HaVIE 1.1. VUIIparison OF Ie anu Ce crigines Sr. IC Engines EC Engines No. 1. | Working fluid takes part in Working fluid does not take combustion process. part in combustion process. 2. | Heat of combustion is Heat of combustion is transferred to working fluid | transferred to a second fluid density. which acts as working fluid. 3. | Move power to weight ratio. | Less power to weight ratio. Ahennan af ativilians Auvilians annarahie arn1.3 IC ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS ‘Spark plug Exhaust valve Valve spring Intel valve Valve spring — Intel port Top center Exhaust port Cylinder head Cooling fins Piston Wrist pin Connecting rod Cylinder Displacement —> volume Bottom center Crank case Crank pin moo Crank Crank shaft Fig. 1.1: Cross-section of a Spark Ignition EngineCylinder and Cylinder Block : It forms basic framework of an IC engine. In the cylindrical vessel or space piston reciprocates. The working fluid undergoes various process inside cylinder. The cylinder is supported in cylinder block. The cylinder block carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages called oil galleries, These are made by casting. Diesel engines require heavier blocks than petrol engine. Material: Grey cast iron and aluminium alloys. Material Requirements: Good casting properties, good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, creep resistance. Crank Case : It is casted separately or integral with cylinder block. It supports main journals and bearings of crankshaft and maintains alignment of their axes. Material: Cast iron and aluminium alloys. Material Requirement: Rigidity.Cylinder Head : It is attached to deck that is top surface of cylinder block. It contains valves, seats, valve guides, potts, coolent jackets and has provision for spark plug or injectors. It forms combustion chamber above the cylinder. Material: Cast iron, aluminium alloy and copper alloy for racing cars. Material Requirement: High thermal conductivity. Piston: This cylindrical component fits perfectly into cylinder providing a gas tight space. It forms moving boundary of the combustion chamber. It transmits gas force to the crankshaft. Material: Cast iron was used in earlier days. Now-a-day, aluminium alloy containing silicon is used.Piston Rings : They fit in the grooves which are cut towards the top of the piston, They prevent leakage of high pressure gases from combustion chamber into the crankcase. They also provide better heat dissipation and less gylinder wear. Materials: Fine grained alloy cast iron containing manganese and silicon. Material Requirement: Wear resistance, thermal conductivity. For top ring chromium plated rings are used as they are subjected to high temperature and corrosive contact of combustion gases. Connecting Red: It connects piston crankshaft. It transmits gas forces to the crankshaft moves linearly. When its small end connected to reciprocates piston big end connected to crankshaft moves in circular path. Materials: Steel, duralumin, malleable cast iron. Material Requirement: High straight, light weight, hinh fati ctranathIc 9. Wrist Pin : It is also called as gudgeon pin or piston pin. It forms link between small end of connected rod and piston Material: Low carbon case hardened steel. Material Requirement: High hardness, fine surface finish Crankshaft : It is the output shaft of the engine. The balance weights are provided for balancing of static and dynamic loads. Material: Chromium-Vanadium or Cr-Mo steels. Material Requirement: High strength, toughness, hardness and fatigue strength. ENGINES (MECH., DBATU) (1. Camshaft and Cam : They control opening and closing of valves. Their associated parts include push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and trappets. Camshaft is driven by crankshaft. Inlet and Exhaust Valves : These valves are generally mushroom shaped type. These are provided either on cylinder head or on the side of cylinder.11. Inlet Manifold : © It carries air-fuel mixture from carburetor to the cylinders. © Itis nothing but a pipe. 12. Exhaust Manifold : © It is a pipe which connects exhaust system to the exhaust valves of the engine. 13. Spark Plug : * It is used to initiate the combustion process in S| engines. + Itis normally located in the cylinder head. 14, Fuel Injector : © It is used in Cl engines to inject the fuel into the ovlinder.Ayres 1.4 ENGINE NOMENCLATURE Clearance volume (Vc) BDC Fig, 1.2: Nomenclature 1. Cylinder Bore (d) : The inner diameter of the working gylinder is called as bore. It is denoted as d and expressed in mm. Refer Fig. 1.2.2. Piston Area (A) : The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called as piston area and is expressed in mm2 Stroke (L) : The nominal distance through which 3 piston moves from TDC (Top Dead Centre) position to BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) position is called as stroke. It is designated by the letter L and usually expressed in mm. Dead Centre : The position of the working piston and the moving parts that are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre. There are two dead centres, namely TDC and BDC. Top Dead Centre (TDC) : The position of the piston farthest from the crankshaft is called as TDC. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) : The position of the piston nearest to the crankshaft is called as TDC.7. 