A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

A Module in

Criminology – 2 – Theories of Crime Causation

Compiled by :
LAURENCE P. BAZAN- DEAN, CCJE
TERESITO O DELOS ARCOS JR. RCrim.
EDUARD JAN E. PLAZA, RCrim, J.D.

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CHAPTER 1

THE OVERVIEW OF THEORIES

THEORY

Any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce general principles which increase
our understanding and explanations.

It is a representative of particular facts, but those principles are not dependent upon the
particular thing to be explained.

It is the foundation of criminology and of criminal justice.

A THEORY OF CRIME PROBLEMS

The crime triangle comes straight out of one of the main theories of environmental
criminology-routine activity theory.

The Routine Activity Theory provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of crime
problems. At its heart is the idea that in the absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon
attractive targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the same place as an
attractive target. For property crimes that target is a thing or an object. For personal crimes that target
is a person. If an attractive target is never in the same place as a motivate offender, the target will not
be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are controllers whose presence can prevent crime. If the
controller’s area absent or present but powerlessness, crime is impossible.

TRIANGLE OF CRIME PROBLEMS

1. PEOPLE/OFFENDERS

People who are influential in the lives of potential offenders. In the case of juveniles
these might be parents, close relatives, siblings, peers, teachers, coaches, and other similarly place
individuals. In the case of adults, these people may include intimate partners, close friends, relatives
and sometimes their children. These people are called handlers in routine activity theory. Crimes will
take place where handlers are absent, weak or corrupt.

2. TARGETS/VICTIMS/GUARDIANS

Guardians try to protect targets from theft and damage and potential victims from
attack and assault.

Formal guardians- includes the police, security guards, and others whose job is to
protect people and property from crime.

Informal guardians- include neighbors, friends, and others who happen to be in the
same place as the attractive target.
Parents, teachers, peers, and others close to potential victims are also potential
guardians. A target with an effective guardian is less likely to be attacked by a potential offender than
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a target without a guardian. If the guardian is absent, weak or corrupt little protection is provided the
target.

3. PLACE MANAGERS

Some owns every location and ownership confers certain rights to regulate access to
the site and behaviors of people using the site. The owner and the agents of the owner (employees)
look after the place and the people using the place. Owners and their agents are called place
managers. Place managers control the behavior of offenders and potential victims. Examples of
place manager include merchants, lifeguards, parking lot attendants, recreation and park workers,
janitors, and motel clerks.

In the presence of an effective place manager, crime is less likely than when the
manager is absent, weak or corrupt.

All of the people in this theory use tools to help accomplish their criminal or crime
control objectives. Offenders without access to tools are less likely to be able escape handlers,
enter unauthorized places and overcomes victims, guardians and managers. Guardians may use light
to increase surveillance, engraving devices to mark property, and other devices to help reduce the
chances of victimization. Place managers can use gates, fences, signs and other tools to regulate
conduct. With effective tools handlers, victims, guardians, and managers will have a greater chance of
keeping crime from occurring.

Figure 1. Problem

The relationship of the actors, places and tools is depicted in the problem triangle,
shown in Figure 1 Problem occur when offenders are at the same places as targets, without any
effective controller. If one or more of the controllers is present, however, the chances of crime are
greatly reduced. The effectiveness of the people involved will depend, in part on the tools they have
available. Adding or subtracting various elements in this model will alter the chances of crime.

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THREE THEORIES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

1. Psychological
2. Sociological
3. Biological

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH

There are many different psychological models of

criminal behavior ranging from early Freudian notion to
later cognitive and social psychological models.

We all list several fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of criminality.

1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.

2. Personality is the major motivational elements that drive behavior within

individuals.

3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.

4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional or inappropriate mental

processes within the personality of this individual.

5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses

certain felt needs.

6. Defective or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes, diseased

mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, the emulation of inappropriate role models, and
adjustment to inner conflicts.

Given these Six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal behavior, we can
suggest first that traditional imprisonment, fines and other court sanctions are based on operant
learning models of behavior for crime control. Operant learning models are based on the utilitarian
concepts that all people wish to maximize pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort.

Technically speaking, punishment are any sanctions designed to decrease a specific behavior;
thus, fines, jail sentences, etc. are all forms of punishment. However, punishment was generally
ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement worked better.

A Caveat (Warning/Caution) should be applied here: Punishment is effective if applied

properly, but unfortunately it rarely is applied properly. Punishment needs to be immediate as close as
time as possible, inescapable and the harsher, the better. Punishment and sanctions for criminal
behavior are based on behavioral psychological principles.

Harsh form of punishment do not appear to significantly decrease the recidivism rate. In terms
of cognitive behavioral psychological principles, rehabilitation and relearning, retraining, or
educational programs for offenders are forms of psychologically based methods to control crime.

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So, all forms of retraining, reeducation, or reentry guidance is based on psychological

principles of criminality and reform. However, rehabilitation programs are often rarely implemented in
jail or prison.

In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at maintaining a visible
presence of law enforcement and methods to maintain self-awareness in tempting situations. Such
methods are preventative.

For instances, it has been a well-known social psychological principle that situations
that diminish self-consciousness and self-awareness leads individuals to being less restrained, less
self-regulated, and more likely to act without considering the consequences of their actions.

Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological principles target the
individual and attempt to reform or prevent criminal behavior form that perspective. Any policies
requiring therapeutic intervention, retraining, or education are psychological in nature.

Any policy designed at preventing crime by targeting individuals such as raising

consciousness, promoting self-awareness or identifying individuals at risk are also psychological.
Likewise, psychologist have long recognized that the best predictor of future behavior is the
individuals past behavior. So, policies that are specifically designed to deal with repeat offenders are
also based on psychological principles of criminality.

2. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

It is defined sociological notion of criminality

as:

1. Attempting to connect the issues of the

individual’s criminality with the broader
social structures and cultural values of
society, familial, or peer group.

2. How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to criminality.

3. The ways these structures cultures and contradictions have historically developed.

4. The current process of changed that these groups are undergoing.

5. Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of criminality and its
social causes.

Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes was a result of anomie, a term
meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social norms, a lack of being connected to society.

Later sociologist used the term to describe the dissociation of the individual from the
collective conscience or the criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations or b
the learning of criminal values and behaviors.

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Therefore, criminality results from the failure to properly socialize individuals and by
unequal opportunities between groups. It is also believed that crime was an inescapable fact of
society and advocated maintaining crime within reasonable boundaries.

An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate opportunities for

advancement and obtaining of goods and wealth in areas where these do not exist. Sociological
controls targeted at his goal could originate in higher State and Federal levels of government as well
as local levels of government and would include programs designed to guarantee equal opportunities
to all individuals.

Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens, job training, educational funding,
urban renewal projects and so forth would be in line with sociological policies to control crime.

Other related sociological controls for crime would consist of organizing and
empowering neighborhood residents with project like neighborhood crime watches, providing law-
abiding role models for children in schools and in other venues, providing parental support for working
parents, and establishing community centers in downtrodden areas to allow people to learn and
engage in positive activities.

Social program aimed at socializing children properly and providing support for single
family homes are also examples of sociological methods to control crime. There are a number of
these programs including career academics.

Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger and harsher
penalties for serious crimes such as murder rape are more effective law enforcement. Again,
sociologist accept the realities that crime is a social phenomenon that will not disappear no matter
how many interventions are enacted to control it.

The purpose of imprisonment includes punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence and

selective confinement.

3. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

This physical flaw could be due to the:

1. Heredity

2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction

3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either

of the above, improper development, or
trauma.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIMINALITY

1. PSYCHOSURGERY

Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to criminal behavior.

Lobotomy were used to treat a wide range of problems form depression to

schizophrenia.

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Lobotomy- a surgical operation involving incision into the prefrontal lobe of the
brain, formerly used to treat mental illness.

The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain either
surgically or in the case of the trans orbital lobotomy with a sharp icepick like instrument that was
inserted in the eye socket between the upper eyelid and the eye. In this method the patient was not
anesthetized, not even the children.

The psychiatrist hit the end of the instrument with a hammer to disconnect the nerves
in the frontal lobe of the brain. Afterwards behavior were changed, but a high price as you can
imagine. Today the lobotomy has fallen out of favor due medications used to control behavior.

2. CHEMICAL METHODS OF CONTROL

The use of pharmacological treatment to try to control crime has been ongoing in two
major areas:

1. Chemical castration for sex offenders and

2. Pharmacological interventions for drug or alcohol addicts.

However, addicts can stop the medication and return to used. Sex offenders are
closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.

Sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been ordered to take
medications to treat their mental illness. Other pharmacological interventions to control crime seen
plausible and are being investigated, but do not appear to have been widely used.

3. OTHERS

a. Deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as Parkinson’s Disease.

b. Changes in Diet to deal with criminality and better relations between parents.

c. Genetic XYY Combination to be a marker of criminal type but as it turns out these
individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have learning
difficulties as opposed to being criminal types.

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CHAPTER 2

EARLY GENERAL THEORIES ON THE

CAUSES OF CRIME

DEMONOLOGY is the study of demos or beliefs about demons, especially the methods used
to summon and control them.

Demons when regarded as spirits may belong to either of the classes of spirits
recognized by primitive animism. That is to say, they may be human or non-human, separable
animism. That is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or discarnate spirits
which have never inhabited a body.

Greek word: daimon- divinity, devine power, god

Logia- study

1. DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY

Demonology is one of the earliest

theories in criminology. In the ancient times,
people believe that evil spirits or demons
entered human body to consist sins.

This was the earliest explanation given regarding crime and criminal behavior. Terms like
demons, witches and windigo were used people who had turned criminals. The society thought that
is happened due to evil influence. Supernatural powers were considered the best explanation behind
crime and sin. It was believed that a person did not commit crimes of his own free will but under evil
influence.

An early explanation of crime is theological

or religious. Crime has been viewed as a violation
of religious doctrine. It is called a sin- a violation of
sacred obligation. An individual who commits a crime
has been viewed as possess by evil spirits or under
divine wrath.

Criminal acts were considered as indicia of basically, evil human suggesting adherence to
Satan or under the spell of the prince of darkness.

The causes of crime have been based in superstitious belief in which criminals were allegedly
perceived as controlled by other worldly forces- the devil.
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There are many myths, stories and legends that we know about. They maybe the product of
our imagination or be well crafted by our creative mind. Demonology is a very old discipline which
developed itself out of theology. Existence of demons only a fact that God Exists.

Demonology is unfortunately a borderline science. This essentially means that modern science
will never accept any explanation that involves non-material or spiritual forms of evidence. Officially
any crime that involves demonic possession may be qualified as insanity. Psychiatrist are those who
at a request of the Court make a diagnosis (analysis) and prognosis (prediction) about a person’s
sanity or insanity.

Modern science tends to rationally and materially explains connections of crime and demonic
possessions. Main reasons are lawmaker request for a legal form of evidence. Evidence can be
statements of witnesses, victims, or perpetrators. Those statements get their form of evidence in
courts records and usually are backed by consistencies with material and circumstantial evidence or
facts as well as with high credibility of persons who gave those statements.

Criminology as a science looks out on these matters from a cultural and legal perspective. The
legal perspective includes forensic psychiatry and psychology, while the cultural perspective includes
systems of values of some ethnic group of nation.

For an example, there are still some ritual practices among the tribes of the African continent
that allow throwing of the first-born male children to the pigs. Looking on it from our perspective, this is
naturally a crime, but among those tribes this a tradition. System of values are also different in
organization like Cosa Nostra, narcotic cartels or other criminal organizations. While some behaviors
are desirable in the kind of organization, they are banned or marked red by a normal society.

According to some theorist, the first school of criminology was the demonological
school of criminology.

Criminology as a science was established at second half of the 19 th century.

“People commit crimes under demonic or evil influences”.

2. POSITIVIST THEORY

Theories which existed before positivist theory of Criminology were Phrenology and
Physiognomy theories.

Johan Kaspar Lavater, the physiognomist, thought that

the shape of the skull and some facial features had an
impact on a human behavior and action.

Later, positivist theorist of crime Casare

Lombroso took Lavater ideas and began exploring
other physical traits of a body.

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Lombroso, the criminal anthropologist, not only research the farcical features and the shape of
the skull, but social conditions of individuals like unemployment and medical history of illness.

He compared large number of criminals and non-criminals using human physical traits like:
ear, size, hair length and other.

Goring, the main critics of Lombroso, conducted the research on crime heredity, but didn’t find
any differences in facial features or other human physical traits between prison inmates, asylum
inhabitants and non-criminals.

The only physical difference Goring found between an experimental and control group was the
significant dissimilarity in body weight and stature.

The criminals in Goring’s research tend to have the lower weight and small stature. Positivists
theories of crime argued that human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by individual
differences and biological traits.

In shorts, terms, what drives people towards crime is not a matter of free-will. The positivist
crime theories and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made attempts to scientifically prove his
thesis that criminal offenders were physically different from non-offenders. Lombroso stated that
atavistic features are more akin (similar) to savages (barbarians) and criminal offenders.

Positivist theory of Crime presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior should find the
“causes” of such behavior. They also believed that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the
individual. Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic.

Lombroso was influences by Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to support
a thesis on inferiority of criminals. Positivist theory of crime implemented the idea of social Darwinism
that individuals or group develop certain physical and psychological attributes, which allow them to
function more efficiently in the social and natural environment.
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We can object to positivist theories of crime that the theories never accepted the idea about
the equality of gender roles. Lombroso thought that males were lenient to a crime because they were
more masculine that females in general.

This theory acts on the proposition that one who commits a crime cannot morally comprehend
the wrongfulness of his actions in the same way individuals of average intelligence or who are socially
accepted, etc. are able to do so.

The mind of these individuals has been affected in a particular way and therefore does not
have the capability to make a conscious, rational choice to obey the law. Unfortunately, a case can be
made based on this theory regarding shootings on school campuses where students have murdered
fellow students usually because of some type of bullying involved.

In the early 1800’s, public execution used to be commonplace. The ideas was that society
would be afraid of the public punishment that came with wrongdoing and adjust their actions. This
reasoning for punishment aligns with a view known as Utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism is a theory that one is motivated by pleasure and the fear of pain, so
punishment ca be used as a deterrent to commit crimes.

Positivist Criminology began to emerge, which is the study of criminal behavior

based upon external factors.

3. NEOCLASSICAL CRIME THEORY

(New- English Lang./ Neo-French Lang.)

Classical Crime theory is represented by the theoretical study of Jeremy

Bentham and Cesare Beccaria.

Jeremy Bentham was the Founder of English

Utilitarianism. Bentham thought that human
beings are hedonistic and act only in their
own self-interest.

Utilitarianism also considered rational courses of

action when people pursue their own interest.

Utilitarian teaching is an important part of

criminal-justice ethics today.

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Neo-classical crime theory is a continuation of classical crime theory tradition.

Development of neo-classical theory will continue in 1980 with a forming of new sociological
theories, i.e. differential association and identification.

Although sources that mention neoclassical school and crime theory of criminology are merely
sparse, it main contribution to the field of criminology is reflected through the understanding of
individual differences of the perpetrators. While classical school was wholly concern with an
explanation of crime, neoclassical crime theory saw some flaws in Beccaria’s theory of crime.

Classical crime theory completely concentrated on the criminal act and positivist crime theory
concentrated on the perpetrator. Positivist was obsesses with behavioral prediction and classist with a
crime explanation.

