figures

1.1 Target UK CO2 emissions for 2020 6

1.2 World CO2 emissions 8
1.3 Country CO2 emissions 8
1.4 UK petroleum consumption trend 9
1.5 IEA World CO2 emissions data 11
1.6 Gas data trends 16
3.1 Multichannel data logger linked to desktop and portable computers 52
3.2 Thermistor anemometer 53
3.3 Pitot-static tube and U-tube manometer 54
5.1 Single-duct air conditioning system 76
5.2 Ducted evaporative cooler used in hot climates 82
5.3 Schematic representation of heating, cooling and humidity control of
an air-conditioned room 87
5.4 The psychrometric chart 90
5.5 Air heating depicted on a psychrometric chart 91
5.6 Cooling and dehumidification 92
5.7 Psychrometric cycle for the mixing of two airstreams 92
5.8 Preheating and humidification 93
5.9 Winter psychrometric cycle for a single-duct system 94
5.10 Summer psychrometric cycle for a single-duct system 94
5.11 Single-duct all-air installation in a false ceiling 96
5.12 Dual-duct installation in a false ceiling and detail of the mixing box 97
5.13 Induction unit installation in a multi-storey building 98
5.14 Fan coil unit installation in a false ceiling 99
5.15 Packaged air-conditioning unit 99
5.16 Vapour compression refrigeration system 100
5.17 Pressure enthalpy diagram for a refrigerant showing the vapour
compression cycle 101
5.18 Refrigeration plant serving an air-conditioning system, showing typical fluid
temperatures 103
5.19 Two-drum absorption refrigeration cycle 104
5.20 Gas-fired domestic absorption refrigeration system 104

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 xiv Figures

5.21 Temperature profiles of a south-facing office 108

5.22 Shaded window 111
6.1 Temperature gradient through a structure 121
6.2 Roof construction for Example 6.7 124
7.1 Skirting convector 135
7.2 Natural convector 135
7.3 Fan convector 135
7.4 Embedded panel heating 136
7.5 Radiant ceiling heating 136
7.6 Overhead industrial radiant tube heating system 137
7.7 Low-temperature hot-water one-pipe heating system 138
7.8 Low-temperature hot-water two-pipe heating system 138
7.9 Low- or medium-temperature hot-water micro bore heating system 138
7.10 Low- or medium-temperature hot-water heating system using a sealed
expansion tank 139
7.11 Pressurization equipment for a high-temperature hot-water heating system 139
7.12 Neutral point in a heating system 140
7.13 Pump performance curves 142
7.14 Low-temperature hot-water heating system 144
7.15 Oil storage tank installation 146
7.16 Variation of flue gas constituents with air-to-fuel ratio 147
7.17 Separation of flue pipe from combustible materials in a floor 148
7.18 Internal and external free-standing flue pipes 149
7.19 Conventional 2000 MW power station 149
7.20 Combined heat and power plant 150
7.21 Medium- or high-pressure hot-water district heating system 151
7.22 Three-pipe district heating system 151
7.23 Four-pipe district heating system 151
7.24 Building energy management system 153
7.25 Mimic diagram on a BEMS screen 154
8.1 Pneumatic water-pressure-boosting system for tall buildings 165
8.2 Gas-fired instantaneous water heater 166
8.3 Gas-fired storage water heater 166
8.4 Mains water pressure safety valve 167
8.5 Indirect hot-water storage system 168
8.6 Simultaneous flow data for water draw-off points 169
8.7 Notation for pipe-sizing data on drawings 170
8.8 Cold-water service pipe-sizing diagram for Example 8.2 171
8.9 Pipe-sizing working drawing for Example 8.2 172
8.10 Secondary hot-water service system for Example 8.3 174
8.11 Hot-water service pipe-sizing working drawing for Example 8.3 175
8.12 Solar collector to preheat a hot water-service system 178
8.13 (a) Flat-plate solar collector; (b) parabolic trough concentrating solar collector 178
8.14 Design of a basin waste pipe to avoid self-syphonage 179
8.15 Vented basin waste pipe 180
8.16 Air static pressure distribution in soil and vent pipes 181
8.17 Permitted stack connections avoiding cross-flow 182
8.18 Anti-syphon trap 182

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 Figures xv

8.19 Branch pipe to a WC 183

8.20 Branch for a range of WCs 183
8.21 Branch for a range of urinals 184
8.22 Branch from a sink or bath 184
8.23 Branch discharge pipe for a range of up to ten basins 184
8.24 Soil and vent stack in housing 185
8.25 Drainage pipes for a bungalow 185
8.26 Pumped WC discharge system 185
8.27 Typical floor layout for two flats in Example 8.4 187
8.28 Typical floor layout for Example 8.5 187
8.29 Surface-water drainage for the car park in Example 8.9 190
8.30 Foul drainage installation 191
8.31 Types of access to below ground drainage 192
8.32 Typical site layout showing access 193
8.33 Sewage-lifting pump 194
8.34 Pascal Sports Club 199
9.1 Wiring circuits from a three-phase 415 V incoming supply 202
9.2 Single-phase RMS 203
9.3 Measurements of power consumption in an electrical circuit 204
9.4 Phase angle lag 205
9.5 Three phases 206
9.6 Distribution of electricity during site construction 213
9.7 Residual current circuit breaker 214
9.8 Time-current characteristics of a cartridge fuse and a miniature circuit breaker 215
9.9 Domestic electricity distribution 216
9.10 Three-phase electricity distribution 217
9.11 Ring main to socket outlets 217
10.1 Permanent supplementary artificial lighting 231
10.2 Use of daylight reflectors 232
10.3 Observed illumination pattern 233
10.4 Overall fluorescent light fitting performance with maintenance 235
10.5 Arrangement of the luminaires in a drawing office in Example 10.1 237
10.6 Ventilated luminaire 237
10.7 Switch-start circuit diagram for fluorescent and discharge lamps 239
11.1 Temperature gradient through a solid construction 257
11.2 Temperature notation for Example 11.8 259
11.3 Temperature gradients in the wall in Example 11.9 262
11.4 Cold deck roof 263
11.5 Warm deck roof 263
12.1 Measurement of gas pressure 269
12.2 Balanced-flue gas appliance 274
12.3 Fan-diluted flue 276
12.4 Boosted flue 276
12.5 Gas burner controls 277
13.1 Positions of main services in straight routes under footpaths on residential unit 282
13.2 Service duct fire compartment 287
13.3 Minimum standard for an underfloor service duct for pipes 287
13.4 Layout of the vertical service duct in Example 13.1 291

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 xvi Figures

13.5 Insulated pipe support ring 292

13.6 Pipe and cable saddle clip 292
13.7 Roller pipe support 293
13.8 Tubular guide support 293
13.9 Pipe expansion loop 294
13.10 Complete pipe installation for thermal expansion provision 294
13.11 Articulated expansion joint 294
13.12 Insulated pipe sleeve 294
13.13 Insulated duct support 295
13.14 Flexible connections to an air-conditioning fan 296
13.15 Service zones in a false ceiling over a corridor 296
14.1 Hose reel installation 304
14.2 Water supply to hose reel and sprinkler installation 307
14.3 Hinged deadweight single blade fire damper in a ventilation duct 309
15.1 Plant SWL dB, spectral variation 322
15.2 Noise rating curves 328
15.3 Noise ratings, solution to Example 15.8 331
16.1 Paternoster lift 343
16.2 Traction arrangement for a high-speed passenger lift 345
16.3 Hydraulic lift drive 345
16.4 In-shaft hydraulic lift drive 346
16.5 Construction features of a passenger lift shaft 347

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 Tables

0.1 Units and constants xxii

0.2 Multiples and submultiples xxiii
0.3 Physical constants xxiii
0.4 Symbols xxiv
2.1 Emission rating bands for EPC and DEC 31
4.1 Energy audit data for Example 4.7 67
4.2 Cost data for Example 4.8 69
4.3 Cash flow forecast for the purchase of an energy-economizing system 70
5.1 Summary of sensible heat gains in Example 5.5 88
7.1 Heat output from steel double-panel radiators 141
7.2 Flow of water in copper pipes of various diameters 143
7.3 Fuel data 146
8.1 Practical demand units (DU) 169
8.2 Flow of water in copper tube of various diameters 170
8.3 Insulated pipe heat emission 176
9.1 Electrical cable capacities 208
9.2 Building site plant schedule 210
9.3 Building site energy use 211
9.4 Fuse ratings for 240 V single-phase and unity power factor 214
10.1 Typical values of illuminance 231
10.2 Lamp data 239
11.1 Vapour resistivity 252
11.2 Vapour resistances of films 252
11.3 Vapour pressures 255
12.1 Flow of methane (natural gas) in copper pipes 272
13.1 Minimum underfloor duct sizes for pipes 288
15.1 Absorption coefficients of common materials 317
15.2 Solution to Example 15.1 318
15.3 Fan sound spectrum in Example 15.3 321
15.4 Illustrative sound power level variances from Figure 15.1 322
15.5 Physical constants for noise rating calculation 328
15.6 Noise rating applications 329

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 xviii Tables

15.7 Noise spectrum in Example 15.8 329

15.8 Noise spectrum comparison in Example 15.8 330
15.9 Noise spectrum in Question 30 333

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 Preface to sixth edition

Building Services Engineering, sixth edition, is an updated and expanded version to include
website learning resources. Reference is made to the UK Government’s HM Government Carbon
Plan, 2011 (DECC, 2011a) as this is a foundational text for the subject of this book.
A new chapter on climate change explores how building services engineering interacts with
the global intention to save Earth from the identified global warming trend (Chapter 1). Published
emissions data is used to identify and track UK, country and global emissions. Worked examples
and discussion assignments aid understanding of the means of reducing energy emissions and
how emissions trading functions.
Another new chapter focuses on post occupancy analysis of energy use, the manner in which
installed systems function, and whether the designer’s intentions were realized (Chapter 2).
A case study is made of the Queens Building, Leicester. The calculation of Emission Performance
Certificates is shown and a workbook is provided. Building shape, sustainability and on-site
generation are discussed.
Each chapter has additional multiple choice questions for self-assessment. Readers have access
to self-test questions on the publisher’s website (http://www.routledge.com/cw/chadderton).
Questions may require the reader to look up answers in additional resources or use the internet
with a search engine. There is only one correct answer to each multiple choice question unless it is
specified as having more than one. Incorrect answers may be partially true but are not considered
by the author to be the entirely correct response for the purpose of this book; these may stimulate
additional study, discussion, questioning with peers or the instructor.
Instructors can download the Building Services Engineering Instructors Manual of over 1500
multiple choice questions covering every chapter. All the multiple choice questions in this book
are also in the Manual so that Instructors can cut and paste test material easily. Questions in the
Manual correspond to the book chapter subjects to facilitate easy selection of questions for class
quizzes, on-line tests, assignments and examinations. The author is well aware of the constant
requirement for instructors to generate teaching resources, assignments and tests, having done
so for many years in his academic career.
Spreadsheet software files can be downloaded from the website: http://www.efnspon.com/
spon/featuresI chadderton.html. Users usually have to adjust the screen display to optimize the
viewed pages. It is expected that the reader can use the spreadsheet software that is available
on their own computer, or is provided on a network system for their use. If this is not the
case, introductory training in spreadsheet software use is necessary. The reader is recommended