10. Displacement or Swept Volume (V.) : The volume swept by the working piston while travelling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement volume. It is expressed in Cubic Centimeter (cc) and is given by, Vs = Axb=Gal (1) Clearance Volume (Ve) : The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume. Compression Ratio (r) : It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC position, Vy, to the clearance volume, Ve. Vr VctVs Vs Vw tthe (1.2) re Ve Combustion Chamber : It is the space enclosed in the upper part of engine cylinder by cylinder head, cylinder walls and piston top. This space is considered as thermodynamic system for engine analysis. In this system, cylinder head and walls provide fixed boundary whereas piston top provides moving boundary.Heat engines LC. Engine EC. Engine Rotary Reciprocating Reciprocating Rotary ‘Wankel — Open cycle Petrol Diesel Steam othe ‘Steam Closed cycle engine gas turbine engine engine engine engine turing gas bine Description SI Engine Cl Engine Fuel Gasoline (petrol) a Diesel comparatively highly volatile, self- a low volatile and self- ignition temperature ignition temperature is high, is used as a fuel. also low. Basic cycle Sl engine works on Otto | Cl engine works on or constant volume diesel or constant cycle. pressure cycle. Fuel supply A mixture of fuel and air | Only air is inducted is supplied during suction stroke. A carburetor is required for the purpose. into the cylinder during suction stroke. Fuel is injected into the cylinder by fuel pump at the end of compression stroke. A carburetor is not Siena fae the,purpose. Compression | Itis in the range 6-10. Itis in the range 16- ratio Upper limit is due to 22. Upper limit is due antiknock quality of the | to increase in weight fuel of the engine. Speed Due to light weight and | Due to heavy weight homogeneous and heterogeneous combustion of fuel, combustion of fuel, these are high speed these are low speed engines. engines. Description SI Engine Cl Engine Ignition Requires an ignition Due to high system with spark plug | compression ratio, in the combustion self ignition chamber. temperature of fuel is reached. Therefore, no ignition system and spark plug is required. This process of driving out the fresh charge from the cylinder with the help of fresh charge is known as scavenging. _— Spark plugtyes enyurcs Sr. No. Four-stroke Cycle Engine Two-stroke Cycle Engine The thermodynamic cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or in two revolutions of the crankshaft. The thermodynamic cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one revolution of the crankshaft. Only one power stroke is there in every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Because of which, turning moment is not so uniform and hence a heavier flywheel is needed. One power stroke in each revolution of the crankshaft. Because of which, turning moment is more uniform and hence a lighter flywheel can be used. Again, because of one power stroke for two revolutions, power produced for same size of engine is less, or for the same power the engine is heavier and bulkier. Because of one power stroke for every revolution, power produced for same size of engine is more (theoretically twice; actually about 1.3 times), or for the same power, the engine is lighter and more compact.Sr. | Four-stroke Cycle Engine Two-stroke Cycle Engine No. 4. | Lesser cooling and lubrication | Because of one power stroke is required due to one power stroke in two revolutions. Lower rate of wear and tear. in one revolution, greater cooling and lubrication is required. Higher rate of wear and tear. 5. | The four-stroke engine Two-stroke engines have only contains valves and valve ports but no valves. actuating mechanisms to open and close the valves. 8. | Thermal efficiency is higher, | Thermal efficiency is lower, part load efficiency is better part load efficiency is poor than two-stroke cycle engine. | compared to a four-stroke cycle engine. 9. | Used where efficiency is Used where low cost, important, viz., in cars, buses, trucks, tractors, industrial engines, aero planes, power generation etc. compactness and light weight are important, viz., in mopeds, scooters, motorcycles, hand sprayers etc.power output. Volumetric efficiency is more | Volumetric efficiency is low due to more time for induction. | due to lesser time for Therefore, less cc per kW of induction. Therefore, more cc per kW of power output. 1.9.1 Various Parts and Functions of Intake System 1. Fuel tank - 2. Fuel filter - 3. Fuel pump - 4. Carburetor - 5. Air filter 6. Intake manifold Storage of fuel. To filter ten fuel and supply clean fuel to the cylinder. To suck to fuel from the tank and supply under slight pressure to carburetor. In a device which produces and supplies correct air-fuel mix to engine cylinder depending upon the load on the engine. wee eee ee eee cee - To filter the atmospheric air and supply clean air to engine. - It is made out of a casting, through which charge enters. engine cylinder.1.11 IDEAL OR AIR STANDARD CYCLE e Air standard cycles are defined as cycles using a perfect gas (ideal gas) as the working substance. Air is almost invariably used as the working fluid in internal combustion engines (I.C. engines). Air is assumed to behave as a perfect gas. The following assumptions are made in the analysis of standard cycles: The working substance is a perfect gas, i.e. it follows the characteristic gas equation, pv = mRT. The working substance (fluid) is a fixed mass of air contained in a closed system. The physical constants of the working medium (substance) such as Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K, cy = 0.718 kJ/kg-K and y = 1.4 are taken in the calculations, for air. Thermal efficiency is the ratio of work output to the heat supplied to the engine. Mathematically, _ Work output nth = Heat supplied e The basic