Neoclassical crime theory sought to improve the stances towards perpetrators who should
have an impact on the level of guilt and severity of punishment.

Not all perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion, because the evident differences
exist among them. Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately influenced on the
perpetrators to commit. It. Representative of the neoclassical criminology theory, Gabriel Tarde
published the book “Penal Philosophy” in 1980.

Gabriel Tarde was a French sociologist and

founder of Neoclassical School of
Criminology.

In this book Tarde criticizes classical and positivist criminology

and takes the best from both criminology.

Neoclassical criminology theory considers age, gender and social class of the perpetrators.
The perpetrators are people who think, feel, act and criminal behavior is learned within groups by
imitation and identification.

4. CLASSICAL THEORY

Classical theory in Criminology has its roots in the theories of the 18 th century Italian nobleman
and economist, Cesare Beccaria and the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham.

This was the time in history when punishment for crime was severe in the extreme, and both
men proffered the theory of utility. New theorist like Beccaria and Bentham looked at the causes of
criminal and delinquent behavior, and began to scientifically explain such deviance.

They rejected and theories of naturalism and demonology which characterized the European
Enlightenment as explanations for these types of behavior. The new theories reflected the rationalism
and humanitarianism of the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment.

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Beccaria did not develop a completely new theory

of criminology, but rather sought a way to make punishment
for committing a crime more rational.

He believed that there should be a hierarchy of

punishment for more and more serious crimes and the
number of times a criminal had been charged previously,
the circumstances under the death penalty was imposed
would depend entirely on the severity of the crime and
not the actual act committed or the degree of involvement
in the act. He was against judges having the broad discretion they possessed and
favored definite punishment fitting each crime.

He published a book, An Essay on Crimes and

Punishment in 1764 discussing why crime occurs
and what society should do about it. He advocated a
proposition that punishment should be swift, certain,
and proportional to the crime. He also advocated the
abolition of both corporal and capital punishment, a
revolutionary idea in his time. His work was promoted
by Bentham, particularly in his book and Introduction to
the Principles of Morals and Legislation.

Beccaria and Bentham believed that people

committed crimes when they believe that the chance of
rewards to them would be greater than likelihood of
punishment.

It was pain/pleasure view of human behavior; that human sought to gain pain. These men
believed the people acted on the principle of free-will; they made a choice of what behavior to indulge
in and therefore, should suffer the consequences if caught in criminal acts.

Classical theory of crime explains that crime is a product of believes that benefits of
committing crimes are far greater. People opt in decisions making between two scenarios A and B. A
scenario is: a crime isn’t profitable cause you will be get caught” and B scenario presents certainty in
decision making “that you will never get caught”. Most of the criminal think they’ll never get caught.

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MAIN PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY WERE:

1. Crime is a rational choice, and most people are capable to commit crimes.

2. People will commit a crime after they have compared potential cost and benefits of such actions.

3. Most of the people fear punishment, and the certainty, severity and speed punishment
will have an impact on the level of crime.

4. Punishment needs to fit a crime and individual differences of perpetrators shouldn’t have an
influence on the punishment.

5. The criminal justice system needs to be predictable, while laws and punishment must be known to
public.

Proportionality in Criminology means that crime must fit a crime. The first model of
proportionality in applying punishments was Lex Taliones or law of retaliation. Crime is a behavioral
human characteristic and a choice.

Similar to the choice theory, this theory suggests that when one commits a crime, it is because
the individual decided that it was advantageous to commit the crime. The individual commits the crime
from his own free will being well aware of punishment.

5. CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict theory hold that crime results from the conflicts in society among the different social
classes and those laws actually arise from necessity as a result of conflict rather than a general
consensus.

The fundamental cause of crime are the social and economic forces operating within
society.

The criminal justice system and criminal law are thought to be operating on behalf of rich and
powerful social elites, with resulting policies aimed at controlling the poor.

Conflict theory is a theory propounded by Karl Marx that claims society is in a state of
perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources.

It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and
conformity. According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means
possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless.

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Karl Marx

MARX’S CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSED ON 2 PRIMARY CLASSES

1. BOURGEOISIE
Represent members of society who hold majority of the wealth and means.

2. PROLETARIAT
Includes those considered working class or poor.

It is theorized that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the population, would use their
influence to oppress the proletariat, the majority class. Marx further believe that as the working class
and poor were subjected to worsening conditions, a collective consciousness would bring the
inequality to light and potentially result in revolt.

FOUR PRIMARY ASSUMPTIONS OF MODERN CONFLICT THEORY

1. Competition
Competition over scarce resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so on) is at
the heart of all social relationships. Competition rather than consensus is characteristic of human
relationships.

2. Structural Inequality
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals and
groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.

3. Revolution
Change occurs as a result of conflict between social class competing interest rather
than through adaptation. It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.

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4. War
Even war is unifier of the societies involved, as well as war may set and end to whole
societies.

6. CRITICAL THEORY

It upholds the belief that a small few, the elite of the

society, decide laws and the definition of crime, those who
commit crime disagree with the laws that were created to
keep control on them.

Critical criminology sees crime as a product of

oppression of workers and less advantaged groups within
the society, such as women and ethnic minorities are
seen to be the most likely to suffer oppressive social relations
based upon class division, sexism and racism.

More simply, critical criminology may be defined as any criminological topic area that takes
into account the contextual factors of crime or critiques topics covered in mainstream criminology.

The Core concepts of Critical theory are as follows:

1. That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical
specificity;

2. That critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major
social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science,
anthropology, and psychology.

Critical theory as it is known today can be traced to Marx’s critique of economy and society put
forth in his many works. It is inspired greatly by Marx theoretical formulation of the relationship
between economic base and ideological superstructure, and tends to focus on how power and
domination operate in particular, in the realm of the superstructure.

A Critical theory as it is known today can be traced to Marx critique of economy and society
put forth in his many works. It is inspired greatly by Marx theoretical formulation of the relationship
between economic based and ideological superstructure, and tends to focus on how proper and
domination operate, in particular, in the realm of the superstructure.

A critical theory that has a distinctive aim: to unmask the ideology falsely justifying some form
of social or economic oppression to reveal it as ideology and, in so doing to contribute to the task of
ending that oppression.

Critical theory aims to provide a kind of enlightenment about social and economic life that is
itself emancipator; persons come to recognize the oppression they are suffering as oppression and
thereby partly freed from it.

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CHAPTER 3

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Criminal behavior results from a complex interplay of social and biological factors.

Biological Factors- it consists of psychological, biological, biochemical, neurological, and genetic

factors.

Genetic Factors- it refers to biological factors that are inherited.

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

XYY Chromosome syndrome

-Richard Fox

- Chromosome aberration

- It is called “macho men” who have

extra Y chromosomes

- Supermales

- they are predisposed to commit crime

- Research conducted in the Scottish

prison found 3% of inmates who have XYY
chromosomal aberration. However, these
claims are completely unjustified and
meaningless if we consider the low
proportion of such persons in the general
population.

Another study on crime held that hormones have

an important impact on the existence of aggression.

Based on research conducted on animals it was

found that elevated levels of hormones in women and
men affect the emergence of aggressive behavior.

These studies mainly dealt with the influence of

testosterone on aggressive behavior, and found that
higher levels of testosterone affect the occurrence of
aggressive behavior.

Elevated testosterone level will affect the

increase in aggressive behavior, while subtracting
testosterone level will act to reduce aggressive behavior.

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According to biological theories, punishment will not affect deterring the individual from the
crime, because the person has some inherited remnant, stigmata, etc.

1. LOMBROSIAN THEORY

The Father of Criminology was the Italian Cesare

Lombroso (1935-1901). He altered the classic focus of
crime from legalities and punishment to the individual
criminal.

Lombroso proposed that Criminal are biologically

different from other human beings.

He believed that criminals are throwbacks to a more primitive stage of human evolution and
that the criminal tendency is inherited.

Basic idea of the Positive Theory:

1. Criminals are born not made

2. This is an example of nature not nurture
3. Focused on biological and psychological factors to explain criminal behavior

Positivist Theorist:

1. Cesare Lombroso

2. Italian physician and psychiatrist

3. Studied cadavers of executed criminals in an effort to determine scientifically whether

criminals were physically any different from non-criminals.

4. He believed that people were born criminals and facial features of criminals included things
like enormous jaws and strong canine fee.

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Cesare Lombroso theories are no longer valid

today. Only credit which can be given to Lombroso is
that he was the pioneer in inducement of scientific
method to criminology.

Although anthropometric measurements were

correct, the causal connection between human
physical traits and criminality were deceptive.

Lombroso developed the theory about “born criminal”. In 3000 anthropometric measurements
he found some biological traits of criminals.

Biological traits of born criminals are:

1. Unusual Size or shape of the head

2. Strange eyes
3. Facial asymmetry
4. Extended jaw and jaw bone
5. Too big or too small ears
6. full lips leaned forward
7. abnormal teeths
8. wrinkled skin
9. nose curled up; thieves have
a flat nose and murderers
have a beak nose

10. too long, too small or flat chin

11. dark skin
12. too long arms

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According to Lombroso, person who have five or more biological traits are born criminals.

Besides physical traits Lombroso introduces some other traits of born criminal:

1. Hypersensitivity to pain and touch

2. Use of special criminal slang
3. Grotesque expression of thoughts
4. Tattoos
5. Unemployment

Lombroso later changes the theory of born criminal and develops a new theory.

Classification of criminals is made into three categories:

1. Born Criminals (30% of all criminals)

2. Abnormal Criminals (idiot, imbeciles, paranoids, melancholic, paralytics, epileptics,

demented person, alcoholics and hysterics)

3. Occasional Criminals
a. Criminaloids
b. Pseudo Criminals
c. Criminals out of habit

Criminaloids had difficulties during their childhood and can occasionally behave
delinquently. Pseudo criminals are insane persons and those who committed crime in self defense.
Habitual criminals had a poor education during their childhood or have been In social interaction with
criminals.

Lombroso theory was popular in his time, but it was later debunked. Some ideas fall
out of favor in science as well as in politics with time. Lombroso’s on crime are still present today in
the form of stereotypes on some minority groups.

Furthermore, research conducted on police sub cultural behavior shows that police
officers have similar stereotypes on particular racial groups.

FIVE KEY PRINCIPLE OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. Rationality

The classical school assumes that people have free will and they choose to
commit the crime. For example, If Lebron decides to steal some candy at the store, he is not
forced to, based on some pre-destiny. He chooses to steal that candy. Not only that, he thinks about
it beforehand and say’s to himself, “I really want candy, and I don’t have money, so I will steal it. This
is the rational thinking that goes into his planning to commit a crime.

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2. Hedonism

The classical school also assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. For
example, when Lebron looks at the candy in the store, he thinks about how it will bring him pleasure,
so he steals it.

3. Punishment

Remember how we said that a key idea was the idea of hedonism, where people seek
pleasure and try to avoid pain? well that informs punishment, according to the classical school. For
Example, if Lebron thinks about stealing the candy and then realizes that he could go to jail for it, he
might not steal it because hell be trying to avoid the pain of jail. In this way, the classical school of
criminology believes that punishment work as a deterrent to crime.

4. Human Rights
Lebron has learned that before the classical school of criminology, punishment could
be very harsh indeed. It was not uncommon to torture someone who was only suspected of a crime,
and the punishment once convicted could be horrifying.

According to the classical school of criminology, all individuals have rights, and
society needs t respect the rights of individuals. That means that they should not torture or
institute punishment that is unreasonably harsh. For example, if Lebron gets caught stealing the
candy, we wouldn’t expect that his punishment would involve cutting his hands off. That seems a little
extreme.

The idea of due process is that people accused of a crime are considered innocent
until proven guilty, and that they have the chance to go to trial and face the judicial system. If Lebron
was accused of stealing the candy and then just thrown in jail without trial, that would be a
violation of his due process.

What is Atavism?

If you’ve heard the phrase

“living under a rock; you’re already
well on your way to understanding the
term atavism.

The term atavism means

evolutionary throwback. The term
emerged during the 1870’s in the
Italian School of criminology.

During this time, criminology

studies were largely an extension of
medical studies, based on observable
physical and anatomical characteristics
that made these individuals different
from others.

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These physical traits were correlated to earlier humans, long before humans learned
that living together in societies was beneficial to the survival.

The physical characteristics, such as flat noses, large lips, strong jaw lines, and thick,
coarse hair, were all attributed to a person’s propensity to commit crime because these characteristics
were noted of persons who had already been convicted of crime specifically prisoners.

Victim Precipitation

Is a criminology theory that analyzes how a victim interaction with an offender may contribute
to the crime being committed? The theory is most commonly associated with crimes like homicide,
rape, assault, and robbery.

It was first introduced by 20 th century criminologist Marvin Wolfgang and describes the victim
as the first in the homicide drama to use physical force against his subsequent slayer.

Victim Precipitation related to how and why crime happens and seeks to understand the
Interaction between the victim and the offender.

Example:

Cain and Abel are having a drink at the local tavern. Abel owes Cain money and as the
night progress, Cain becomes increasingly agitated with Abel’s failure to pay his debt. Finally, Cain
snaps--- he shouts at Abel from across the bar, and then charges at them, brandishing a pistol.
He fires a shot toward Abel, barely missing his head. Abel pulls a knife and stabs Cain to death as
the two wrestles on the floor.

Under the victim precipitation theory, Cain’s participation in his own death can be analyzed by
applying the theory’s components. First, Cain was the initial aggressor- he started the verbal
altercation, and he started the physical altercation when he fired his pistol at Abel. Second, Cain
clearly provoked Abel—he ran toward him aggressively, intending to kill or seriously injure him.

Victim precipitation theory also related to interactions that make a victim susceptible to crime.
This application of the theory is known as a victim facilitation, and it concerns situations where a
victim’s negligence or carelessness makes them more vulnerable to criminal conduct.

2. WILLIAM SHELDON’S THEORY

We all draw conclusion about people based on how they look. Maybe we think blondes aren’t
smart or that all skinny men with glasses are scientist. As humans, we tend to label folks. Or
described them in a few words based only on a quick glance. We also know this system is flawed; you
actually can’t judge a book by its cover, take a look at some famous blondes like biologist Jane
Goodall or Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor for evidence!

William Sheldon, an American psychologist

born on November 19, 1898. Sheldon was a watcher
of people who took his observations and formed a
theory about them.

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Sheldon published a system of classifying people based on their body types in two
documents:

1. The Varieties of Human Physique, 1949;

2. The Varieties of Temperament, 1942.

Sheldon used his observation to classify body types into three categories:

1. Ectomorphic
2. Endomorphic
3. Mesomorphic

1. ECTOMORPH
The ectomorph, according to Sheldon was a thin, introverted person with poor social skills.

The characteristics of body type are as follows:

1. Narrow hips, shoulder, face, chest
2. Skinny arms and legs
3. High forehead

The personality characteristics are as follows:

1. Socially awkward
2. Self-conscious
3. Introverted and private
4. Artistic
5. Thoughtful

2. ENDOMORPH
The endomorph, according to Sheldon was rounder body and more relaxed personality.

The characteristics body type are as follows:

1. Pear-shaped or round with wide shoulders and hips
2. High body fat in all areas, including arms and thighs
3. Slim ankles and wrists, adding to the “funny” characteristics

These personality characteristics are as follows:

1. Outgoing
2. Funny
3. Loving
4. Laid-back
5. Attention-seeking

3. MESOMORPH
The mesomorph is square body with an active personality and considered a more desirable
body and personality.

