Date: July 07, 2023

Summer Project Report On,

Quantum Entanglement

Under the Guidance of,

Report by,
Dr Kuntal Roy Rounak Mukherjee
Assistant Professor
BS-MS Natural Sciences
Electrical Engineering and Computer
IISER Bhopal
Science (EECS) Department
IISER Bhopal
Overview 01

01 Introduction
02 Foundations of Quantum Entanglement
03 Bell's Inequality
04 CHSH Inequality and its Violation
05 EPR Paradox and Spooky Action at a Distance
06 Applications of Quantum Entanglement in Modern Days
07 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation
08 Superfast Fourier Transformation
09 Quantum Computing Using Single Photons
10 Reference
Introduction 02

Quantum entanglement is a fundamental concept in quantum physics, describing the

mysterious correlation between particles, even when separated by vast distances. When two
particles become entangled, their properties are interconnected, and measuring the state of
one particle instantaneously determines the state of the other. This phenomenon challenges
our classical understanding of reality and has implications for fields such as quantum
computing and secure communication.
The concept is linked to two famous papers in the historical development of quantum theory,
and has come to the forth in recent years with the advent of quantum information
science. In 1935 Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen published the ‘EPR’ paper on the
properties of an entangled two-particle system formed from the decay of a radioactive
source.
Foundations of Quantum Entanglement 03
System: A quantum system is a physical entity governed by the principles of quantum
mechanics and exhibits quantum behavior, and every system is associated with a
separable complex Hilbert Space (H).

Hilbert Space: Let H be a complex vector space. An inner product on H is a function,

A Hilbert space is an inner product space (H,h·, ·i) such that the induced Hilbertian
norm is complete.
Foundations of Quantum Entanglement 04
Observable: Observables are linear, self-adjoint operators (may be unbounded) acting
on H.

State: States are represented by density operators acting on H. By density

operators we mean any self-adjoint(hermitian) linear operator ρ acting on H that
≥
satisfies the following two relations: (a) ρ is non-negative definite, i.e., ρ 0. (b)
tr(ρ) = 1. Now for any density operator/matrix the following holds;

Now depending on the values of density operators the states can be divided into two
types,
i) Pure State: The state in which the square of the density operator is equal to itself,
these states are represented by,
 Foundations of Quantum Entanglement
Introduction 05

ii) Mixed State: The state in which the square of the density operator is less than
itself, these states doesn't have any fixed representation. There are infinitely many
ways to represent a mixed state by mixture of pure states.
Now for simplest quantum system, i.e., the system with dimension two,
states are known as qubits, have their representation infollowing form by Pauli
matrices σx, σy, σz;
 Foundations of Quantum Entanglement
Introduction 06

Composite System: Consider a quantum system consists of several number of parties,

say, A, B, C, D, etc. Such systems are known as multipartite systems. Mathematically,
the joint system H is described by the tensor product of individual systems

This composite systems can be divided into two types,

i) Separable States: Any state ρABCD... of a composite system consists
of parties A, B, C, D, etc., is called a separable/classically correlated state iff we can represent
the state in the following manner:
 Foundations of Quantum Entanglement
Introduction 07

ii) Entangled States: The states which cannot be represented as above

considering all possible changes in local bases are known as entangled states. Alternately,
all the states other than the separable states are entangled.
Bell's Inequality 08
Introduction
CHSH Inequality and its Violation 09

The CHSH inequality can be used to prove Bell’s theorem. CHSH stands for John
Clauser, Michael Horne, Abner Shimony, and Richard Holt, who described it in a
much-cited paper published in 1969.They derived the CHSH inequality, which, as with
John Stewart Bell’s original inequality, is a constraint on the statistical occurrence of
”coincidences” in a Bell test which is necessarily true if there exist underlying local
hidden variables, an assumption that is sometimes termed local realism. Experimental
verification of the inequality being violated can be seen. In the following slides we will be
using Estimator Primitive for proving the violation of CHSH Inequality. The given codes
are gathered from the official website of Qiskit
Introduction
CHSH Inequality and its Violation 10
 Introduction
CHSH Inequality and its Violation 11

