Atmospheric Structure and

UNIT 1 ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE Composition

AND COMPOSITION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Weather and Climate
1.4 Climate
1.4.1 Elements of Climate
1.4.2 Climate Controls
1.4.3 Climate Components

1.5 Climate - Global, Regional and Local

1.6 The Atmosphere
1.6.1 Composition of the Atmosphere
1.6.2 Structure of the Atmosphere

1.7 Climate Change and Climate Variability

1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 Suggested Further Reading/References
1.11 Answers to Check your Progress

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Weather and climate have a profound influence on life on earth. They affect
landforms, soil types and vegetation. They are part of the daily experience
of human beings and are essential for their health, food production and
wellbeing. The mental alertness, physical characteristics and even social
differences, when closely examined, have at least some relationship with
climate. There are many causes of climate change. Many are natural and
involve processes which influence the flows of energy into, out of and
within the climate system. However, concern has grown that man’s activities
may be affecting these processes, thus also affecting climate. If one wishes
to understand, detect and eventually predict the human influence on climate,
one needs to understand the system that determines the climate of the earth
and the processes that lead to climate change. Through this unit, we would
be discussing the difference between weather and climate; composition of
the atmosphere. This unit will give you an overview of vertical structure
of the atmosphere.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
Identify the difference between weather and climate;
5
Atmosphere and Climate Explain the composition of the atmosphere;
Explain the vertical structure of the atmosphere.

1.3 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

The term “climate” should not be confused with “weather”. We don’t hear people
saying that the climate of the day is warm or cold, but we do talk of warm
weather, a cold morning, a sunny afternoon, a rainy day or a chilly night.
Weather comprises the day to day conditions of the atmosphere at any place
as regards temperature, rainfall, winds, humidity, sunshine, cloudiness and
such other elements. It is never static and thus cannot be generalized. It
may be sunny in one part of the district, but raining heavily a few miles
away. It is important to realize that any place can be subjected to haphazard
changes in weather at any time.
Climate is generally defined as the average state of the weather patterns
over an area. The elements to be considered are the same while studying
the climate or weather conditions of a place, but climate considers these
over a longer period of time. Weather records of a minimum period of
35 years are needed to obtain reliable averages.
Both weather and climate are affected by such things as directness of the
sun’s rays, length of day, altitude, distribution of land and water bodies,
direction of mountain ranges, air pressure, winds and ocean currents.

1.4 CLIMATE
1.4.1 Elements of Climate
The main elements of climate are temperature; pressure; winds; and rainfall. All
these elements are highly variable and constitute the weather or climate. They
are closely interrelated and a change in one of these elements generally brings
about changes in the others. The different climates on earth are produced by
different combinations of these four elements. The variations in climate are largely
the result of variations in the amount, intensity and distribution of these elements
over the earth. In the study of climate, the main consideration is with the average
occurrence of the various elements, their interrelationships and how they affect
the environment.
1.4.2 Climate Controls
The variations of the weather or climate elements are both temporal and spatial.
The important climatic controls are latitude, distribution of land and water,
altitude, semi-permanent high and low pressure systems, winds and air masses,
atmospheric disturbances or storms, ocean currents and mountain barriers.
Further, there are certain other climatic factors such as distance from the sea,
relief, type and colour of soil and natural vegetation, which affect the climate
in no less significant way.
1.4.3 Climate Components
Our earth is habitable and hospitable due to the favourable climatic condition
brought about by the interaction among different components of climate system.
6 The United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
defined the climate system as the totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, Atmospheric Structure and
Composition
biosphere and geosphere and their interactions. The earth’s atmosphere is a
gaseous blanket held by the earth due to its gravitational attraction. The
atmosphere has evolved since the formation of earth and now it is nitrogen
and oxygen rich gaseous blanket. The water vapour, trace gases and particulates
present in the atmosphere are primarily responsible for the weather phenomena
that are observed in the troposphere. In the troposphere, the various atmospheric
properties are subject to large-scale turbulence and mixing. The atmospheric
phenomena occurring in the troposphere of the atmosphere primarily influence
many of the human activities.