The characteristics body types are as follows:

1. Broad shoulders and a narrow waist
2. A trim of muscular body with a strong feel
3. Proportionate facial features not only did they get the goods on looks

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These personality characteristics are as follows:

1. Outgoing
2. Courageous
3. Full of life
4. Competitive
5. Risk Taker

3. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY: THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR CAUSED BY

DIET

1. Crime and Sugar

Biochemical theories claim that there is a

causal connection between blood sugar levels,
anti-social behavior and delinquency. Theories
are mostly represented in the field of juvenile
delinquency and presume that poor nutrition
affects delinquent behavior. Poor nutrition directly
affects the learning processes.

However, the causal connection between delinquency and candies aren’t direct.
Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development of negative
behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive
consumption of alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.

2. Cholesterol and Crime

Clinical trials made found a relation

between low cholesterol and aggressive behavior
in animals. The study conducted in Sweden on
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79,777 men and women at age (24-70), who had police arrest records for violent crimes, found
a strong connection between lowered levels of cholesterol and violent behavior.

Measurements of cholesterol levels of violent offenders were compared with

measurement records of non-offenders based on gender, age, type of offender (sexual or
violent), alcohol consumption and enrollment year. Low levels of cholesterol are associated with
persons who have difficulties with I internationalization of social norms and have the tendency to
be irresponsible. Low cholesterol level can cause hypoglycemia.

3. Vitamins and Crime

Vitamins and minerals are very
important in a regular diet.

Disruption of homeostasis can cause

difficulties. Theory sates that low intake of
vitamins, and minerals can cause delinquent
behavior.

The biochemical and neurological theories of crime research the influence of neurotransmitters
or hormones. These types of theories take into consideration some influences of social factors.
However, neurological and biochemical theories still focus on the biological aspect of crime
causation.

4. NEUROLOGICAL INFERIORITY THEORY/HOOTONS THEORY

Earnest Albert Hooton was an American

physical anthropologist known for his work on racial
classification. Hooton’s conducted detailed
research on physical and racial characteristics, and
used his data to develop wide- reaching analyses of
the racial components of American Indians, and
more controversially, to attempt to characterized the
physical attributes of criminals.

While his efforts to connect the external, physical form of people to their internal personality or
character had some merit his simplistic extrapolation to actual behavior was methodologically and
logistically flawed. Nevertheless, his academic work established physical anthropology as a scientific
discipline in American universities.

Hooton advocated a cautious approach to the claims of evolutionary origins of the human
race, especially after the events connected to the discovery of the Piltdown man, which was proven to
be a hoax, and a great slap in a face to the scientific community.

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In light to his, Hooton’s wrote:

No anthropologist is justified in reconstructing the entire skeleton of an unfamiliar type of fossil

man from parts of the skullcap, one or two teeth, and perhaps a few oddments of mandible (jaw bone)
and long bones… Inferences concerning the missing parts are very precarious, unless more complete
skeletons of other individuals of the same type are available to support the reconstruction.

Hooton’s research projects were filled with meticulous data, but he was not content with the
mere documentation of details. For Hooton, the broader implications of his finding were the essence
of his research. Thus, his study of the skeletal remains of Pecos Pueblo led him to identify various
racial components in American Indians.

Hooton’s remains famous for his work in criminology in which he used his work in racial
classification and applied it to the area of criminal behavior. Hooton believed in Cesare Lombroso’s
theory of the born criminal, according to which criminals could be identified based on their physical
characteristics.

Through his own research surveying

American Criminals, Hooton tried to find evidence
supporting Lombroso’s Theory, suggesting that
criminals have inferior characteristics compared
to people who do not commit crimes. He
classified those characteristics into sociological,
psychological, physical, morphological and
pathological areas.

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For Example:

1. Criminals are less often married and more often divorced

2. Criminals often have tattoos

3. Criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their hair is more often
reddish brown than straight

4. Criminals often have blue-gray or mixed colored eyes and less dark or blue eyes

5. Criminals have low sloping foreheads, high nasal bridges and thin lips

6. Criminals ears often have rolled helix and perceptible Darwin’s points

Based on these observation Hooton concluded that the underlying cause of criminal behavior
is to be found in physical characteristics, that is, physical inferiority.

He suggested that human somatotype (body shape and physique) can even determine which
type of crime a person will commit:

1. tall- slender mean are predisposed for murder and robbery;

2. tall-medium heavy men for forgery;
3. tall- heavy men for first-degree-murder;
4. medium height-heavy for anti-social behavior;
5. short-slender for burglary and larceny;
6. short-medium heavy for arson;
7. short-heavy men for sex offenders.

Since he believed that biological predispositions determine deviant behavior. Hooton

advocated removal of criminals from society seeing no hope in their rehabilitation.

His theories were heavily influenced by eugenic ideas and as such were harshly criticized. His
methodology was serious questioned, and his beliefs characterized as racist.

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CHAPTER 4

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

It is important to recognized that there are many different explanations as to why individuals
commit crime. One of the main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on the
association among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Thus, is any discussion
concerning causation, one must contemplate psychological theories.

When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major
theories.

1. Psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that an individual’s early

childhood experience influences his or her likelihood for committing future crimes.

2. Behavioral theory, behavioral theorist has expanded the work of Gabriel Tarde
through behavior modeling and social learning.

3. Cognitive theory, the major premise of which suggest that an individual’s perception and
how it is manifested affect his or her potential to commit crime. In other words, behavioral theory
focuses on how an individual’s perception of the world influences his or her behavior.

1. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

Jointness is a dynamic process representing an emotional system for attachment and for
communication between separate individuals who jointly approach each other in a third, joint, virtual
space.

Jointness represents and encounter between mother and infant, psychotherapist and patient,
or any partners experiencing simultaneously mutual intimacy, while concomitantly safeguarding
separateness.

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular

personal interaction, to help a person change and overcome problems in desired ways.

It also aims to improve and individual’s well-being and mental health to resolve or mitigate
troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and
social skills. Certain psychotherapies are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed
mental disorders.

Psychotherapist may be metal health professionals such as psychiatrist, psychologist, clinical

social workers, marriage and family therapist, or professional counselors.

In general, psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind,
personality or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional or motivational forces especially at the
unconscious level.

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2. BEHAVIORAL THEORY

This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. The
hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the
reactions this behavior elicits in other people. In an ideal situation, behavior is supported by rewards
and extinguished by negative reactions or punishment.

Social Learning theory, which is a branch of behavior theory, is the most relevant to
criminology. The most prominent social learning theorist is Albert Bandura. Bandura maintains that
individuals are not born with an innate ability to act violently. He suggested that, in contrast, violence
and aggression are learned through a process of behavior modeling.

In other words, children learn violence through the observation of others.

Aggressive acts are modeled after three primary sources:

1. Family interaction
2. Environmental experiences
3. Mass media

Research on family interaction demonstrates that children who are aggressive are more
likely to have been brought up by parents or caretakers who are aggressive.

The second source of behavioral problems, environmental experiences, suggest that

individuals who reside in areas that are crime prone are more likely to display aggressive behavior
than those who reside in low-crime areas.

One could argue that high-crime areas are without norms, rules and customs.

Furthermore, there is an absence of conventional behavior. Manifestations of unconventional

behavior include the inability to gain employment; drug or alcohol abuse; and failure to obey the local
and state laws.

The third sources of behavioral problems are the mass media. It is difficult to discern the
ultimate role of the media in regard to crime. Scholars have suggested that films, video games, and
television shows that depict violence are harmful to children. Ultimately, social learning theories
beckon us to accept the fact that the mass media are responsible for a great deal of the violence in
our society.

They hypothesize that children who play violent video games and later inflict physical or
psychological damage to someone at school did so because of the influence of the video game.
Important to note that the above-mentioned media outlets, violence is often acceptable and even
celebrated. Moreover, there are no consequences for the actions of the major players.

3. CONGITIVE THEORY

Here, psychologist focus on the mental processes of individuals. More important cognitive
theorist attempt to understand how criminal offenders perceive and mentally represent the world
around them. Relevant to the cognitive theory is how individuals solve problems. Two prominent
pioneering 19th century psychologist are Wilhelm Wundt and William James.

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2 subdisciplines of Cognitive Theory

1. Moral Development Branch

The focus of which is understanding on how people morally represent and reason about the world.

2. Information Processing

The focus of which is on the way people acquire, retain and retrieve information.

Ultimately, scholars are concerned with the process of those three stages (acquisition,
retention, and retrieval).

One theory within the cognitive framework focuses on moral and intellectual development.
Jean Piaget hypothesized that the individual reasoning process is developed in and orderly fashion.
Thus, from birth onward an individual will continue o develop. Another pioneer of cognitive theory is
Lawrence Kohlberg, who applied the concept of moral development to criminological theory. Kolhberg
believed that individuals pass through stages of moral development. Most important to his theory is
the notion that there are levels, stages and social orientation.

4. PERSONALITY AND CRIME

Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also that which
make us different from others.

BIG FIVE MODELS OF PERSONALITY

1. Neuroticism

It involves emotional stability. Individuals who score high on this domain often demonstrate
anger and sadness and have irrational ideas, uncontrollable impulses and anxiety. In contrast, person
who score low on Neuroticism are often describe by others as even tempered, calm and relaxed.

2. Extraversion

It is characterized by sociability, excitement, and stimulation. Individuals who score high on

extraversion are often very active, talkative, and assertive. They also are more optimistic toward the
future. In contrast, introverts are often characterized by being reserved, independent, and shy.

3. Openness

It is characterized to individual who have an active imagination, find pleasure in beauty, are
attentive to their inner feelings, have a preference for variety, and are intellectually curious. Individuals
who score high on Openness are willing to entertain unique or novel ideas, maintain unconventional
values and experiences positive and negative emotion more so than individuals who are closed-
minded. In contrast, persons who score low in Openness often prefer the familiar, behave in
conventional manners, and have a conservative viewpoint.

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4. Agreeableness

This domain is related to interpersonal tendencies. Individuals who score high on this domain
is considered warm, altruistic, softhearted, forgiving, sympathetic, and trusting. In contrast, those who
are not agreeable are described as hear-hearted, intolerant, impatient and argumentative.

5. Conscientiousness

It is focuses on a person’s ability to control impulses and exercise self-control. Individuals who
score high on Conscientiousness are described as organized thorough, efficient, determined, and
strong willed. In addition, those who are conscientious are more likely to achieve high academic and
occupational desires. In contrast people who score low on the domain are thought to be careless,
lazy, and more likely assign fault to others than to accept blame themselves.

5. PSYCHOPAHTIC PERSONALITY

Anti-social personality, psychopathy or sociopath are terms used interchangeably.

Sociopath- are often a product of a destructive home environment.

Psychopath- are product of defect or aberration within themselves

Anti-social Personality

It is characterized by low levels of guilt, superficial charm, above- average intelligence,

persistent violations of the rights of others, incapacity to form enduring relationships, impulsivity, risk
taking, egocentricity, manipulativeness, forcefulness and cold-heartedness, and shallow emotions.

The origin may include traumatic socialization, neurological examination, he or she may
engage in thrill seeking or high-risk behaviors such as crime to offset their low arousal level.

Other dynamics that may contribute to the psychopathic personality is a parent with
pathological tendencies, childhood traumatic events or inconsistent discipline. It is important to note
that many chronic offenders are sociopaths. Thus, if personality traits can predict crime and violence,
then one could assume that the root cause of crime is found in the forces that influence human
development at an early stage of life.

6. INTELLIGENCE AND CRIME

Criminologist suggested for centuries that there is existing link between intelligence and crime.
Some common beliefs are that criminals and delinquents possess low intelligence and that his low
intelligence causes criminality.

As criminological research has advanced, scholars have continued to suggest that the Holy
Grail is causality. The ability to predict criminals from non-criminal is the ultimate goal. The ideology or
concept of IQ and crime has crystallized into the nature-versus-nurture debate.

In the early decade of the 20th century, researchers administered IQ test to delinquent male
children. The results indicated that close to 40% had below- average intelligence. On the basis of
these data and other studies, some scholars argue that the role of nature is prevalent.

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With respect to the nurture theory, advocates ground themselves on the premise that
intelligence is not inherited. There is some recognition of the role of heredity; however, emphasis is
placed on the role of society. To demonstrate, parents are a major influence on the children behavior.
At an early age, parents read books, play music, and engage their children in art, museum, and
sporting events. Some parents spend no quality time with their children, and these children are
believed to perform poorly on intelligence test.

7. FREUDAN PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Sigmund Freud is considered to be the founder

of psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks
closely at the unconscious derives that motivate people
to act in certain ways.

The role of the mind is something that Freud

repeatedly talk about because he believed that the mind
is responsible for both conscious and unconscious
decisions based on drives and forces. Unconscious
desires motivate people to act accordingly.

Crime is a result of abnormal behavior due to an imbalanced ego between uncontrolled drives
(id) and society’s expectation about behavior (super ego).

According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main parts:

1. Conscious Mind – includes everything that we are aware of.

2. Unconscious Mind – the reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that
are outside of our conscious awareness.

COMPONENTS OF HUMAN PERSONALITY

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1. ID

It is responsible for our basic drives such as food, water, sex, and basic impulses.

It is ruled by the pleasure–pain principle; it is without a sense of time, completely illogical,

primarily sexual, infantile in its emotional development, and will not take "no" for an answer.

It is regarded as the reservoir of the libido or "instinctive drive to create".

The mind of a newborn child is regarded as completely "id-ridden".

It is divided into two categories:

1. Life instincts (Eros) are those that are crucial to pleasurable survival, such as eating and
copulation.

2. Death instincts, (Thanatos) are our unconscious wish to die, as death puts an end to the
everyday struggles for happiness and survival. Freud noticed the death instinct in our desire for peace
and attempts to escape reality through fiction, media, and substances such as alcohol and drugs.

It also indirectly represents itself through aggression.

2. EGO

It is the mediator between the id and the super-ego

The acts according to the reality principle that is, it seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic
ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bringing grief.

It represents reason and common sense (id, which contains the passion)

It has a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality-testing, control, planning,
defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory.

The super-ego is constantly watching every move that the ego takes and punishes it with
feelings of guilt, anxiety, and inferiority.

To overcome this, the ego employs Defense Mechanism to lessen the tension, frustration and
anxiety (neurotic fear) by covering up our impulses that are threatening.

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DEFENSE MECHANISM

1. Denial
– outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring.

2. Displacement
– taking out frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening.

3. Intellectualization
– allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful emotional aspect the situation and focus
only on the intellectual component.

4. Fantasy – desires are satisfied thru imagination.

5. Compensation
- conceals your undesirable shortcomings by exaggerating desirable behaviors.

6. Projection
– taking unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people.

7. Rationalization
– involves explaining unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational logical
manner avoiding the true explanation for the behavior.

8. Reaction formation – exaggerate an opposed attitude or feelings.

9. Regression - flee from reality by assuming a more infantile state.

10. Repression
- protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them
from becoming conscious

11. Sublimation
- allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a
more acceptable form.

3. SUPER EGO

It is an organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious.

That includes the individual's perfection, spiritual goals, and conscience that criticizes and
prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.

It helps us fit into the society by getting us to act in socially acceptable ways and maintaining
our sense of morality and proscription from taboos.

