MSP

Srnsors and Actuator

T Sem

Digital and Innovative Sensing

Chapter Highlights
transducers
Advantages of digital
encoder and hardware features
Incremental optical
Direction, position, and speed sensing
Resolution and error considerations

Absolute optical encoder

Linear encoder
Digital binary sensors
Digital resolver, tachometer
Laser, íider-optic sensors, gyroscope
Digital camera and image acquisition
sensors
Hall-effect, ultrasonic, and magnetostrictive
Tactile sensors
MEMS sensors
Kalman filter, and neural networks
Sensor fusion through Bayes,
Networked sensing and localization

Sensor applirations

6.1 Innovative Sensor Technologies

Numerous examples are
Sensors and transducers are variety of engineering applications.
useful in a
and control, energy systems, material
found in transit systems, computing systems, process monitoring
processing, manufacturing, mining, food processing, service sector, forestry, civil engineering struc
tures and systems, and so on. In Chapter 5, we studied analog senscrs and transducers. In the piesent

we study digital transducers and some

other innovative sensing methodologies. Our primary
chapter,
focus here is on transducers in mechatronic systems including motion sensors. As noted in Chapter 5,
other measurands, such as force, torque, temperature,
by using a suitable auxiliary front-end sensor,
and pressure, may be converted into a motion and subsequently measured using a motion transducer
For example, altitude (or pressure) measurements in aircraft and aerospace applications are made using
a pressure-sensing front-end, such as a bellows or diaphragm device, in conjunction with an optical
encoder (which is a digital transducer) to measure the resulting displacement. Similarly, a bimetallic
element may be used to convert temperature into a displacement, which may be measured using a dis

placement sensor.
and
It is to call an analog transducer, because both the sensor stage
sensor as an analog
acceptable
the transducer stage of it are analog. Typically, the sensor stage of a digital transducer is typically analog

427
 Sensors and
Actuators:
428 Engincerng System Instrum1entation Sq

Innovat
ive

For exanmple, niott as

lannestcd in
not
senerally speak digital motlion sensors. It physical
ot systems, is continuous timc. 'Therefore,
is the transducer
in
we can-
and

Digital
nal (Cpulse stage that generates discrete
6.1.1.1Analog
Sev

train, cOunt,
devices may be termed digitalIrequency, cncoded data) digital measuring device. Hence,
in a output sig- a

Several innovative transducers rather than digital sensors. digital sensing 1.An
ADCis
sensor
sensors, tactile sensors, technologies have
not been studied in
Chapter 5. They include impedance 2. Dataa
Hall-effect sensors, optical sensors and noise
sensors. hese sensors are lasers,
studied as well in the digital cameras, and ultrasonic
that are
presented
in this present chapter. Other important sensor
chapter include technologies
sor data fusion, and
wireless sensor microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) sensors,
networks (WSNs). multisen
6.1.1 Analog versus Digital
Sensing
Any measuring device that presents
information
tion
reading is represented in the discrete samples and does not introduce quantiza-
error when the as
a
According to this
dehnition, for example, an digital form may be classified
analog sensor such as thermocoupledigital transducer. as a
with
analog-to-digital
an

error is introduced
converter (ADC) is not digital transducer. This is a
that is a
integrated
by the ADC because quantization so a
one of the process (see Chapter 2). In
following types may be classified particular, measuring device that falls irto a

1. A digital transducer as a

measuring device that produces

2. A transducer discrete or digital a
whose output is output without using an ADC
3. A transducer
whose pulse signal or count
a
a
output is a frequency (which can be precisely converted into a count or a rate)
Note: When the
output is a
pulse signal, a
clock cycles over pulse duration, both counter is used to count
the
a
of which pulses or to count the
number ot
readings. are discrete
Comparison example: To compare the basic
sor, consider the
sensing arrangement shown in characteristics of
digital transducer and analog sen-
a
an
moves loada
along straight line (i.e., linear Figure 6.1. The system has hydraulic actuator, which
a
a
a
whose resistive element is made of actuator). On one side load, there is a of the
voltage v, which is proportional toconductive
the
plastic (see Chapter 5) that potentiometer
generates a continuous output
is a
pointer, which is able to displacement of the load. On
switches in the system. trigger a limit switch as the load moves the it.other side of the load, there
There
absolute location of the Clearly,
a 3-bit
register, which can represent past discrete are eight such limit
laad as it touches the eight values, can the
Let us
cempare t.e two
approaches of switch. corresponding limit sense

robustness, and on. Forsensing

in this
cost, usefulness,
fair so
example, with regard to
a accuracy, cemplexity,
put v, is sampled and
digitized by 3-bit ADC. comparison let us assume that the
analog and digital devices potentiometer
a
a 3-bit register. Then both out-
the data in
present

