LECTURE NOTES ON

INTERNET OF THINGS
MCA (R-21)

III Semester

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

ANDHRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ANDHRAPRADESH
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Unit I FUNDAMANTALS OF IOT

Definition and Characteristics of IoT, Sensors, Actuators, Physical Design of IoT – IoT Protocols, IoT
communication models, IoT Communication APIs, IoT enabled Technologies – Wireless Sensor
Networks, Cloud Computing, Embedded Systems, IoT Levels and Templates, Domain Specific IoTs –
Home, City, Environment, Energy, Agriculture and Industry.

1.1 Definition and Characteristics of IoT

IoT comprises things that have unique identities and are connected to internet. By 2022 there will
be a total of 55 billion devices /things connected to internet. IoT is not limited to just connecting
things to the internet but also allow things to communicate and exchange data.

Definition:
A dynamic global n/w infrastructure with self configuring capabilities based on standard and
interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual ―things‖ have identities,
physical attributes and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly
integrated into information n/w, often communicate data associated with users and their
environments.

Characteristics:
1) Dynamic & Self Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have the capability to
dynamically adapt with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating
conditions, user‗s context or sensed environment.
Eg: the surveillance system is adapting itself based on context and changing conditions.
2) Self Configuring: allowing a large number of devices to work together to provide certain
functionality.
3) Inter Operable Communication Protocols: support a number of interoperable
communication protocols and can communicate with other devices and also with
infrastructure.
4) Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity and a unique identifier
(IP address).
5) Integrated into Information Network: that allow them to communicate and
exchange data with other devices and systems.

Applications of IoT:

1) Home
2) Cities
3) Environment
4) Energy
5) Retail
6) Logistics
7) Agriculture
8) Industry
9) Health & Life Style

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1.2 Sensors

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g. electrical,
mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the presence of a particular
physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in
characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance etc.

IOT HARDWARE
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Transducer :
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuators in various systems.
Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and temperature
sensors.
2. Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter. Ex-
Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with the
analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR)
sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function of
magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input parameter.
Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

1.3 Actuators

An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors +

Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the
mechanism or the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated
for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a given
specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the motor rotate
to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the sensor data
to do the work.

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Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and a
control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical operation.
On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a
cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because
hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert into
either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by using
compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer option than
chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐
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Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can
be a piezo motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It involves
pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and
domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

1.4 Physical Design of IoT

1) Things in IoT:

The things in IoT refers to IoT devices which have unique identities and perform remote
sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities. IoT devices can exchange data with other
connected devices applications. It collects data from other devices and process data either locally
or remotely.
An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for communication to other devices both wired
and wireless. These includes (i) I/O interfaces for sensors, (ii) Interfaces for internet connectivity
(iii) memory and storage interfaces and (iv) audio/video interfaces.
2) IoT Protocols:
a) Link Layer : Protocols determine how data is physically sent over the network‗s
physical layer or medium. Local network connect to which host is attached. Hosts on the
same link exchange data packets over the link layer using link layer protocols. Link layer
determines how packets are coded and signaled by the h/w device over the medium to
which the host is attached.

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Protocols:
 802.3-Ethernet: IEEE802.3 is collection of wired Ethernet standards for the link layer.
Eg: 802.3 uses co-axial cable; 802.3i uses copper twisted pair connection; 802.3j uses
fiber optic connection; 802.3ae uses Ethernet over fiber.
 802.11-WiFi: IEEE802.11 is a collection of wireless LAN(WLAN) communication
standards including extensive description of link layer. Eg: 802.11a operates in 5GHz
band, 802.11b and 802.11g operates in 2.4GHz band, 802.11n operates in 2.4/5GHz
band, 802.11ac operates in 5GHz band, 802.11ad operates in 60Ghzband.
 802.16 - WiMax: IEEE802.16 is a collection of wireless broadband standards including
exclusive description of link layer. WiMax provide data rates from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s.
 802.15.4-LR-WPAN: IEEE802.15.4 is a collection of standards for low rate wireless
personal area network(LR-WPAN). Basis for high level communication protocols such as
ZigBee. Provides data rate from 40kb/s to250kb/s.
 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication: Data rates from 9.6kb/s(2G) to up to100Mb/s(4G).

B) Network/Internet Layer: Responsible for sending IP datagrams from source n/w to

destination n/w. Performs the host addressing and packet routing. Datagrams contains
source and destination address.

Protocols:
 IPv4: Internet Protocol version4 is used to identify the devices on a n/w using
a hierarchical addressing scheme. 32 bit address. Allows total of
2**32addresses.
 IPv6: Internet Protocol version6 uses 128 bit address scheme and allows
2**128 addresses.
 6LOWPAN:(IPv6overLowpowerWirelessPersonalAreaNetwork)operates in
2.4 GHz frequency range and data transfer 250 kb/s.