Super-ego's demand opposes the id’s, so the ego has a hard time in accommodating the two.

In sum, psychodynamic theory suggest that criminal offenders are frustrated and aggravated.
They are constantly draw to past events that occurred in the early childhood. Because negligent,
unhappy or miserable childhood, which is most often characterized by a lack of love and or nurturing a
criminal offender has a week ego.

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Most important, research suggests that having a week ego is linked with poor or absence of
social etiquette, immaturity, and dependence on others. Research further suggest that individuals with
weak egos may be more likely to engage in drug abuse.

ICEBERG THEORY

8. LOW IQ THEORY

THREE APPROACHES OF IQ-CRIME CORRELATION

1. IQ and crime are spuriously, not causally, correlated;

2. Low IQ increases criminal behavior
3. Criminal behavior decreases IQ

A popular argument against IQ as a cause of crime criticized IQ test as only measuring

middle-class knowledge and values rather than innate intelligence. As a result, the observation that
some minority groups and the poor low on IQ test simply reflects their diverse cultural backgrounds.

These same group also commit proportionately more crime because they suffer structural
disadvantages such as poverty and discrimination. Consequently, the same people who score low on
IQ test also tend to commit more crime and so IQ and crime are empirically correlated, thus this
correlation is not causal but reflects only culturally biased testing of intelligence.

Another argument against IQ as a cause of crime holds that school teachers and
administrators threat students differently by perception of the student’s intelligence- giving negative
labels and fewer educational opportunities to less intelligent students. These labels and constrained
opportunities, in turn, produced feelings of alienation and resentment that lead students to delinquent
peers and criminal behavior.
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A final argument against IQ holds that even if all people commit crime with equal frequency,
less intelligent people would be less able to evade detection and would be arrested more often. This
detection hypothesis has received some empirical support in that IQ scores tend to correlated more
strongly with officially recorder rime than self-reported crime.

DEGREE OF INTELLIGENCE

DEGREE OF INTELLIGENCE
GENIUS 140 AND ABOVE
VERY SUPERIOR 130 - 139
HIGH SUPERIOR 120 – 129
BRIGHT 110 – 119
HIGH NORMAL 100 – 109
LOW NORMAL 90 – 99
DULL 80 – 89
INFERIOR 70 – 79
MORON 50 – 69
IMBECILE 25 – 49
IDIOT BELOW 25

1. Kim Ung-Yong – IQ = 210

The World’s Top 8 Smartest People Yong is

a Korean child prodigy. He showed his intelligent ability
since he was little. He started speaking at 6 months,
he was able to read Japanese, Korean, German, English
and many other languages by his third birthday.

At age 3, he was able to solve complicated

calculus equations easily with no problems.

He got his Ph.D. in physics at Colorado State University when he was 16 years old.
Kim has the highest score in the planet, he was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records under
“Highest IQ”; the book estimated the boy’s score at over 210.

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2. CHRISTOPHER MICHAEL LANGAN

-(born c. 1952)

-is an American autodidact with an IQ reported to

be between 195 and 210

-smartest man in America

A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent
students do less well in school, which results in academic frustration in turn, weakens their attachment
and commitment to schooling, and weakened bond to school, as per social control, allows for more
criminal behavior.

9. ATTENTION-DEFICIT-HYPERACTIVITY THEORY

Attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of
the neuro developmental type.

It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling

behavior which is not age. The symptoms appear before a person is twelve years old, are present for
more than six months, and cause problems in school, home or recreational activities.

In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it
causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention
span for task they find interesting.

BRITISH GUIDELINES
Only recommends medication as a first-line treatment in children who have severe
symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or
fail to improve with counseling, though for adult’s medication are first-line treatment.

CANADIAN/ AMERICAN GUIDELINES

Recommends that medication and behavioral therapy be used together as a first-line
therapy in preschool-aged children in either guideline.

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Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months; however, its long-term effectiveness
is unclear.

Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their
impairments.

10. FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION THEORY

The theory says that aggression is the result of

blocking or frustrating, a person’s effort to attain a goal.

It further states that aggression is caused by

frustration, when someone is prevented from reaching
their important goal or satisfying one of their important
needs they become frustrated.

The frustration-aggression hypothesis attempts

to explain why people scapegoat. It attempts to give an
explanation as to the cause of violence.

The theory, developed by John Dollard and colleagues, says that frustration causes
aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets
displaced onto an innocent target.

If the man is disrespected and humiliated at his work. But cannot respond to this for fear of
losing his job, he may go home and take his anger and frustration out on his family.

This theory is also used to explain riots and revolutions. Booth are caused by poorer and more
deprived sections of society who may express their bottled-up frustration and anger through violence.

Frustration - is the condition which exist when goal-response suffers interference.

- it is a state that sets in if a goal-oriented act is delayed or thwarted.

- it is the feeling of irritation and annoyance when something blocks you from
achieving a goal.

Aggression - it is an act whose goal-response is injury to an organism.

- is define as the deliberate violation of an organism or an organism substitute.

- it is a malicious behavior or attitude towards someone or something.

When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is
likely to turn to aggression.

The closer you get to a goal, the greater the excitement and expectation of the pleasure.
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Thus, closer you are, the more frustrated you get by being held back. Unexpected occurrence
of the frustration also increases the likelihood of aggression.

Aggression is not always the response to frustration. Rather a substitute response is displayed
when aggressive response is not the strongest on the hierarchy. Furthermore, this theory raises the
question if aggression is innate.

Example:
Football crowds can become aggressive when their team starting to lose. Pepe in
business can also become aggressive when others start to frustrate their ambition.

11. INFERIORITY COMPLEX

According to Alfred Adler, who was the first

one to coin the term inferiority complex, every child
experiences the feelings of inferiority as the result
of being surrounded by stronger and more capable
adults.

As child grows he becomes obsessed by

his original feelings of inferiority he experienced
earlier and so he strives for power and recognition.

If the child failed to meet certain life challenges

during his act of compensation then he will develop
and inferiority complex.

So according to Adler every child feels inferior but not everyone develops and inferiority
complex which only affects those who failed to compensate correctly.

An inferiority complex is a lack of self-worth, a doubt and uncertainty about oneself, and
feelings of not measuring up to standards. It is often subconscious, and is thought to drive afflicted
individuals to overcompensate, resulting either in spectacular achievement or extremely asocial
behavior. In modern literature, the preferred terminology is “lack of convert self-esteem”.

INFERIORITY FEELINGS

1. Primary Inferiority feeling

It is said to be rooted in the young child’s original experience of weakness, helpless and
dependency. It can be intensified by comparisons to siblings, romantic partners, and adults.

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2. Secondary Inferiority feeling

It relates to an adult’s experience of being unable to reach a subconscious, reassuring fictional

final goal of subjective security and success to compensate for the inferiority feelings.

An inferiority complex occurs when the feelings of inferiority are intensified in the individual
through discouragement or failure. Those who are at risk for developing a complex include people
who: show signs of low self-esteem or self-worth, have low socioeconomic status, or have a history of
depression symptoms.

According to Adler, “Everyone has a feeling of inferiority. But the feeling of inferiority is no a
disease; it is rather a stimulant to healthy, normal striving and development. It becomes a pathological
condition only when the since of inadequacy overwhelms the individual and, far from stimulating him
to useful activity, makes him depressed and incapable of development.

12. DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE THEORY

Delinquent subculture (gangs) exists

because it offers a solution to the status
problems and frustrations that working-class
boys experience in their effort to achieve
middle-class success.

Walter Miller published an article in a

journal called “Lower Class Culture as a
generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency.

6 LOWER CLASS FOCAL CONCERNS

1. Trouble
2. Toughness
3. Smartness
4. Excitement
5. Fate
6. Autonomy

Trouble about lower-class communities, is evaluated by how much a person created it. Getting
into trouble, as we all know it, it pretty much breaking the law such as fighting. What this does it
creates an image for that one subject.

So, if the subject gets into a fight and wins, his reputation is therefore increased, people will
start recognizing and won’t try to fight the subject.

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13. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

It was originated during the late 18th century with the work of Cesare Beccaria.

Since then, the theory has been expanded upon and extended to included other perspective,
such as deterrence, situational crime prevention and routine activity theory. This theory has been
applied to a wide range of crimes, including robbery, drug use, vandalism and white-collar crime.

Rational Choice theory purports that a person will commit crime after determining if the pain or
punishment is worth the pleasure or reward of the act.

The theory is based on several assumptions:

1. Individualism- it focuses on individual behavior

2. Individual have to maximize their goals
3. Individuals are self-interested

The theory adopts the utilitarian belief that man is a reasoning actor who weighs means and
ends, cost the benefits, and makes a rational choice. This method assists in thinking about situational
crime prevention.

It is assumed that crime is purposive

behavior designed to meet the offender’s common
places need for such things as money, status, sex
and excitement, and that meeting these needs
involves the making of decisions and choices,
constrained as these are by limits, ability, and
the availability of relevant information.

This theory is an economic principle that states that individuals always make prudent and
logical decision. These decisions provide people with the greatest benefit or satisfaction-given the
choices available and are also in their highest self-interest.

Rational choice theory assumes that all people try to actively maximize their advantage in any
situation and therefore consistently try to minimize their loses.

The theory is based on the idea that all humans based their decision on rational calculations,
act tithe rationality when choosing, and aim to increase either pleasure or profit.

14. CHOICE THEORY

Choice theory is the belief that individuals choose to commit a crime, looking at the
opportunities before them, weighing the benefits versus the punishment, and deciding whether to
proceed or not. this cost-benefit analysis primarily focuses on the idea that we all have the choice to
proceed with our actions. Because punishment involve, we are deterred from committing the crime.

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Choice theory posits behavior we choose are central to our existence. Our behavior choices
are driven by fire genetically driven needs, survival, love and belonging, freedom, fun and power.

Survival needs include:

1. Food
2. Clothing
3. Shelter
4. Personal Safety
5. Security and sex, having children

And four fundamental psychological needs:

1. Belonging/connecting/love
2. Power/significance/competence
3. Freedom/autonomy
4. Fun/learning

Choice theory suggest the existence of a Quality World and it is the models of an individual’s
perfect world of parents, relations, possession, beliefs, etc.

THE TEN AXIOMS (SAYINGS/MAXIMS)

1. The Only person whose behavior we can control is our own.

2. All we can give another person is information.

3. All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems

4. The problem relationship is always part of our present life.

5. What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but
we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue
satisfying them in the future.

6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality world

7. All we do is behaving

8. All behavior is Total behavior and is made up of four components: Acting,

thinking, feeling and physiology.

9. All total behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and
thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how e
chooses to act and think.

10. All total behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the
most recognize.

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15. DRIFT THEORY (NEUTRALIZATION THEORY)

Theorized by Gresham Sykes and David Matza during their time working on Differential
Association of Sutherland in 1960’s.

Neutralization theory is the idea that people who violate the law learn to orthodox attitudes and
values of society, allowing them to drift between outlaw and orthodox behavior.

TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION

1. Denial of responsibility

Many delinquents try to agree that their illegal actions are not their fault. Maybe they had a
rough childhood, they were framed or that it was an accident.

2. Denial of injury

Delinquents try to neutralized their behavior by downplaying the injuries inflicted on the
victim. They might try and say that they weren’t stealing, they were merely “borrowing”. Often family
and friends will agree with their denials. By saying that their child was merely joking around when
another child got hurt, they are enabling the criminal behavior to continue.

3. Denial of victim

Many delinquents try to downplay their crimes by insisting that their victim “had it coming’.
Most common crime that this used under is rape. By claiming the girl was dressed too provocatively or
getting drunk at a party, they feel she had it coming for putting herself in that position.

4. Condemnation of the condemners

Many criminals see the world as a dog-eat-dog place. Because many judges and policeman
are all on the take and many parents show favoritism between children or vent their frustration on
those children, they feel these people have no room to point any fingers at them. By placing blame
elsewhere, delinquents can neutralize their feelings that their actions were wrong.

5. Appeal to higher loyalties

Young delinquents often feel the strain of who to place their loyalties to. They are often torn
between social groups and abiding the law. The group loyalties most often win out because their
demands are immediate.

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16. LABELING THEORY

Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin Lemert, and Howard Becker

It is the theory of how self-identify and behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced
by the terms used to described or classify them. It is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling
prophecy and stereotyping.

It focuses on the tendency of majorities

to negatively label minorities or those seen as
deviant from standard cultural norms.

It is the societal treatment of the

offender that makes a hardened criminal
out of an accidental or occasional one.

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CHAPTER 5

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Sociological theories of Criminology say that society creates conditions under which a person
commits a crime.

That is people are influence by the society to commit crimes and the theories look at the crime
as a social problem not an individual one.

1. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

It is defined as an inability of community

members to achieve shared values or to solve
jointly experienced problems.

It is directly links the crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics, as the core
principles of this theory.

Person residential location is substantial factor shaping the likelihood that the person will
become involved in illegal activities.

The theory suggests that among determinants of a person’s illegal activities is the residential
location and it is more significant than person’s individual characteristics.

Ecological Factors that lead to high rates of crimes (Larry Gaines and Roger Miller)

1. High School Drop outs

2. Unemployment
3. Deteriorating Infrastructure
4. Single-parent homes

The theory is not intended to apply to all types of crime, just street crime at the neighborhood
level. The theory has not been used to explain organized crime, corporate crime, or deviant behavior
that takes place outside neighborhood setting.

Edwin Sutherland explain that the increase in crime that accompanied the transformation of
preliterate and peasant societies – in which influences surrounding a person were steady, uniform,
harmonious and consistent.

He also believed that mobility, economic competition, and individualistic ideology that
accompanied capitalist and industrial development had been responsible for the disintegration or the
large family and homogeneous neighborhoods as agents of social control.

Sutherland believes that such disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural tradition and
cultural conflict that supports anti-social activity.
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Sutherland concluded that if the society is organized with reference to the values expressed in
the law, the crime is eliminated.

A persons physical and social environment are primarily responsible for the behavioral choices
that person makes. In particular, a neighborhood may have poor schools, vacant and vandalized
buildings, high unemployment, and a mix of commercial and residential property.

2. STRAIN THEORY

2 CORE ASPECT OF SOCIETY

1. Culture
2. Social Structure

Our cultural goals are not in balance with means made available by the social structure, and
this is when structural strain occurs.

Most people have similar aspirations, but they don’t all have the same opportunities or
abilities. When people fail to achieve society’s expectations through approved means such as hard
work through crime. In criminology, strain theory states that social structures within society may
pressure citizens to commit crime.

It is developed by Robert K. Merton and it

states that society puts pressure on individuals to
achieve socially accepted goals (American Dream)
though they lack the means, this leads to strain which
may lead the individuals to commit crimes.

Example being selling drugs or becoming in prostitution to gain financial security.

STRAIN MAY EITHER BE:

1. STRUCTURAL
This refers to the processes at the societal level which filter down and affect the
individual perceives his or her needs

2. INDIVIDUAL
This refers to the frictions and pain experienced by an individual as he or she looks
for ways to satisfy his or her needs.

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When faced with Strain, five ways to adapt

1. Conformity
- pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means.
- It is the tendency to align your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those around you.
- It is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Ex. People tend to follow social norms when eating and watching television, even when alone.

2. Innovation
- using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals.
- It is defined as simply new idea, device or method or application of better solutions that meet
new requirements.