In the figure, the red dashed lines delimit the classical bounds (±2) and the dash-dotted blue lines
delimit the quantum bounds. We can see that the experimental results resemble the general trend of
the simulated results and there are regions where the CHSH witness quantities exceeds the classical
bounds. This demonstrates the violation of CHSH inequality in a real quantum system!
EPR Paradox and Spooky Action at a Distance 12
The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox is a thought experiment devised by Albert Einstein,
Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen in 1935 to challenge certain aspects of quantum mechanics.
The paradox begins with the concept of quantum entanglement, where two particles become
entangled in such a way that their properties are intertwined. According to the principles of
quantum mechanics, measuring the state of one entangled particle instantaneously determines
the state of the other, regardless of the distance between them.

The EPR paradox highlights what Einstein referred to as "spooky action at a distance." In their
thought experiment, the EPR trio proposed a scenario where two entangled particles, often
referred to as "EPR pairs," are created and then separated by a significant distance. If the
position of one particle is measured, for example, it would instantaneously determine the
position of the other particle, even if they are light-years apart.

Einstein, along with Podolsky and Rosen, argued that this instantaneous correlation violated
the principles of local realism, which states that physical systems have definite properties
independent of measurement. They believed that quantum mechanics was incomplete and that
there must be some underlying hidden variables that determine the properties of particles.
EPR Paradox and Spooky Action at a Distance 13

Prediction of Multiverse?
 Applications of Quantum Entanglement in Modern Days 14

The application of Quantum Entanglement are too vast and all the fields are of vigorous
developement of are subject to tedeous research works. Some of the applications are discussed
underby,

Quantum Computation: Entanglement is a crucial resource in the field of quantum

computation, revolutionizing the way computations are performed. In quantum
computing, quantum bits or qubits can be entangled, allowing for parallel processing and
intricate computations. By manipulating entangled qubits, quantum algorithms can exploit
superposition and interference to solve certain problems exponentially faster than classical
computers. Entanglement enables the creation of complex quantum states and facilitates
the transfer of information between qubits. It plays a pivotal role in quantum gates,
entanglement swapping, and error correction in quantum computation. Harnessing
entanglement is vital for the advancement of quantum computing, promising to solve
problems that are beyond the reach of classical computation and revolutionizing fields
such as cryptography, optimization, and material simulation.
Applications of Quantum Entanglement in Modern Days 15

Quantum Information: Entanglement plays a crucial role in the field of quantum

information. It enables the transmission and manipulation of quantum states, forming
the basis for quantum computing and secure communication. In quantum computing,
entangled qubits can be used to perform parallel computations, potentially providing
exponential speedup over classical computers. In quantum communication,
entanglement allows for secure transmission of information, as any eavesdropping
attempts would disrupt the entanglement and be detectable. Entanglement also
enables protocols like quantum teleportation, where the complete state of a quantum
system can be transferred from one location to another. Harnessing entanglement in
quantum information processing holds great promise for revolutionizing technology
and computational capabilities.
Applications of Quantum Entanglement in Modern Days 16

Quantum Cryptography: Entanglement is a fundamental component of quantum

cryptography, a field focused on secure communication using quantum principles.
Quantum cryptography exploits the unique properties of entangled particles to
ensure the confidentiality and integrity of information. Through entanglement,
quantum cryptographic protocols enable the distribution of encryption keys that are
intrinsically secure against eavesdropping. Any attempt to intercept or measure the
entangled particles would disturb the entanglement, alerting the communicating
parties to the presence of an eavesdropper. This makes quantum cryptography highly
resistant to hacking and provides a foundation for unbreakable encryption.
Entanglement serves as the backbone of quantum key distribution (QKD) systems,
making quantum cryptography a promising avenue for secure communication in a
world increasingly concerned with data privacy and cybersecurity.
Applications of Quantum Entanglement in Modern Days 17