1.5 CLIMATE - GLOBAL, REGIONAL AND

LOCAL
(a) Global Climate
The term “Global Climate” is used to refer to the general state of the world’s
climate. For specific purposes, such as investigating the evidence for climate
change, climatologists like to study the general climate of the whole earth.
Global climate is fundamentally influenced by the amount of energy, the
earth receives from the sun. It also influences how that energy is stored
and redistributed through the world’s atmosphere and oceans. The position
of the world’s continents and large mountain ranges also affect global
climate. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap a lot of heat which would
otherwise escape to space, keeping the earth warmer than it would otherwise
be.
Today, the global average surface temperature is about 15oC. During the
ice age, global average surface temperature was 5oC lower than the present
global average surface temperature. “Human activities are estimated to have
caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels,
with a likely range of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Global warming is likely to reach
1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current
rate. Warming from anthropogenic emissions from the pre-industrial period
to the present will persist for centuries to millennia and will continue to
cause further long-term changes in the climate system, such as sea level
rise, with associated impacts” (IPCC 2018). It is reported that “the risks
related to droughts are indeed higher at 2°C compared to 1.5°C of global
warming in some regions of the world. As regards the rainfall, the heavy
precipitation when aggregated at global scale is projected to be higher at
2°C than at 1.5°C of global warming. As a consequence of heavy
precipitation, the fraction of the global land area affected by flood hazards
is projected to be larger at 2°C compared to 1.5°C of global warming”
(IPCC 2018). It is alarming that it is projected to rise a further 2 to 3oC by
the end of the 21st century.
(b) Regional Climates
Regional climates are patterns of weather that affect a significant geographical
area. They indeed influence much greater area than that of local climatic
effects such as sea breezes but much smaller than the global climate of
the whole earth. Sometimes, regional climates may be identified on account of
special features which distinguish them from other patterns of climate.
7
Atmosphere and Climate The Indian Monsoon is an example of a distinctive regional climate. Dry for
much of the year, when northeast trade winds blow, airflow reverses in the
summer and the South westerly monsoon brings months of prolonged rain to
India and South East Asia. Much further to the north, far from the influence
of the Indian Ocean, the air becomes much drier.
Some countries are large enough to experience a full range of regional climatic
patterns. Australia for example has a tropical north and North-west and a sub-
tropical desert interior. Mediterranean climate is experienced in the southeastern
part of the country with warm summers but fairly chilly winters.
(c) Local Climate
Local climate describe those climate which have influence over a very small
geographical area. This might only be a few miles or tens of miles across.
Under certain conditions, local climatic effects influence the general pattern
of regional climate. Examples of local climate include land and sea breezes,
the orographic effects of mountains and “heat island” effect of cities.
Cities contain a lot of concrete structure, like buildings, which soak up
sunlight during the day. At night they release this heat, which warms urban
areas several degrees Celsius above the nearby rural areas. This phenomenon
is called the urban heat island effect.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers.
2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What are the differences between weather and climate?
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2. What are the elements of climate? What are the factors that control
climate and how?
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3. Explain global, regional and local climate.
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8
 Atmospheric Structure and
1.6 THE ATMOSPHERE Composition

The atmosphere is as much a part of the earth as land or water, although we

may not feel it, except where it moves as wind. It is not as dense as either
land or water but it has weight and exerts pressure. The atmosphere is mobile,
elastic and both compressible and expansible. Held to the earth by gravitational
attraction, this envelope is densest at sea level and thins rapidly as we move
upward.
Box 1.1 : Nature of Atmosphere
The earth’s atmosphere is the most critical component of climate system.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases held to the earth due to gravitational
attraction. The atmospheric composition is not absolutely constant, as it
varies in time and space. The main component gases of dry air by volume
are nitrogen (78.01%), oxygen (20.9%), Argon (0.93%) and carbon dioxide
(0.04%). Less than 1% of air consisting of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone, particulate matter is responsible for global climate change
and stratospheric ozone depletion. The lower atmosphere where the
chemical composition of atmosphere is uniform is called homosphere. In
the lower atmosphere, due to constant mixing and turbulence, the lighter
gases are unable to separate to form individual layers. On the other hand,
at heights more than 100 km (heterosphere), due to the absence of mixing
and turbulence, the atmospheric gases separate to form concentric layers
like nitrogen layer (100 - 200 km), oxygen layer (200 - 1100 km) and
helium layer (1100 - 3500 km). The atmosphere of the earth helps in the
existence of life on earth by obstructing the harmful ultra-violet radiation,
providing oxygen and carbon dioxide for the living organisms and livable
environment. The earth’s surface temperature of about 150C is due to the
presence of radiatively active gases in the atmosphere.
Source: Oliver and Hidore, 2011

1.6.1 Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. It also contains a large number
of solids and liquid particles, collectively called aerosols. Some of the gases,
which may be regarded as permanent components of the atmosphere, are
present in a fixed proportion to the total gas volume. Other constituents
vary in quantity from place to place and from time to time.
Table 1.1: Principal gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere

Constituent Per cent Constituent Per cent

by volume by volume
Nitrogen (N2) 78.008 Ozone (O2) 0.00006
Oxygen (O2) 20.94 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
Argon (Ar) 0.93 Krypton (Kr) Trace
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03 Xenon (X2) Trace
Neon (Ne) 0.0018 Methane (Me) Trace
Helium (He) 0.00015
9
Atmosphere and Climate As shown in the table 1.1, two gases nitrogen and oxygen make up about
99 percent of the clean dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and
constitute about 1 percent of the atmosphere. About 21 percent of it consists
of oxygen which helps in burning and heating and without which we cannot
live. The bulk of the atmosphere is made up of an inert gas, nitrogen which
dilutes the oxygen and slows down the process of oxidation.
There is a small amount of carbon dioxide which the plants utilize during
the process of photosynthesis. It is transparent to the incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part
of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s
surface. It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. This gas absorbs
heat and thus allows the lower atmosphere to be warmed by heat radiation
coming from the sun and from the earth’s surface. It is heaviest of all
the gases of atmosphere; therefore the lower layer of atmosphere contains
much more CO2 than the upper layers.
Ozone is another important gaseous component of the atmosphere found
between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface. It acts as a filter and
absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents them from
reaching the surface of earth.
There are also traces of argon, ammonia and water vapour. The percentage
of these gases varies slightly in different parts of the earth. For example,
the variable water content of the atmosphere in different areas ensures that
we have such great contrasts in weather and climate over different parts
of the world. Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers
of the atmosphere. Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around
which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.
The properties of the air that is important in climatology are pressure,
temperature, and volume or density. Pressure (p) of the atmosphere at any
level is defined as the “weight of the overlying column of air per unit
area of the surface at that level”. It varies across the earth’s surface and
also with altitude. Further, in the tropical regions, there occurs a distinct
diurnal and seasonal variation of pressure. The density of the air is deûned
as “it’s mass per unit volume and expressed in units of grams per cubic
centimetre or kilograms per cubic metre”. Like barometric pressure,
temperature and density of the air varies in time and space.

1.6.2 Structure of the Atmosphere

The vertical structure of the atmosphere encompasses different layers with
different atmospheric characteristics particularly with respect to the climate
variables like temperature and density. Density of the air is indeed highest
near the surface of the earth and it gradually decreases with increasing
height. In other words, the air is rarefied in higher altitudes. Further, the
atmospheric column can be studied by dividing it into different layers based
on the temperature characteristics. The vertical structure of the atmosphere
is divided into layers namely troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is called as troposphere. The average
height of the troposphere is about 13 km, varying from 18 km at the equator
10 and 8 km at the poles. This layer contains about 75 per cent of the mass
of the atmosphere. Further, the phenomena of weather and climate occur in Atmospheric Structure and
Composition
this layer. The atmospheric temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of
1ºC for every 165m of height. This decrease in air temperature with altitude
is because air is compressible and the density of the air decreases with altitude.
Further, it must be noted that the atmosphere is heated due to the turbulent
heat transfer from the earth’s surface. Perhaps, this layer is important from the
perspective of biological life and activity. The zone between the troposphere
and the stratosphere is called as the tropopause, wherein the air temperature
is about minus 45ºC over the poles. The air temperature in the tropopause
is nearly constant. The tropopause is essentially an inversion level.
The stratosphere indeed extends upward from the tropopause. It extends up
to a height of 50 km. It accounts for about 10 percent of the total molecular
mass of the atmosphere. Interestingly, stratosphere contains most of the total
atmospheric ozone and the maximum temperature, however, occurs at the
stratopause, which lies between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. One
important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. This
layer absorbs harmful ultra-violet radiation from the Sun and shields life on the
earth from intense and harmful forms of energy from the Sun. In the stratosphere,
the density of the air is lower as compared to the air density in the troposphere
layer. Because of the lower air density, even limited absorption leads to high
temperature rise. As regards the stratosphere layer, the occurrence of the polar
stratospheric clouds in the circumpolar low-pressure vortex at the poles are
significant from the perspective of stratospheric ozone depletion. Nevertheless,
to what extent the events and atmospheric processes occurring in the stratosphere
are linked with the surface air temperature and turbulence in the troposphere
falls under the emerging research areas.
The mesosphere layer extends above the stratosphere and the average
temperature in this layer decreases with height. Lowest temperature of
minus 130 ºC is observed at a height of 90 km above the earth surface.
The pressure of the air in the mesosphere layer is low and it is about
0.01mb at 90 km. Just above 80 km, average air temperature start decreasing
due to the presence of molecular oxygen and ozone, which absorbs heat.
This zone is called mesopause. In this region, during the summer nights
over high latitudes, noctilucent clouds are observed.
The thermosphere layer extends above the mesopause and the density of
the air in this layer is extremely low. The lower portion of this layer is
predominantly composed of nitrogen, molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen.
Nevertheless, above 200 km, the atomic oxygen is more prevalent than
the molecular and atomic nitrogen. The average air temperature rise with
height in this layer, mainly due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation
by the molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen. Above 100 km from the earth’s
surface, the short wave radiation from the Sun causes ionization. For this
reason, the ionosphere is the term normally applied to the layer above 80
km. This layer is known for the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis.
Further, the layer called exosphere lies between 500 km and 750 km. This
layer is known for the presence of oxygen, hydrogen and helium atoms.
The neutral helium and hydrogen atoms due to their low atomic weight escapes
into the outer space. The frequency of the ionized particles indeed increase in
the exosphere and in fact beyond 200 km, in the layer called magnetosphere,
the occurrence of electrons and protons are more common. 11
Atmosphere and Climate
1.7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE
VARIABILITY
Climate change is referred to as a “change in the state of the climate that
can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean
and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural
internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar
cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use”. Nevertheless, United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its
Article 1, defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed
directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the
global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods”. On the other hand, climate
variability refers to “variations in the mean state and other statistics (such
as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on
all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events”.
Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate
system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic
external forcing (external variability). In fact, the UNFCCC makes a
distinction between climate change attributable to human activities altering
the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable to natural
causes.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: 1) Use the space given below for your answers.
2) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. What do you know about the vertical structure of the atmosphere?
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2. What are the differences between climate change and climate
variability?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