Ex. Dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.

3. Ritualism
- It is when someone reject traditional goals, but still adheres to the usual steps to obtaining
those goals.

- It rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining them.

4. Retreatism
- it rejects both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it.
- the rejection of culturally prescribed goals and the conventional means for attaining them. It
could lead to socialization, depersonalization, social alienation, anomie (normlessness), psychic
dysfunctions, which could on the other hand result in criminal intentions or rebellious attitude.

5. Rebellion
- to reject the cultural and means, then work to replace them, open, armed, and usually
unsuccessful defiance of or resistance to an established government.

GENERAL STRAIN THEORY

- 1992, Robert Agnew

- People who experience strain or stress become

distress or upset which may lead them to
commit crimes in order to cope.

- The emotion in this theory is the motivator in the crime.

-It also focuses in the perspective of goals for status,

expectations and class rather than focusing in
money.

Ex. People who use illegal drugs to make them feel better, or a student assaulting his peers to end
the harassment they caused.
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General Strain Theory introduced 3 main sources of strain:

1. Loss of positive stimuli (death of family or friend)

2. Presentation of negative stimuli (physical and verbal assaults)
3. The inability to reach a desired goal.

The major types of Strain:

1. Others prevent you from achieving your goals

2. Others take things you value or present you with negative or noxious stimuli.

Robert Agnew focus on three failure to achieve three related goals:

1. Money- many people are prevented from getting the money they need through
legal channels.

2. Status/Respect- people want to be positively treated and respected by others.

- There are class and race differences in view about means to be a “man”.

- many males, especially those who are young, lower class and members of minority groups,
experience difficulties in satisfying their desire to be viewed and treated as men.

- these people may attempt to “accomplish masculinity” through crime.

They attempt to coerce other into giving them the respect they believe and they deserve as
“real men”

Autonomy from Adults

It is defined as power-over one self or the ability to resist the demands of others and
engage in action without the permission of others.

Factors influencing the Effect of strain on Delinquency

Strainful events and conditions make people feel bad. These bad feelings, in turn,
create pressure for corrective action. This is especially true of anger, and frustration, which energize
the individual for action, create a desire for revenge and lower inhibitions.

3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

People develop motivation to commit crime and the skills to commit crime through the people
they associate with.

It is a theory of learning and social behavior which proposes new behaviors can be acquired
by observing and imitating others.

It is state that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can
occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or
direct reinforcement.

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When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist and if the behavior
is constantly punished it will most likely desist.

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

It is the society responsibility to maintain a certain degree of stability and certainly in an
individual’s life, to make the rules and responsibilities clear, and to create other activities to the art
criminal activity.

Albert Banduras Social Learning Theory

states that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling.

The theory has often been called a bridge

between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories
because it encompasses attention, memory and
motivation.

Most human behavior is learned observationally through modelling from observing

others, one forms and idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal

interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
Banduras believed in reciprocal determinism, that is the world and a person’s behavior
cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior.
Later, he considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment,
behavior and one’s psychological process (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and
languages).

Social Learning theory has sometimes has called a bridge between behavior and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation.

Individuals that are observed are called “models”. Children pay attention to some of
these people and encode their behavior. At a later time they may imitate the behavior they have
observed.

PROCESS THAT A CHILD REPRODUCE BEHAVIOR

1. The child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.

2. The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or
punishment. If it is rewarding and its more likely to continue.
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3. The child will also consider of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to
copy someone’s action.

A person learns by observing the consequences of another person.

Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive process where at work.

These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is
acquired.

Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it.
There is some thought prior to imitation and this consideration is called mediational processes. This
occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response).

Four Meditational process proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention- the extent to which we are exposed/noticed the behavior.

2. Retention- how well the behavior is remembered. It is important therefore that a memory if
behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer.

3. Reproduction- It is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.

4. Motivation- It is the will to perform the behavior.

The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer.

4. ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY

It was developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence

E. Cohen

The theory believes that of the target is attractive

enough, crime will happen.

Motivated offenders are individuals who are not

only capable of committing criminal activity,
but are willing to do so.
Dr. Marcus Felson

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RAT argues that when a crime occurs, three things happen the same time and in the same
space:

1. A suitable target is available

Three Major Categories of Targets

1. A person 2. A object 3. A place

2. There is lack of suitable guardians to prevent the crime happening.

A capable guardian is anything, either a person or thing that discourages crime from taking
place. This can be formal or informal.

Some example of capable guardians:

1. Police Patrol
2. Security Guards
3. Neighborhood Watch Groups

3. Motivated offender is present.

- a crime will only be committed if a likely offender thinks that a target is suitable and capable
guardian is absent.

The list of possible reasons why people commit offenses is potentially endless.

1. Gain/Need- poverty, to feed a drug habit, greed (intense desire)

2. Society/Experience/Environment
- living in a culture where crime is acceptable, peer pressure, coercion, lack of
education, poor employment prospects, family background, mental illness, poor housing,
envy(discontented), rebellion against authority.

3. Beliefs- crimes aren’t wrong, protest on matter of principle, prejudice against certain
minority groups.

5. UTILITARIANISM

By Jeremy Bentham

It is the most influential moral theories

Principle: “Choose the one that will produce the best overall result”.

Utility- it is the sum of all pleasure that results from an action minus the suffering of
anyone involved in the action.

It stated that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong.

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It is a form of consequentialism because it rests on the idea that it is the consequences or

result of actions, laws, policies, etc. that determine whether they are good or bad, right of wrong.

6. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

1930’s, Edwin Sutherland

The theory suggests that individuals who commit deviant acts are influenced to do so by
primary groups and intimate social contacts.

It asserts to the definition that one has favorable to the legal system over unfavorable one is
less likely to be delinquent. It suggested also that this definition is learned through communications
with intimate people or groups whom the person learns the techniques, motivations,
rationalizations and attitudes.

9 BASIC TENENTS OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

1. Criminal behavior is learned behavior.

2. Criminal behavior is learned by interacting with other people by communicating with words and
gestures.

3. The main portion of learning the criminal behavior happens among small group of people.

4. Learning about crime includes learning the techniques of committing a crime, as well as learning
the motivation and attitude towards crime.

5. Legal code demonstrate what is “good” or “bad” and provide a motivation for crimes. In other
words, the law expresses what is right and wrong to an offender.

6. A person becomes a criminal because of frequent criminal patterns. For example, if one is
exposed to a repeated criminal scenario this scenario will eventually rub off on others nearby.

7. The differential association theory can differ in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

8. The learning of criminal behavior by association is similar as all other types of learning.

9. Criminal and non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. In other words,
it does not discriminate and any person of any background can become a criminal.

7. CONTAINMENT THEORY

1960’s, Walter Reckless

The theory suggest that individuals are pushed and pulled into crime.

Pushes are element that pressure individuals to engage in delinquency while pulls draw
individuals away from accepted forms of behavior.

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Pushes
or pressure

- consist of adverse living conditions relative to region and culture such as:
1. Poverty
2. Unemployment
3. Economic Insecurity
4. Group conflicts
5. Minority Group Status
6. Lack of opportunities and
7. Inequalities

Violence exposure would be considered a push into crime.

Pulls
are factors that bring individuals to deviant behavior.

The pulls draw a person away from original way of life and accepted forms of living. They
consist of prestige individuals, bad companions, delinquency of criminal subculture, deviant groups,
mass media, and propaganda.

The pushes and pulls are buffered by Inner and Outer containment.
Inner and Outer containment stated that only minority of individuals get involved in crime and
delinquency. Among minority groups, it is hypothesized that they have weak inner and or/ outer
containments.

1. INNER CONTAINMENT

It involves the ability to withstand pressures and pulls, to handle conflicts, to divert oneself
from exciting risks, and to stay out of trouble.

2. OUTER CONTAINMENT

It refers to the society, the state, the tribe, the village, the family, and other nuclear groups are
able to hold the individual within the bounds of the accepted norms and expectations.

It consists of effective family life, in which problems are averted or handled; of life in a
community which still retains an interest in the activities of its members.

The inner containment includes elements within the individual’s self while the outer
containment includes elements outside one’s self.

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FOUR MAIN ELEMENTS OF INNER CONTAINMENTS

1. SELF-CONCEPT
- where the individual has an image of himself as either the type of person to adhere to the law
or to break it.

2. GOAL ORIENTATION
- In reference to a person having a sense of direction in life, a purpose, an aspiration towards
a goal which is realistic and achievable in a legitimate way.

3. FRUSTRATION TOLERANCE
- considers that there must be biophysical desires that urge us towards deviant behavior that are
compounded by society frustrating/thwarting our success due to the different opportunities available to
us.

This is the adherence and acceptance of laws, codes, norms, customs and so on.

Our inner containment, it was suggested could control our behavior even when external
environment was changing. Yet again, it was the parents who were seen as the most influential
source of control and behavior.

The containment theory thus considered crime and delinquency to be a product of the modern
world. However, rather than focus or blame material inequality of opportunity its focus was on the
moral order or code and those individuals cast adrift with no sense of direction or commitment.

8. SOCIAL BOND/SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

In 1960’s, Travis Hirschi

It is the belief that socialization and the forming

of personal relationships are among the most significant
aspect of human development that keep us from
committing crimes of others act of social deviance.

For Example:

Because people have formed many relationships with family members and peers
over the course of their lives and have unofficially accepted the social conditions and
expectations that come with being part of a society, they are unlikely to commit crimes against
another person.

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FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL BOND THEORY

1. ATTACHMENT

It refers not only to interpersonal relationships but also to social and cultural standards. It is
described as the level of values and or norms than individual holds in society.

It is important when it come to the person’s parental figures. Schools has tended to be a
middle to upper class involvement since it was first created. The middle-class children tend to make
fun of or demoralize the lower-class children.

For Example:

The earliest and the most influential attachment that a person can form is with their
parents, who presumably help us to form an understanding of the world around us.

2. COMMITMENT

It is the commitment that an individual has to abide by legal behavior. The norms and values
taught to us an adolescent should be to obey how society works in normal terms. From very early in
our lives we hopefully learn the difference between right and wrong.

For Example:
If a child, s raided in a home where drugs are brought, sold and used regularly, then
that child has a greater chance of being involved with drugs in the future. Also, the “bond” between
mother, father, and child in a normal nuclear family, is very strong, this in turn has made a blue
print of an entire adult life on the child.

3. CHOICE TO GET INVOVLED

Persons choice to get involved in conventional versus deviant behavior?

This choice is formed not far after basic rules of lie are taught. If no right or wrong basis are
formed or provided the adolescent will make the decision that tends to make the most sense. This
also ties into family involvement in the person’s life.

4. COMMON VALUE SYSTEM

Common value system within an individual’s society or sub group.

This theory on the means that social bonds do exist and when a bond is weakened or broken
than unusual for that individual may occur. When young adults are involved with criminal behaviors
outside of the home it is possible that parental control weakens or that young adults just have more
opportunity to commit crime.

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9. LIFE COURSE/THEORY

1920’S, Karl Manheim

As a theory the denotation establishes the connection between a pattern of life events and the
actions that humans perform.

It demonstrates the finding of how the human experiences, specifically undergone in

childhood, shape their ultimate outcome. He later goes on to note these outcomes will be passed
done from generation to generation concluding that past generation form the further generation.

Criminality is not a constant, but affected by the larger social forces which change over a life-
course.

According to John Laub and Robert Sampson, they place emphasis the Life-course theory on
phase of life on which it plays a role in criminal behavior:
1. Childhood
2. Adolescence
3. Adulthood

1. CHILDHOOD

A common factor throughout childhood is the one parent household case in which studies
have shown because a higher risk for criminal activity later in one’s life.

2. ADOLESCENCE

It refers to the adaptation to social bonds. When adolescents are able to excel in institutions
such as school, churches, and community centers their less likely to resort to criminal activities to
occupy their time.

3. ADULTHOOD

Factors for adults include marriage, children, and employment. Adults that are involved with
their families and their careers are less likely to pursue crime compared to those who are not.

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ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL BONDING

1. Attachment to the Families

2. Commitment to Social Norms and institutions
3. Involvement in Activities
4. Belief that these things are important

10. DURKHEIMS ANOMIE THEORY

Emile Durkheim

He asserts that man is a product of his social environment; thus, socialization begin at birth
and continues through language and interaction with other people.

It reflects to the sense of normlessness, the lack of any societal norms that spurs (outgrows) the
tendency to act in a deviant way.

For Example:
Industrialization and the need for cheap labor in this newly modern society, the influx of
immigrant inherently brought with them their own set of norms and values.

Thus, came a temporary imbalance of norms, anomie, which enhances individual’s

propensity to commit crime in search for a stable environment.

Anomie

Refers to the ill-formulated goals within the culture of and industrial society, whereas according
to Robert Merton, that Anomie is a normlessness due to the inadequate means available to the
society’s goal.

11. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY

This theory predicts that low self- esteem motivates youth to try out delinquent activities that
are aimed at restoring self-esteem.

This study examines some conditions under which engaging in delinquent behavior may
boost- self-esteem.

Kaplan Self- Derogation Theory is grounded the assumption that all persons have a basic
need to think well of themselves and to avoid negative self-evaluation. When low self-esteem is
experienced, individuals are motivated to take action to restore positive self-regard. This self-esteem
motive is evident during adolescence, when most boys and girls develop favorable views of self within
the confines of commitment to conventional reference groups.

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12. INTERACTIONAL THEORY

1987, Thornberry

It primarily focused on delinquency and drug use during adolescence and early adulthood.

The theory proposed that delinquent behavior was caused by weak social bonds and
involvement in delinquent networks but that delinquency also had feedback effects to further weaken
prosocial bonds and further embed the individual in deviant networks and belief system.

It proposes that the fundamental or primary cause of delinquent behavior is a weakening of

bonds to conventional society.

13. SELF CONTROL THEORY

Often referred to as the General Theory of Crime

It is a criminological theory about the lack of self-control as the main factor behind criminal
behavior.

The self-control theory of crime suggests that individuals who were ineffectually parented
before the age of ten develop less self-control than individuals of approximately the same age who
were raised with better parenting.

14. CULTURE DEVIANCE THEORY

1930’s Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay

The theory states that the individuals is not responsible for their deviance as much as the
community within which they reside. People are influenced by the place, people and social structure
of the community in which they reside.

The major tenant of cultural deviance theory is that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms
of lower-class society cause crime. Lower class subculture has a unique set of values and beliefs,
which are invariably in conflict with conventional social norms. Criminality is an expression of
conformity to lower class sub cultural values.

Members of the working class commits crimes as they respond to the cultural norms of their
own class in an effort to deal with problems of social- middle class- adjustment.

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15. THE THEORY OF FEMINISM

1. Feminism on Crime Causation and

Deviance

Advocates of this theory react and highly

criticize the male dominance explanation of crime
causation and deviancy.

It holds that crime causation and explanation

of deviancy centered mainly to male offender, thereby,
leaving a gap and void as to the study and understanding
of female offender and deviancy.

The perspective of this theory is women’s victimization, delinquency and gender inequality. It
highly criticizes the traditional mainstream criminology of stereotyping where crimes a d delinquency
is heavily focused on male subjects in which research on crimes is mostly on male offenders.

Feminism approach attempts to examine if women delinquency and criminal behavior can be
incorporated into the mainstream of deviance theory. The contention of the advocates of feminism is
that, whether, for instance, the theory on anomie, social control tradition and social disorganization
theory can be also be applied on women’s delinquency.