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 xx Preface to sixth edition

to consult Chapter 1, ‘Computer and Spreadsheet Use’, in Building Services Engineering

Spreadsheets (Chadderton, 1997b) where sufficient introductory training in computer and
spreadsheet use is provided.
Building Services Engineering, sixth edition, is intended to be a broad introduction to the range
of subjects involved in services engineering, with the aim of stimulating discussion of current topics
and further study. The engineering content and calculation methods are sufficiently rigorous to
match most of what is done in the industry in the design of many building services applications.
The subjects covered and the depth with which they are analysed and calculated are more
than sufficient to meet the syllabus requirements of higher technician, undergraduate and some
postgraduate courses in building services engineering, heating, ventilating and air conditioning,
energy management, architecture, building and quantity surveying, housing management, estate
management and property facility management. Those preparing for clerk of works examinations
will also find the book useful. The advanced user will need to progress to specialized textbooks
and the standard references.
The reader is challenged to become actively engaged in the design calculations carried out
by design engineers, through step-by-step introduction of each stage. A standard of numerical
competence is expected that some lecturers may consider to be higher than is necessary for some
courses. This was deemed appropriate in order to broaden the potential readership and provide
an adequate basis for a deeper design study.
Readers are encouraged to make use of the internet as a learning resource. Graphics included
in a printed book are there to explain a basic principle. Use a search engine to view real plant
items such as steel panel heating radiators, pumps, air handling units, fire extinguishers or lifts,
as needed. Happy surfing!

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 Acknowledgements

I am particularly grateful to the publishers for their investment in much of my life’s work. Such
a production only becomes possible through the efforts of a team of highly professional people.
For me, working with Taylor & Francis has always been an enthusiastic, harmonious and efficient
working relationship. All those involved are sincerely thanked for their efforts and the result.
My wife Maureen is thanked for her encouragement and understanding while I have been
engrossed in keyboard work, on the drawing board and shuffling through piles of proofs.
I would specifically like to thank those who have refereed this work. Their efforts to ensure
that the book has comprehensive coverage, introductory work, adequate depth of study, valid
examples of design, good structured worked examples and exercises are all appreciated. Users
and recommenders of the book are all thanked for their support, without them, it would
not exist.

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 Units and constants

Système International units are used in this book and Table 0.1 gives the basic and derived units
employed, their symbols and some common equalities. Table 0.2 presents the multiples and
submultiples and Table 0.3 presents the conventional symbols used in this field.

Table 0.1 Units and constants

Quantity Unit Symbol Equality

Mass kilogram kg
tonne tonne 1 tonne = 103 kg
Length metre m
Time second s
hour h 1 h = 3600 s
Energy, work, heat joule J 1 J = 1 Nm
Force newton N 1 N = 1 kg m/s2
Power, heat flow watt W 1 W = 1 J/s
1 W = 1 Nm/s
1 W = 1 VA
Pressure pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
newton/m2 N/m2 1 b = 105 N/m2
bar b l b = 103 mb
Frequency hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s
Electrical resistance ohm R, 
Electrical potential volt V
Electrical current ampere I, A I = V/R
Absolute temperature kelvin K K = (◦ C+273)
Temperature degree Celsius ◦C

Luminous flux lumen lm

Illuminance lux lx 1 lx = 1 lm/m2
Area square metre m2
Volume litre l
cubic metre m3 1 m3 = 103 l

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 Units and constants xxiii

Table 0.2 Multiples and submultiples.

Quantity Name Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro μ

Table 0.3 Physical constants.

gravitational acceleration g 9.807 m/s2

specific heat capacity of air SHC 1.012 kJ/kg K
specific heat capacity of water SHC 4.186 kJ/kg K
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
density of air at 20◦ C, 1013.25 mb ρ 1.205 kg/m3
density of water at 4◦ C ρ 103 kg/m3
exponential e 2.718

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 Symbols

Symbol Description Units

A area m2
electrical current A
Af physical constant dB
α (alpha) electrical temperature coefficient of resistance /  ◦ C
percentage depreciation and interest charge %
absorption coefficient dimensionless
ᾱ mean absorption coefficient dimensionless
B sound reduction index dB
Bf physical constant dB
b barometric pressure bar, b
CO2 carbon dioxide %, ppm
DI directivity index dB
DU demand or discharge unit
d pipe diameter m or mm
distance m
p difference of pressure N/m2
d.b. dry-bulb air temperature ◦ C d.b.

EL equivalent length m
e exponential
η (eta) efficiency %
f frequency Hz
G moisture mass flow rate kg/m2
GCV gross calorific value MJ/kg
GJ energy gigajoule
g gravitational acceleration m/s2
air moisture content kg water/kg dry air
H height m
h time hour
Hz frequency cycle/s
I electrical current ampere
J energy joule
K absolute temperature kelvin
kg mass kilogram
kJ energy kilojoule

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 Symbols xxv

Symbol Description Units

kW power kilowatt
kWh energy kilowatt-hour
LDL lighting design lumens lumen
LH latent heat of evaporation kW
l length m
λ (lambda) thermal conductivity W/m K
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
m length millimetre
MF maintenance factor
MJ energy megajoules
mm length millimetre
MW power megawatt
μ (mu) diffusion resistance factor
N air change rate h−1
force Newton
number of occupants
NR noise rating dimensionless
olf concentration of odorous pollutants
 (omega) electrical resistance ohm
P pressure Pascal
permeance kg/N s
Pa pressure Pascal
P1 , P2 area fraction
ps vapour pressure Pascal
φ (phi) angle degree
Q fluid flow rate m3 /s or 1/s
geometric directivity factor dimensionless
Qe extract air flow rate m3 /s
Qex exhaust air flow rate m3 /s
Qf fresh air flow rate m3 /s
QL leakage air flow rate m3 /s
Qr recirculation air flow rate m3 /s
q water flow rate kg/s
R resistance, electrical 
resistance thermal m2 K/W
room sound absorption constant m2
Ra air space thermal resistance m2 K/W
Rsi internal surface thermal resistance m2 K/W
Rse outside surface thermal resistance m2 K/W
Rv vapour resistance N s/kg
r distance m
rv vapour resistivity GN s/kg m
MN s/g m
ρ (rho) density kg/m3
specific electrical resistance m
soil electrical resistivity m
S spacing m
surface area m2
s time second
SE specific enthalpy kJ/kg
SH sensible heat transfer kW

(continued)

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 xxvi Symbols

Continued

Symbol Description Units

SPL sound pressure level dB

SWL sound power level dB
SRI sound reduction index dB
SHC specific heat capacity kJ/kg K
(sigma) summation
T absolute temperature Kelvin
reverberation time s
ta air temperature ◦C

tai inside air temperature ◦C

tao outside air temperature ◦C

tb base temperature ◦C

tc operative temperature ◦C

tdp dew-point temperature ◦C

te environmental temperature ◦C

tei internal environmental temperature ◦C

teo outside environmental temperature ◦C

tf water flow temperature ◦C

tg globe temperature ◦C

tHWS hot water storage temperature ◦C

tm mean water temperature ◦C

area-weighted average room surface temperature ◦C

tmax maximum air temperature ◦C

tmin minimum air temperature ◦C

tr mean radiant temperature ◦C

return water temperature ◦C

tres resultant temperature ◦C

ts supply air temperature ◦C

surface temperature ◦C

θ (theta) angle degree

time h
U thermal transmittance W/m2 K
Un new thermal transmittance W/m2 K
Uw wall thermal transmittance W/m2 K
UF utilization factor
V volume m3
V electrical potential volt
v velocity m/s
vs specific volume m3 /kg
W width m or mm
W power watt
w.b. wet-bulb air temperature ◦ C w.b.

Y admittance factor
annual degree days

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 1 Climate change

Learning objectives
Study of this chapter will enable the reader to:

1. explain weather and climate;

2. know the meaning of the greenhouse effect;
3. know basic facts about CO2 ;
4. use DECC emission data;
5. produce emission data trend graphs;
6. follow emission trends of any country;
7. observe emission trends for the whole world with IEA data;
8. observe what local climate means;
9. realize what emission targets mean to different parts of the world’s population;
10. know what the HM Government Carbon Plan, 2011 (DECC, 2011a) is;
11. follow the HM Government Carbon Plan, 2011 data trend into the future;
12. know how CO2 emissions can be reduced;
13. identify alternatives to fossil fuel emissions;
14. use IEA country and world emission data to plot trends;
15. comment on global progress following the Kyoto Protocol agreement;
16. know how carbon capture and storage (CCS) functions;
17. know the various meanings for zero carbon buildings;
18. know about the Passivhaus principle;
19. know what is meant by green buildings;
20. know about BREEAM, LEED and NABERS;
21. know what star ratings for buildings signify;
22. use embodied energy data;
23. understand regulated demands;
24. calculate unregulated demands and compare with regulated ones;
25. know how the carbon tax works;
26. know how the EU ETS functions;
27. calculate the effect of the EU ETS on emission reduction projects.

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 2 Climate change

Key terms and concepts

atmospheric CO2 2; BREEAM 14; cap and trade system 19; carbon cap 19; carbon capture 4;
carbon capture and storage 22; carbon emission allowances 20; carbon emission analysis tool 8;
carbon plan 4; carbon policies 23; carbon tax 18; climate 2; climate change 2; CO2 emission 3;
conclusions 25; country emissions 7; DECC 5; DUKES 15; embodied energy 16; emission trends 7;
emissions reduction 6; emissions trading 4; ETS 19; EU 19; global injustice 4; global warming 4;
green buildings 14; green stars 15; greenhouse effect 3; International Energy Agency 9; LEED
15; lignite 19; NABERS 15; Passivhaus 14; petroleum consumption 9; regulated demands 17;
regulation 19; target emissions 6; unregulated demands 17; weather 2; world emissions 7; zero
carbon buildings 12.

Introduction

Climate change is presented in a discursive manner in order to promote our understanding. The
carbon plan, the global emissions trend, zero carbon buildings, embodied energy, green buildings,
unregulated demands, emission trading system and carbon capture are explained with worked
examples and questions. The construction industry’s response to scientific data and government
legislation in creating solutions to reducing energy consumption in buildings is nothing new;
designers have always worked within such criteria.