Quantum Teleportation: Entanglement is a fundamental resource in quantum

teleportation, a remarkable phenomenon in quantum information science. Quantum
teleportation allows for the transfer of an unknown quantum state from one location
to another without physically moving the state itself. Through entanglement, two
particles become correlated, and by performing measurements on one particle and
transmitting the measurement results, the state of the other entangled particle is
instantly recreated at a remote location. This protocol enables the transmission of
quantum information while preserving its unique properties. Quantum teleportation
has profound implications for secure communication, quantum computing, and
quantum networks, where entanglement serves as the backbone for transmitting
quantum states across long distances.
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 18

Birth of The Idea of Quantum Computation

In 1981, physicist Richard Feynman proposed the idea of quantum computers, which
would exploit quantum entanglement and superposition to solve problems that were
practically impossible for classical computers.
The revolutionary idea came to the minds with the qubits, apart from the
conventional information system, where the basis is the binary (0, 1), here using qubits
we can define three states, 0, 1, and the superposition of both of them that indicates the
Entangled state.
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 19

Qubits: It is the quantum version of a bit, and its quantum state can be written in
terms of two levels, which can be represented in the “computational basis” by two-
dimensional vectors:

The difference in energy between these two energy levels sets the characteristic
frequency n of the qubit through Planck’s constant h, and the energy is given by,
E = hn
These frequencies are nominally targeted to be around 5 GHz
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 20

Quantum Gates: Quantum gates are mathematical operations applied to one or more
qubits to manipulate their quantum states. These gates can rotate the state of a single
qubit or entangle multiple qubits. The action of a quantum gate is described by a
unitary transformation, which preserves the probabilities and ensures that the total
probability of all possible outcomes adds up to 1.

In the forthcomg section the most common single quantum gates are discussed
 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 21

Pauli Gates: Pauli gates are a set of fundamental quantum gates used in quantum
computing for manipulating the quantum states of qubits. Named after the renowned
physicist Wolfgang Pauli, these gates play a crucial role in various quantum algorithms
and quantum information processing tasks. There are three Pauli gates: the Pauli-X gate,
the Pauli-Y gate, and the Pauli-Z gate, each representing a specific rotation of the qubit's
state around different axes of the Bloch sphere.

All three types of Pauli Gates are discussed in the next slides,
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 22

Pauli-X Gate: The Pauli-X gate, also known as the NOT

gate in classical computing, is a single-qubit gate that
performs a bit-flip operation on the qubit's state. It
rotates the qubit's state around the X-axis of the Bloch
sphere by 180 degrees, effectively interchanging the
probabilities of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states. The X-gate is
represented by the Pauli-X matrix:
 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 23

Pauli-Y Gate:The Pauli-Y gate is another single-qubit gate

that rotates the qubit's state around the Y-axis of the Bloch
sphere by 180 degrees. It introduces a phase change and
performs a bit-flip operation on the qubit's state, similar to the
Pauli-X gate, but in a different direction. The Y-gate is
represented by the Pauli-Y matrix:
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 24

Pauli-Z Gate:The Pauli-Z gate is another single-qubit

gate that rotates the qubit's state around the Z-axis of
the Bloch sphere by 180 degrees. It introduces a phase
change and performs a bit-flip operation on the
qubit's state, similar to the Pauli-X gate, but in a
different direction. The Y-gate is represented by the
Pauli-Y matrix:
 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 25
Simulation of Pauli Gates using Qiskit platform
 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 26

Hadamard Gate: The Hadamard gate (H-gate) is a fundamental quantum gate. It allows
us to move away from the poles of the Bloch sphere and create a superposition of |0⟩ and
|1⟩. It has the matrix:

We can see that this performs the transformations below:

 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 27
Simulation of Hadamard Gate using Qiskit platform
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 28

P-Gate: The P-gate (phase gate) is

parametrised, that is, it needs a number (Φ ) to
tell it exactly what to do. The P-gate performs
a rotation of Φ around the Z-axis direction. It
has the matrix form:
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 29