2. Feminist School of Thought

There are three (3) school of thought that emerged:

a. Liberal Feminism

It is simply the idea that those liberal ideals of equality and rights of liberties apply to women.
In this sense, it is not so much a distinctively feminist theory as liberalism applied to women. It has
been particularly associated with the ideas of formal equality and of equality of opportunity.

It is women’s response to the gender discrimination that women experience at work, in

marriage and other relationships.

Example:

Lack of opportunity lead to lack of education/employment, which leads to

deviance.

b. Radical Feminism

Patriarchy, meaning that, male domination over males, keeps women more attached to the
family, children and home. Women are supposed to be domestically bound so that when they detach
from domestic roles, they are most likely to be singled out as deviant.

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In the case of prostitution, for instance, women are most likely to be arrested and charged than their
male counterpart because of the domestic perception labeled against them.

c. Social Feminism

This school of thought argues that women deviancy is the by-product of exploitation of
capitalism and patriarchy. Fewer economic resources, opportunities and low paying jobs availability
are just left over of men who dominate capitalism. Women are exploited by capitalism and patriarchy
as a result, they are left with only fewer opportunities. These factor leads to deviancy.

Applicability of Adler’s Theory of Typical Crimes

Now let’s apply the theory of Adler’s on Access and Opportunity which leads to female
criminality to typical female crimes.

1. Prostitution

Women have bodies to market, so, in order to feed their needs, they become prostitute.

2. Shoplifting

Women love shopping, so when women do not have the means to buy their stuff she loves,
shopping provides her the straightforward opportunity to steal.

3. Murder

This crime that female may commit usually involve with someone with whom she had
relationship. According to Adler, female criminals have a relationship with their victims, thereby
providing an opportunity for the crime.

16. DIFFERENTIAL OPPRESSION THEORY

Children are lack of power due to their age, size and lack of resources; they are easy targets
for adult oppression. Children are exposed to different levels and types of oppression that vary
depending on their age, level of development, socio economic class, race, and the beliefs and
perceptions of their parents.

Oppression leads to adaptive reaction by children: passive acceptance exercise of illegitimate

coercive power, manipulation of one’s peers, and retaliation. Reducing the oppressive acts of adults
and alleviating the damaging circumstances that characterize the social environment of children is
critical to reducing the prevalence of juvenile delinquency and other problem behaviors.

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CHAPTER 6

CAUSES OF CRIME

Crime can be defined as the breach of laws that are laid down by the ruling authority of
the land.

Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you

feel has deliberately done you wrong.

Contentment is the emotion you’ll feel when you are satisfied and happy when your
mind is at ease.

Middle Ages was the time of severe punishment and harsh torture for crimes that today would seem
trivial.

Demonic possession is believed to be the process by which individuals are possessed by

malevolent preternatural beings, commonly referred to as demons or devils.

CRIME
It refers to an act of omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point.

It is an anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society;
they are unacceptable act in its social definition.

Psychologically, crime is an act which is considered undesirable due to behavioral

maladjustment of the offender; act that maladaptive or abnormal behavior.

A crime is defined as any act that is contrary to legal code or laws.

It is also a generic term that refers to the following:

Offense- is an act or omission punishable by special law.

Felony- is an act or omission punished by the Revised Penal Code

Delinquency/Misdemeanor- act that are in violation of simple rules and regulation

usually referring to acts committed by minor offenders.

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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT: A BIBLICAL PERPECTIVE

Biblical

Crime is rooted in the sinful nature of man. Sin is acting contrary to God’s Standard as
revealed in his Law-word.

Many sins are outside the jurisdiction of the state; some sins are to be dealt with by the
family, some by the church, and many by God Himself. It is very important that civil leaders
understand the distinction of crime and sine, the source of crime and how to administer God’s Justice
when crime is committed.

We know by the many counts in the New Testament that by 2000 years ago, demos
were considered a big problem. Still today, many believe in seeking out religious remedies for all
kinds of things many of us only know as mental illness. While many cultures and religions contain
some concept of demonic possession, their portrayals vary. The ancient Sumerians, for example,
believed that all diseases of the body and mind were caused by “Sickness Demons” called Gidim and
they priest who practiced exorcisms to rid people of these demons.

Demonic Possession

It is believed to be the process by which individuals are possessed by malevolent preternatural

beings, commonly referred to as demons, or devils.

Obsessions and possessions of the devil are placed in the rank of apparitions of the evil spirit
among humans.

It is obsession when the demon act externally against the person whom it besets, and
possession when he acts internally, agitates them, excites their ill humor, makes them utter
blasphemy, speak tongues they have never learned, discovers them unknown secrets, and inspires
them with the knowledge of the obscurest things in philosophy or theology.

Descriptions of demonic possession include erase memories of personalities, convulsions and

fainting as if one were dying. Other description include access to hidden knowledge and foreign
language, drastic changes in vocal intonation and facial structure, the sudden appearance of injuries
and superhuman strength.

Shamanic cultures also believe in demon possession and shamans perform exorcisms. In this
culture, diseases are often attributed to the presence of a vengeful spirit in the body of the patient.
These spirits are more often the specters of animals or people wronged by the bearer, the exorcism
rites usually consisting of respectful offerings or sacrificial offerings.

Catholicism

Catholic exorcist differentiates between ordinary Satanic Activity and extraordinary Satanic
Activity, which can take six different forms, ranging from complete control by Satan or some demons
to voluntary submission:

1. Possession

In which Satan or some demons takes full possession of a person’s body without their
knowledge or consent, so the victim is therefore morally blameless.
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2. Obsession

In which includes sudden attacks of irritationally obsessive thoughts, usually culminating in

suicidal ideation, and typically influences dreams.

3. Oppression

In which there is no loss of consciousness or involuntary action, such as in the biblical Book of
Job in which Job was tormented by a series of misfortune in business, family, and health.

4. External physical pain caused by Satan or some demons

5. Infestation- In which affects house, things, or animals

6. Subjugation-In which a person voluntarily submits to Satan or some demons.

True demonic or satanic possession has been characterized since the middle-ages, by the
following four characteristics:

1. Manifestation or superhuman strength

2. Speaking in tongues or languages that the victim cannot know.

3. Revelation of knowledge, distant or hidden, that the victim cannot know

4. Blasphemous rage, obscene hand gestures, using Profanity and aversion to

hold symbols or relics.

In modern Western world, witchcraft accusation has often accompanied the satanic ritual
abuse moral panic. Such accusation is a counterpart to blood libel of various kinds, which may be
found throughout history across the globe.

CAUSES OF CRIME DURING MEDIEVAL PERIOD

The Middle Ages was a time of severe punishment and harsh torture for crimes that today
would seem trivial. People were beheaded and limbs cut off, vagabonds were often whipped and
chained in stocks. People lived in a state of fear thinking they would be the next victim. Even the
Catholic Church used torture and imprisonment to obtain confession from people regardless of
whether they were guilty.

People often had their right hand cut off for stealing, people were beaten, burned alive,
stretched on a rack and women committing adultery were drowned. Suffocating people in water was a
common practice. People were boiled in oil; eyes were burned out with pinchers and fingers torn off.
Mutilation and brandings were common place.

Vagrancy was considered a crime and people were put in stocks so town’s people could beat
them. It was the poorer classes that were discriminated against. Lords and high officials were exempt.
Courts and judges did exist, but were bias and often judgements were known before the case was
even heard, if a person did not turn up to court they were considered an outlaw and their property was
seized and became the kings.

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Outlaws banded together roaming the countryside and committing crime the most famous of
these is of cause Robin Hood. The harsher the crime the more horrendous the punishment. If a man
committed Rape, Manslaughter or Robbery they would be hung-up in a cage so people could see
their slow death.

On some occasions they were taken down just before their death and quartered (cut into four
pieces) so that the pain would kill the, a most cruel way to die. Public displays of torture were
common.

Medieval town’s people had a very close understanding of how punishment happened, as they
were often present during punishment. Although murderers were often executed, the majority of
lesser medieval offences were punished by shaming the criminal publicly.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMINALS by LOMBROSO

1. Born Criminals
Believing essentially that criminality was inherited and that criminals could be
identified by physical attributes such as hawk0like noses and bloodshot eyes. Lombroso
believed that criminality was inherited and that criminals could be identified by physical defects that
confirmed than as being atavistic or savage.

MUGSHOT

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2. Criminal by passion

A Crime committed while in the thrones of passion, with no opportunity to reflect on what is
happening and what the person is about to do. For example, a husband who discovers his wife in bed
with a lover and who attacks and kills the lover in a blind rage has committed a crime of passion.
Because the husband has been overcome with emotion, he lacks the specific intent to kill, which is
necessary for a conviction of murder.

If a jury believes that he acted in the heat of passion, they will convict him only of
manslaughter, which does not require intent to kill.

The benefits of eliminating premeditation are to lessen the provable homicide to manslaughter
with no death penalty and limited prison terms.

3. Great Emotions

There are many positive emotions and positive feelings in this world and understanding those
positive feelings is very important to every individual. Positive feelings are one of the core elements to
have in your life to enjoy well-being and happiness.

a. Joy- it is the feeling of great happiness and pleasure that lifts up the spirit.

b. Interest- Human are eager to explore and the feeling comes from curiosity. It is the
openness to the adventure and experiences; you discover and learn.

c. Serenity- It means being in the state where you feel relaxed when you don’t have any
worries, where you are completely calm, enjoying.

d. Hope- It means you feel and believe things will change for the better, and the future is
bright and beautiful.

e. Gratitude- it is about appreciation for certain things and people you have in your life and
being thankful for it.

f. Kindness- It often involves and warmth and this emotion is about being considerate, being
generous and friendly to other people.

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g. Surprise- when you do not expect a certain event to happen, and if the event happens,
which is not only unexpected but it is pleasurable and desirable you will be pleasantly surprised.

h. Cheerfulness- feeling cheerful means you are in the state of mind which is positive, it
means you are optimistic and happy.

i. Confidence- believing that your can do something, that you can accomplish certain goals, or
that you will successful finish a particular task means that you feel confident.

j. Admiration- when you feel positive about people who are skillful, talented and exceptional
is something you will admire those people. Admiration is a positive social emotion.

k. Enthusiasm- it is the emotion you will feel when you are extremely excited about something
when you are very interested in something.

l. Euphoria- this emotion is something you will feel when you are simply overwhelmed with
an experience that involves a great

m. Satisfaction- is the emotion you will usually feel after you fulfill a certain desire or need
you had but you can also feel satisfied when you help someone with something.

n. Pride- is the emotion that comes from feeling important and exalter for the things you
achieved or the things you currently do. When you achieve something great, which is considered
as valuable in social terms, you will be proud of that achievement.

o. Contentment- is the emotion you’ll feel when you are satisfied and happy when your mind
is at ease.

p. Inspiration- feeling comes from the uplifting experiences which basically takes your breath
away, such as watching a sunset which is simply perfect when the witness of an excellence and more.

q. Amusement- life is full of humor, funny stories and jokes, and funny and playful
experiences that will make your laugh so hard, and in those moments, you will feel completely
amused.

r. Enjoyment- when experiencing or doing something you like, when simply taking a pleasure
in something, means you enjoy it. It is a feeling of pleasure.

s. Awe- is something that happens when you see or experience something truly powerful and
great, and when you are completely stunned by all that greatness.

t. Love- is an extremely strong feeling of affection, and it is feeling that makes people feel
good, feel happy, and it makes the life as beautiful as it is.

4. Like Anger

Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism towards someone or something you feel

has deliberately done you wrong.

Anger can be a good thing. It can give you a way to express negative feelings, for example,
or motivate you find solutions to problems.

Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response. It is an emotion that involves a strong

uncomfortable and hostile response to perceived provocation, hurt or threat.
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TYPES OF ANGER

a. Passive Anger

People experiencing passive anger may not even realize they are angry. When you
experience passive anger, your emotions may be displayed as sarcasm, apathy or meanness, you
might participate in self-defeating behavior such as skipping school or work, alienating friends and
family, or performing poorly in professional or social situations.

b. Aggressive Anger

Individuals who experience aggressive anger are usually aware of their emotions, although
they don’t always understand the true roots of their ire. In some cases, they redirect violent anger
outburst to scapegoats because it is too difficult to deal with the real problems. Aggressive anger
often manifest as volatile or retaliatory anger and can result in physical damages to property and other
people. Learning to recognized triggers and manage anger symptoms is essential to dealing
positively with this form of anger.

CAUSES OF ANGER

A leading cause of anger is a person’s environment. Stress, financial issues, abuse, poor
social or familial situations, and overwhelming requirements on your time and energy can all
contribute to the formation of anger.

As with disorders such as alcoholism, anger issues may be more prevalent in individuals who
were raised by parents with the same disorder.

Genetics and out body’s ability to deal with certain chemicals and hormones also play role in
how you deal with anger; if your brain doesn’t react normally to serotonin, you might find it more
difficult to manage your emotion.

5. Insane Criminals

Insanity, craziness or madness is a

spectrum of behaviors characterizes by certain
abnormal mental or behavioral patterns.

Insanity may manifest as violation of societal norms, including a person becoming a danger to
themselves or others, though not all such acts are considered insanity; likewise, not all acts showing
indifference towards societal norms are acts of insanity.

In modern usage, insanity is most commonly encountered as an informal unscientific term

denoting mental instability, or in the narrow legal context of the insanity defense.

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A criminal defendant who is found to have been legally insane when he or she committed a
crime may be found not guilty by reason of insanity. In some cases, the defendant may He found
guilty but sentenced to a less severe punishment due to a mental impairment. In states that the
insanity defense, defendants must prove to the court that they did not understand what they were
doing; failed to know right from wrong; acted on an uncontrollable impulse or some variety of these
factors.

6. Psychological Disorders

The term psychological disorder is sometimes used

to refer to what are more frequently known as mental disorders
or psychiatric disorders. Mental disorders are pattern of
behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple
areas of life.

These disorders create distress for

the person experiencing these symptoms

It is also used to refer to what are more frequently known as mental disorders or psychiatric
disorders. Mental disorders are pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple
areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing these symptoms.

7. Neuro Developmental Disorders

a. Intellectual Disability Disorder

Also known as Mental Retardation

This type of developmental disorder originates prior to the age of 18 and

is characterize by limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive
behavior.

The IQ test score is between 70-75 and indicating presence of limitation.

Adaptive behavior are those that involve practical, everyday skill such as
self-care, social interaction and living skills.

b. Global Developmental Delay

It is a diagnosis for developmental disabilities in children who are under the age of five. Such
delays relate to the cognition, social functioning, speech, language and motor skills. It is generally
seen as a temporary diagnosis applying to kids who are still too young to take standardized IQ test.

Once children reach the age where they are able to take a standardized intelligence test,
they may be diagnosed with intellectual disability.

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c. Communication Disorders
Are those that impact the ability to use, understand, or detect language and speech.

FOUR DIFFERENT SUBTYPES OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

1. Language Disorder
2. Speech sound disorder
3. Childhood onset fluency disorder (shuttering),
4. Social (pragmatic) communication disorder

d. Autism Spectrum Disorder

Is characterized by a persistent pattern of hyperactivity-impulsivity and or inattention that

interferes with functioning and presents itself in two or more setting such as at home, work, school,
and social situations.

e. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Is characterized by a persistent pattern of hyperactivity-impulsivity ad or attention that

interferes with functioning and present itself in two or more setting such as at home, work, school, and
social situations.