To servo value

ref
Conductive plastic
Potentiometer
Analog output

Hydraulic actuator Bank of limit switches

o01 Digital output
FIGURE 6.1
Analog and digital methods for
displacement sensing
Digital and Innovative Sensing 429

6.1.1.1 Analog Sensing Method: Potentiometer with 3-Bit ADC

1. An ADC is
required to acquire the data by a computer.
2. Data
accuracy is lost in sampling (i.e., aliasing error), and cannot be recovered; signal/sensor
noise directly enters into the
reading.
3. It can sense continuous
signals with fine resolution. Resolution of the digitized signal can be
improved by using an ADC of larger bit size (say, 4-bit).
4. Less robust due to reasons 2, 6, and 7.
5. Direct and simple sensing; data acquisition into a computer is more complex and costly (e.g., filter
and amplifier, sample-and-hold, ADC).
6. Entirely fails if the sensor (potentiometer) fails.
7. Quantization error is introduced when a sampled data value is digitized (represented in 3-bit
form).
8. Relatively slow (sensor time constant, signal conditioning, sampling. digitizing. and registering).
6.1.1.2 Digital Sensing Method: Eight Limit Switches
1. Easier to acquire data into a computer (eg.. the l1-bit output of a limit switch is typically TTL com-
patible and can be directly acquired by a microcontroller).
2. The3-bit accuracy is precisely retained even if the limit switch signal has high noise (because only
a 1-bit information-triggered or not-is needed from a limit switch).
3. The resolution is fixed by the number of limit switches.
4. More robust due to reasons 2 and 6.
5. More components (potentially less reliable) but operates even if a limit switch fails and provides
perfect accuracy with respect to the remaining limit switches.
6. There is no issue of quantization error. The actual positions of the limit switches are determined
precisely.
7. Relatively fast (a limit switch is binary). No further signal processing, sampling, and digitizing are
needed.

Clearly the digital approach to sensing has clear advantages while the analog approach has advantages
as well.

6.1.2 Advantages of Digital Transducers

As noted before, there are benefits to using digital devices over analog devices for sensing. Digital
sensing devices (or digital transducers, as they are commonlyknown) generate discrete output signals,
such as pulse trains or encoded data, which present further advantages in their subsequent use. In par
ticular, the output of a digital transducer can be directly read by a digital processor, without needing
the stages of sampling and digitization (or ADC). A digital processor plays a key role in the utilization
of the sensed data, by facilitating complex processing of measured signals and other known quantities.
For example, it can serve as the controller in a digital control system, which generates control signals
other hand, if the measured signals are
for the plant (i.e., the system that is being controlled). On the
are necessary before processing using a
available in the analog fornm, sampling and digitization stages
digital processor.
device is usually quite similar to that of an
Nevertheless, the stage itself of a digital sensing
sensor

There digital measuring

are
devices that incorporate microprocessors to locally
analog counterpart.
and provide output signals in either digital form or
perform numerical manipulations and conditioning useful when the required variable is not directly
are particularly
analog form. These measuring systems
measurable but could be computed using one or more measured outputs (e.g, power = force x speed).

of the measuring device in this

case, performs
it a condi-
Although microprocessor is an integral part
a
In the present context, we consider the two tasks separately.
task rather than a measuring task.
tioning
 430 Sensors and Actuators: Sensing
Engineering System Instrumentation Innovative
When the output of a digital transducer
is
is by using a counter, either
a
pulse signal, a common method .2.1EncoderTypes
and

clock cycles
count the to pulses (for of reading thesignal
over one pulse duration (for high-frequency
pulses) to count the or
ital

a
buffer/register, which can be
accessed bylow-frequency
pulses). The count is placed number of cla

encoderstransduce
be

the digital word in as a can

sampling rate). If the output of digital acomputer, typically at constant a

gray code) it can be directly read
or transducer is available in coded form frequency (called the
a

parallel set of pulse signals; each pulseby computer. Then, the coded signal is (e.g., natural binary code
the

a Shaft
tationof

6.2.1.1 Increm
value of the word is transition generates one bit normally
determined of the
digital word, and generated by a
absolute encoders, as discussed by the pattern of the generated the numerical T h eo u t p u t
of

digital transducer is
later in this pulses. This is the case, for
commonly carried outchapter.
a

(see Chapter 2); for

Data
acquisition from (i.e., example, with r o t a t e sa s a

using computer interfacing)

transducers (e.g., 8 example, general-purpose a
motion control
a

which may beinput/output

using
a

channels of encoder (servo) card, able

(1/0) or DAQ card
specific to the particular transducer. inputs with 24-bit counters) to
accommodate multiple ment

