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ICT Notes (Handout 1) 121337

Diploma n ict (Thika Technical Training Institute)

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ICT Notes
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES

What is a computer?
 A computer is an electronic device that works under the control of stored
Programmes (instructions), accepts raw data and processes it into information.
 Information production is a cycle of input, processing and output as shown in the
diagram below.

Input is a way entering/ keying Input Output

data in the computer. Output is a way of receiving
333333333333333333 information from the computer. It
can be either softcopy output or
hardcopy output

Process

Processing is the manipulation of

data to achieve certain objectives.
It may include calculations,
comparisons to produce desired
results.

Computer terminologies
1. Program-is a step by a step instruction which helps the computer to perform a given
task. It can also be referred to as software.
2. Data - These are raw or basic facts which are meaningless unless undergone
processing. It may include numbers, letters and symbols.
3. Information- is processed data which is meaningful. It also refers to summarized
data.

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Parts of a computer
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are inter-connected
together in order to function as a single entity.
i) System unit- This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called central
processing unit (CPU). It also houses other devices like: - Drives, Motherboard,
Power supply unit, Hard disk etc. Drives are used to store (write), record and read
data. There are two common types of system units namely: Tower system unit
and Desktop system unit.

Desktop system unit

Tower System unit

ii) Monitor/ Visual Display Unit (VDU)/ Screen- It is a television like device used
for displaying output. It is called the monitor because it enables the user to
monitor or see what is going on in the computer.
iii) Mouse- It is a device that enables the user to issue instruction in the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen. It is a pointing device
mainly used in Graphical User Interfaces (GUI).
iv) Keyboard- It is a device that enables the user to enter data and instruction in the
computer by pressing its keys.

NB: Devices connected together to the system unit using cables are called peripheral
devices. Examples of peripheral devices include: Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, Scanner,
Speakers e.t.c.

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Diagram of computer system

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified according to:
1. Physical size and processing power
2. Purpose
3. Functionality

1. Classification according to physical size and processing power

Computers in this category can be classified into 4 main groups namely:
a) Super computers
b) Main frame computers
c) Mini computers
d) Micro computers

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a) Super computers
 They are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers.
 They are mainly used in scientific research, simulation weapon analysis etc.
 Due to their extreme weight they are kept in a special room.
 Due to their high processing power they generate a lot of heat and therefore they
require special cooling system.
 They are mostly found in developed countries such as USA where they are used for
advanced scientific research such as nuclear physics.

b) Main frame computers

 They are less powerful and less expensive than super computers.
 Although super computers may be described as giant computers, the main frames are
said to be big in size.
 They are used for processing data and performing complex mathematical
calculations.
 They have a large storage capacity and can support a variety of peripherals.
 They are mostly found in government agencies, big organizations and companies
such as banks, hospitals, airports etc, which may have large information processing
needs.

c) Mini computers
 They are physically smaller and cheaper than main frame computers and they are
referred to as small – scale main frame computers.
 They support fewer peripheral devices than mainframes.
 They are less powerful and have less speed than main frame.
 They are used mainly in scientific laboratories, research institutions, engineering
plants and other places where processing automation is required.
 They are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing, database
management and specific industry application.

d) Micro computers

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 They are the smallest, cheapest and less powerful than any other type of computer.
 They are called micro computers because their CPU is called a micro processor
which is very small compared to that of mini, main frame or super computers.
 Micro computers are also called Personal Computers (PC) because they are designed
to be used by one person at a time.
 They are mainly used for teaching and learning institutions, small businesses and
communication centres etc.
 Technological advancement with time has seen the development of smaller micro
computers that have greater processing speed and power.

Types of micro computers

1. Desktop computers - they are not portable and they are designed to be placed on top
of an office desk.
2. Laptop computers - they are portable like a briefcase and they are designed to be
used by placing it on the lap hence, its name.
3. Palmtop computers - they are small enough to fit in the pocket and can be held in
the palm while being used e.g. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

2. Classification according to purpose

a) General purpose computers
b) Special purpose computers

a) General Purpose Computers

 They are the most common type of computers in use today.
 They are designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with
appropriate programs.
 They can be applied in a wide range of applications such as document processing,
performing calculations, accounting, and data & information management.

b) Special Purpose Computers

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 They are designed to perform a specific task.
 They cannot perform other tasks except the one they were meant to do.
 Since, they are dedicated to only a single task, they can perform it quickly and very
efficiently.
 Examples of such computers include robots, Mobile phones and electronic
calculators.