8. Bipolar and Related Disorder

It is characterized by shifts in mood

as well as changes in activity and energy
levels. The disorder often involves
experiencing shifts between elevated
moods and periods of depression.

Such elevated moods can be

pronounced and rate refereed to either
mania or hypomania.

Mania
It is characterized by feeling overly excited and even hyper. Periods of mania are sometimes
marked by feelings of distraction, irritability, and excessive confidence. People experiencing mania
are also more prone to engage in activities that might have negative long-term consequences such as
gambling and shopping sprees.

Depressive Episodes
It is characterized by feelings of intense sadness, guilt, fatigue and irritability. During a depressive
period, people with bipolar disorder may lose interest in activities that they previously enjoyed,
experience sleeping difficulties, and even have thoughts of suicide.
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9. Anxiety Disorders
It is characterized by excessive and persistent fear, worry, anxiety and related behavioral
disturbances. Fear involves an emotional response to a threat, whether that threat is real or
perceived. Anxiety involves the anticipation that a future threat may arise.

TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder

It is marked about everyday events.

2. Agoraphobia

It is characterized by pronounced fear a wide range of public places. People who experience
this disorder often fear that they will suffer a panic attack in a setting where escape might be
difficult.

3. Social Anxiety Disorder

It is a psychological disorder that involves an irrational fear of being watched or judged.

4. Specific Phobias

5. Panic Disorder

It is a psychiatric disorder characterized by panic attacks that often seem to strike out of the
blue and for no reason at all. Because of this, people with panic disorder often experience anxiety and
preoccupation over the possibility of having another panic attack.

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6. Separation Anxiety Disorder

It is a type of anxiety disorder involving an excessive amount of fear or anxiety related to being
separated from attachment figures.

Symptoms involve an extreme fear of being away from the caregiver or attachment figure.
The person suffering these symptoms may avoid moving away from home, going to school, or getting
married in order to remain in close proximity to the attachment figure.

10. Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders

1. Acute Stress Disorder

It is characterized by the emergence of severe anxiety within a month period after exposure to
a traumatic event such as natural disasters, war, accidents, and witnessing a death.

2. Adjustment Disorders
It is occurring as a response to a sudden change such as divorce, job loss, end of a close
relationship, a more or some other loss or disappointment.

It is characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, irritability, depressed mood, worry, anger,

hopelessness, and feeling of isolation.

3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Developed after an individual has experienced a stressful life event.

It includes symptoms of Nightmares, flashbacks, burst of anger, difficulty concentrating

exaggerated startle response, and difficulty remembering aspect of the events.

11. Dissociative Disorders

It refers to the psychological

disorders that involve a dissociation
or interruption in aspects of
consciousness, including identity and
memory.

1. Dissociative Amnesia
It involves temporary loss of memory as a result of disassociation. In
many cases, this memory loss, which may last for just a brief period or for many
years, is a result of some type of psychological trauma.

2. Dissociative Identity Disorder

A.k.a as Multiple Personality Disorder
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It involves the presence of two or more different identities or personalities. People with this disorder
experience changes in behavior, memory, perception, emotional response, and consciousness.

3. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
It is characterized by experiencing a sense of being outside of one’s own body and being
disconnected from reality.

People who have this disorder often feel a sense of unreality and an involuntary
disconnect from their own memories, feelings, and consciousness.

12. Somatic Symptoms and Related Disorders

It is formerly referred to under the heading of somatoform disorder.

It is a class of psychological disorders that involve prominent physical symptoms that may not
have a diagnosable physical cause.

The diagnosis of this emphasizes the abnormal thought, feelings, and behaviors that occur in
response to these symptoms.

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13. Feeding and Eating Disorders

It is characterized by obsessive concerns with weight and disruptive eating
patterns that negatively impact physical and mental health.

1. Anorexia Nervosa-
It is characterized by restricted food consumption that leads to weight loss and a very
low body weight. This disorder also have a fear of gaining weight as well as a distorted view of their
own appearance and behavior.

2. Bulimia Nervosa
It involves binging (overdoing) and then taking extreme steps to compensate for these
binges. These compensatory behaviors might include self- induced vomiting, the abuse of laxatives or
diuretics, and excessive exercise.

3. Rumination Disorder
It is marked by regurgitating previously chewed or swallowed food in order to either spit
it out or re-swallow it.

Most of those affected by this disorder are children or adults who also have a developmental
delay or intellectual disability.

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4. Pica
It involves craving and consuming non-food substances such as dirt, paint, or soap. The
disorder most commonly affects children and those with developmental disabilities.

5. Binge-eating Disorder
It is an eating where the individual consumes and unusually large amount over the course of a
couple hours.

14. Sleep-Wake Disorders

1. Narcolepsy- is a condition in which

people experience an irrepressible
need to sleep.

People with narcolepsy may

experience a sudden
loss of muscle tone.

2. Insomnia Disorder- involves being unable to get enough sleep to feel rested.

While all people experience sleeping difficulties and interruptions at some point.

3. Hyper Somnolence Disorder

It is characterized by excessive sleep during the day or prolonged
nighttime sleep. People with this disorder may fall asleep during the day at
inappropriate time such as work and school.

4. Breathing-Related Disorder
Are those that involve breathing anomalies including sleep apnea and
chronic snoring that can occur during sleep.

5. Parasomnias
It involves disorder that feature abnormal behaviors that take place during sleep which includes
sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep talking, and sleep eating.

15. Disruptive, Impulse-control and Conduct Disorders

TYPES OF IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS:

1. Kleptomania- involves an inability to control the impulse to steal.

2. Pyromania- involves fascination with fire that results in acts of fire-

starting that endangers the self and others.

3. Intermittent Explosive Disorder- it is characterized by brief outburst

of anger and violence that are out of proportion for the situation.
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4. Conduct Disorder- is a condition diagnosed n children and

adolescents under the age of 18 who regularly violate social
norms and the rights of others.

5. Oppositional Defiant Disorder- is characterized by defiance,

irritability, anger, aggression, and vindictiveness.

16. Substance-related and Addictive Disorders

1. Alcohol-related Disorders

Types of Alcoholic Drinks

1. Beer
2. Wine
3. Fortified Wines
4. Spirits

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2. Cannabis-related Disorders
It is the feeling of unable to stop using drug

3. Inhalant-use Disorders
It involves inhaling fumes from paints of solvents

4. Stimulant Use Disorders

It includes meth, amphetamines and cocaine

5. Tobacco Use Disorders

It is consuming more tobacco than intended and have a difficulty in cutting back or quitting, cravings
and suffering adverse social consequences.

17. Neuro Cognitive Disorders

Delirium- it is characterized by disturbances in attention and awareness.

18. Personality Disorders

TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS:

1. Anti-Social Personality Disorder

It is characterized by a long-standing disregard for rules, social norms, and the rights of others.

2. Avoidant Personality Disorder

It involves severe social inhibition and sensitivity to rejection.

3. Borderline Personality Disorder

It is associated with symptoms including emotional instability, unstable and intense

interpersonal relationship, unstable self-image and impulse behavior.

4. Histrionic Personality Disorders

It is associated with patterns of extreme emotionally and attention- seeking behaviors.

5. Narcissistic Personality Disorders

It is associated with a lasting pattern of exaggerated self-image, self-centeredness and low

empathy.

6. Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder

It is a pervasive pattern of pre-occupation with orderliness, perfectionism, inflexibility, and

metal and interpersonal control.

7. Paranoid Personality Disorder

It is characterized by a distrust of others, even family, friends and romantic partners.

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8. Schizoid Personality Disorder

It involves symptoms that include being detached from social relationship.

9. Schizotypal Personality Disorder

It features eccentricities in speech, behavior, appearance and thought.

People with this condition may experience magical thinking and difficulty in forming relationship.

19. Criminaloid

It refers to the person who projects a

respectable, upright façade, in an attempt
to conceal a criminal personality.

Unlike ordinary criminals, criminaloids

enjoy the respect of society, and because
they often establish connections with the
government and the law, they less likely to
meet with opposition.

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CHAPTER 7

TYPES OF CRIMINAL ACCORDING TO GAROFALO

RAFFAELE GAROFALO (1852 – 1934)

He defined natural crime as a conduct which offends

the basic moral sentiments of pity (revulsion against the
voluntary infliction of suffering on others) and probity
(respect for property rights of others).

He rejected the doctrine of free will. Moral

Anomalies – psychological Garofalo’s law of adaption followed the biological principle of

Charles Darwin in terms of adaption and the elimination of those unable to adapt in a kind of social
natural selection.

Consequently, he suggested:

1. Death to those whose criminal acts grew out of a permanent psychological anomaly,
rendering them incapable of social life.

2. Partial elimination of long time imprisonment for those fit only for the life of nomadic
hordes or primitive tribes

3. Enforced reparation on the part of those who lack altruistic sentiments but who have
committed their crimes under pressure of exceptional circumstances and are not likely to do
so again.

1. Murderers

A murderer is someone who terminates the life of another person unlawfully.

2. Those who are satisfied from vengeance/revenge

VENGEANCE- it implies justice and honor; implies righteousness

REVENGE- is more personal; dirtier, vile or cheap

AVENGE- means the achievement of justice; inflicting a punishment in the

pursuit of justice

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3. Violent Criminals

Violent in British
Marked or caused by great physical force or violence tending the use of violence, esp. in
order to injure or intimidate others; marked by intensity of any; characterized by an undue use of
force; severe; harsh; caused by displaying strong or undue mental or emotional force; tending to
distort the meaning or intent

It refers to anything that is excited in an injurious or damaging way may be described as

violent even if not mean to be violence.

Criminal
If refers to the one who has committed a crime.

A person who has committed a crime or who has been proved to be guilty of a crime by a
court. Being or guilt of an act that in unlawful, foolish or wrong. Relating to unlawful acts or their
punishment.

4. The Opportunist
It is the conscious policy and practice of taking advantage of circumstances- with little regard
for principles, or with what the consequences are for others.

Opportunist actions are expedient action guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term
can be applied to individual humans and living organisms, groups, organizations, styles, behaviors,
and trends.

5. Team thieves
It means a group of people with a full set of complementary skills required to complete task,
job or project.

Team Members:
1. Operate with a high degree of interdependence
2. Share authority and responsibility for self-management
3. Accountable for the collective performance
4. Work towards common goal and shared rewards

A Team becomes more than just a collection of people when a strong sense of mutual
commitment creates synergy, thus generating performance greater than the sum of the performance
of its individual members.

6. The professionals
Crimes committed by person for whom criminally punishable acts are permanent occupation
and the primary source of money.

Persons who engage in professional crime have the skills and means necessary for criminal
activity and specialize in some particular type of crime, such as theft of swindling Professional crime
has its own psychology and customs.

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Association of professional criminals, known as syndicates, are growing and becoming more
influential. They are monopolizing various sphere of criminal business, such as narcotics traffic,
kidnaping for ransom, extortion, stealing works of arts, smuggling, and operating dens of vice.

7. Crimes against Persons

Are also called Personal Crimes

1. Destruction of Life

2. Physical Injuries
a. Mutilation
b. Serious
c. Less Serious
d. Slight

3. Rape
a. Simple
b. Qualified

8. Crimes against Property

It is a category of crime that includes among other crimes, Burglary, larceny, theft, motor
vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, vandalism

Property crimes is a crime to obtain money, property, or some other benefit. This may involve force, or
threat of force, incases like robbery or extortion.

TWO GROUPS OF CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY

1. Destroyed Property- ex. Arson or Vandalism

2. Stolen Property- ex. Robbery or embezzlement

9. Hate Crimes
Crimes against person or property that committed while invoking prejudices of race, gender
or gender identity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity.

It is also known as a bias-motivated crime or bias crime

It is usually a racially-motivated crime, usually violent, which occurs when a perpetrator targets
a victim because of his or her membership in a certain social group or race.

It also refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by bias against one or
more of the social groups listed above, or by bias against their derivatives. Incidents may involve
physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, mate crime or
offensive graffiti or letters.

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10. Thrill-seeking

These hate crimes are often driven by an immature itch for excitement and drama. Think
bored and drunk young men marauding through neighborhoods, mayhem on their minds.

Often there is no real reason for these crimes, expert say and they’re committed for the thrill of
it, and the victims are vulnerable simply because their sexual, racial, ethnic, gender or religious
background differs form that of their attackers.

Often the attackers think society doesn’t care about the victims or worse, will applaud their
assault.

Examples:

1. A group of teens breaks into an LGBT center, destroy property and scrawls
anti-gay graffiti on the wall.

2. A street gangs assault a Hindu man while yelling anti-Hindu epithets.

3. A group of men viciously attack men leaving a well-known gay bar, yelling
“Sissy!” and “Girlie-man”.

11. Defensive

In these hate crimes, the attackers see themselves as defending their turf; their neighborhood,
their workplace, their religion or their country.

Unlike thrill-seekers, who invade other neighborhoods and attack without warning, “defenders”
target specific victims and justify their crimes as necessary to keep threats at bay. Many times, they
are triggered by a particular event, such as Muslim or black family moving into a new neighborhood.

Like thrill-seekers, the “defenders” show little or no remorse for their attacks and believe that
most if not all of society supports them but is too afraid to act.

Examples:

1. A group home for people with psychiatric disabilities is set on fire by a man heard to
say, I’ll get rid of those crazies”.

2. A transgender woman is attacked near her home by men who yell, “We don’t want no
queers in this neighborhood!

3. A Japanese man is attacked by a white man who called him an Anti-Asian epithet and
complained that the Japanese are taking jobs away from Americans.

12. Retaliatory

These hate crimes are often seen as revenge, whether in response to personal slight, other
hate crimes or terrorism.

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The “Avengers”, who often act alone, target members of the racial, ethnic or religious group
who they believe committed the original crime even if the victims had nothing to do with it. They care
only about revenge, and they will travel to the victim’s territory to enact it.

Example:
A woman fires gun shot into the men’s locker room of a fitness center, saying she hates men
for rejecting here. Hours after Islamic extremist launch a terror attack in Europe, someone defaces an
American Mosque with graffiti that says “Go home, terrorist!”.

13. Mission Offenders

These are the deadliest- and rarest types of hate crimes. They are committed by people who
consider themselves “crusaders,” often for a racial or religious cause. Their mission: total war against
members of a rival race or religion. They are often linked to groups that share their racist views.

Mission offenders write lengthy manifestos explaining their views and believe that the system
is rigged against them, which means that they can justify excessive violence against innocents.

Example:

Mission offenders tend to become infamous. According to criminologist, they include

Oklahoma City bomber Timothy Mc Veigh, Charleston Church Shooter Dylan Roof and Omar Matten
who massacred 49 people at gay nightclub in Orlando.

14. Crimes against Morality

Morality- it is a descriptive account of social and personal values about the ways people in
society should behave.

This type of crime generally offends those values, or code of conduct. This type of Crime
includes prostitution, bigamy, pornography, illegal gambling and illegal drug use.

15. White Collar Crimes

Are crimes committed by people of high social status who commit their crime in the context
of their occupation.

This include embezzling (stealing money from one’s employer) insider trading,tax evasion, and
other violations of income tax laws.

White collar crime generally generates less concern in the public mind than other types of
crime, however in terms of total dollars; white-collar crimes are even more consequential for society.