Digital transducers (or by using data or

a be

with analog digital acquisition card

methods. Notably representation of information) have
several
1.
They do not introduce advantages in comparison
2.
Digital signals are less quantization error.
because data can be susceptible noise,
to

ing of bits, which generated, represented,

disturbances, or parameter variation in
3. possess two identifiable transmitted, and processed as instruments
Complex signal processing states (the noise binary words consist-
(hardware implementation
with very
high accuracy and threshold is halfa
bit).
4.
High is faster
than speed is
possible
reliabilityin software through digital
achieved by implementation).
a
5. system can be
Large amounts of data can be means
6. Data can be
stored or stored using minimizing analog hardware
adverse environmentalmaintained
compact, high-density data
conditions.for very long
components.
7. Fast data periods of time without storage methods.
transmission any drift or
with no is
attenuation and withpossible through existing disruption by
8.
Digital signals use low less
dynamic delays, communication means over
(e.g., 0-12 V dc) andcompared long distances
9.
Digital devices typicallyvoltages
have low
to
analog signals.
iow overall cost. power.
These
advantages help build
for engineering systems. a
strong case in favor of
digital measuring and signal transmission
devices
6.2 Shaft Encoders
Any transducer that
Shaft generates coded (digital)
encoders are digital a

velocities. reading of measurement can

transducers that are used a

Applications
control of robotic of these
devices include
for
measuring angular
be termed as an
encoder.
manipulators,
aging. pulp and paper), machine
motion
measurement
tools, industrial in displacements and
angular
digital
systems, vehicles, construction data performance
processes (e.g., food monitoring and
storage devices, processing and pack-
rotating machinery suh as
positioning
machinery, tables, sateilite mirror
planetary exploration devices,
(which depends on the
motors,
word size of thepumps, compressors, turbines,
positioning
battlefield equipment,
tion of the and and
encoder), high encoder output and generators. High
and accuracy the number of pulses resolution
superior
can be read construction), and relative
ease of
(particularly
due to noise
immunity generated per revolu-
and reliability
as a
digital of digital
reliability, are word), with associated adoption in
digital systems (because signals
some of the
relative reduction in output transducer
particular, in comparison with advantages system cost and
their
of digital
transducers in improvement of
system
analog counterparts. general and shaft encoders in
 Digital and
Innovative Sensing 305
6.2.1 Encoder Types
Shaft
tationencoders
of the can be
transducerclassified into
output: (1) two categories 431
6.2.1.1 Incremental Encoder
The incremental depending
encoders the nature on
output
rotates
of an
and (2)
absolute and the
incremental
as a
encoders. method of
using clockresult of the
a encoder is interpre
signal, bothmotion that
mental encoder,
a
pulse
be the angular measured. signal,is
which is
on the
home displacement
encoderposition
is displacement and counting the generated when the
By
obtained with angular
velocitypulses
of the
disk, moving or
by timing transducer disk
Furthermore, the indexindicated by componentrespect
as to
some
can be
reference determined.
the
pulse width
pulse count reference (say, a
determined by With point. The reference an incre
6.2.1.2 Absolute Encoder determinespulse
the (index pulse)
a
limit
number of fullgenerated switch) or point can
a
An
absolute at that reference point
location
disk of an encoder (or revolutions. on the disk.
absolute encoderwhole-word
generated encoder) has many
rotates, several
signal levelssimultaneously.
(i.e., At pulse pulse tracks on its
thetrains-equal in number transducer disk.
a
binary a given instant,
corresponds
at
to astate),
any instant. Thebinary digit (0 determined bymagnitude
as
of each the tracks When the to

pulse the on
windows in a track Hence, the set of detector (or edge signal will have onedisk-are
level
or a
obtain coded 1).
output data from the of two
some
pattern
are not pulse trains gives andetector). This
cific (code) so that the equally
transducer. The pulsespaced but are signal
encoded binary level
some
angular arranged
generated binary number atwindows on the tracks incan specific pattern
position of the encoder number a

digital interface disk at that time. The particular instant

a be to
readout of an logic (e.g., organized into
position istransistor-to-transistor pulse voltage can be corresponds to the spe-
acquisition andangular
processing, possible with an logic or TTL). made
compatible
an
incremental encoder). and also
eliminating absolute encoder, Consequently, the direct
with
However, complete Absolute encoders are error
retention if, for thereby expediting digit:
pulse, as in the case revolutions can be commonly used example, pulse is
digital data a
of an measured to
measure missed (unlike
The same incremental encoder. additional track, using an fractions of
signal generation
absolute) of transducers. (and pick-off) which
a
revolution.
mechanism may be used in generates an
index
both types
6.2.1.2.1 Encoder Technologies (incremental and
Four
techniques of transducer signal
1.
2.
Optical (photosensor) method generation may be identiied for shaft encoders
Sliding contact (electrical
3.
Magnetic saturation conducting) method
4. (reluctance) method
Proximity sensor method
By far, the optical encoder is
most common
used in special and cost-effective.
circumstances, where the The other three
peratures or in the presence of optical method may not be approaches may be
suitable (e.g., under
dust, smoke, etc.) or extreme tem-
as toothed wheel is
a may be redundant
(e.g., where a code disk such
already available as an
integral part of the moving member).
encoder (incremental or
of signal
absolute),
the method of For a
signal interpretation is identical for allgiven type of
generation listed previously. Now we briefly describe the principle of four types
all four techniques and consider signal generation for
only the optical encoder in the context of signal
processing. interpretation and
 Sensors and Actuators: Enginecrin8 System Instrn.