3. Classification according to Functionality

 This category classifies computers according to the type of data they process.
 Data can either be discrete or continuous (analog).
 Discrete data is data represented as distinct values which do not have transitional
stages over time. Discrete data is also known as digital data. Digital data is based on
two states i.e. “on” and “off”, or 1’s and 0’s.

A data signal represented using a two-state square waveform

 Analog data is data which is continuous that can be represented as progressively

changing over time.

Analog signal represented using a continuous waveform

 This classification has three types namely:

a) Digital computers
b) Analog computers
c) Hybrid computers

a) Digital Computers

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 They process data which is discrete in nature.
 Any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital
form.
 These types of computers are mainly used in scientific and industrial areas.
b) Analog Computers
 They process data which is continuous in nature.
 They are used in manufacturing process like monitoring and regulating furnace
temperatures, pressures etc. they are also used in weather stations to record and
process physical quantities like wind, cloud speed, temperature etc.

c) Hybrid Computers
 They are designed to process both analog and digital data.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS
 The first computing machine was known as Abacus.
 It was used in ancient China and Japan thousands of years BC.
 It was made up of rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle.
 In 17th Century, a Scottish Mathematician, John Napier developed a machine called
Napier bones which helped in multiplication and division.
 An English mathematician called Charles Babbage developed a machine called
Analytical engine. This machine is regarded as the forerunner of the modern
computers and thus, Charles Babbage is referred to as the father of modern
computers.
 Charles Babbage died in 1871 and thereafter, there was little improvement on his
work until the 1930s.
NB: The Abacus, Napier bones and the Analytical engine were all non-electronic tools
that would simplify arithmetic.

Representing numbers using an abacus

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ICT Notes

1st Generation computers (1940 - 1958)

 Very large in physical size.
 Used vacuum tubes or thermionic valves.
 Consumed a lot of power hence, the excessive heat generated caused their
breakdown.
 Examples of such computers are:
i) Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
ii) Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
iii) IBM 650

2nd Generation computers (1958 - 1964)

 They operated using tiny, solid-state electronic devices called transistors.
 They produced less heat and consumed less power.
 They were faster, smaller in size and more reliable than 1st generation computers.
 Examples include: IBM 1401/7070, UNIVAC 1107(Universal Automatic Computer),
ATLAS LEO Mark III and Honeywell 200.

3rd Generation computers (1964 - 1970)

 They are used Integrated Circuits (IC). An integrated circuit consists of thousands
small transistors mounted on a semiconductor called a silicon chip.
 The use of ICs improved the processing speed and capacity of the computers.
 Examples include Smaller and less expensive mini computers such as IBM 360 and
ICL1900 series.

4th Generation computers (1970 – present)

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 They used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits which was an improvement of silicon chip.
 These circuits were designed by compressing more tiny circuits and transistors into
even smaller space.
 The circuits were used for the development of the brain of the computer called the
micro processor which was used in micro computers.
 Then 1st micro computer was called Apple II.
 Examples include: IBM 370/ 4300, Honeywell DPS – 88, Burroughs.

5th Generation computers

 They are the today’s computers.
 They have very high processing power and speed.
 Their size is increasingly becoming smaller.
 They have special instruction set that allow them to support complex Programmes
that mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Areas where computer are used / Application Areas of Computers

1. Supermarkets
 Used in:
 Stock control where the stock control system keeps account of what is in the
store, what is to be sold and what is out of stock.
 Payment of bills
 Making and keeping accounting records
 Surveillance of shoppers

2. Offices
 Most modern offices functions have been automated for faster message distribution
and processing.

3. Banks

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 Efficiency and speed has increased in banks due to better keeping and document
processing by computers.
 Special Cash Dispensing Machines called ATMs (Automatic Teller Machines) have
enabled automated cash deposits and withdrawal services.

4. Industry Commerce
 Computers are being used to monitor and control industrial processes.
 Remote controlled devices like robots are also being used to perform human tasks
which are too dangerous, complex, unpleasant and tedious to human beings.