Weather
Weather is what is currently happening to the air and ground temperatures, atmospheric pressure,
moisture level, cloud cover, solar radiation, precipitation, wind direction and strength at a location,
affecting what we do there. As the Earth rotates, the air mass of the atmosphere is subject to
aerodynamic shearing forces between it and the uneven ground, causing wind and weather
movement. Some regularity takes place in such a chaotic system of fluid flow with wind patterns,
such as the Gulf Stream of warm water northwards that moderates the climate in the UK.

Climate
What is meant by climate? It is the average of certain variables over a long period of time, tens,
hundreds and thousands of years, depending upon when data was recorded. These variables are
air temperature near to the ground, rain, hail, sleet and snow, wind strength and direction, cloud
cover and solar radiation. Time of day or night creates greatly different climates; if we measured
all of the variables an hour prior to dawn around the world, what sort of climate do you think
would be found? One that was a lot colder than during a normal day in the same location.
Ground cover affects the immediate climate for a location. Is there continuous snow cover; is it
a sea, an arid desert, a lake, river or wetland such as mud flats, a sand estuary or marsh? Has the
ground been built over with areas of tarmac, concrete, industry and buildings? Is the location
a natural forest, barren heath, bare rock, sand dunes, or snow-capped mountains, or farmed?
The area where climate is determined may be a small location such as village, a large area such
as a state, a country or the whole of the planet Earth. Climate varies within a country or state
depending upon distance from the coast, significant areas of water and altitude above sea level.
There have been many changes in the Earth climate due to natural causes throughout history.
The heat-trapping effect of CO2 , water vapour, methane and other gases in the atmosphere
was understood by scientists 150 years ago. These greenhouse effect gases occur naturally due

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 Climate change 3

to evaporation, rainfall, rotting vegetation, animals, volcanoes and natural fires. Emissions from
human activity have significantly increased since the early 1900s. The UK Met Office informs us
that there is a discernible warming trend across the globe due to human activities. CO2 emitted
now will last for 100 years in the atmosphere, while methane, CH4 , breaks down in 10 years into
CO2 and H2 O. The Earth has natural sources and sinks for CO2 but the increases of the industrial
era cannot be explained by natural causes (http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/).

EXAMPLE 1.1

What is meant by the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere?

High temperature, short wave, high frequency radiation from the sun warms the Earth.
Re-radiation from the cool surfaces of the Earth is at low frequency, long wave, and some
of these are reflected in the particles of moisture and other gases within the atmosphere, thus
trapping heat.

Climate change
The UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) states: ‘Climate change refers to
an identifiable change in the climate that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer, and is often taken to mean man-made changes that have occurred since the onset of
the industrial revolution.’ Is the world’s climate changing? Of course it is. It changes all the time.
Wasn’t it the Ice Age that formed the geography of northern countries? Human activity has
added to these natural changes.

EXAMPLE 1.2
Write a description of the climate where you live, with the minimum of data, noting the
principal geographic features of the locality.

I lived in Milford on Sea, Hampshire, England, 3 km inland from the south coast, in a quiet,
tree-lined, residential road bordering a large market garden farm. Manor Road bordered the
northern extremity of the suburbs and was near to the B3058 Lymington Road; look at it in
satellite mapping software. There were no large industries in the area, just small retail shops and
farms. All the roads were lined with deciduous trees. The land was slightly undulating but within
around 25 m altitude. Ice and snow lasted for only a few days each winter, less than a week,
while black ice on the roads happened occasionally after rain.

EXAMPLE 1.3

In your experience, have you noticed any change in the climate in the country where
you live?

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 4 Climate change

I grew up through junior school in north London and remember the sooty fog, i.e. the smog that
occurred in most winters up to 1955. There was snow and ice every winter, summers were not
noticeably hot and it rained a lot. After 1955, I lived mainly in the south of Hampshire where the
sea air kept the atmosphere fresh and mild. The Clean Air Act of 1956 stopped the London smog
but November usually brought wet fog to the south of England, making any travel hazardous.
The normal tidal movements of sea level at Milford on Sea never seemed to vary over 20 years of
my living around the south coast. I was not aware of any significant variation in the mild coastal
climate during my time there.

How do we view climate change? How we understand the scientific data of climate change,
with its dire warnings and calls for precipitate action, depends on the way in which we wish
to discuss the topic. Professor Mike Hulme, of the University of East Anglia, in the Hartwell
Lecture,(CIBSE Annual Lecture, 23 November 2010) identifies differing views ranging from: the
threat is serious; it is depressing, I will forget about it; the debate is decided and closed; we
will all call it climatic genocide; we would prefer a warmer climate; climate variability is always
wide; observed increases in global average temperature are very likely to be man-made. Climate
change as a topic to study grew from being insignificant up to 1990 to 8000 research papers
during 2010.
Emissions trading in greenhouse gases commenced in 2006, making the price of a tonne of
CO2 look like any other stock market share, with a similar pattern of peak and trough prices
between E10–40 per tonne. The term ‘low carbon’ has appeared thousands of times in major
publications since 1985, books on global warming are numerous and the daily press publishes
hundreds of articles whenever a major conference takes place. Fossil fuel CO2 emissions are
due to double from their global 1980 level of 5.0 GtC/yr and continue rising unabated. Global
warming from atmospheric CO2 has become the fashionable topic on a world scale. Whether
nations will ever agree what to do about it is more difficult to believe and may take generations
to resolve. Professor Hulme presents climate change due to mankind as six different frames of
reference:

1. failure of the commercial markets: to do the best thing for humanity;

2. technological hazard: we simply did not understand enough about what we were doing in
burning fossil fuels;
3. global injustice: rich countries raise their standards of living by using most of the world’s
fossil resources while many countries live in poverty;
4. overconsumption: the world’s population is heading to grow from 3.0 billion in 1960 towards
10.0 billion in 2050 at the present rate of births and deaths;
5. natural cyclic phenomenon: planet Earth has undergone huge climatic changes throughout
history over countless years;
6. planetary tipping point: ‘We only have 10–15 years to avoid crossing catastrophic tipping
points’ (Tony Blair, UK Prime Minister, 1997–2007, October 2006).

The Carbon Plan

The UK government expressed the severest concern for the future.

This Carbon Plan sets out a vision of a changed Britain, powered by cleaner energy used
more efficiently in our homes and businesses, with more secure energy supplies and more
stable energy prices, and benefiting from the jobs and growth that a low carbon economy

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 Climate change 5

will bring. Without action to curb emissions, there is a very high risk of global warming
reaching well beyond 2◦ C relative to pre-industrial times. Such unmitigated global warming
would increase the risk of accelerated or irreversible changes in the climate system. Cutting
emissions by at least 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050 below the 1990 baseline. Demand for
electricity is likely to double by 2050 compared to today. Changes in other sectors (of the
economy) are likely to mean greater reliance on electricity for applications such as transport
and heating, pushing up demand. At the same time, our existing power plants are coming to
the end of their lives. Almost half of the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions are from the energy
used to generate heat, with the vast majority of our homes still relying on fossil fuel-powered
gas boilers and with much of our building stock still poorly insulated and inefficient.
(DECC, 2011a)

Any carbon plan is a work in progress, is related to what other countries are doing, whether they
have succeeded or not, so the construction industry watches for new rapid pace developments.
Bear in mind that the carbon plan measures CO2 emissions for the nation, so whatever the
construction industry might achieve, it is only a part of the overall outcome. It is the emission of
CO2 that is counted and not which energy source is used or how much fossil fuel is consumed.
Carbon capture and storage from flues might prove to be widely beneficial.
Growth in the number of UK households from 1970 to 2009 increased energy consumption by
18%, with an increasing population and internal air temperatures for comfort. Electrical appliance
growth and the start of the consumer electronics boom in the 1970s caused the consumption
of electricity to grow by 559% by 2009. This will likely continue as home-based working and
entertainment develop. Where land and floor space allow, new homes have a large screen home
theatre, further reducing the need for travel. Thermal efficiency improvements to the housing
stock still have a long way to go as the current average SAP rating is 51.4 out of a possible 100
for a self-sufficient house. Rather than accept the benefits of using less energy, home thermal
efficiency improvements may be made by a raised indoor air temperature (Digest of UK Energy
Statistics, 2011).

Carbon dioxide basics

What is so bad about having CO2 in the air we breathe? CO2 is a colourless, invisible, non-
flammable, odourless gas, around 360 ppm 0.036% in air but rises, denser than air, unhealthy
at concentrations above 5,000 ppm, which is 0.5% in air. It is soluble in water where it can
form carbonic acid and is used as a dry ice solid coolant. It is used as a modern refrigerant in
some vapour compression systems. Dry ice sublimates directly into the gas phase, leaving no
liquid residue, making it suitable for pressure cleaning. Solid dry ice pressure cleaning has many
applications in industry, such as production equipment in the food industry, gas turbine engines,
and printing presses and on moulds for tyre production. Such industrial uses of CO2 may come
from food and drink fermentation processes and may not add to overall emissions.
Humans exhale 1 kg of CO2 daily, depending upon activity level; plants photosynthesize CO2
from the air and emit O2 . CO2 continuously exchanges between the oceans and the biosphere
but large emissions reside in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. 1 kWh of electricity from
fossil fuels causes an emission of around 1 kg CO2 . Water vapour is a very strong greenhouse gas
and we cannot live without it (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, USA).
Is CO2 bad for humans? We breathe it and eat plants grown with CO2 taken from the
air. It is not poisonous in low concentrations and is generally harmless and inert to many

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 6 Climate change

practical applications. Some call it a pollutant, maybe to justify putting a price on it. Anything
can be dangerous to humans if we are exposed to too much of it, such as water, O2 or bread.

DECC data

The UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) annual energy use data is available
to download. Access the spreadsheet files, save them with a new file name of choice and then
make use of the data for analysis and assignments. The Energy Consumption in the UK Domestic
Data Tables relate entirely to energy used in UK housing.

EXAMPLE 1.4

Does it seem possible for the UK to achieve the stated emission reduction? Explain briefly
what such a trend means.

Download the current UK spreadsheet data file ‘Carbon dioxide emissions by fuel, 1990–present’
and save the file. Plot the data and compare with the stated target reduction. Figure 1.1 shows
the results up to 2010, your data will be current.
The 1990 baseline for total carbon dioxide emission is 589.7 Mt carbon dioxide emissions from
the UK.

Target reduction in 2020 = 34% of 1990 emissions

Target for 2020 = (100 − 34) % × 589.7 Mt CO2

= 66% × 589.7 Mt CO2

= 389.2 Mt CO2

700.0
Gas
Oil
Coal
600.0
Other solid fuels
Non-fuel
Total
500.0
Mt carbon dioxide

The carbon Plan 2011 target

400.0

300.0 Reduction projection

DUKES data as at July 2011 based on 2.5% per year

200.0

100.0

0.0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

1.1 Target UK CO2 emissions for 2020.

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 Climate change 7

Emission in 2010 = 491.7 Mt CO2

Steady rate of reduction needed = 2.5% p.a.