. 3 Optical Encoder
rumentatin Innovative,
ihe eytaalenielkr uses an opaque disk (code disk) that has one or more circular tracks,
attangenent of identical ttansparent windows (slits) in each track. A parallel beam of light (
tracks, with some
t hght cniting dhioudes or LED9) is projected to all racks from one side ofthe disk, 1he (e.g
hht pikod of using a bank of photosensors the other side
irs
froma , t h es

is

track. This arrangement is shown in Figure 6.2a, which

on
of the disk, which
typically ha. object
(analog
sCHSOT for cach one
indicates just one
Phk otf sensor. The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode or a track and ranspa
phototransistor. Since the light (e one
sy the sourve is interrupted by the
opaque regions of the track, the output
signal from the from
sCries of voltage
pulses. This signal can be interpreted (e-g., photosensor chn

or is
to obtain the increments in through edge detection or level
sa
the angular
position and also the angular velocity of the detection)
disk. In standard
aral
val
.

|Output
T2 LED
light sourcC
Encoder
track
Phototransistor,
or photodiode

(light sensor) Transparent

windows

a Opaque disk
(code disk)

Cover and connectors

ElectronicS assembly

Photodetector artay
Cade disc and
spindle assembly
Light source and
mask

Bearing housing assernbly

TIGURE 6.2 la)

inctemental encoder.Schematic
(BET iepresentation of
Electronics, an
Inc, Goleta,(incremental) optical
CA. With encoder, (b)
permission.) components conmete la
ot a
 305
igital and
Innovative Sensing
terminology,
rotating the sensor element
motion obiect
of such
(directly a

of the (analog) into the through gear measuring device is the

or
a
pulse 433
ing transparent windows (thesignals, wnicn
techniques. The precision ot window
mecnanism). The encoder disk,
can coded intotransducer stage is which
de is
racy of pattern) digital
on an the acoupled the to
optical
an
encoder. If the this encoder word. conversion
disk
requires only one
proauction
direction of procedure
rotation re is
disk
major
may be
The
opaque
produced by contact
a
of disk
backeround
A
reference track primary track
that has ack that has is fixed
(or not factor that nrint
be
important) determines
counting for angular positionjust one window mayequallyusedspaced and identical incremental
the accu
an

Note: A measurement and to detect generate the window to encoder

transparent disk with complete index (pick-off)
pulse, regions.
optical encoder. In either track of
a to
initiate pulse
is equal to the form, the track opaque spots will work revolutions.
are shown in length
of the has 50%
duty
a
equally well the as
Figure 6.2b. opaque region). Componentscycle of
(i.e., the
length of the encoder disk of an

6.2.1.4
commercially availabletransparent region
a

optical encoder
Sliding Contact Encoder
In a
sliding contact encoder, the
tracks on the disk are formed transducer disk
made of an is
by implanting a
respond to the transparent windows electrically insulating material. Circular
on an
pattern of
conducting areas. These
encoder shaft. A optical encoder disk. All
common slip ring on the conducting regions cor-
anism. A constant voltage
sliding contact such as a brush touches conducting areas are connected to a
v,, is applied to the slip ring
picked off by it. The pulse pattern cach track, and as the
disk
using a brush mech
as the nature depends the
on rotates, a
voltage pulse signal is
of
of rotation of the
disk. The signal
tages sliding contact encoders include
conducting-nonconducting
pattern on each
interpretation is done as it is for optical encoders.track, as well
construction (low cost). The high sensitivity (depending on the supply voltage) and The advan-
disadvantages
devices (e-g, friction, wear, brush include the familiar drawbacks of simplicity of
bounce due to contacting and commutating
arcing). A transducer's accuracy is very vibration,
electrical and signal
much
glitches and metal oxidation due to
terns of the encoder disk. One dependent on the precision of the conducting
method of generating the
conducting pattern on the disk is electroplating.pat
6.2.1.5 Magnetic Encoder
A magnetic encoder has high-strength magnetic regions imprinted on the encoder disk using tech-
niques such as etching, stamping, or recording (similar to magnetic data recording). These magnetic
regions correspond to the transparent windows on an optical encoder disk. The signal pick off device is
a microtransformer, which has primary and secondary windings on a circular ferromagnetic core. This
pik-off sensor resembles a core storage element in a historical mainfranme computer. A high-frequency
of the sensing element
(typically 100 kHz) primary voltage induces a voltage in the secondaryofwindings
at the s a m e frequency, operating as a transformer. A magnetic field suficient strength can saturate
the reluctance and dropping the induced voltage. By
the core, however, thereby significantly increasing in the usual
is obtained. This signal can be interpreted
demodulating the induced voltage, pulse signal
a
a magnetic
to a nonmagnetic area
and a pulse valley corresponds to

m a n n e r . A pulse peak corresponds which is a n advantage. They

have noncontacting pick-offsensors,
a r e a o n each
track. Magnetic encoders because of the cost of the
transformer

devices, however, primarily

than the contacting
a r e m o r e costly
circuitry for generating the output signal.
elements and the demodulating