5. Health care
 Computers are used:
 To keep patients records in order to provide easy access to all patients’ treatment
and diagnosis. A doctor in need of specialized opinions can easily retrieve such
information from computer storage memory.
 For electro-cardiogram screening and motoring for patients’ diagnosis.
 Enable access to foreign consultations and expertise / labor easily which would
otherwise have not been possible due to high traveling costs
 To carry out computerized diagnosis
 To carry out computerized surgery

6. Transport and Communication industry

 Computers are used:
 To monitor vehicle traffic in busy towns, aircrafts navigation and to make
reservations.
 In telephone exchange to switch incoming and out going calls.
 to coordinate the movement of their wagons and goods at Railway corporations
 to control air traffic and surveillance of air space
 to make air ticket reservations

7. Education and research

 Computers are widely used:

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 In teaching and learning processes and in research institutions. E.g. long distance
learning, open university concept
 Learning and teaching using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning
(CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).
 In aviation for training pilots through simulation i.e. computers are used to physically
change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he controlling an actual aircraft.
 Engineers and architects use computers to design test and re-design.
 By scientists to analyze experimental data
 For manned and unmanned space exploration

8. Police and defense

 Computers are widely used today in fighting crime through:
 Police keep record of finger-prints which are automatically analyzed by
computers.
 Computer-based face recognition and scene monitoring help police force to arrest
traffic offenders and criminals.
 In defense, computers are used:
 in electronic news gathering
 efficient communication
 detection and tracking of targets,
 radar systems
 warning systems,
 Military laser and missile systems.

9. Home and leisure

 At home computers are used:
 For shopping purposes because they provide shopping lists as well as electronic
money transfer facilities
 For entertainment
 To play games e.g. chess
 To assist the handicapped at home e.g. turning text into speech for the blind

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10. Employment
 Computers create many jobs e.g. computer engineers, system analysts, programmers,
Teachers etc

11. Multimedia applications

 Used in business presentations, training, information distribution, point of sale
terminals, photo albums etc.
 Used in entertainment to add stereo sound and digital video clips to make games more
realistic
 Multimedia disks are used for training as teaching aids.

12. Library services

Advantages of computers
1. Speed
 Computers process data faster compared with devices like calculators and type
writers.
 The speed of a computer is measured in fractions of seconds.

2. Accuracy
Computers never make errors normally
 Usually errors committed by users feed in incorrect data. When you enter incorrect
data and have it processed, the computer will give you misleading information thus
the saying “Garbage In Garbage Out” (GIGO).
3. Storage
 A computer is capable of storing large amount of data and it can produce this data
again and again on demand. A human being cannot do that.
4. Diligence
 This means that a computer never gets tired or bored if it has to do the same job again
and again. Human beings will get bored and tired very easily.

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 Even if the computer has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the
same speed and accuracy as it did the first one.
5. Automation
 Once the instructions have been given, the computer can carry on with its job
automatically until it is complete.
6. Versatile
 A computer is capable of performing large number of different jobs depending on the
instructions fed to it and hardware characteristics.

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THE COMPUTER LABORATORY
 A computer lab is a room specially prepared to facilitate installation of computer and
to provide a safe conducive environment for teaching/ learning of computer studies.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer lab
1. Security of computer programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed and the available floor space.
4. The maximum number of users the lab can accommodate.

Safety precautions and practices in the computer lab

 A number of safety precautions, rules and practice need to be observed in order to
avoid accidents, injury, damage of computers or lack of conducive environment for
learning and teaching.

The safety precautions and practices include:

1. Proper behavior in computer lab.
2. Protection against fire.
3. Proper cable insulation.
4. Stable power supply.
5. Burglar proofing.
6. Proper ventilation.
7. Dust and dump control.
8. Proper lighting.
9. Standard furniture.

1. Proper behavior in the computer laboratory

 The following rules must be observed in and around the computer lab:
i) Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because smoke and dust
contains small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and
cause wearing of moving parts.

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ii) Avoid carrying food and beverages in the lab. This is because food may fall
into the moving parts of a computer and damage them. Liquids may also spill
into the computer causing rusting or electrical faults.
iii) Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down
peripheral devices.
iv) At all times follow the correct procedure for starting and switching off the
computer to avoid loss of data and also avoid damage to computer
Programmes.
v) Do not open up the metallic covers of computer or peripheral devices without
permission and particularly when the computer is on.

2. Protection against fire

 The main cause of fires in the lab may either be inflammable chemicals or electrical
faults. A Computer lab should therefore, have gaseous fire extinguishers filled with
carbon dioxide.
 Water based or powder fire extinguisher should be avoided because they may cause
damage (rusting or abrasion) to computer components.