Extend the downloaded data list to 2020; multiply the last measured year emission by 0.975,
extend that calculation across each cell until 2020.

Calculated emission in 2020 = 382 Mt CO2

Figure 1.1 shows what your data and chart should look like, except that yours will have more
published data. This indicates that the downward trend in all emissions may be sustainable if
future usage remains consistent with recent past results. This means that despite rising standards
of living, more homes, more commercial and industrial buildings being constructed, greater use
of electricity for car and rail transport, developments such as greater use of nuclear and renewable
energy power generation, efficiency improvements in all types of building and cleaner emissions
from fossil fuel plants, the UK can emit less.
Now that you are experts in handling spreadsheet charts, copy your data table and chart onto
additional worksheets and extend them to 2050 when the target emission is 80% below the
1990 total, i.e. 117.9 Mt CO2 . Experiment with the annual rate of reduction and you will find
that it needs to be 4% of the previous year emission, each year, to achieve 112.0 Mt CO2 in
year 2050. Bear in mind that this is only 38 years ahead of the publication date of this book. If
you were born in the baseline year 1990, expect to be alive and well, anticipating retirement to
coastal or rural living while using one-fifth of the fossil fuel resources that you used when you
were born, and are 60 years young in 2050, what sort of energy profile will you have in the UK?
You will not be using natural gas, oil or any solid fuel to heat your house or workplace; there will
be hardly any chimneys emitting flue gas. Carbon capture and storage have stopped the emission
of large-scale flue gas into the atmosphere. You drive an electrically powered vehicle; aviation
has found an alternative fuel to oil by using H2 ; there is complete electrification of railways.
H2 has replaced diesel for trucks; renewable wind, solar, hydro and tidal energy generation is
everywhere and nuclear power stations are the primary source for electricity as H2 is produced
from sea water.

EXAMPLE 1.5

Find the latest data for the world CO2 emission from fuel combustion and the Kyoto
Protocol targets from the International Energy Agency (IEA) site and comment on how
progress is being made in the UK and globally. Repeat this assignment as new data is
published.

Download the publication CO2 Emission from Fuel Combustion 2010 Highlights, in portable
document format and spreadsheets, the most recent edition, from the IEA site. Data can also be
linked to smart phones. Plot the CO2 emissions from the world, the UK, North America, OECD
Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and China from 1971 to the present. Have a look at other countries
to see what they are doing. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show recent trends.
Published data is shown up to 2008; 2009–2020 is dummy data. The world and most
countries are increasing their emissions. UK emissions are reducing. Smaller countries are also
increasing emissions at high rates. If the UK closed down and ceased all emissions, would it make

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 8 Climate change

35,000

30,000

25,000 United Kingdom

OECD North America
China
Mt CO2

20,000 OECD Europe

Middle East
15,000 Asia
All of the World
Year
10,000

5,000

0
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016

1.2 World CO2 emissions.

7000

6000

5000

4000
Mt CO2

China
3000

2000
Limit of present measured data

1000

0
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
1.3 Country CO2 emissions.

much difference? Hardly, as the increase in one year of China’s emissions would replace that of
the UK in total. If governments are serious about atmospheric CO2 increases, every country in
the world has to be involved.
‘We need to ensure that the homes and buildings being built now and in the future are as
energy efficient as possible’ (DECC, 2011a). That is the reality check, meaning, we cannot achieve
the impossible. We, the UK government, can only expect whatever our architects and engineers
are able to do. That is you and me. It also means, what is possible to achieve with the money that
is available for the job. There is no source of unlimited finance to reduce the nation’s use of fossil
fuels. Such an investment has to be on a reasonable payback time or the finance industry, the Bank
of England, the Government Treasury, the International Monetary Fund, house-owners, landlords
and building owners will quickly decide that too much money is needed to create more savings
of primary energy and pose unjustifiable costs upon the nation. Investment in buildings has to
stop somewhere between no thermal insulation, single glazing, openable windows with natural
ventilation, and a building requiring no energy at all to run it; perhaps a technical impossibility for
commercial buildings and most homes. No one suggests razing all existing houses and rebuilding
with zero carbon new buildings, if that were possible, so the best we can ever do is improve what
we have.

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 Climate change 9

35,000,000

30,000,000

25,000,000

LPG
20,000,000
Litre

Gasoline
Diesel
15,000,000
Fuel oil

10,000,000

5,000,000

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Year

1.4 UK petroleum consumption trend.

For the purposes of this discussion, we will not include fossil fuels needed for transportation,
agriculture and manufacturing as these are outside our remit. It was interesting to note that UK
annual demand during 1998–2009 for gasoline (petrol) has declined steadily each year, as shown
in Figure 1.4.

The Carbon Emission Analysis Tool (CEAT)

We are able to download energy usage and CO2 emission data freely from online national
sources, enabling a watch to be made on worldwide progress. UK data from the Department of
Energy and Climate Change website (http://www.decc.gov.uk) is maintained quarterly while the
International Energy Agency publishes annual world data. Some familiarity in using a spreadsheet
application is needed for this assignment. The following Carbon Emission Analysis Tool (CEAT)
provides a means of observing and commenting on what is happening around us, auditing the
information and thinking about how the future could evolve:

1. Open the International Energy Agency website (http://www.iea.org).

2. Select Home and then the Statistics & Balances page.
3. Find the Publications/Surveys Free for Download area.
4. Click on the CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2010 – Highlights link; the year available
will be the most recent.
5. Download the PDF file if you wish to read the whole document.
6. Click on the separate EXCEL file link to download the current data file of CO2 emissions.
7. Save the file to be downloaded in a directory of your choice on your computer with the file
name IEA original CO2 data.
8. Open your spreadsheet software and open the downloaded file, save it again, it is not
important if macros in the original file are not available for use.
9. Click on the CO2 SA tab, this CO2 Sectoral Approach is the data we wish to use for analysis.
10. Have a look at the tabulated data; observe what countries are doing during the period of
1971 to the present; look for trends, countries that are significantly increasing or reducing
their emissions.

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 10 Climate change

11. Decide on a country of interest for data analysis, for example, China; this includes data from
the People’s Republic of China and Hong Kong, China; this data line really does change over
time and is a major driver of industry to the world so it must be of significant interest.
12. Select the entire row of data from the title box of China all along to the end of the data row
up to the latest data, 1971–2008 in the case of the 2010 file.
13. Copy this row of data and paste it onto a new blank workbook sheet.
14. Rename that tab as world data.
15. Select the row of year dates, 1971–2008, copy and paste the row onto your new worksheet
above the CO2 data row; type in Year as the row title.
16. Extend the row of year dates up to 2020 so that when new data is published, all you have
to do is type in the value to keep the file up to date.
17. Save your new workbook in a directory of your choice as filename World CO2 Charts.
18. Select the row of CO2 data from the country title box to the latest year box of your own
workbook; click Copy; this becomes the chart data.
19. Click insert, line chart, chart layouts that have axis titles and data labels; a chart appears
on the same sheet as the data; cut and paste the chart onto the next blank sheet of the
workbook; rename that tab as China or whatever country you chose.
20. Select the horizontal axis data on the chart, edit the axis to use the title Year and the year
data row.
21. Format the chart to the size, labels, font and line types that you prefer.
22. Repeat the data collection and chart data sheets in your new workbook for as many countries
as needed; only one chart per worksheet.
23. Save the file every time that a new sheet is added and formatted.
24. Are the country’s emissions increasing or decreasing?
25. Did a significant change occur in the emissions at any particular time? Why was that? Has
the trend since then remained consistent?
26. What was the trend of emissions since the baseline year of 1990?
27. Calculate the average annual rate of change in emissions for the country from 1971 to the
most recent year.
28. Can you find any reason for that change, or rate of change, in emissions since 1971?
29. Does it seem that this country is working to reduce its CO2 emissions from 1990 by 34%
less by 2020?
30. Calculate the target emission for 2020 by reducing the 1990 value by 34%.
31. Does it seem that this country is working to reduce its CO2 emissions from 1990 by 80%
less by 2050?
32. Calculate the target emission for 2050 by reducing the 1990 value by 80%.
33. Do you imagine any possibility for this country achieving the 34% reduction from 1990
emissions by 2020?
34. Do you imagine any possibility for this country achieving the 80% reduction from 1990
emissions by 2050?
35. Compare this country with a nearby neighbour that has a similar geography and/or society
by adding the new country’s emission to the chart. What do you observe from the chart in
relation to the earlier parts of this Carbon Emission Analysis Tool?
36. Apply this CEAT to countries that are in an OECD group such as Europe, North America and
Asia. The Middle East is particularly interesting. Are the countries in that group changing
their emissions in a similar manner? If not, which are going against the group trend? Are
there reasons for this trend that you can observe?
37. Create a data chart for the World data.

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 Climate change 11

38. Does it appear that the world is unified in reducing CO2 emissions from this data and your
chart?
39. Is there a particular country or OECD group that is continuing to increase its CO2 emissions?
40. Is there a particular country or OECD group that is clearly reducing its CO2 emissions?
41. Are you pessimistic or optimistic that the world will significantly reduce its CO2 emissions by
2020, 2050 and beyond from the evidence of the IEA data published up to now? What is
your analysis for the future?
42. What have you learned from government statements and policies, world news, technical
innovations, investment decisions or published commitments in recent times that indicates
that CO2 emissions can be reduced and climate change reversed?
43. What are your conclusions about how climate change is being counteracted?

EXAMPLE 1.6

Apply the Carbon Emissions Analysis Tool to the International Energy Agency World
emissions data. Figure 1.5 shows recent IEA World CO2 emissions.

35,000
All of the World

30,000

25,000

20,000
Mt CO2

Limit of present measured data

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016

1.5 IEA World CO2 emissions data.

World emissions continue to increase, unfortunately. A downward trend occurred during

1980–1983 during a US-led international recession with high unemployment, reduced manu-
facturing, and the Thatcher government in the UK battling against inflation. Emissions resumed
increase from 1983 and have not slowed. Emissions have increased each year since 1990.
Emissions in 1971 were 14,618 and 29,939 Mt CO2 in 2008, an average annual rise of 2.8% pa.
Significant increases in emissions came from China, the Middle East and North America. It does
not seem as though the world is trying to reduce emissions yet; a target reduction of 34% from
1990, which would be 14,205 Mt CO2 appears to be fanciful for 2020, while a reduction of 80%
by 2050, down to 4,305 Mt CO2 , could be considered to be beyond imagination, even if every
possible measure is implemented. UK emissions are reducing but Europe has a flat trend while
all the other countries have increasing trends. The 2010 IEA data gives no indication that rising
emissions may slow or reduce. Future use of technology is going to have to change if reductions of

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 12 Climate change

emissions and improvements to standards of living worldwide are to be achieved. Carbon capture
and storage (CCS), technology to remove CO2 from fossil fuel combustion products, renewable
and nuclear electricity generation, all these are ways to achieve reductions. A positive view is that
when governments set targets, the response is likely to be that far greater reductions are achieved,
once industry finds the right technology. In conclusion, parts of the world have awoken to the
problem, many countries may take a generation to respond seriously and we are all challenged
to rethink how we use energy more efficiently.

