“Assignment:01”

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL AND MODERN

PHYSICS”

COURSE TITLE: Environmental Physics

SUBMITTED TO: Dr. Noshaba

SUBMITTED BY: Hajira Alam

2022-B.Env-018
SEMESTER: 4th
SUBMISSION DATE: 5th July, 2024

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

1
Physics is a science based upon exact measurement of physical quantities that are dependent
upon three fundamental dimensions. The three fundamental or primary dimensions are mass,
length, and time. These three fundamental units must be understood in order to lay the
foundation for the many concepts of physics.

What is Physics?
Physics studies matter, energy, and how things change. It uses experiments to test ideas.
Unlike math, which is abstract, physics only makes sense when it matches real-world events.
For example, in electrostatics, fields form around positive and negative charges, creating
dipoles. In magnetostatics, it would be neat if there were separate magnetic “charges,” but
nature only gives us magnetic dipoles with both north and south poles together. Math helps
physicists describe these ideas, including imagining dimensions beyond our usual three (x, y,
z), like time in Einstein’s theory of relativity, where space and time make up a four-
dimensional system (x, y, z, t).

Classical Physics and Modern Physics

Classical physics refers to the scientific theories developed before the 20 th century, focusing
mainly on mechanics and electromagnetism. It laid the foundation for modern physics by
introducing fundamental concepts still used today. As it was developed primarily before the
20th century, classical physics deals with macroscopic phenomena and is based on Newtonian
mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. It describes the behavior of objects at
speeds much slower than speed of light.
Modern physics, which emerged from the early 20 th century onwards, includes
groundbreaking theories like relativity and quantum mechanics. Modern physics extends
beyond classical physics to encompass microscopic phenomena, high velocities approaching
the speed of light, and quantum mechanics. It includes special relativity, general relativity,

2
quantum mechanics, and field theory These advancements revolutionized our understanding
of the universe at both large and small scales.
Features of Classical Physics

Classical physics operates under the assumption of determinism, where the behavior of
objects can be predicted precisely given initial conditions and forces acting upon them (e.g.,
Newton’s laws of motion).
Classical physics, as understood through Newton’s laws and theories, defines matter and
energy separately. Newton’s model is three-dimensional, considering width, height, and
depth. He believed space and time were unchanging elements in the universe. According to
Newton, absolute space is always the same and doesn’t depend on anything external.
Absolute time flows evenly and independently of external factors. These ideas laid the
foundation for classical physics.

Different Areas of Classical Physics

Classical physics covers various fields. Mechanics looks at how forces affect objects, while
dynamics studies changes in motion caused by force. Fluid mechanics, or hydromechanics,
deals with liquids and gases. Statics examines how forces affect objects at rest or moving at a
constant speed. Optics studies the behavior of light, thermodynamics explores heat and
energy transformations, acoustics focuses on sound, and electricity and magnetism form
another key area of classical physics.
History of classical physics
The origins of classical physics can be traced back to ancient Greek thinkers such as
Aristotle, who developed early theories on motion and natural philosophy. These ideas were
further refined during the Renaissance period, where figures like Galileo Galilei and
Johannes Kepler made significant contributions. Galileo’s experiments with motion and
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion provided essential insights into mechanics and celestial
mechanics, respectively.
However, it was Isaac Newton who solidified classical mechanics with the publication of his
monumental work “Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica” in 1687. Newton’s
laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation laid down the principles that governed the
motion of objects both on Earth and in space. Newtonian mechanics established a
deterministic worldview, asserting that the future state of a system could be precisely
predicted if its initial conditions were known.
The 19th century witnessed further developments in classical physics, notably in
thermodynamics and electromagnetism. Thermodynamics, pioneered by scientists like
Carnot, Clausius, and Boltzmann, formulated laws governing the behavior of heat and
energy, as well as the concept of entropy. Concurrently, the study of electromagnetism

3
advanced with Michael Faraday’s experiments and James Clerk Maxwell’s equations, which
unified electricity and magnetism and predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Classical physics faced challenges in the late 19 th and early 20th centuries when experimental
observations, such as blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, could not be explained
by classical theories alone. These anomalies paved the way for the development of quantum
mechanics and Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, which fundamentally altered our
understanding of the universe at both macroscopic and microscopic scales.
How classical physics paved way for modern physics?
Newton’s theories of the universe, while eventually proven less accurate by Einstein, were
tremendously valuable to science for centuries. Despite their limitations, they played a crucial
role in driving technological advancements during the industrial revolution. A theory is
essentially a structured framework that guides our understanding, a collection of ideas that
can be refined as better theories emerge. Newton’s theories included his theory of gravity,
which he developed to explain, his concept of a three-dimensional infinite universe, his
particle theory of light, and his fundamental belief that straight lines exist in nature. Newton’s
investigations into the physics of light led to his particle theory, which proposed that each ray
of light travels in a straight line and carries an extremely small amount of mass

Modern Physics
Modern physics is an effort to understand the underlying processes of the interactions of
matter using the tools of science & engineering. Modern physics, on the other hand, explores
the deeper and more extreme aspects of nature. It emerged around 1890 with breakthroughs
like quantum mechanics and relativity. Quantum mechanics helps us understand tiny
particles and their behaviors, especially in conditions like very low temperatures or small
distances. Relativity comes into play at high speeds or in massive cosmic scales, where it
describes how space, time, and gravity interact. This kind of Physics is based on what was
known before then, i.e. Newton’s laws, Maxwell’s equations, thermodynamics and termed as
classical physics.
Important concepts of modern physics are as under:
Concept Description
Atomic theory and atomic model Understanding the structure and
behavior of atoms
Black-body radiation Radiation emitted by a perfect
absorber and emitter of energy