3. Proper cable insulation

 All power cables in the computer lab must be properly insulated and laid away from
busy path ways.
 The cables should be laid along the walls to avoid the danger of exposing the user to
electric shock and power interruptions caused by stumbling on cables.

4. Stable power supply

 To protect the computers against damage due to power instabilities, avoid connecting
them directly to the mains supply. Instead, connect them to a special device called
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) and then connect the UPS to the mains.
 The UPS stores some power and when the mains power goes off, it gives out some
sound alert to the user.
 UPS can also be referred to as: Power Regulator/ Power Stabilizer/ Surge
Suppressor.

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The UPS performs two main functions:

1. It regulates power from unstable power source to the required clean voltage by
eliminating surges and brown-outs.
2. It temporarily provides power to the computer incase of sudden power failure, thus
allowing the user to store his/her work and shut down the computer using the
correct procedure.

 Organizations, schools, hospitals and banks usually install stand-by generators that
automatically comes on incase of power failure.
 Power from generators must pass through UPS before being fed to the computer
because it is not stable.
 NB: Generally devices that produce alternative source of power are usually referred
to as power backups.

5. Burglar proofing
 Computer should be protected against theft at all times.
 Unauthorized access to the computer lab should be avoided by the following:
i) Fit strong metallic grills and padlocks on doors, windows and roof incase the
roofing is weak.
ii) Do not welcome strangers in computer lab.
iii) Install security alarms that would alert security personnel incase of a break in.

6. Proper ventilation
 Computers generate a lot of heat and electronic components can be damaged by
excessive heat. It is therefore, important to ensure adequate flow of air in the lab.
 Proper ventilation enables the computer to cool and hence avoid damage to computer
components.
 Proper ventilation can be ensured by:
1. Installing air-conditioning systems
2. Ensure the room has enough ventilation points e.g. windows.
3. Avoid overcrowding of machine/ people in the room.

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7. Dust and dump control
 Computer lab should be located away from excessive heat.
 The lab should be fitted with special curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 The computers must remain covered using dust covers when not in use.
 Humidity lower than 50%, allows electricity to build up and cause damage to
sensitive electronic components.
 Humidity of over 70%, causes rusting of the metallic parts of the computer system.
8. Proper lighting
 A computer lab must be well lit to avoid eye strain that eventually leads to headache,
stress and fatigue.
 Very bright wall paints, reflect too much light causing eyestrain.
 The user should adjust the brightness of the computer monitor until the eyes feel
comfortable.
 Avoid using a flickering monitor which may cause eye strain leading to eye sight
damage.
 Consider fitting radiation filter screens (antiglare screens) to reduce the radiation
rays and light that reaches the eyes.

9. Standard furniture
 The table which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear the
weight and accommodate all the peripherals devices.
 The seat must be comfortable and have a straight backrest that allows the user to sit
upright. This is important because it avoids muscle pains and backaches caused by
poor sitting posture.
 The chair must be high enough relative to the table to enable comfortable use of the
hands on the keyboard.
 The eyes must be at same level as the top of the screen when the user is seated
upright.

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PRACTICAL HANDS-ON-SKILLS

Starting-up the computer (Booting)

 Booting refers to the process of starting-up a computer.
 When the computer is switched on, it goes through a process called POST (Power
On-Self Test). The POST checks whether all the system components are working
properly and if not, an error message is displayed on the screen or an abnormal beep
is produced or a blue screen appears.
 The special firmware programme that directs the POST process is called BIOS (Basic
Input Output System).
 After the POST process, the computer reads some instructions such as the current
time and date from a special memory called CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor).
 When every component is checked and found to be working properly, the Operating
System (OS) is loaded to the computer memory and the computer is now ready for
use.

Types of booting
i) Cold booting
ii) Warm booting

i) Cold booting
 This is starting up a computer that was originally off. This is achieved by pressing the
power button on the system unit.

ii) Warm booting (Restarting)

 This is starting up the computer that was originally on. This may be achieved by one
of the three methods given below:
i) By pressing a combination of keys at the same time i.e. Alt + Ctrl + Delete
ii) By pressing the re-start/ reset button on the system unit
iii) By using the start button menu (Click start button, Click Turn Off Computer
then click Restart).
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Shutting down a computer

 It is important to follow the correct procedure of shutting down a computer at all
times. Failure to follow the correct procedure, the following might happen:
i) Loss of data
ii) Damage of computer programs
iii) Damage of computer components such as hard disk
 The procedure of shutting down a computer may vary depending on the type and
version of Operating System (OS) you are using.