We have seen that climate is a complex system. It has various components
which interact in multiple ways to produce the different climate zones of
12 the world. These are again subject to influences at the regional and local
level. The earth maintains a constant temperature by a system of radiation balance Atmospheric Structure and
Composition
whereby the energy received from the sun is balanced by heat reflected by
earth. The atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere all play a crucial role in
this process. It is an accepted fact that the earth’s temperature is rising and
the global climate seems to be showing some changes. The crucial question
is why this is happening. Is this part of long term climate change or is it induced
by human activities? It is believed that man is hastening this process and we
need to understand the scope of these changes better. We have discussed in
this unit about the differences between weather and climate; gaseous composition
of the atmosphere; and vertical structure of the atmosphere.

1.9 KEYWORDS
Climate : Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the
average weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical
description in terms of the mean and variability of
relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from
months to thousands or millions of years.
Climate System : The climate system is the highly complex system
consisting of five major components: the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the
lithosphere and the biosphere, and the interactions
between them. The climate system evolves in time
under the influence of its own internal dynamics
and because of external forcings such as volcanic
eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic
forcings such as the changing composition of the
atmosphere and land use change.
Atmosphere : The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. The
dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen
(78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9%
volume mixing ratio), and a number of trace
gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing
ratio), helium and radiatively active greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone.
Troposphere : The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the
surface to about 10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes
(ranging from 9 km at high latitudes to 16 km
in the tropics on average), where clouds and
weather phenomena occur. In the troposphere,
temperatures generally decrease with height.
Stratosphere : The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above
the troposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging
from 9 km at high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics
on average) to about 50 km altitude.
Climate Change : Climate change refers to a change in the state of the
climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical
tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability
of its properties, and that persists for an extended 13
Atmosphere and Climate period, typically decades or longer. Climate change
may be due to natural internal processes or external
forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles,
volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic
changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in
land use.
Climate Variability : Climate variability refers to variations in the mean
state and other statistics (such as standard
deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of
the climate on all spatial and temporal scales
beyond that of individual weather events.
Variability may be due to natural internal processes
within the climate system (internal variability), or
to variations in natural or anthropogenic external
forcing (external variability).

1.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor,
S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York,
NY, USA, 1535 pp.

IPCC, (2018) Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An

IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the
context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change,
sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V.,
P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W.
Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen,
X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield
(eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 32 pp.

IPCC, 2012: Glossary of terms. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events
and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation [Field, C.B., V.
Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea,
K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)].
A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 555-564.

IPCC, 2013: Annex III: Glossary [Planton, S. (ed.)]. In: Climate Change 2013:
The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker,
T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels,
Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

14
IPCC, 2014: Annex II: Glossary [Agard, J., E.L.F. Schipper, J. Birkmann, M. Atmospheric Structure and
Composition
Campos, C. Dubeux, Y. Nojiri, L. Olsson, B. Osman-Elasha, M. Pelling, M.J.
Prather, M.G. Rivera-Ferre, O.C. Ruppel, A. Sallenger, K.R. Smith, A.L. St.
Clair, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, and T.E. Bilir (eds.)]. In: Climate Change
2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J.
Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi,
Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken,
P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1757-1776.