Zero carbon buildings

The HM Government Carbon Plan, 2011 (DECC 2011a) states the intention to deliver zero carbon
new homes from 2016 and zero carbon non-domestic buildings by 2019. Does this mean that
buildings can be constructed from materials, and by builders, that use no fossil energy resources?
Surely an impossibility? Some ideas of what this means are:

1. zero net energy consumption;

2. zero net source energy use;
3. zero emissions building;
4. zero net energy cost;
5. zero off-site energy use;
6. zero grid supply;
7. allowable solutions.

Whether or not any building consumes energy depends upon its climate locality. There are regions
of the world where the outdoor climate remains consistently within human comfort requirements
where only protection from rain is needed, such as on the Mediterranean coast and on the South
Pacific Ocean coast. What about the UK? Could you live at home and work in buildings without
heating, artificial lighting, heated water for washing and refrigeration for food storage at least?
No, of course not. Neither could anyone in the neighbouring countries of Europe. Try it if you
wish by living in a caravan in winter with no form of heating and lighting and you might freeze
due to hypothermia. No amount of fibreglass thermal insulation in the walls of the caravan or
triple-glazed windows will ever be enough. Also, forget about washing in warm water, cooking
hot food and drinking hot tea; got the idea? Do not bother trying it.
The idea of zero carbon is still developing in the minds of planners. It may be possible to
design a new home that is so well insulated and with mechanically controlled heat reclaim
ventilation that it requires no heating energy use in winter other than the warmth provided
by the occupants, lighting and refrigerators. Whether this is possible with the existing stock
of homes is questionable; expenditure on such a retrofit would seem to be beyond the
occupants’ willingness to meet the cost; it often takes seven years to repay the capital outlay
for double glazing replacement windows. Another aspect of calling a building zero carbon
regards the internal electrical appliances, artificial lighting, food refrigeration, water heating,
home appliances, home entertainment system, computers, spa pump, swimming pool pump
and power tools in the garage or home workshop. Who could live without most of those? Even
if the solar and internal heat gains equal the winter heat losses through the fabric of the home,
and the air conditioning system remains switched off, where does the rest of the energy use
come from?
Initially, a zero carbon building was thought to mean net zero carbon dioxide emissions for the
year, that is, heat losses of, say, 5,000 kWh in winter would be met by using fuel or electricity,

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 Climate change 13

while heat gains in summer, the same 5,000 kWh, would equal the heat losses, an ultra low
energy building. As losses equal gains, the house would require no net energy to maintain
a comfortable internal temperature. Energy bills for winter heating, summer cooling, domestic
appliances and lighting still have to be paid. It may be comfortable in the British Isles to live without
summer air conditioning in a suitably designed home, or work in a commercial or industrial
building ventilated with outdoor air, although that is arguable. Especially so in the glass tower
commercial office buildings that are air-sealed and rely on central air conditioning to maintain
acceptable indoor air conditions and adequate mechanical ventilation, with power-hungry plant
that cannot be turned off. How would you like to live and work in non-air-conditioned buildings
when the outside air temperature remains in the 28◦ C–40◦ C range with blazing sunshine for
many weeks? No amount of window shading, wall thermal insulation, reflective glazing and
heat reclaim-assisted natural ventilation will satisfy liveable comfort conditions without risking
hyperthermia and sun stroke.
Let’s look at the different zero carbon building possibilities. A zero net source energy use
building has on-site electricity generation that exceeds its consumption, including the energy
used in transporting the energy to the building; this is a zero energy-plus building. This may
include the gas and oil used in the building, making it an exporter of energy into the grid. This
is the power station solution.
A net zero emissions building counterbalances the emissions used in supplying the building with
on-site generation of energy through renewable zero emission means. Included in this definition
is the energy embodied in the construction materials, the construction process and even the
travel by its users. This is the solar panel and wind turbine on the roof solution.
The zero net energy cost approach is where the cost of purchasing energy used in the building is
counterbalanced by the sale of energy to the grid from on-site generation. This is the accountant’s
solution, making the building a non-profit business.
The net zero off-site energy use method purchases energy from off-site, entirely renewable
sources. This is the large-scale solar, wind, geothermal and wave power public utility solution
that costs nothing on site.
A zero grid supply building is not connected to the supply grid for electricity, gas, district
heating, possibly water and sewerage but may have a telephone line and computer network
cable connection. All energy used is generated on site. This is the ship solution that floats
free of ties to anywhere; however, an ocean liner consumes vast quantities of liquid fuel in
its propulsion engines and essential plant to cope with widely varying climates, so it is not a zero
emission site.
An allowable solution model for buildings recognizes the impracticality of achieving zero energy
use with that embodied in the construction materials and process of building, and with the
energy needed to run the building during its service period before demolition and recycling. All
buildings are refurbished at least once, continually maintained, ultimately demolished and their
materials recycled or dumped into landfill, so the whole picture needs to be considered. This
model requires the building to have the highest practically attainable energy efficiency through
fabric thermal insulation, solar and ventilation control, energy-efficient plant and systems with
on-site renewable energy equipment appropriate to the building’s location and architecture. On
top of this, an allowance of energy use to comply with legislation is made, for example, to allow
the ingress of outdoor air for gas appliances, to replace air exhausted from toilets, kitchens or
chemical fume hoods. When a building complies with all the best practices at an acceptable cost,
it may then be granted a ‘zero carbon’ rating. Whether you agree with this description is another
matter that depends upon your perspective; we might see this as maintaining the present status
of new building design. The EU defined the nearly zero energy building as having a significant

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 14 Climate change

amount of its net energy needs from renewable sources, on- or off-site. This is the engineer’s
solution.
The Passiv Haus puts these ideas into practice. Two of the qualifying standards for Passiv Haus
design are that the specific heat load at the design temperature should not exceed 10.0 W/m2
floor area and that the maximum air leakage rate at a test air pressure of 50 Pa is not to exceed
0.60 air changes/h (http://www.passivhaus.org.uk/). Such houses are highly insulated with an
exterior surface thickness around 500 mm, and airtight so that they consume only 25% or so
of those energy levels set by the building regulations of most countries. Their mechanical and
electrical services should be simple and reliable with ventilation air heat recovery.

EXAMPLE 1.7

Calculate whether the following design qualifies for the Passiv Haus standard. A single
storey house has a floor plan of 20 m × 10 m and a room height of 2.5 m. Mechanical air
change rate is 0.5 per hour through a heat exchanger that preheats incoming outdoor air
from −1◦ C to 10◦ C in winter when the indoor air is maintained at 21◦ C. Eight windows
are each 1.0 m × 1.5 m, two external doors are 1 m × 2 m. Thermal transmittances are
0.15 W/m2 K for the floor and walls, flat plaster ceiling with a pitched tiled roof 0.1 W/m2 K
while the windows and doors are 0.8 W/m2 K. House construction is a concrete slab on the
ground with 250 mm insulation, brick and block walls with 275 mm insulation, 400 mm
insulation in the roof, triple-glazed windows and PVC insulated doors.

The data is entered into the simple workbook, PassivHaus Calculation, provided on the website,
use other software if preferred or calculate the heat loss as shown in Chapter 6. Specific heat
load is calculated as 18.5 W/m2 against an allowed 10 W/m2 , so this house does not comply,
despite having very high thermal insulation and mechanically controlled heat reclaim ventilation.
Its designers need to work harder on the potential solution. Download the real Passiv Haus PHPP
Demo workbook from the reference site to see how extensive the procedure is.

Green buildings
Green buildings are intended to reduce their impact on the environment, not necessarily to
minimize energy use from any source. They may have similar means for passive and active solar
energy use and natural day lighting as well as high standards of thermal insulation to maximize
the efficient use of energy, ground space, locally sourced and natural materials but are not
necessarily focussed on being zero carbon buildings. Turn back the clock to times when a timber-
feller cleared a forested plot of land, used carpentry and local stone to build a house or medieval
castle, burnt trees to keep warm, trapped rabbits, planted potatoes, drew water from a nearby
stream, composted human and food waste, fished and sat back to watch the trees felled to grow
up again. That was a green building; it was fully sustainable architecture, engineering, animal
husbandry and agriculture. This was the recyclable timber solution. It is more difficult today as we
expect to look through glazed aluminium windows, have insulated concrete foundations, park
two cars in a home garage, illuminate every room with countless electrical lamps, have multiple
appliances, communicate with the world-wide web every minute of the day or night, and travel
50 km to work and recreation locations.
The UK Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) is an
environmental and sustainability standard methodology to rate buildings and on how buildings

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 Climate change 15

are used. It includes energy emissions, use of renewable energy, construction materials, and water
use, recycling of waste and life cycle impacts of the building. Also it concerns management
resources needed, land use issues, transportation methods in getting to the building, air and
water pollution as well as the health and well-being of the users. It is not necessarily focussed
on creating zero carbon buildings. Stars are awarded for the overall result. Some inputs may be
open to interpretation but reports are overseen by trained auditors. It is the social responsibility
index method.
Some countries have a Green Building Council and a Green Star rating tool that rates homes
and non-domestic buildings. They are similar to BREEAM in that they include energy use, energy
emissions, water use, waste recycling and the indoor comfort environment. They may be used
as design tools to rate a new building prior to construction and can then audit the building in
use. Existing buildings can be rated from their energy use per m2 floor area to identify potential
energy-saving measures and ongoing tracking. It is not necessarily focussed on creating zero
carbon buildings but does help promote a building’s energy efficiency, environmental factors
and comfort. This is the marketing plan solution.
In North America, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building
rating system is used for residential and commercial buildings. It functions in the same way
to BREEAM and Green Star schemes to enhance the value, energy saving and marketability of
buildings and is not a zero carbon building tool.
The National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NABERS) rates public, commercial
and domestic buildings on a 1–6 star scale with the aim of aiding existing building owners to
reduce energy by 20–40% and assess performance of water, waste, comfort and air quality.
A 5-star office building in Melbourne could be using 125 kWh/m2 per year for all the electricity
and gas consumed, so it cannot be a zero energy approach.

EXAMPLE 1.8
What are the trends in UK natural gas use for housing, public and commercial buildings? Do
the trends appear to support the carbon plan? Download and plot the data available and
add a trend line. Do different types of trend line show differing indications? Explain briefly
what appears to be happening. Repeat this assignment as new data becomes available.