Sensor Encoder
6.2.1.6 Proximity Any type of proxim-
sensor as signal pick-offelement.
the discussed
encoder uses a proximity o r a n eddy
c u r r e n t probe,
as

sensor induction probe material.

A proximity
be used; for
example, a magnetic disk is made of
ferromagnetic
for example, the to that of
the
ity s e n s o r may the magnetic induction probe, material, serving a purpose analogous increases
5. In of the s a m e flux linkage
in Chapter raised spots approaches
the probe the
encoder
tracks have a raised spot
The As
encoder disk.
a n optical
windows on
 innovaive
Szo.

Senora and Act uators: ingincering System Instrumentation and

tl
luc to the asoe hated decrease in reluctance, Thin raisca the induced
pulse modulated siynal the
at voltage level. The output voltage is a
frequency of
supply (primary) ihe
voltage
hen dedulated, reulting pulsc signal is interpreted. Instead of
and the the proximity sensor. This is
of a disk with track of raised
egos, letromagnetie toothed wheel a

may be used along with a

otientation. In prine iple, this device
ike a conventional
proximity sensor placed in a radial
operates digital tachometer. If an eddy current
pobe is used, the pulse areas in the track have
to be plated with conducting naterial. a

6.2.1.7 Direction Sensing

As will be explained in detail later,
incremental encoder needs second
an
separation from the lirst
probe (pitch = center probe place at quarter-pitch
a

erate
quadrature signal, which will identify theto-center
a distance between adjacent windovws)
direction of rotation. Some designs of
to gen-
encoders have two identical incremental
tracks, one at a
sors are
placed radially offset quarter-pitch from the other, and the two
be similar to those with
without offset. The two pick-off sen-
(quadrature) signals obtained with this arrangement
the
previous arrangement. VWith the track that will
incremental encoder may have three tracks on generates the reference
pulse, an
In
many its disk.
applications, cncoders are built into the monitored device code
itted onto a
rotating shalt. For itself, rather than being externally
instance, in
robot arm, the encoder
a
motor and may be an
may be
shaft flexibility, and
located within its
housing. This reduces coupling errors (e.g.,integral part of the joint
errors due to backlash,
resonances added by the
ncnt and transducer and fixtures), installation errors
cccentricity), and overall cost. Encoders are available
1s cm in diameter.
(e.g., misalign-
in sizes as small as 2 c n and as
large as
Since the
techniques of signal interpretation are quite similar for the
ditferentprinciples of signal generation, we limit further various types of
discussion encoders with
nterpretation ditlers depending on whether the to
optical encoders only. Signal
An absolute device. particular optical encoder is an incremental device or

6.3 Incremental Optical Encoder

Ihere arc two
possible configurations for an incremental encoder disk with the
capability: direction sensing
1. Offset probe
configuration (two probes and one track)
2. Offset track
configuration (1wo probes and two tracks)
Ihe firsi
configuration is
sehematically shown in Figure 6.3. 'The disk has
and equally single circular track with identical
a
spaced transparent
windows. The area
to the window area. of the opaque region between
Note: output pulse on for half the period and off for theadjacent windows is equal
An is
duty eycle. Two photodiode sensors
(probes I ad 2 in Figure 6.3) are positioned other
pitch (half the window length) apart. The forms
half, giving a 50%
facing the track at a
quarter-
pulse shaping circuitry (idealized), are shown inof their output signals (, and v,), after passing them
Figure 6.4a and b for the two directions of through
Note: The circumferential offset rotation.
between the two
angular periods. giving more room to place the probes can be increased by integer number of an

integer multiple of 360° (assume constant probes.

by an
The delay between the
speed over the delay), that is,
two
signals will change
ln the second change. no

the other
contiguration of an incremental encoder, two identical
tracks are used, one
by a quarter piteh. Each track has its offset from
ing track. The two
own probe (light sensor), oriented
probes are
positioned along radial line of the disk,
a facing the
correspond-
offset unlike the without any
previous
however (igure 6.4). conliguration. The output
signals from the two sensors are the circumferential
In both
same as
before
configurations,
available. Ihis track
additional track with a lone window
an
and associated
generates a reference pulse (index pulse) per revolution probe is also usually
of the disk (see Figure 6.4c).
Digital and
Innovative Sensins 305