conditions necessary for combustion in LC engine are: The presence of a combustible mixture. Means of initiating combustion. \ Stabilizing and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber.Carburettor is a device, which atomises and vapourises the fuel and mixes it with air in varying proportions so as to suit the changing conditions (or changing loads) of SI engines. The process of automisation-vapourisation and mixing with air is known as carburretion. The air-fuel mixture so produced is called Combustible mixture. This combustible mixture (air-fuel mixture) is carried to the engine cylinder through intake manifold and quantity of air-fuel mixture is controlled by throttle valve.Lubrication of moving parts by means of oil, grease etc. is essential for proper functioning and to reduce friction between the moving parts of automobiles. Purpose and Functions of Lubrication Following are the purposes and functions of lubrication: * To make the moving parts function properly by reducing friction. e By reducing friction wear of moving parts will be minimised. e Lubricating oil will take up the shocks/vibrations by small extent. e Corrosion of parts will be prevented. © To reduce noise. Properties of Good Lubricating Oil 1. Viscosity: It is a property which offers resistance to flow. «Thick oils have high viscosity. *¢ Medium oils have medium viscosity. e Thin oils have low viscosity. e It is inversely proportional to temperature i.e. it decreases as the temperature rises. e Lighter oils are recommended for automobile engines.sryiies. Flash Point: It is the temperature at which lubricating oil will flash when a small flame is passed across it. It should be sufficiently high to avoid flashing of oil vapours at the temperature occurring in common use. Fire Point: If the oil is heated after the flash point has been reached, the lowest temperature at which oil will burn continuously. The fire point should be high, so that oil does not burn in service. Cloud Point: It is the temperature at which oil changes from liquid state to solid state, when subject to low temperatures. In some cases oil starts solidifying which makes it to appear cloudly. Pour Point: It is the temperature which oil will pour. This property must be considered because of its effect on starting of engines in cold climate. 1. Splash Lubrication: In this type, the oil from the sump is pumped to the oil trough which is located below the crank pins. The extended end of connecting rod known as dipper strikes the oil surface and splashes oil over various parts of engine. The oil returns to sump due to gravity.2. Pressure Lubrication: This system mainly consists of a gear pump, oil strainer, oil gallery made up of copper tubing. In this system oil flows to different parts through the drilled passages in the crank shaft and connecting rod. Oil pump draws filtered oil through the oil strainer and pumps it to the main oil gallery. From where it goes to the main bearings. After lubricating main bearings, lubricating oil will go to crank pin bearings through the drilled holes. And from the crank pin bearings, oil will flow to piston pin bearings through the oil hole drilled through connecting rod web. Small amount of oil is also sprayed on the cylinder walls to lubricate between cylinder walls and piston rings. Cam shaft, valves mechanisms are lubricated through the separate lines. Governor is the mechanism or device used to maintain constant speed irrespective of changes of load on the engine. And the method of maintaining constant speed is called as Governing.i. Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A): Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame propagation velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the maximum temperature and the completeness of combustion. The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer. Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption dynamometers and transmission dynamometer.(H) SUPERCHARGING 3.31 INTRODUCTION The power output of an engine depends upon: The amount of air inducted per unit time, The degree of utilization of this air and The thermal efficiency of the engine. The amount of air inducted per unit time can be increased by increasing engine speed or by increasing the density of air at intake. The increase in engine speed has disadvantages: Needs a rigid and robust engine as the inertia loads increase. The engine friction and bearing loads also increase and the volumetric efficiency decreases when the speed is increased. Therefore, the method of increasing the inlet air density, called supercharging, is usually employed to increase the power output of the engine. This is done by supplying air at a pressure higher than the pressure at which the engine naturally aspirates air from the atmosphere by using a pressure boosting device called a supercharger.Methods of Turbocharging: The turbo charging methods are: 1. Arrangement of exhaust manifolds. Constant pressure turbocharging. Pulse turbocharging. Two stage turbocharging. Miller turbocharging. Hyperbar turbocharging. haraina: apy 3.43 TURBOCHARGERS e Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors (Fig. 3.63) driven by the exhaust gas turbines. These are now-a-days extensively used for supercharging almost all types of two-stroke engines. By utilizing the exhaust energy of the engine it recovers a substantial part of energy which would otherwise go waste. Thus, the turbocharger will not draw upon the engine power.Ringoes GioU Cause Lye Un CU Haro. Ozone: It is toxic. It is a byproduct of NOx reactions. On ground level, it causes irritation of lungs and throat. (Sulphur Dioxide) SOz: It is toxic and corrosive gas. It oxidizes to SO; which combines with water to form sulphuric acid aerosols. Sulphuric acid is corrosive and can harm human respiratory truck of animals, plants and crops. 