Download the current spreadsheet data file from DECC (http://www.decc.gov.uk) ‘Natural gas
and colliery methane production and consumption DUKES 4.1.1, 1970–present’, and save the
file. Plot the data and compare with the stated target reduction. Figure 1.6 shows the results up
to 2008, your data will be current; upper line is domestic.
The consumption of natural gas for housing, public and commercial buildings appears to
have peaked in 2004, and then started a downward movement that may be continued as the
result of energy-saving measures. However, falls in earlier years, 1989, 1995 and 1997, followed
increases, and that may happen again. Adding a logarithmic trend line shows an upward future
consumption might be expected, while a polynomial gives a downward forward trend; such
mathematical calculations do not take into account what is really happening to create the data,
i.e. how gas is used, and should not be taken seriously. Gas use has increased rapidly since the
1970s and earlier, due to its competitive price, availability and convenience while burning coal
and oil use decreased. Perhaps a different source of energy has become popular since 2004?
Gas use is related to the weather, if its price is affordable, improvements in the energy efficiency

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 16 Climate change

450,000
Domestic GWh
Public & Commercial GWh
400,000
Log. (Domestic GWh)
Log. (Public & Commercial GWh)
350,000

300,000
GWh

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

−
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year

1.6 Gas data trends.

of buildings and plant, as well as gross national product, i.e. how many sites are able to use it;
further investigation into these factors would be needed to draw valid conclusions.

Embodied energy

Embodied energy and CO2 are the cost to the environment of using those materials in the
construction of a building. It is a lot less than the materials pass in terms of heat transferred
during their constructed period of service but needs to be considered at the design stage. Refer
to the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (University of Bath, http://www.bath.ac.uk/mech-eng/sert/)
for current data. Wide variations exist in the data. Where the energy comes from is important.
Recycled material requires the lowest demands on the environment. How the material is won
from the ground, processed, transported, fabricated into components such as bricks, how it is
built into the structure, maintained over 100 years or so, then demolished and removed from
the site, are all connected information. Sample data from the reference is aluminium 155 MJ/kg,
heavy carpet tiles 378 MJ/kg, cement 4.5 MJ/kg, clay brick 3 MJ/kg, concrete 0.75 MJ/kg, copper
tube 42 MJ/kg, glass 15 MJ/kg, fibreglass insulation 28 MJ/kg, a ream of A4 paper 70.5 MJ/kg,
PVC pipe 67.5 MJ/kg, steel 20.1 MJ/kg, stainless steel 56.7 MJ/kg, timber 10 MJ/kg, and plywood
15 MJ/kg.

EXAMPLE 1.9
Compare the embodied energy used in the construction of single-glazed timber and
aluminium-framed windows of 1.2 m × 1.2 m, with the energy caused by the winter heat

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 Climate change 17

flow during the first 30 years of use. This should show up the worst case as glass and
aluminium windows have high embodied energy while their heat loss is greater than for all
other parts of the building. Use the data: aluminium-framed window U value 6 W/m2 K,
timber-framed window 5.3 W/m2 K, embodied energy per window 5,470 MJ for aluminium
and 286 MJ for timber, indoor and outdoor design air temperatures 24◦ C and 0◦ C, annual
heating for 2,250 hours and load factor 0.7.

Heating energy used by aluminium-framed window

W h 3,600s 1J 1MJ
= (1.2×1.2) m2 ×6 × (24−0) K ×2,250 ×0.7× × ×
m2 K yr 1h 1Ws 106 J
MJ
= 1,176
yr
MJ
5 years use = 1,176 ×5yr
yr
= 5,880MJ in 5 years
MJ
30 years use = 1,176 ×30yr
yr
= 35,272 MJ in 30 years

Embodied energy in an aluminium-framed single-glazed window is 5,470 MJ (Inventory of Carbon

and Energy) so five years of use has a greater energy demand, while it is expected to last at least
30 years.

Heating energy used by timber-framed window

W 3, 600 MJ
= (1.2 × 1.2) m2 × 5.3 × (24 − 0) K × 2, 250 h × 0.7 ×
m2 K 106 yr
MJ
= 1, 039
yr

Embodied energy in a timber-framed single-glazed window is 286 MJ (Inventory of Carbon and

Energy). That is far less than its annual heat loss but it is not expected to last 30 years and they
are often replaced by PVC double glazing as a retrofit when they rot. PVC framed windows have
half the embodied energy of aluminium framed ones.

Regulated and unregulated demands

The Building Regulations have a controlling influence over new buildings and those that are
planned; these regulations create regulated energy demands and therefore CO2 emissions for
the future. Designers are free to exceed the legislated standards and produce a building that
uses no energy or is able to export surplus to the grid or sell it down the road as district
heating and cooling; this is a zero energy plus building, but these are very rare. Mostly, designs
comply with regulations and with the optimum minimum cost, with the emphasis on the word

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 18 Climate change

minimum, from competitive tendering. It may be practical and economically justifiable to build
new regulated zero energy homes, but once the occupiers move in, the energy demand becomes
unregulated.

EXAMPLE 1.10

A newly constructed four-storey office building complies with the Building Regulations
Part L2A. It is to be used as a 24-hour/7-day-a-week call centre, has a floor plan of
30 m × 20 m, a room height of 3 m. Mechanical air change rate is 1 per hour, indoor
air is maintained at 21◦ C at an external temperature of −2◦ C. Each floor has eight
windows of 2 m2 . There are four external doors of 2.5 m2 each. Thermal transmittances
are 0.25 W/m2 K for the ground floor and top floor roof, walls are 0.35 W/m2 K while the
windows are 2.2 W/m2 K and doors are 3.5 W/m2 K. Calculate the regulated peak heat
demand.
The regulated peak cooling demand is to be taken as equal to that for heating. Take the
heating seasonal weather load factor as 0.7 for 4,000 h due to cold overnight operation,
and 0.4 for 1,200 h as the cooling season, as nights provide free cooling to the building.
Heating system overall efficiency is 80% and the coefficient of performance of the cooling
system is 2. Estimate the annual regulated metered energy input using the workbook
supplied, other software or manually as shown in Chapter 6. Lighting runs continuously
at 10 W/m2 . Each floor has 75 continuously used computer work stations, using 250 W
each. A computer server room on the top floor has a continuous electrical load of 10 kW.
Refrigerators, water heaters and catering items add 3 kW loads to each floor with a load
factor of 0.25. Sensible heat emission of each employee is 110 W. Estimate the annual
unregulated demands and compare with those that are regulated. What do you observe
from the calculated data?

The data is entered into the simple workbook, ‘Commercial building BR Part L2A’ provided on
the website, use other software if preferred or calculate the heat loss as shown in Chapter 6.
Note that the workbook provided only applies to examples within this book. This may be an
extreme example but several types of buildings function continuously such as some manufacturing
facilities, hospitals, hotels and police stations.
Regulated demands for heating and cooling amount to 48.16 kW each at peak load with an
annual regulated load of 180,117 kWh for heating and cooling energy consumption.
Energy demands falling outside of those specified by the Building Regulations are found from
this type of calculation:

W 1 kW
Lighting load = 10 × 2, 400 m2 ×
m2 1, 000 W
= 24 kW
24 h 365 day
Lighting energy = 24 kW × ×
day year
= 210, 240 kWh/yr

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 Climate change 19

In summer, a cooling system needs to remove heat gains through the building fabric and outdoor
air ventilation, plus the internal electrical loads and the heat emitted from the occupants, to
maintain the desired comfort conditions; this amounts to:

Summer cooling load = (48 + 121 + 33) kW

= 202 kW

Other results are given in the workbook. Peak electrical load from internal sources of 121 kW are
far greater than the maximum expected winter heat loss from the building of 48 kW, and then
there is the additional heat emission of 33 kW from body heat. The building requires continuous
cooling to remove 106 kW during winter. This example shows that however energy efficient the
fabric of a building may be due to regulation of its design features, what users put into the
building can overcome attempts to reduce CO2 emissions.

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) 2012

Following the Kyoto Protocol 1997, most countries committed to capping emissions on a reducing
scale. Three mechanisms are used:

1. Regulation: such as the building codes, efficiency of appliances and selective investment by
governments from competitive tender for new projects.
2. Carbon tax: power stations and the largest industries have to pay for annual permits to emit
CO2 for a fixed term of years before a system of permit trading is allowed.
3. The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS): regulated users are given a cap on their emissions,
provided with paper certificates that are returned at the end of the year, sell surplus
certificates or purchase more to make up for excess emissions.

EXAMPLE 1.11
A power station burning lignite has a capacity of 1,600 MWe , from eight equal-sized
generator sets it annually supplies 11.4 million MWh of electricity (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Hazelwood_Power_Station). It burns 16.7 million tonnes of lignite, open-cut brown
coal, with a GCV of 26 MJ/kg when dried, and emits 1.5 tCO2 /MWh. Calculate the overall
efficiency of the power station, how many tonnes of CO2 it emits in a year, how much a
carbon tax rate of E20/ tCO2 would cost the plant operator in a year and how much would
be added to the price of a kWh supplied to the grid. What incentive does the plant operator
have to continue using lignite?

t 103 kg 26 MJ 1 MWs 1h
Energy input = 16.7 × 106 × × × ×
yr 1t kg 1 MJ 3600 s
MWh
= 120.6 × 106
yr
output
Overall power station efficiency = × 100%
input

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 20 Climate change

11.4 × 106 MWh

= × 100%
120.6 × 106 MWh
= 9.5%

This is very low, as power station efficiency should be around 28%. Usually, lignite is locally
excavated at minimum cost to the power station operator.

tCO2
Flue gas emission = 1.5 × 11.4 × 106 MWh
MWh
= 17 × 106 tCO2
E20
Annual carbon tax = 17 × 106 tCO2 ×
t CO2

= E340 × 106

E340 × 106
Production cost added =
11.4 × 103 × 106 kWh
E0.03
=
kWh

Government imposition of a direct tax on CO2 emissions from the power station adds 3 cents/kWh
to the cost of production, and that will be passed on to distributors and final customers.
A household that consumes 10,000 kWh per year will pay an additional E300.
If the power station operator converted one of its steam boiler flues to carbon capture and
storage (CCS), it would save paying carbon tax of:

E340 × 106
Annual tax saved =
8
= E42.5 × 106

The tax saving might apply for several years depending upon government allowances and may
be sufficient to stimulate investment in emission reduction technology.
The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) commenced in 2005 to cover sites over
20 MW input, power stations, oil refineries and major industrial operators such as cement, steel,
food and vehicle manufacturing. Each country has a national registry to administer the ETS. To
minimize the effect of short-term weather and other variations in energy use, the EU set three
trading period of 3, 5 and 8 years between 2005 and 2020. Each trading period commences on
1 January with period 3 from 2013–2020. Each EU member state sets an allowance of emissions
for each year of the trading period; one allowance, one credit, is 1 tCO2 , i.e. 1 tonne of carbon
dioxide emission. The allowance is calculated from verified emissions in the stated industries from
annual audits and an assessment of what is likely to happen in the subsequent trading period.
The UK had verified and estimated industrial emission of 272.4 Mt CO2 in 2005 and was allowed
a cap of 246.2 Mt CO2 , 9.6% less, for each year during 2008–2012.
Each industrial operator is given, free of charge, annual allowances at the start of the trading
period. After the end of the first year, emissions are validated through an audit according
to the assigned allowance. The operator gives back the allowances used in that year. More
allowances are purchased from the open market, and handed over, to make up for excess
emissions above the capped total. If the operator emitted less than the allowances given, those