Probe
2
Probe
435

Reference
window Code disk

8, Reference pulse
probe

FIGURE 6.3 An
incremental encoder disk
This pulse is used to (offset probe
required in measuring initiate the configuration).
counting operation and also
absolute angular
Note: When rotations. to count
the complete revolutions, which is
(encoder cycle) aredisk rotates at a
constant
pulse width constant
decreases (with angular
respect to time) in speed, the
continuously; when the disk each sensorpulse width and
decelerates, theoutput.
pulse-to-pulse
When the disk period
6.3.1 pulse width accelerates, the
An
Direction of Rotation increases.
incremental encodek
1. Ground typically has the following five pins:
2. Index Channel
3. A Channel
4. +5V dc
5. B Channel
power
Pins for Channel A and Channel B
pin gives the reference glve the quadrature signals shown in
pulse signal in shawn
Figure Figure 6.4a andb, and
6.4c. the Index
The
quarter-pitchoffset in the
of rotation of the disk. probe location (or in track placement) is used to determine the
For
when the disk rotates in theexample, Figurè6.4a shows the shaped (idealized) sensor direction
clockwise (cw) outputs (v,
rotates in the diqection; and Figure 6.4b shows the outputs when theanddiskv)
counterclockwise (ccw) direction.
of rotation
using these two quadrature Several methods can be used to determine the direction
signaBls. Fokexample,
1. By phase angle between the
2.
two
signals
By clock counts to two adjacent rising edges of thatwo signals
3. By checking for rising or falling edge of one signal
when the other is at
4. For a
high-to-low transition of one signal check the ne transition of thehighother signal
O

n
ital
the and
ing (clockrienag)dings
Alternative unlems edium and In ovative
phenomen
Sound si the se the Se
 305
igital and
Innovative Sensing
on the
medium and
readings unless the the temperature of the
ing ternativelythe, thesensor
Al(clocking) is
velocity compensated
of the
medium
for the (typically air), errors 481
variations in the will
is change in
phenomenon target object can medium, enter into the
sound signal andemployed here.frequency be
1he between the measured, using theparticularly for ultrasonic
speed of sound.applicable relationtransmitted
c =
wave and Doppler effect,temperature.
the
received by measur
is
6.10.3 Equation 6.27;
now.f= wave. The
magnetMagnet
ostrictiveostproperty
rictive
The frequency of the beat
cussed in Displacement Sensor
ultra-
tostrictiveChapter
and
Alternatively, thehow
5. it
may be used in
this methoddisplacement
is
illustrated
sensor the
(e.g, theultrasound-based time ofsensing of strain or
travels along the stress
manufactured byflight method may be usedhavein been dis-
in
Figure 6.35. Thesensor
cover. A timer is magnetostrictive
interacts with the started the
wire rod
sensor head Temposonics). principle magne-
a
thegenerates
or The
as
(called an
pulse is sent.waveguide)interrogation
behind
(by the magnetic fieldinterrogation which is current pulse, which
The timemagnetostrictive action
ofthe
permanent This pulse, enclosed in
of
attached flight
is in the
waveguide). magnet and
which carries protective a
to the proportional to the This pulse is generates
an
ultrasound magnetic a
field,
Strokes magnet of the sensor, distance of the received at the (strain) pulse
better than(maximum position (x)magnet
and its from the sensor head,
dc
50 um, are displacement)
possible with ranging from a few
is
determined sensor head. The
using the
and timed.
target object is
output in the
range t5 V. Since thethese sensors. With centimeters to one or
time of
flight as usual.
magnetic tubing, some of sensor uses
l5 V dc
power
a two
meters, at
the sensor resolutions
of
propagation, can the
common sources magnetostrictive
a
supply, can
be avoided. of error in medium with provide a
ultrasonic sensors that useprotective nonferro-
air as the
6.10.4 medium
Impedance
Consider a mechanical Sensing and Control
value of the force operation where we
pletely determinescompletely determines the push against a spring that has
that, indisplacement; the constant
the force. It stiffness.
ment
independently follows this similarly valyé of the Here, the
at the same example, we
to control displacement
possible, in thisunable
that has time. are com
an Also, it is not force and
possible. Nowarbitrarily speciñed relationship with
displacement. exámple, to a apply
displace-
In' other words, stisfnesscommand force
this case, we suppose that we push againsta
should be able complex dynamic system,
control is not
system so that the ratio of forcecommand a pushing force in response
to not
to the
a
simple spring element. In
(or compliance to
control) action. displacement varies in a specified manner. diplacement of the
This is a stiffnessdynamic
Dynamic stiffness is defined as the ratio: control
quency domain. (output force)/(input
Dynamic flexibility or
compliance or receptance displacement), expressed in the fre
is the inverse of
ynamic stiffness.
Sensor head
generates interrogation current pulse and Movable permanent magnet
clocks the received ultrasound (attached to target object)
pulse)
Measured displacement
Magnetostrictive wirelrod
(inside noníerromagnetic
protective tubing)
FIGURE 6.35 A magnetostrictive ultrasound displacement sensor.
 2.