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C) Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the

underlying n/w. Set up on connection with ACK as in TCP and without ACK as in UDP.
Provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow control and congestion
control. Protocols:
 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used by web browsers(along with HTTP and
HTTPS), email(along with SMTP, FTP). Connection oriented and stateless protocol. IP
Protocol deals with sending packets, TCP ensures reliable transmission of protocols in
order. Avoids n/w congestion and congestion collapse.
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol is connectionless protocol. Useful in time sensitive
applications, very small data units to exchange. Transaction oriented and stateless
protocol. Does not provide guaranteed delivery.
D) Application Layer: Defines how the applications interface with lower layer protocols
to send data over the n/w. Enables process-to-process communication using ports.
Protocols:
 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that forms foundation of WWW. Follow request-
response model Stateless protocol.
 CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications
with constrained devices, constrained environment and constrained n/w. Uses client-
server architecture.
 WebSocket: allows full duplex communication over a single socket connection.
 MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport is light weight messaging protocol based
on publish-subscribe model. Uses client server architecture. Well suited for constrained
environment.
 XMPP: Extensible Message and Presence Protocol for real time communication and
streaming XML data between network entities. Support client-server and server-server
communication.
 DDS: Data Distribution Service is data centric middleware standards for device-to-device
or machine-to-machine communication. Uses publish-subscribe model.
 AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is open application layer protocol for
business messaging. Supports both point-to-point and publish-subscribe model.

LOGICAL DESIGN of IoT

Refers to an abstract represent of entities and processes without going into the low level
specifies of implementation.
1) IoT Functional Blocks 2) IoT Communication Models 3) IoT Comm. APIs

1) IoT Functional Blocks: Provide the system the capabilities for identification, sensing,
actuation, communication and management.

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 Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing, actuation,

monitoring and control functions.
 Communication: handles the communication for IoTsystem.
 Services: for device monitoring, device control services, data publishing services
and services for device discovery.
 Management: Provides various functions to govern the IoT system.
 Security: Secures IoT system and priority functions such as authentication
,authorization, message and context integrity and data security.
 Application: IoT application provide an interface that the users can use to control
and monitor various aspects of IoT system.

1.5 IoT Communication Models:

1) Request-Response
2) Publish-Subscibe
3)Push-Pull
4) ExclusivePair

1) Request-Response Model:

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In which the client sends request to the server and the server replies to requests. Is a
stateless communication model and each request-response pair is independent of others.

2) Publish-Subscibe Model:

Involves publishers, brokers and consumers. Publishers are source of data. Publishers send data
to the topics which are managed by the broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers.
Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker. When the broker receives
data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the subscribed consumers.

3) Push-Pull Model: in which data producers push data to queues and consumers pull data
from the queues. Producers do not need to aware of the consumers. Queues help in
decoupling the message between the producers and consumers.

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4) Exclusive Pair: is bi-directional, fully duplex communication model that uses a

persistent connection between the client and server. Once connection is set up it remains
open until the client send a request to close the connection. Is a stateful communication
model and server is aware of all the open connections.

1.6 IoT Communication APIs:

REST based communication APIs(Request-Response Based Model)
WebSocket based Communication APIs(Exclusive PairBased
Model)
a) REST based communication APIs: Representational State Transfer(REST) is a set of
architectural principles by which we can design web services and web APIs that focus on a
system‗s resources and have resource states are addressed and transferred.
The REST architectural constraints: Fig. shows communication between client server with
REST APIs.

Client-Server: The principle behind client-server constraint is the separation of concerns.

Separation allows client and server to be independently developed and updated.
Stateless: Each request from client to server must contain all the info. Necessary to understand

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the request, and cannot take advantage of any stored context on the server.
Cache-able: Cache constraint requires that the data within a response to a request be implicitly
or explicitly labeled as cache-able or non-cacheable. If a response is cache-able, then a client
cache is given the right to reuse that response data for later, equivalent requests.
Layered System: constraints the behavior of components such that each component cannot see
beyond the immediate layer with which they are interacting.
User Interface: constraint requires that the method of communication between a client and a
server must be uniform.
Code on Demand: Servers can provide executable code or scripts for clients to execute in their
context. This constraint is the only one that is optional.

Request-Response model used by REST:

RESTful web service is a collection of resources which are represented by URIs. RESTful
web API has a base URI(e.g: http://example.com/api/tasks/). The clients and requests to these URIs using the
methods defined by the HTTP protocol(e.g: GET, PUT, POST or DELETE). ARESTful web service can
support various internet media types.

b) WebSocket Based Communication APIs: WebSocket APIs allow bi-directional, full

duplex communication between clients and servers. WebSocket APIs follow the
exclusive pair communication model.