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 Climate change 21

surplus credits can be rolled over to the next year, passed to another operator within the same
company, moved across national borders or sold on the stock market for cash. At the end of
each trading period, unused allowances may be retired or retained, depending upon the type of
allowance.
Large industrial operators have buildings using energy for heating, ventilation, cooling, lighting,
data centres, catering, distributed IT, transport and general power. Building services engineers and
energy auditors have a professional involvement in the overall energy usage of these regulated
sites, both for the buildings, staff accommodation and industrial energy use. For example, every
major car manufacturing site has a continuously run air-conditioned paint spray vehicle tunnel
and gas-fired ovens along a production line, using vast amounts of heating, ventilation and
refrigeration energy and equipment.
Repeats of recent years’ financial crises reduce energy demands, leading to oversupply of
carbon emission allowances and their falling in value. EU energy efficiency initiatives also reduce
emissions, which is their aim, leaving more allowances in the market than are needed. The
aviation sector is due to join the EU ETS in 2012 but the largest emitters, the USA and China,
may not wish to join, upsetting the aim of the scheme. If Germany closes its nuclear power
generation by 2022, as indicated recently, the country may increase emissions by as much as the
whole of those from the UK, 500 Mt CO2 /yr. Look at the current prices of allowances (EUA), and
certified emission reductions (CER), on the website and notice the E volatility (Trading Carbon,
at http://www.pointcarbon.com/, accessed August 2011).
Allowances or credits are a financial instrument that can be traded on the open market
worldwide. Trade in any stock is based on people’s confidence to invest, availability of the
stock and fear of losing its value; all are human emotions. EU allowances opened with a cash
value of E30/tCO2 and oscillated wildly, going as low as E10, and even dropping to E0.03
in December 2007 due to oversupply of allowances in the market and the industrial recession.
Large reductions in CO2 emissions from energy savings and greater use of nuclear power will
create a surplus of allowances, and their traded price can fall as there may be fewer buyers, but
nothing is certain. A carbon allowance price of E20 to E30 is anticipated for trading periods
up till 2020 but with significant volatility. This is the financial services stock market solution by
trading shares.

EXAMPLE 1.12

Explain the aim of implementing the EU ETS.

Without government regulation, energy use and emissions are only penalized by their price.
Energy prices for the largest consumers, power stations, oil refineries and major manufacturers
are very low due to the high quantities consumed with a very high degree of security of
demand from energy users. Industrial and commercial energy demands are highly predictable,
unlike the weather and time-dependent peaks of demand from homes. There was no penalty
for emitting CO2 and other so-called pollutants high into the atmosphere through chimneys
as long as smoke was controlled. With the EU ETS, there is a cost to emitters, a direct
encouragement to invest in countermeasures and a benefit in selling surplus allowances
afterwards. Commencing in 2013, member states will auction allowances, that is sell and not
issue them free of charge, with the aim of raising funds for investment in emission reduction
projects.

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 22 Climate change

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

CCS claims to have the potential to capture 90% of the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel-fired
plant. This will almost certainly be developed for power stations and large-scale sites, maybe
hospitals and industrial facilities. Captured CO2 is compressed with gas or steam-driven turbines,
pumped as high pressure liquid, in the same way as LPG, out to bulk transport ships or sea
production platforms where it is pumped down into the same geological strata where the oil or
methane gas came from (The Carbon Trust Ltd, http://www.carbontrust.co.uk).
Three methods are used:

1. Pre-combustion separation by producing syngas from pulverized coal, removing CO2 from
syngas leaving H2 that is fired into steam boilers or passed on to the transport industry.
H2 combusts to H2 O vapour only. This is the hydrogen economy solution.
2. Post-combustion by washing the flue gas with ammonia and water to separate out CO2 gas.
The remaining flue gas is mainly N2 , some O2 and sometimes SO2 if the fuel contained S
plus possibly some NO2 .
3. Oxy-fuel combustion by removing N2 from combustion air and burning O2 plus re-circulated
flue gas to reduce the flame temperature with the fuel. CO2 is washed from the flue gas
with ammonia and water.

EXAMPLE 1.13
A 2000 MW oil-fired power station constructed in 1975 converts one of its 500 MWe
generator steam boilers to CCS technology. Overall efficiency of the generator set is 28%.
That generator set emits no more CO2 into the atmosphere from 1 January 2013; this is
the commencement of the 3rd EU ETS trading phase of 2013–2020. Design, installation
and commissioning take all of 2012. The generator only provides peak lopping power due
to the high cost of oil and ran at full load for 1,000 hours during 2011 and around the
same in 2012. CO2 emission intensity for the use of oil is agreed to be 1 kg CO2 /kWhe .
Predict the outcome for this investment decision.

Calculate the verified emission of the generator set in 2011, the last full year of registered data:

100 103 kW 1, 000 h 1 kg CO2 1t 1 Mt

Emission = 500 MWe × × × × × ×
28 1 MW yr kWhe 10 kg 106 t
3

= 1.8 Mt CO2

A capped allowance of 1.8 Mt CO2 was granted for this generator, set for the duration of the
trading period until 2020 by the EU. Allowances traded at E20/tCO2 during early 2013 with
the market expectation of price volatility to continue with no guarantee of a rising value, due to
many other carbon emission projects coming into use and there being a surplus of allowances
for sale. The EU awarded a capital grant towards the cost of pumping the recovered CO2 high
pressure liquid into containers for export. The sale of liquid CO2 did not produce any revenue
for the power station but future streams might as inventors found uses for large amounts of it.
The power station sold its surplus allowances each year to raise capital for further investments in

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 Climate change 23

CCS and keep the power station using the low cost oil from the nearby oil refinery.

E20 106 t 1.8 Mt EM

Revenue from allowances = × × × 8 years ×
tCO2 1 Mt yr E106
= E288 M

It may be possible for the power station operator to sell allowances for something like E288
million, but he has no guarantee that amount can be realized from sales on the free market;
more might be gained, or a lot less. The investment decision to install CCS may be made for
several reasons, one of which is the financial return from sales of unused allowances. There is no
indication at the present time what might happen to EU policy or the ETS market after 2020. The
power station operator has to decide whether to invest in CCS under highly variable financial
scenarios.

Taxing carbon
Extensive discussions around the world have focussed on how, or if, taxation on the consumption
of hydrocarbon natural resources can reduce usage. The problem was reported to be that
combustion of hydrocarbons, petroleum products such as petrol, diesel fuel and heating oil, plus
natural gas, produced carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. CO2 trapped warmth in the
atmosphere and that had to be reduced. Buildings are major consumers of energy, are largely
of existing stock plus new developments, and will continue to use energy into the foreseeable
future. That is, just as long as humans need them. Transportation, manufacturing, construction
and agriculture make up the overall picture. A renewable means of providing energy is being
actively pursued but winning hydrocarbons from the earth is and will remain of vital importance
for generations.
More than one thousand carbon policy measures were identified in the nine major countries
(Productivity Commission 2011) that covered energy-saving engineering projects, government
policies, taxation of hydrocarbon use and financial trading methods for carbon-use credits. The
advice to government was that there could not be one single price to charge for greenhouse gas
emissions. It was too difficult to compare hydrocarbon use in transportation with those used in
buildings, for example.
The problem with taxation was that someone had to pay the tax; this was always the final
consumer of products and services. Businesses pass on their direct costs by raising the prices
of their products. So the consumer paid more for electricity, petrol, diesel, oil, natural gas and
liquefied petroleum gas. The aim of the tax was to encourage the use of less hydrocarbon primary
fuel sources, reduce national emissions and make the country look good as a world leader in
helping to save the planet from extinction.
Ask yourself a question here. Has a tax on petrol ever made you drive less distance, downsize
your vehicle and fly less? Does taxation on fuel reduce its use? How about the tax on tobacco,
alcohol and luxury cars? The answer may be, not greatly, if at all. Car design evolves to be more
fuel efficient but did the national consumption of petrol and diesel fuels reduce over your lifetime
as a result? Would a tax on heating oil and natural gas lower their consumption? Answers are
found in the DECC statistics used earlier and that is where we can track the progress of the
carbon plan and other initiatives. Yes, is the answer as petroleum use is reducing in the UK, but
was tax the reason?
Houses and other buildings evolve into being more efficient users of primary energy and use
less. The old stock of buildings is gradually being replaced by new more energy-efficient designs,

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 24 Climate change

but more houses, offices, commercial and industrial buildings will always be built, increasing the
number using energy resources. So, will energy use reduce on a national scale? Maybe it could
in the UK as building land becomes full, but the world is a large place and there are vast reserves
of land for future building development around the globe. Just drive between the major cities
and towns in Scotland, Wales and Victoria in Australia, also probably any country that could be
mentioned, and you will see unused or under-used land, not all flat land either, that, one day,
future generations will see covered in houses, schools, hotels, hospitals, commercial premises
and shopping centres. So, return to the question. Does taxation on fuel reduce its use? Maybe
not. Other life factors determine how much is consumed of everything.
How could a price be decided for any type of carbon dioxide emission tax? Answer: find out
what it would cost to achieve abatement of primary fuel usage from extra investment in energy-
saving measures such as greater thermal insulation for buildings, higher efficiency heating and
cooling systems, reducing lighting power, controlling energy systems better or by accepting
that we have to live with widened standards of thermal comfort. And that only considers what
the building services engineer could directly influence. Governments need to have a ‘price of
abatement’, that is, how much it costs to achieve reductions in the use of primary energy, or
more precisely any CO2 or other emissions from the use of primary energy, as necessary to meet
international commitments.

EXAMPLE 1.14
A London commercial building is to be retrofitted for letting at higher rental to maintain
occupancy in competition with nearby new buildings. A complete upgrade to the windows,
air conditioning, lighting, and installing photovoltaic power cells to the roof are estimated
to cost £500,000 to potentially reduce electricity consumption by 500 MWh and natural
gas by 100 MWh per year. Take the CO2 emissions intensity as 1 tCO2 /MWh for electricity
used and 0.5 tCO2 /MWh of gas used at the site. Electricity costs 10 p/kWh and gas costs
5 p/kWh at the site. Calculate the price of abatement for this project in £/tCO2 and the
annual cost saving. Is the building owner likely to make this investment? Could the building
owner gain by selling carbon allowances to increase the financial return?