6.12.3 Ap licati
monitoArpinglications of
Ihere isva
Un:thermod N
494 305
6.12.3 Sensors and
Applications oí
Applications of
Actuators:
Engincering
monitoring, smartMEMS sensorsMEMS
There and
System
Instrumentation
is
phones,
variety of MEMS energy
related devices are
thermo-fluid expl orat
munication. Inand materialsensors, particularly ion, humannumerous,
health including
prominence thatparticular, engi
the term MEMS n eering), in
chemical,
the
categories of:monitoring, transport
and ation,
nologies is reaching BioMEMStechnologies in bioindustrial, biomedical, medical structural
tothis U.
harsh growth is not the
S. $25 is
billion, andused to refer logical defense, mechanical treatment.
and energy. service, (including
ing keypractical environments.
to
them. Themedical
technological is
In this capabilities of
growing at the rate
and
market applications are telecom-
NEMSpractical
sensorsconsiderations. context,
close to 10% of MEMS devices
MEMS but rather per year. The gaining
and
such
and packaging tech
Automotive
actuators are fund
in a

and
robustnessimplementation andmain obstacle
of
MEMS devices operation in
trol, (e.g, variety of
sensors)
safety and Accelerometers and
collision applications. They
include
are
becom
Biomedical avoidance, gyroscopes
quality, andIMUs for airbag
or
ride
fluids for
and
applications
diagnosis, (Bio-MEMS dynamic deploymert,
stability; handling
chemosensor; HIVIAIDS and
microfluidic brakes; car tire con
angioplasty, implants testing. pregnancy including pressure
tion, catheterization, including testing, etc.; Lab-On-Chip that
biology.endoscopy, laparoscopy,endoscopy,
stents; uses bodily
eyes, proteomics, and
and microsurgical tools
laparoscopy, including
lators intracranial pressure genomics;neurosurgery; tissueneurosurgery, and angioplasty,
MicroTotalAnalysis-biosensor
microrobots
engineering including catheteriza-for
pacemakers; inside skull,disposable blood pressure
and
drug intrauterine applications
cer delivery/release, microphone and pressure, sensors,
intraocular of cell
therapy, and bio-signal recording hearing-aids; and
angioplasty, IMUs pressure in
Computers, microdialysis;
nozzles and consumer
microneedles,
prosthetics, electrodes, bodily
in
fluid patches, etc. for defibril-
electronics, and
cartridges; IMUs and home orthotics, extraction
wheelchairs, etc.) and sampling, cau- controlled
personal media appliances
less
devices, etc. players,
in
microphones
digital cameras, for (touch
cellphones, screen
controllers;
displays) headsets;
computers; interferometric hard laptops,
disk drives, tablets, gameinkjet printer
Heavy modulator computer controllers,
surface machinery, transportation, and display applications peripherals, wire
ation sensing
such
machinery,and.control,
civil as
flat-panel
sensors for stressconstructionengineering structures (vehicles,
etc.,
and control) machines,
Optical MEMS
and strain in
buildings,aerospace
bridges, industry,
airplanes-wing
sports and recre-
imaging, (micromirrors,
high-speed optical scanners,
etc.,
transmission wireless
Energy sector
(sensor-drivenswitching pico-projectors,
devices-20 fog-free lenses, light sensors
harvesting
Global
microcooling) heating and speeds)
cooling of
ns
for IR
position system (GPS) sensors buildings;, oil and gas
(for vehicles, courier
exploration; energy
6.12.4 package tracking and
MEMS Materials and Fabrication handling)
The key features in the
the device will fabrication process of
have a
MEMS device are: "he
devices have to be many integrated
manufactured components having various device has to be
etc.) is similar to the
the circuit
in a batch.
structure in an
The functional functional
structure structures; and
microminiature
quite (e.g, hat of a many
mature
devices as well. processes of IC integrated-circuit
(semiconductor) (1C) chip. sensor,
Furthermore, and actuator,
Just like an IC fabrication can be used fortunately,
chip, a
MEMS device is in the
formed byfabrication of MEMS
the forming required functional
subsei

alog
Advmanetdaiguems-imof
ped Sensors and T
 305
Analog Sensors and
Transducers
medium-impedance
Advantages eddy devices;
of
1000 Q
1.
Since the current sensors output impedance typical.
carrier include the is 341
2. displacement frequency is very high, following: Sensitjvity ís
Eddy current measurements the order of in