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1.7 IoT Enabling Technologies

IoT is enabled by several technologies including Wireless Sensor Networks, Cloud
Computing, Big Data Analytics, Embedded Systems, Security Protocols and architectures,
Communication Protocols, Web Services, Mobile internet and semantic search engines.

1) Wireless Sensor Network(WSN): Comprises of distributed devices with sensors which

are used to monitor the environmental and physical conditions. Zig Bee is one of the most
popular wireless technologies used byWSNs.
WSNs used in IoT systems are described as follows:
 Weather Monitoring System: in which nodes collect temp, humidity and
other data, which is aggregated and analyzed.
 Indoor air quality monitoring systems: to collect data on the indoor air quality
and concentration of various gases.
 Soil Moisture Monitoring Systems: to monitor soil moisture at variouslocations.
 Surveillance Systems: use WSNs for collecting surveillance
data(motiondata detection).
 Smart Grids : use WSNs for monitoring grids at variouspoints.
 Structural Health Monitoring Systems: Use WSNs to monitor the health of
structures(building, bridges) by collecting vibrations from sensor nodes deployed
at various points in the structure.

2) Cloud Computing: Services are offered to users in different forms.

 Infrastructure-as-a-service(IaaS):provides users the ability to provision computing
and storage resources. These resources are provided to the users as a virtual
machine instances and virtual storage.
 Platform-as-a-Service(PaaS): provides users the ability to develop and deploy
application in cloud using the development tools, APIs, software libraries and
services provided by the cloud service provider.
 Software-as-a-Service(SaaS): provides the user a complete software application or
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the user interface to the application itself.

3) Big Data Analytics: Some examples of big data generated by IoT are
 Sensor data generated by IoT systems.
 Machine sensor data collected from sensors established in industrial and
energy systems.
 Health and fitness data generated IoT devices.
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking vehicles.
 Data generated by retail inventory monitoring systems.

4) Communication Protocols: form the back-bone of IoT systems and enable

network connectivity and coupling to applications.
 Allow devices to exchange data over network.
 Define the exchange formats, data encoding addressing schemes for device
and routing of packets from source to destination.
 It includes sequence control, flow control and retransmission of lost packets.

5) Embedded Systems: is a computer system that has computer hardware and software
embedded to perform specific tasks. Embedded System range from low cost miniaturized
devices such as digital watches to devices such as digital cameras, POS terminals,
vending machines, appliances etc.,

1.8 IoT Levels and Deployment Templates

1) IoT Level1: System has a single node that performs sensing and/or actuation, stores data,
performs analysis and host the application as shown in fig. Suitable for modeling low
cost and low complexity solutions where the data involved is not big and analysis
requirement are not computationally intensive. An e.g., of IoT Level1 is Home
automation.

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2) IoT Level2: has a single node that performs sensing and/or actuating and local analysis
as shown in fig. Data is stored in cloud and application is usually cloud based. Level2 IoT
systems are suitable for solutions where data are involved is big, however, the primary
analysis requirement is not computationally intensive and can be done locally itself. An
e,g., of Level2 IoT system for Smart Irrigation.

3) IoT Level3: system has a single node. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud
application is cloud based as shown in fig. Level3 IoT systems are suitable for solutions
where the data involved is big and analysis requirements are computationally intensive.
An example of IoT level3 system for tracking package handling.

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4) IoT Level4: System has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Data is stored in the
cloud and application is cloud based as shown in fig. Level4 contains local and cloud
based observer nodes which can subscribe to and receive information collected in the
cloud from IoT devices. An example of a Level4 IoT system for Noise Monitoring.

5) IoT Level5: System has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node as shown in fig.
The end nodes that perform sensing and/or actuation. Coordinator node collects data from
theendnodesandsendstothecloud.Dataisstoredandanalyzedinthecloudand

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application is cloud based. Level5 IoT systems are suitable for solution based on wireless
sensor network, in which data involved is big and analysis requirements are
computationally intensive. An example of Level5 system for Forest Fire Detection.

6) IoT Level6: System has multiple independent end nodes that perform sensing and/or
actuation and sensed data to the cloud. Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud
based as shown in fig. The analytics component analyses the data and stores the result in
the cloud data base. The results are visualized with cloud based application. The
centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and sends control
commands to nodes. An example of a Level6 IoT system for Weather Monitoring
System.