16. Organized Crime

Organize crime is committed by structured groups typically involving the distribution and sale
of illegal goods and services.

Many people think of the Mafia when they think of organized crime.

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It refers to any group that exercise control over large illegal enterprises such as drug trade,
illegal gambling, prostitution, weapons smuggling or money laundering.

A key sociological concept in the study or organized crime is that these industries are
organized along the same lines as legitimate businesses and take on a corporate form. They are
typically senior partners who control profits, employees who manage and work for the business, and
clients who buy the goods and services that the organization provides.

17. Inchoate Crime

Refers to those crimes that were initiated but not completed, and acts that assist in the
commission of another crime. It requires more than a person simply intending or hoping to commit a
crime.

It includes aiding and abetting, attempt, and conspiracy.

18. Statutory Crime

It refers to the state crime; crime under the law in favor to the state/country.

TYPES OF STATUTORY CRIMES

1. Alcohol related crimes

1. Driving Under the Influence (DUI)

2. Open Container Violations
3. Minor in Possession of Alcohol
4. Public Intoxication
5. Underage DUI
6. Boating DUI
7. Selling and Supplying Alcohol to Minors
8. Refusing to Perform a Field Sobriety Test
9. Refusing to Perform a Breathalyzer or Provide a Blood Sample

2. Drug related crimes

1. Drug Possession
2. Drug Manufacturing
3. Drug Trafficking

3. Traffic offense
1. Driving on a suspended or revoked license
2. Driving without a license
3. Hit-and-run accidents
4. Reckless driving
5. Vehicular assault

4. Financial white-collar crime.

1. Fraud
2. Blackmail
3. Embezzlement
4. Money Laundering
5. Tax evasion
6. Cybercrime
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CHAPTER 8

TOP CAUSES OF CRIME

There is no single cause to any disorder, including crime. While clearly, we are all ultimately
responsible for our own actions, it is wrong to hold an individual wholly responsible for his unlawful
act. There are certain factors in our societies, cultures (family values), system (educational, political,
law-enforcement), economy, and so on that endorse the potential of criminal activities of an individual.

An organization as a whole should take a part of the blame in order to transform the conditions
in which criminal-minds breed.

The list of 10 causes of crime was taken from a variety of scientific reports, written by scholars.

1. Weakness

People are not bad in nature, but

sometimes simply too timid to resist the
vicious demons that play on their weaknesses
and cut their bond with the source of their
Power.

Human are good by default, but not everyone is made of steel so as to defend
themselves against the demonic forces- destructive emotions and detrimental attitudes.

TWO CORE REASONS WHY WEAKNESS PREVAILS

1. Lack of Faith

Not believing enough in the power of one’s own internal weapons against demons such as
courage, love, patience, mercy, honesty, etc. as a result of not trusting inner resources, there is no
enough motivation to develop.

2. Imbalance

Most Criminals are simply too strong physically, pumping up the body muscles, but not enough
the mental and emotional muscles. The reason why their strength becomes weakness is because
they are not balanced.

Underneath all the weakness is a genuine human desire to do well. When we delink ourselves
from source (High Power), we find ourselves either in a wrong relationship or in a wrong job, or simply
in a wrong place at a wrong time, but also in a wrong state of mind- causing us to do wrong things, on
the wrong side of tracks.

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2. Poor Judgement

Lack of proper education and great

role-model cause many to fail to distinguish
right from wrong. In most cases offenders
don’t think they are doing something wrong.

Poor judgement is also reflected in

knowing its wrong, but thinking they could
get away with it, not getting caught.

3. Lack of Love

When there is a lack of love, respect

and tolerance, combined with other factors,
a lifestyle of criminal activities can be created.

Being raise in a dysfunctional family

or coming from a disadvantage background,
or feeling discriminated, none of it alone can
cause crime.

There are so many others in the world with such conditions, but nevertheless don’t turn into
crime. However, they cause the lack of love and respects for others. That endorsed with some
factors, can be a major issue related to crime.

4. Poverty

Poverty is often blamed for leading

to crime, however underneath is something
more vital- society bombards us with
commercial values, making us want more
and more material things, to the point that
some would do anything to get them.

Unemployment is another factor in this category that contributes to crime through looking at
ways to earn money by any means possible.

One of the reasons that poverty has been associated with crime is because it is an
opportunity for the poor to acquire materials that they could otherwise not afford.

Poverty also produces violent crimes because force is an easy way to get a large quantity of
goods. Many impoverished criminals feel the hope of treasures is worth the possibility of being
caught.
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5. Deprived Neighborhoods

The absence of social amenities and luxuries that

other more affluent, neighborhoods enjoy forces many youths
into crimes.

The realization that these neighborhoods are

unlikely to change into the neighborhoods they ought to
be, leaves only one option for many young men and women
-break out of the poverty chain and move from the neighborhood.

The need to have equality in all the neighborhoods is instrumental in removing the feelings of
discrimination and favoritism that many individuals in deprived neighborhood feel. The alleviation of
these feelings will play a great role in the fight against crime, seeing that individuals in these
neighborhoods have one-less incentive to venture into crime as a career than they did before these
feelings are removed. Economically impoverished neighborhoods breed criminal minds.

6. Being a victim in a chain of events

Sometimes individuals don’t mean to cause harm, but are drawn into it by a chain of events
that are beyond their control or influence. This is not being stated as an excuse but as a factor for
individuals, especially those who have been raised in dysfunctional homes and have not developed a
disciplined lifestyle.

7. Poor Parenting Skills

Children who grow up in households with loving, supportive parents have much better chance
at becoming healthy, successful adults. But all those who work with children know, this isn’t always
the case.

Many of them have to endure abuse, neglect and other types of bad parenting practices each
day. And this leads to serious emotional and behavioral problems that affect them throughout the rest
of their life. Because of this, a great debate has started on how much the parents of children who end
up being violent and aggressive are to blame for their behavior.

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The failure of the parents to control, supervise and monitor their children’s habit also plays a
role in crime. A family maybe complete, but failure of parents to direct their children in the right path
results, in misguided children that can be easily lured into vices such as crime and prostitution.

It is necessary that parents dedicate themselves to guiding their children in the right paths.

8. Fatherlessness

It is one of underestimated cause of crime.

1. 85% of all children that exhibit behavioral disorders come from fatherless
homes;

2. 90% of all homeless and runaway children are from fatherless homes

3. 80% of rapist motivated with displaced anger come from fatherless homes

4. 70% of juveniles in state-operated institutions come from fatherless homes;

5. 85% of all youth sitting in prisons grew up in a fatherless home

In fact, you can pick a social ill at random and you will find that correlation with fatherlessness
is clear and direct.

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Depression, Suicide, Dropping out of School, Teenage pregnancy, drug use. In sum,
fatherless children are:

1. 5 times more likely to commit suicide

2. 32 times more likely to run away
3. 20 times more likely to have behavioral disorders
4. 14 times more likely to commit rape
5. 9 times more likely to drop out of high school
6. 10 times more likely to abuse chemical substances
7. 9 time more likely to end up in a mental institution
8. 20 times more likely to end up in prison.

The absence of a father figure to guide and mold the characters of men in their growth process
results, in children raising themselves. Many youths, particularly young men, have been fooled into
believing that joining a gang and killing many innocent people is the way to prove oneself as a man.

This has been detrimental in the fight against crime seeing that many youths grow up with
false notion of manhood; notions that revolve around crime, assault and violence.

9. Ecological

It has long been known by police officers that cold winter night keeps criminals off the street
and crime levels down. Crime scientist speculate that one of the hidden consequences of global
warming will be an increase in street crime during mild winters.

Studies have suggested that warmer temperatures boost aggression hormones such as
epinephrine and testosterone.

TWO MAIN THEORIES ABOUT HIGHER TEMPERATURE LEAD TO MORE CRIMES

1. “When temperature is warmer, there are more opportunities to commit

crime.
People leave their windows open, more potential victims are out on the
streets and people are more likely to get another and interact”.

2. “Temperature has a direct effect on human aggression”.

Subjects make more aggressive choices when they are in a hot room
instead a comfortable room.

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10. Fraudulent Court Rulings

Double Jeopardy cases try to make sense out of the jury system which often makes no sense.
Criminal cases are to be decided on the basis of whether the prosecution has proved, beyond
reasonable doubt, the elements of the crime- the “ultimate facts”, that demonstrate a defendant’s
guilt.

But criminal juries usually don’t have to explain their verdicts they just say guilty or not guilty
and then go home. So not every acquittal turns on one or two ultimate facts- or any facts at all.

Juries sometimes let defendants go because they like them, or because they are confused, or
simply because they don’t much care for the prosecutor.

Defective court rulings are one cause of the extra crimes.

11. Overpopulation

Increase in populations the biggest cause of rime and much of the worlds worries. Although
population increase is related to each and every cause mentioned here, it still needs to be looked at
as a cause of crime. The increase of population triggers of a dynamo effects in society and this leads
to the creation of more people with some form of frustration or resentment towards society as such.

Conflicts and Wars:

Overpopulation in developing countries puts a major strain on the e-sources it
should be utilizing for development.

Conflicts over water are becoming a source of tension between countries, which could
result in wars. It causes more disease to spread and makes them harder to control. Starvation is a
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huge issue facing the world and the mortality rate for children is being fueled by it. Poverty is the
biggest hallmark we see when talking about overpopulation.

Overpopulation makes poverty worse and increase the drive to emigrate.

12. Poverty

13. Politics

When it comes to some government policies, especially government welfare state safety net
policies, we find that there is tremendous evidence that these programs, including some financial aid
programs, housing and other projects when it comes to their policy rules, have not just failed at their
intended purposes, but have, in fact, backfired, leading to social breakdown.

It has led to a rise in welfare dependency, poverty, illegitimate births, non-employment, violent
crime, and possibly the abortion rates.

On the other hand, you end up with a constituency that because they have become dependent
on these government programs, continue to vote back into office these same politicians that create
these policies and programs- this constituency doesn’t realize that they are ironically continuing to
propagate the bad policies and programs that cause themselves to suffer, all by voting back into office
those same politicians.

Politics is often a cause of crime. It is seen that many political associations all around the
world have their own mafias running which they use to manipulate and subjugate people. Political
power is often misused to take advantage of weaker groups and people and the dissidence that rises
out of such situations often force the victims to resort to crimes.

Politics is more related to crime on a much larger and much heinous level than anything else.

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14. Racism
Discrimination based on race is a serious issue all around the world. All humans are in a way
racist towards some people in some part of the world or another. Racism has contributed a lot of
unrest to many places all around the world and its mostly because of one or two idiots that such crime
are given birth to.

It is sad fact of the world that we live in that we end up discriminating against something that is
the same flesh and blood underneath even though the external appearance and the origins may be
different.

Racial discrimination persists and profoundly affects the life chances and routine situations of
everyday life. It conceptualized a highly stressful experience- a form of victimization- cumulative in its
effect, which increases the risk of crime by producing distress and shaping cognitive frames about the
way the world works.

15. TV Violence
TV violence is a major cause of crime especially among younger people that are unable to
differentiate between fiction and reality.

From the deep affection of the American public towards crime fighting superheroes to movies
and videogames that depict violence, many youths itch to live out these fantasies. The result is a
group of youth that will commit crimes as a result of the actions they witness.

Many children grow up witnessing violence in their societies, and in different forms of media, to
the point that it no longer surprises them. Many children now perceive violence as a part of society
that they have to accept and possibly adopt. The result is a large number of innocent youths

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engaging in violent acts either to prove themselves as strong, or to mimic what the media fraternity
has taught them to hold as true.

Cases of assault continue to rise with each passing day, highlighting the precarious position
society is in today.

16. Regionalism
It is the major cause of crime and unrest among people. Such people that harbor such
regionalist feelings often go to great lengths to commit crimes against other communities.

This fact is often ignored by people and the administrative bodies as they too are caught up in
classification of people by region. It is often that a victim of such regionalism gets influenced and
enters the world of crimes.

Regionalism cannot only be confined to formation of a political party and its existence, it has to
be broader, a more widespread phenomenon. The problem arises when certain groups assert their
authority over it, when the actual authority should lie with the people.

A few unsuccessful leaders may definitely diminish the movement, but the ideology cannot be
destroyed. It might take time, but it will assert itself in some form or the other in the future.

17. Family Conditions

Abuse during formative years from family members another such acts also instigate a person
into a life of crime. People who are neglected by their families and do not get the love and
attention that they desire also get into criminal activities.

We also know that the poorest among us happen to be single parents, especially single
mothers who got pregnant at an early age and decided to keep their children, which made it especially
difficult for them to continue their education to get the skills need to get that higher-paying job to better
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take care of themselves and their new family, because they now spend all their time just trying to
make enough so that they and their children can survive.

18. Depression and other social mental disorders

Depression is also a major cause of crime. Other than depression, people with grave mental
disorders also end up committing crimes. Such people should be treated before their tendencies and
ailments get out of hand. A person under depression or some other serious mental disorder can also
cause harm to themselves.

There is no telling how many crimes are done by people who have some kind of mental
disorder, one of which is difficult to control, even with proper medications or psychological treatments.
We are often seeing stories in the news about people who commit violent acts because of a mental
illness they have.

19. Drugs/Alcohol
Drugs are a bane, no matter how we look at them. A person addicted to drugs is unable to
support their addiction and more often than they end up in a life of crime to fuel their habits. It is not
unknown anywhere in the world that a drug addict ends up committing crimes to raise money for their
habits.

Beside that there are also a large number of people may not really be drug users themselves,
they often lure others into drugs and crimes.

Perhaps the person is impaired because of too much alcohol, and ends up doing something
that they wouldn’t have done without impaired judgement, which would have left them in a state to
more clearly see consequences to their actions and developed the mindset to fight the feeling or
thought.

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20. Victim of Prison System

Victims of unfair or incorrect rulings from court often cause people to enter a life of crime. It
often happens that a person is a victim of chance and happens to fall into crimes. Besides that,
people are often falsely accused of committing crimes which ends up in a court conviction. Jails or
prisons often make worse criminals out of people because of the conditions that exist there.

Corrections anywhere does not involve major rehabilitation for criminals and more often than
not they end up being thrown in overpopulated jails full of people who are either victims or
perpetrators of crimes more serious than their own. The declassification of people in prisons is also
a major cause of crime creation.

21. Peer Influence/Gang Wars

Peer Pressure/Social Pressure is the direct influence on people by peers or an individual who
gets encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to
those of the influencing groups or individual. This type of pressure differs from general social
pressure because it causes an individual to change in response to a feeing of being pressured or
influenced from a peer or peer group.

A person peer group is the major reason and strongly influences a decision to commit a crime.
Youth may join criminal gangs, where they can be respected in a different way. In gangs, anti-social
behavior and other criminal activities, earn respect and credibility for the group.

Peers have a negative influence, they can encourage each other to skip classes, steal, cheat,
use drugs or alcohol or become involve in other risky behavior. The majority of teens with substance
abuse problems began using drugs or alcohol as a result of peer pressure.

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 A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of SDSSU Theories of Crime Causation |

REFERENCES

Theories and Causes of Crime by Tancangco Philippine Copyright 2018 Wiseman

Books Trading, Inc.

Theories of Crime Causation by Jonah S. Badua Philippine Copyright 2019 Wiseman

Books Trading, Inc.

Theories of Crime Causation by Shirley S. Domingo Philippine Copyright 2020

Wiseman Books Trading, Inc

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