3.52EXHAUST GAS TREATMENT/EMISSION CONTROL The harmful engine emissions can be reduced by removing pollutants from the engine exhaust system. The methods used are, 1. Thermal Reactors: For HC and CO. 2. Catalytic Converters : Oxidising catalysts for HC and CO, reducing catalysts for NOx and three way catalysts for all three pollutants. 3. Traps or Filters for Particulates.1.7 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS It states that when body A is in thermal equilibrium with body B is in thermal equilibrium with body C , then body A,B and C will be in thermal equilibrium. It is the basic of temperature measurement. ata 19 Larturateu. 1.7.2.2 TYPE OF THERMOMETER There are five types of thermometers. a) Resistance thermometer It works on Wheatstone bridge circuit. As temperature hang with respect to change of(b) Thermocouple This works on See beck Effect. When two dissimilar metal at different temperature is joint with each other, an electro magnetive force is generated the induced emf. depends upon the temperature difference of two ends of the dissimilar metal. So thermometric property in this thermocouple is induced e.m.f. 1.7.2 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT In the thermometer, Zeroth law of thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the body. Thermometric Property: The property which changes with change in temperature is called as thermometric property.Heat is defined as a form of energy that is transferred across the boundary by virtue of a temperature’ difference. The temperature difference is the potential and heat transfer is the flux. Heat flow into the system is taken as positive and heat flow out of system is taken as negative. The process in which that does not cross the boundary is adiabatic process. Heat transfer is a boundary phenomenon. Heat transfer is transient form of energy. Heat transfer is Path function. 1.10.1 SPECIFIC HEAT The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the unit mass of substance through a unit rise of temperature. For the gases, in constant volume process it is taken as Cy and in constant pressure Process it is taken as Cp.2.1 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC FOR A CYCLE Heat and work are different forms of energy. Both form of energy can be Conserved. As the result of Joule’s experiment, for a closed system undergoing a Cycle (Q) cycle =J (ZW) cycle J is Joule’s equivalent. This is first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle. Both Heat and work are measured in the desired unit of energy Joule (J). So constant of proportionality ‘J’ is unity. 2.2.5.1 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY It is amount of enthalpy per unit mass. Specific enthalpy is an intensive property. Its unit is KJ/Kg.2.2.4 PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE (PMM-I) IS NOT POSSIBLE Perpetual machine is the machine which delivers the work without taking any input. There is no such machine which would continuously supply mechanical work without some other form of energy dissipating. Such a machine is called as PMM-I. The efficiency of PMM-1 is given by _W_W nwane nee ey were 3.1.1 KELVIN - PLANK STATEMENT OF SECOND LAW It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. In other words, no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100%. The machine having 100% efficiency is known as PMM-II. So PMM-II is not possible. | T;3.1.2 CLAUSIUS STATEMENT OF SECOND LAW It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to higher-temperature body without any external work. If such a device is possible its C.0.P. will be infinite. So Refrigerator having COP infinite is not possible. Le] 5.3 TRIPLE POINT Triple point is state at which solid, liquid and gas phases exist in equilibrium. On a P- T diagram, this condition is a point. But on P-V Diagram it is a line. The curve which shows the phase change of solid into liquid or liquid into solid is called as fusion curve. The curve which shows the phase change of liquid into vapour or vapour into liquid is called as vaporization curve.Latent Heating The addition of heat which is utilized to phase change is called as latent heating. In process 2-4, heat is added to water that is utilised to convert the phase of liquid in to vapour and it is called as latent heating. the latent heat decreases as pressure increases and at the critical point latent heat of vaporization is zero. Critical Point Critical Point It is point at which liquid directly converts into vapour phase. At the critical point, latent heat is zero. For water at the critical point, Per = 220.8 bar Ter = 374.14°CSensible Heating hy h hg The addition of heat which is utilised to increase the temperature is called as sensible heating. In T- S diagram, Process8.2 ERICSON CYCLE Ericson cycle has two reversible isothermal heat additions & heat rejection process and two reversible isobaric processes. It differs from cannot cycle in that two isentropic processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two constant pressure process. P-V and T-s diagram of Ericson cycle is shown. 8.1 STIRLING CYCLE Stirling cycle has two reversible isothermal heat additions & heat rejection process and two reversible isocoric processes. It differs from cannot cycle in that two isentropic processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two constant volume process.