1 tCO2 0.5 tCO2

Emission reduction = 500 MWh × + 100 MWh ×
MWh MWh
= 550 tCO2

103 kWh 10 £ 103 kWh

Cost saving = 500 MWh × × + 100 MWh ×
1 MWh 100 kWh 1 MWh
5 £
×
100 kWh
= £55,000 per year
£500,000
Price of abatement =
550 tCO2
£909
=
tCO2

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 Climate change 25

£500,000
Simple payback period = years
£55,000
= 9 years

The building owner is unlikely to make a commercial investment of over three years’ simple
payback unless there is a realistic opportunity of selling the building for a much higher price and
recouping the investment early. Tenants may demand a rent reduction as the building costs less
to operate after the refit. Commercial buildings are not given carbon allowances, only certain
industries and power stations, so there is no gain to be made from the EU ETS.

Conclusion

Are we able to make any conclusions about the world’s progress towards reducing CO2 emissions
in response to the threat of damaging climate change?
It is apparent from the International Energy Agency data that whatever individual countries
may do in response, however many building are retrofitted in the UK and Europe, however clever
we become at attempting to have zero carbon buildings, converting to electric cars, building
nuclear power stations and wind generators, other countries are likely to continue increasing
their emissions. Worldwide emissions are destined to increase for the foreseeable future, perhaps
for decades or centuries. But the worldwide reduction of emissions has to start somewhere, or
find another solution. The future is in our hands.

Questions

Descriptive answers must be made in your own words based on a thorough understanding
of the subject. Copied work displays a noticeable discontinuity of style between your own
production and the reference material. Also, the work has not been fully comprehended if it
can only be answered by copying. The ability to pass on reliable and concise information is a
vitally important part of business and government work, and you should realize that as much
practice and experience as possible is needed to become an effective communicator.

1. How could open market trading in the EU CO2 allowances make investment decisions in
emission reduction plant and systems difficult?
2. Why should building services engineers, architects and construction companies be concerned
about the trading or value of EU CO2 allowances? These are not registered sites or users
who are awarded or having to purchase allowances.
3. Which of these is correct about building services engineering and the EU ETS?
1. There is no connection.
2. All building services systems have CO2 emissions.
3. Without services in buildings, there would be no registered emission sites.
4. Large commercial buildings need to trade in allowances.
5. Services need to minimize CO2 emissions on EU registered sites.
4. Which of these is correct?
1. Every large energy-using site is registered with the EU ETS.
2. The EU ETS charges fees for allowance traders.
3. Only financial institutions can hold CO2 allowances.
4. Power stations and large industrial sites can register with the EU ETS.
5. No organization profits from trading in allowances.

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 26 Climate change

5. Which is correct about the carbon plan?

1. The most important atmospheric pollutant to be reduced is methane.
2. Carbon monoxide from vehicle exhausts is polluting the air and must be eliminated.
3. Carbon dioxide emissions from burning and combusting hydrocarbon fuels must be
reduced.
4. All hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere are to be phased out.
5. Nitrous oxides will always be capped at zero.
6. What is the level of CO2 emissions from the UK?
1. 500 tonnes per year.
2. 500 giga tonnes per year.
3. 500 mega tonnes per year.
4. There aren’t any.
5. 500 million kilograms per year.

7. What are the problems caused by a market price for carbon credits?
1. Site owners do not have a guarantee for the value of emission reductions.
2. A fluctuating market price for allowances is attractive for registered sites.
3. Trading in allowances becomes an industry of its own.
4. Allowance price will always increase in line with inflation.
5. Carbon credit price is tied to the strength of the Euro in world markets.

8. What chemical compounds are formed during combustion of a fossil fuel and what are their
effects on the atmosphere?
9. Which of these is an EU ETS registered site?
1. District heating systems.
2. Large air-conditioned buildings.
3. A cement-making plant.
4. A hospital.
5. An apartment building.
10. Which best describes the EU ETS?
1. Tax on energy use.
2. A disincentive to invest in energy efficiency.
3. An unavoidable cost for industry.
4. An outcome of the Kyoto Protocol.
5. Unnecessary administrative burden from the EU.
11. How does nature maintain a balance of O2 , N2 and CO2 in the atmosphere?
1. By manufacturing oxygen from the earth.
2. Oceans and soil absorb all CO2 from the atmosphere.
3. Chemical reaction between H2 O, CO2 and N2 in the clouds returns C to the soil and
oceans, leaving O2 in the atmosphere that is necessary for life on Earth.
4. Oceans absorb CO2 causing water acidification.
5. It doesn’t.
12. How long does human-generated CO2 remain in the atmosphere?
1. Minutes.
2. Hundreds of years.
3. 12 months.

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 Climate change 27

4. It never decreases.
5. Plants consume it quickly.

13. How has the world created what is now said to be an atmospheric catastrophe in the making?
14. Explain how the post-combustion capture of CO2 works.
15. Explain what happens to CO2 that is captured from fossil fuel combustion.
16. Which is approximately the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere at a few metres above
ground level?
1. 360 ppm.
2. 1,000 ppm.
3. 5%.
4. Negligible.
5. 500 mg/m3 .

17. A two-storey inner terrace house has a floor plan of 8 m x 5 m and a room height of 2.5 m.
The adjoining houses are of the same standard and are along the 8 m dimension. Mechanical
air change rate is 0.5 per hour through a heat exchanger that preheats incoming outdoor
air from −3◦ C to 11◦ C in winter, when the indoor air is maintained at 22◦ C. Four windows
are each 1 m2 ; two external doors are 2 m2 . Thermal transmittances are 0.14 W/m2 K for the
floor and walls, flat plaster ceiling with a pitched tiled roof 0.1 W/m2 K while the windows and
doors are 0.8 W/m2 K. House construction is a concrete slab on the ground with 250 mm
insulation, brick and block walls with 275 mm insulation, 400 mm insulation in the roof,
triple-glazed windows and PVC insulated doors. Does the design qualify for the Passivhaus
standard, if not, what simple measure is permitted by Passivhaus for compliance?
18. A new single-storey office building complies with the Building Regulations Part L2A. It is
to be used as a 12-hour/5-day a week office, has a floor plan of 40 m × 30 m, a room
height of 3 m. Mechanical air change rate is 1 per hour, indoor air is maintained at 22◦ C at
an external temperature of −3◦ C. There are 10 windows of 3 m2 . There are two external
doors of 2.5 m2 each. Thermal transmittances are 0.2 W/m2 K for the ground floor and roof,
walls are 0.3 W/m2 K while the windows 2 W/m2 K and doors are 3 W/m2 K. Calculate the
regulated peak heat demand. The regulated peak cooling demand is to be taken as equal to
that for heating. Take the heating seasonal weather load factor as 0.7 for 2,250 h and 0.4 for
1,000 h of the cooling season. Heating system overall efficiency is 80% and the coefficient
of performance of the cooling system is 2. Estimate the annual regulated metered energy
input using the workbook supplied, other software or manually, as shown in Chapter 3.
Lighting runs continuously at 12 W/m2 . Each floor has 100 computer work stations using
250 W each. A computer server room on the top floor has a continuous electrical load of
8 kW. Refrigerators, water heaters and catering items add 4 kW loads to each floor with a
load factor of 0.25. Sensible heat emission of each employee is 110 W. Estimate the annual
unregulated demands and compare with those that are regulated. What do you observe
from the calculated data?
19. A 500 MWe gas-fired power station has an overall efficiency of 32% and runs at full load
for 6,000 h/yr. Emission intensity is 0.5 tCO2 /MWh. Calculate how many tonnes of CO2 it
emits in a year, how much a payable carbon tax rate of E30/tCO2 would cost the plant
operator in a year and how much would be added to the price of a kWh supplied to the grid.
What incentive does the plant operator have to start installing carbon capture and storage
to reduce emissions?
20. A 500 MWe oil-fired power station with an overall efficiency of 25% converts to carbon
capture and storage technology and saves 90% of its CO2 emissions from 1 January 2013;

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 28 Climate change

this is at the commencement of the 3rd EU ETS trading phase of 2013–2020. The generator
only provides peak lopping power due to the high cost of oil and ran at full load for 1,000
hours during 2011 and around the same in 2012. CO2 emission intensity for the use of oil
is agreed to be 1.0 kg CO2 /kWhe . Emissions for the 3rd EU ETS trading period are capped
at 2011 levels. Traded allowances realize a maximum of E20.00/tCO2 . Predict the outcome
for this investment decision.
21. Explain the relationship between the price of abatement, that is, the cost per tCO2 , for
emission reduction retrofits from engineering and structural improvements, and the value of
carbon allowances traded on the open market.
22. What is the correct current level of annual CO2 emissions from the whole of the world?
1. 10 million tonnes.
2. 1,000 megatonnes.
3. 500,000 Gt.
4. 5 Gt.
5. 30,000 Mt.
23. What is the approximate percentage increase in world CO2 emissions from 1971 to 2008?
1. 105%.
2. 55%.
3. 350%.
4. 1,000%.
5. 120%.
24. Which is correct about a zero carbon building?
1. Cannot consume any fossil fuel energy.
2. Must be provided only by renewable energy systems.
3. Consumes a minimum amount of energy for all uses.
4. Has a zero cost energy bill.
5. None of these.
25. How much energy does a green building use?
1. None.
2. A lot.
3. Only that used for lighting, computers and hot water.
4. Less than a 1960s design.
5. Any winter heat loss is replaced by summer heat gains.
26. The plant process for CCS is which of these?
1. Flue gas filtered through charcoal.
2. Suction pump removes CO2 from flue exhaust.
3. Flue gas washed with alcohol.
4. Flue gas washed with ammonia.
5. Catalytic converter in exhaust gas absorbs CO2 .
27. State what is meant by these summary solutions of the apparent need to reduce global
warming caused by human activities.
1. Renewable timber buildings.
2. Improvement of 1950s building designs.
3. Social responsibility index method.
4. Marketing plan aid.
5. The USA is ahead.

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 Climate change 29

28. State what is meant by these summary solutions for buildings to reduce global warming
caused by human activities.
1. Down-under reduced energy scheme.
2. Seems impossible.
3. The no-television in the home solution.
4. Dark in here at night.
5. I keep my beer in the river.
29. State what is meant by these summary solutions for buildings to reduce global warming
caused by human activities.
1. A very tall all-glass walled building in a 40◦ C summer location, having natural ventilation
and no refrigerated air conditioning.
2. Natural daylighting with unshaded glazed perimeter to collect and store solar heat gains
for winter.
3. Accountants’ solution.
4. Engineers’ solution.
5. Very small energy use building.
30. State what is meant by these summary solutions for buildings to reduce global warming
caused by human activities.
1. Solar atrium office.
2. Power station solution.
3. Solar panel and wind turbine solution.
4. Grid-connected renewable sources solution.
5. Ship solution.

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