(target)sensor eddy(e.g. 5
3. moving object.is a
bandwidths úp to 100 kHz). are suitable for VImm.
current devices
Eddy current
ductive sensors are
noncontacting
device; hencc, it does highly transient
4. It objects do not able js
perform
requires only a thin interfere with
not
apply mechanical loading on the
the accurately even in
conducting surface
5.6 Variable-Capacitance measurement
Transducers
that is not
dirty
onmentthanenvironments
envirwider ). (as long
much as con-
the
Variable-inductance devices and
Reactance of an
probe.
L
(dildt) and inductance L is given
i= C
variable-capacitance
tive (dvldt).) For this by joL and that ofdevices
fromtransducers.
are
the They
typically are reason, capacitance
capacitive transducers variable-reactance
a
C is devices. (Note:
devices inimpedar.ce
the (reactance) high-im pedance fall given by 1/(j»C),
into the
common
capacitive sensors, usage. Theyexpression for capacitor. particularly low
sensors, a general categorysince
of reac-
at
v =

available. digital require specific Also,

capacitive frequencies,
capacitor is formed by(pulse-generating)
clear as

a
A signaltransducers
capacitive -conditionisuch
ng hardware.
sensors are
noncontacting
In addition
potential difference two as
digital tachometers areanalog to
tance C of a between theplates, which can store an also
two-plate capacitor is plates and may be electric
charge. The
given by maintained stored
using charge
an
external voltage. Thegenerates
capaci-
C4
where
A is (5.30)
the common
x is the
gap width between (overlapping)
area of the
the two
two
plates
k is the
dielectric constant (or plates
tivity of a vacuum), which permittivity, k=e e, e,i the =

depends on dielectric e, is ofrelative permittivity, e, is the

A
change in any one of th three properties the medium between the permit-
this, Equation 5.30 parameters in
two
plates
in this may be written as In C =-In x +Equation 5.30 may be used in the
equation, we have In A + Ink. sensing process. For
By taking the differentials
of the terms

(5.31)
This result
may be used, for example, to
large fluid levels. measure small transverse
displacements, large rotations, and
Note: Equation 5.31 is valid
A and k because
only for small increments in x, but is valid
Equation 5.30 is nonlinear in x, while linear in A and k. even for large increments of
linear in x as well ifa However, Equation 5.30 becomes
log scale is used.
Schematic diagrams of capacitive sensors that
use the
changes in the three variable quantities in
Equation 5.31 are shown in Figure 5.23. In
Figure 5.23a, a transverse displacement of one of the
results in a
change in x. In Figure 5.23b, angular displacement of one of the plates causes a plates
change in A.
 D

1alog
Sensors and
Tra
Analog Sensors
and 305

Transducers
Compensator Sensor
343
excitation
Vref

o Bridge
oulpul
o

Bridge completion
FIGURE 5.24
Abridge circuit for
Consider the
tive capacitive sensors.
bridge
impedance) of circuit shown
capacitor Ci Z, Z the in
are capacitive sensor Figure 5.24. In this
frequency bridge (of
capacitance C: circuit,
the
bridge bridge-excitation completing Z
Z, =
lljC
output with voltage; v, impedances
=

reactancereactance
ac =

Using the two respect to the l/j»C,

V, sin (cot (typically,
=
of the (i.e., capaci-
=

equal and the assumptions for excitation. o) is the reactances); v, v, sin

bridge output, and p is atcompensating
-

current
equations:( ,e- through these
voltage at the v)IZ) ((v,- v)/Z) leads
+
an
op-amp
is zero;(potentials at the
is
the the high-
phase lag of
op-amp leads. Next, 0 and =see
Chapter negative
2), we and
eliminating ((v,- vZ)+ (0 vZ)can write thepositive
in these v
leads are
current balance
two =0,
equations we obtainwhere vis the common
It is
, =Z,/Z-Z,1Z,) vd
noted that the 1+Z,/Z
and the bridge output v, =0
the sensor
when (5.32)
willmaintain that compensating capacitor areZ,/Z, Z,/Z. Then, the =

pensated (at least upcondition even under similarly affected bridge is said to be
From to the
first order) ambient changes. It by ambient changes, balanced. Since
changed Equation 5.32 it is clear by the follows that the balanced a

by 6Z, starting from that due to bridge circuit. ambient effects arebridge
a
balanced state,change
a
in the
measurand, com
the when the sensor
bridge output is given by reactance Z, is
dvo=-
The
change 8Z in the Z(1+Z/Z,) (5.33)
For transient impedance (reactance) of the sensor
measurements, this modulated capacitor
measurement. For steady output of the bridge has modulates the carrier
signal v,
measurements,
adequate to determine öZ, the
amplitude and the phase
to be
demodulated to obtain the
assuming that , and Z,/Z, are known. angle of öv, with
respect to v. are
Note: Instead of the
op-ampin
the Figure 5.23, an instrumentation
bridge output, with more effective results. amplifier (see Chapter 2) may be usedat
5.6.1.2 Potentiometer Circuit
Instead of an
impedance bridge, simpler potentiometer circuit
a
An example is shown in Figure 5.25. may be used for capacitive sensors.