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1.9 DOMAIN SPECIFIC IoTs

1) Home Automation:
a) Smart Lighting: helps in saving energy by adapting the lighting to the ambient
conditions and switching on/off or diming the light when needed.
b) Smart Appliances: make the management easier and also provide status information
to the users remotely.
c) Intrusion Detection: use security cameras and sensors(PIR sensors and door sensors)
to detect intrusion and raise alerts. Alerts can be in the form of SMS or email sent to
the user.
d) Smoke/Gas Detectors: Smoke detectors are installed in homes and buildings to
detect smoke that is typically an early sign of fire. Alerts raised by smoke detectors
can be in the form of signals to a fire alarm system. Gas detectors can detect the
presence of harmful gases such as CO, LPGetc.,

2) Cities:
a) Smart Parking: make the search for parking space easier and convenient for drivers.
Smart parking are powered by IoT systems that detect the no. of empty parking slots
and send information over internet to smart application backends.
b) Smart Lighting: for roads, parks and buildings can help in saving energy.
c) Smart Roads: Equipped with sensors can provide information on driving condition,
travel time estimating and alert in case of poor driving conditions, traffic condition
and accidents.
d) Structural Health Monitoring: uses a network of sensors to monitor the vibration
levels in the structures such as bridges and buildings.
e) Surveillance: The video feeds from surveillance cameras can be aggregated in cloud
based scalable storage solution.

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f) Emergency Response: IoT systems for fire detection, gas and water leakage
detection can help in generating alerts and minimizing their effects on the critical
infrastructures.

3) Environment:
a) Weather Monitoring: Systems collect data from a no. of sensors attached and send
the data to cloud based applications and storage back ends. The data collected in
cloud can then be analyzed and visualized by cloud based applications.
b) Air Pollution Monitoring: System can monitor emission of harmful gases(CO2, CO,
NO, NO2 etc.,) by factories and automobiles using gaseous and meteorological
sensors. The collected data can be analyzed to make informed decisions on pollutions
control approaches.
c) Noise Pollution Monitoring: Due to growing urban development, noise levels in
cities have increased and even become alarmingly high in some cities. IoT based
noise pollution monitoring systems use a no. of noise monitoring systems that are
deployed at different places in a city. The data on noise levels from the station is
collected on servers or in the cloud. The collected data is then aggregated to generate
noise maps.
d) Forest Fire Detection: Forest fire can cause damage to natural resources, property
and human life. Early detection of forest fire can help in minimizing damage.
e) River Flood Detection: River floods can cause damage to natural and human
resources and human life. Early warnings of floods can be given by monitoring the
water level and flow rate. IoT based river flood monitoring system uses a no. of
sensor nodes that monitor the water level and flow rate sensors.

4) Energy:
a) Smart Grids: is a data communication network integrated with the electrical grids
that collects and analyze data captured in near-real-time about power transmission,
distribution and consumption. Smart grid technology provides predictive information
and recommendations to utilities, their suppliers, and their customers on how best to
manage power. By using IoT based sensing and measurement technologies, the health
of equipment and integrity of the grid can be evaluated.
b) Renewable Energy Systems: IoT based systems integrated with the transformers at
the point of interconnection measure the electrical variables and how much power is
fed into the grid. For wind energy systems, closed-loop controls can be used to
regulate the voltage at point of interconnection which coordinate wind turbine outputs
and provides power support.
c) Prognostics: In systems such as power grids, real-time information is collected using
specialized electrical sensors called Phasor Measurment Units(PMUs) at the
substations. The information received from PMUs must be monitored in real-time for
estimating the state of the system and for predicting failures.

5) Retail:
a) Inventory Management: IoT systems enable remote monitoring of inventory using
data collected by RFIDreaders.

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 b) Smart Payments: Solutions such as contact-less payments
powered by technologies such as Near Field Communication(NFC)
and Bluetooth.
c) Smart Vending Machines: Sensors in a smart vending machines
monitors its operations and send the data to cloud which can be
used for predictive maintenance.

6) Logistics:
a) Route generation & scheduling: IoT based system backed by cloud
can provide firstresponse to the route generation queries and can be
scaled upto serve a large transportation network.
b) Fleet Tracking: Use GPS to track locations of vehicles inreal-time.
c) Shipment Monitoring: IoT based shipment monitoring systems use
sensors such as temp, humidity, to monitor the conditions and send
data to cloud, where it can be analyzed to detect foods poilage.
d) Remote Vehicle Diagnostics: Systems use on-board IoT devices
for collecting data on Vehicle operations(speed, RPMetc.,) and
status of various vehicle subsystems.

7) Agriculture:
a) Smart Irrigation: to determine moisture amount in soil.
b) Green House Control: to improve productivity.

8) Industry:
a) Machine diagnosis and prognosis
b) Indoor Air Quality Monitoring

9) Health and LifeStyle:

a) Health & Fitness Monitoring
b) Wearable Electronics