Fletcher C (2018) Climate Change: What the science tells us. 2nd Edition. John
Wiley & Sons. Pp.336. ISBN: 978-1-118-79306-0

Dessler A (2016) Introduction to Modern Climate Change. 2nd Edition.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-521-17315-5

Houghton JT (2015) Global Warming: The complete briefing. 5th Edition.

Cambridge University Press. Pp.456. ISBN: 978-0-521-70916.

Burroughs WJ (2007) Climate Change: A multidisciplinary approach. 2nd

Edition. Cambridge University Press. Pp.390. ISBN: 978-0-521-69033-1

Barry RG and Chorley RJ. (2010). Atmosphere, weather and climate. 8th
Edition. Routledge, New York. pp.421.

Web Links

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/

https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

https://www.globalchange.gov/climate-change/glossary

https://health2016.globalchange.gov/glossary-and-acronyms

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Weather and climate are different from the perspective of space and time.
Weather involves day to day conditions and it reflects the state of
atmosphere on a small area.
Climate involves averages over a long period of time. It gives the
conditions prevalent in that area.
2. The elements of climate are temperature, pressure, winds and rainfall. 15
Atmosphere and Climate Variations of these four elements give rise to different kinds of climate.
Other factors have a controlling effect- latitude, altitude, distribution
of land and water, distance from the sea, ocean currents, high and
low pressure systems that influence the direction and force of
winds, mountain barriers that determine whether an area gets rain
or remains in rain shadow.
3. Global climate is the climate prevalent in areas of the earth as a whole.
It is due to the directness of the sun’s rays, the earth’s rotation,
and tilt of the earth’s axis. It gives rise to equatorial, tropical and
sub-tropical climatic zones
Regional climates are prevalent over large areas. They are due
to regional factors such as development of high and low pressure
zones, which gives rise to the Indian Monsoons, or nearness to
the sea which gives rise to the Mediterranean climate
Local climates are prevalent over very limited areas. Urban heat
island effect, or small areas with high temperature, is produced
due to proximity to cities
Check Your Progress 2
1. The vertical structure of the atmosphere includes different layers with
different atmospheric characteristics particularly with respect to the
climate variables like temperature and density. The atmospheric column
can be studied by dividing it into different layers based on the
temperature characteristics. The vertical structure of the atmosphere
is divided into layers namely troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is called as troposphere. The
average height of the troposphere is about 13 km, varying from 18
km at the equator and 8 km at the poles. This layer contains about
75 per cent of the mass of the atmosphere. The atmospheric temperature
in this layer decreases at the rate of 1ºC for every 165m of height.
The atmosphere is heated due to the turbulent heat transfer from the
earth’s surface. The zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere
is called as the tropopause, wherein the air temperature is about minus
45ºC over the poles. The tropopause is an inversion level. The air
temperature in the tropopause is nearly constant.
The stratosphere extends up to a height of 50 km. It accounts for about
10 percent of the total molecular mass of the atmosphere. It contains
most of the total atmospheric ozone and the maximum temperature,
nevertheless, occurs at the stratopause, which lies between the stratosphere
and the mesosphere. Ozonosphere absorbs harmful ultra-violet radiation
from the Sun and shields life on the earth from intense and harmful forms
of energy from the Sun. The occurrence of the polar stratospheric clouds
in the circumpolar low-pressure vortex at the poles in the stratosphere are
important with respect to the depletion of stratospheric ozone.
The mesosphere layer extends above the stratosphere and the average
16 temperature in this layer decreases with height. Lowest temperature
 of minus 130 ºC is observed at a height of 90 km above the earth surface. Atmospheric Structure and
Composition
The pressure of the air in the mesosphere layer is about 0.01mb at 90
km. Just above 80 km, average air temperature start decreasing due to
the presence of molecular oxygen and ozone, which absorbs heat. This
zone is called mesopause.
The thermosphere layer which extends above the mesopause, is
predominantly composed of nitrogen, molecular oxygen and atomic
oxygen. The average air temperature rise with height in this layer,
mainly due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by the molecular
oxygen and atomic oxygen. Above 100 km from the earth’s surface,
the short wave radiation from the Sun causes ionization. Exosphere
lies between 500 km and 750 km. This layer is predominantly
composed of oxygen, hydrogen and helium atoms.
2. Climate change is referred to as a “change in the state of the climate
that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability
of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal
processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles,
volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use”. Climate variability
refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics of the climate
on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather
events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the
climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or
anthropogenic external forcing (external variability).

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