I-Gate: First comes the I-gate (aka ‘Id-gate’ or ‘Identity gate’). This is simply a gate that
does nothing. Its matrix is the identity matrix:
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 30
S-Gate: In quantum computing, the S-gate, also
known as the phase gate or π/2-phase gate, is a
fundamental single-qubit gate used to introduce
a phase shift of π/2 (90 degrees) to the qubit's
state. It plays a crucial role in quantum
algorithms and quantum circuit design, allowing
for the creation of superposition states and
manipulating the quantum interference of
qubits.
Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Computation 31
T-Gate: In quantum computing, the T-gate is a
fundamental single-qubit gate that introduces a
phase shift of π/4 (45 degrees) to the qubit's state.
It is closely related to the S-gate (π/2-phase gate),
but whereas the S-gate squares to the Z-gate, the
T-gate is its own square root. The T-gate plays a
crucial role in quantum algorithms and
quantum circuit design, enabling quantum
interference and quantum phase estimation.
Superfast Fourier Transformation 32

Fourier Transform in general represents elements over an arbitrary Abelian

(commutative) group by an expansion along orthogonal set of basis vectors. While even in
the most abstract settings, all useful properties that we expect from Fourier transforms
hold, we restrict for our purposes the consideration to the (products of) additive groups Z2
and Zq, where the group operation is the addition modulo 2 and q, respectively. These
correspond to the multivariate binary and multiple-valued transforms, as well as to the
classical univariate DFT.
Superfast Fourier Transformation 33

Transform Basis: The transform is defined as an expansion with respect to the basis functions
that are orthonormal. For each pair of basis functions, the dot product is 0, unless the two
functions are equal, in which case it is 1. In binary case, such an orthogonal basis can be
obtained by expanding the Fourier basis to the multivariate binary inputs

The Chrestenson transform is defined by the expansion that involves complex q-th roots of
unity
Superfast Fourier Transformation 34

Quantum Walsh-Hadamard Transform: In quantum computing, the QWHT is a quantum

analogue of the classical WHT and is constructed using Hadamard gates. Unlike the classical
WHT, which operates on classical signals, the QWHT acts on quantum states, specifically
qubits. For a quantum circuit with n qubits, the QWHT involves applying Hadamard gates
to each qubit in a specific order. The QWHT operation is defined as follows: QWHT (n-qubit
⊗ ⊗ ⊗
state) = (H_1 H_2 ... H_n) |ψ⟩
Superfast Fourier Transformation 35

Quantum Chrestenson Transform: The generalization of the transform to the q-ary case
has been traditionally known as the Chrestenson Transform.
Quantum Computing Using Single Photons 36

Quantum computing with single photons is an exciting area of research in quantum

information science and quantum technology. In this approach, quantum bits (qubits) are
implemented using the quantum properties of individual photons. The ability of single
photons to exist in superposition states and be entangled with other photons makes them
attractive candidates for quantum computation and quantum communication tasks. Here's
an overview of quantum computing with single photons:
Quantum Computing Using Single Photons 37

Single Photon as a Qubit: In classical computing, the basic unit of information is a classical
bit, which can take values of either 0 or 1. In quantum computing, the quantum bit (qubit) is
the fundamental unit of information, which can exist in superposition states, denoted as
α|0⟩ + β|1⟩, where α and β are complex probability amplitudes and |0⟩ and |1⟩ are the
quantum states representing 0 and 1, respectively. A single photon can be used as a qubit by
encoding the logical states |0⟩ and |1⟩ into different quantum properties of the photon. For
example, the horizontal polarization state of a single photon can represent |0⟩, while the
vertical polarization state represents |1⟩.
Quantum Computing Using Single Photons 38

Superposition and Entanglement: Single photons can exist in superposition states, allowing
them to represent multiple qubit states simultaneously. By using interferometers and other
optical components, researchers can manipulate single photons to create and control
superposition states. Entanglement is a key property of quantum mechanics and is crucial
for quantum computing. When two or more photons become entangled, their states become
correlated in a way that the measurement of one photon instantly determines the state of
the other, regardless of the distance between them. Entanglement is essential for
implementing quantum gates and quantum algorithms.
Quantum Computing Using Single Photons 39

Quantum Gates with Single Photons: Various

quantum gates can be implemented using single
photons. For instance, the Hadamard gate, which
creates superposition states, can be realized using beam
splitters and phase shifters. Controlled-NOT (CNOT)
gates, which are essential for quantum computing, can
be achieved using quantum interference of single
photons.
Reference 40

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Reference 41

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Thank You