Franck–Hertz experiment Demonstrates quantization of energy

levels in atoms
Geiger–Marsden experiment Confirmed the nuclear model of the
atom (Rutherford’s experiment

Gravitational lensing Bending of light around massive

objects

4
 Photoelectric effect Emission of electrons from a material
exposed to light
Quantum thermodynamics Application of quantum principles to
thermodynamic systems

Wave-particle duality Dual nature of particles and waves

Quantum Mechanics Fundamental theory describing the

behavior of particles

Vibrations and Waves Phenomena Vibrations and Waves Phenomena

Evolution of Modern Physics

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen’s discovery of X-rays unveiled a new form of penetrating
radiation, marking a significant leap in understanding electromagnetic phenomena. Around
1900, Max Planck proposed that energy is quantized, meaning it exists in discrete units rather
than being continuous, laying the foundation for quantum theory. Albert Einstein’s 1905
theory of relativity revolutionized concepts of space and time, revealing that they are not
absolute but can vary for observers moving at high speeds. In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced
the idea of quantized energy levels for electrons orbiting atomic nuclei, a crucial insight into
atomic structure. Louis De Broglie’s 1924 hypothesis of wave-particle duality suggested that
particles exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behaviors, challenging classical notions of
matter. Finally, the formalization of Quantum Mechanics in 1926 by physicists like Werner
Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger provided a comprehensive framework to understand the
behavior of atoms and subatomic particles, ushering in a new era of physics that continues to
shape our understanding of the universe today.
Importance of Modern Physics:
Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding the behavior of systems at atomic length
scales and smaller. If the physical nature of an atom was solely described by classical
mechanics electrons would not “orbit” the nucleus since orbiting electrons emit radiation (due
to circular motion) and would eventually collide with the nucleus due to this loss of energy.
This framework was unable to explain the stability of atoms. Instead, electrons remain in an
uncertain, non-deterministic, “smeared”, probabilistic, wave–particle orbital about the
nucleus, defying the traditional assumptions of classical mechanics and electromagnetism.
Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation and description
of the atom, especially the differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of
the same element, as well as subatomic particles. In short, the quantum-mechanical atomic
model has succeeded spectacularly in the realm where classical mechanics and
electromagnetism falter.
Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which
classical physics cannot account:

5
 • Quantization of certain physical properties
• Wave–particle duality
• Principle of uncertainty
• Quantum entanglement.
Comparative Analysis of Classical Versus Modern Physics
Aspect Classical Physics Modern Physics
Scope Deals with macroscopic Deals with microscopic
objects and everyday particles and high energies
phenomena Deals with
microscopic particles and
high energies
Foundation Newtonian mechanics, Quantum mechanics,
thermodynamics, relativity theory, quantum
electromagnetism field theory
Space and Time Absolute space and time Relative space-time,
curvature of space-time
(general relativity)
Particle Behavior Deterministic, follows Probabilistic, described by
Newton’s laws wave functions
Theory of Light Wave theory Dual nature (wave-particle
duality), photon theory
Energy Mechanical energy (kinetic, Includes mass-energy
potential) equivalence (E=mc²),
quantized energy levels
Approach Empirical observations, laws Mathematical models,
derived from experiments quantum probabilities
Applications Engineering, mechanics, Quantum computing,
classical optics particle physics, cosmology
Limitations Incompatible with high Limited by uncertainty
speeds, small scales principle, need for complex
calculations
Key Figures Isaac Newton, James Clerk Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr,
Maxwell Max Planck

Conclusion
In conclusion, classical physics provided a robust framework for understanding macroscopic
phenomena using deterministic laws and empirical observations. However, modern physics,
with its quantum mechanics and relativity, expanded this understanding to include
microscopic realms and extreme conditions. This comparative analysis underscores the
evolution of physics, demonstrating how each era contributed uniquely to our understanding
of the physical universe and its practical applications.

6
References

OpenStax. “1.1 Physics: An Introduction.” Pressbooks.online.ucf.edu, 22 Aug. 2016,

pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/phy2053bc/chapter/physics-an-introduction/. Accessed 5 July
2024.
Klatt, J. D. (2005, April 21). Classical Physics, Quantum Mechanics, Relativity, Super String
Theory And Mediation. Mediate.com. https://mediate.com/classical-physics-quantum-
mechanics-relativity-super-string-theory-and-mediation/
Classical Physics Assignment Help, Homework Help, Physics Tutorial. (n.d.).
Www.tutorsglobe.com. Retrieved July 5, 2024, from
https://www.tutorsglobe.com/homework-help/physics/classical-physics-75257.aspx
Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, September 8). Classical physics. Wikipedia; Wikimedia
Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics
Classical and Modern Physics Journals | Open Access Journals | Best Open Access Journals |
International Publications | Opast Publications. (n.d.). Www.opastpublishers.com. Retrieved
July 5, 2024, from https://www.opastpublishers.com/highlights/classical-and-modern-
physics-journals-2996.html

7
8