Procedure
1. Ensure that all the work has been properly saved/ stored.
2. Close all the Programmes that may be currently running in the computer.

3. If your computer is running on Microsoft Windows XP or Vista then,

a) Click the start button
b) Click Turn Off Computer command from the menu.
c) Select Turn Off
d) After a few seconds the computer will automatically switch itself off.
 If your computer is running on Windows 95/98/2000 then,
i) On the start menu, click Shut Down
ii) Select Shut Down and then click OK.

THE KEYBOARD LAYOUT

The keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups namely:
i) Alphanumeric keys (Typing keys)
ii) Function keys
Escape key
iii) Cursor movement & editing keys
iv) Special PC Operation keys
v) Numeric key pad

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Special Keys

Diagram byofJames
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i) Alphanumeric keys
 These keys are labeled with alphabetical letters A – Z, numbers arranged in a line 1,
2, 3 … 0 respectively and symbols like? { [ > , @ % &.
 This group also includes the following keys: CapsLock key, Enter key, Tab key, Space
bar key and Backspace key.
 CapsLock key - Pressing this key lets the user to type in upper case letter (Capitals).
To switch back to lower case letters, press the same key again.
 Enter key (return key) - Pressing this key forces the cursor to move to the beginning
of the next line. Cursor is a blinking insertion ( I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear. The Enter key is also used to instruct the computer
to execute a command that has been selected on the screen.
 Tab key - This key is used to move the cursor at set intervals on the same line.
 The space bar key – This key creates a space between words during typing.
 Back space key – This key deletes characters that are to the left side of the cursor.

ii) Function keys

 Function keys are usually located along the top of the key board.
 They are labeled F1, F2 … F12.
 They are used for the tasks that occur frequently in various Programmes e.g. F1 key
in most programs, starts the Help Menu.

iii) Cursor movement and editing keys

 Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen. They include:

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(a) Arrow keys - Pressing the left arrow moves the cursor towards the left. The Cursor
moves to the right if you press the right arrow. The cursor move up or down
whenever you press the up arrow or down arrow respectively.
(b) Page up or page down keys - Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page and
pressing page down key moves the cursor down one page incase the document has
many pages.
(c) Home and end keys - Pressing home key moves the cursor at the beginning of the
current line. Pressing end key moves the cursor at the end of the current line.

 Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. They include:
(a) Insert key – This key helps the user to replace or insert characters at the cursor
position.
(b) Delete (Del) key – This key erases characters that are to the right side of the cursor.

iv) Special PC Operation keys

 These keys are used in combination with other keys to give instructions/ commands
to the computer. E.g. if you press Ctrl + Esc you display the start menu. They include:
Shift key, Ctrl (control) key, and Alt (Alternate) key and Esc (escape) key.

v) Numeric keypad
 The numeric keypad consists of a set of numbers from 0 to 9 and arithmetic signs like
+ (addition), - (minus), * (multiplication), and / (division). The numeric key pad is
located on the right hand side of the keyboard.
 The keypad is meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric data.
 The numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on. When the Num Lock is turned off, the keys can be used as cursor
movement and editing keys.

Proper Typing Guidelines

1. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture.

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2. Place the material to type on your left hand side, in a position you can read
without straining.
3. Rest your fingers on the home keys i.e. left hand fingers on A, S, D, F and the
right hand fingers on J, K, L, ; and the thumbs on the space bar.
4. Always return the fingers to the home keys after striking other keys.
5. Start typing and don’t look at your fingers or even the keyboard when typing.
NB: To gain speed in typing, you can use typing tutor software such as typing master, typing
pal, touch tutor, mavis beacon etc.

Mouse skills
i) Clicking - This means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once. Clicking
selects an icon or object.
ii) Double clicking – This means pressing the left mouse button twice in a quick
succession. Double clicking usually opens a file or starts a programme.
iii) Right clicking – This means pressing the right mouse button once and releasing it.
Right clicking displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection.
iv) Drag and drop - This is where the user points at an item, holds down the mouse
button, slides the mouse and moves the item to a different location on the screen.
Once you reach to the desired location release the mouse button.

When using a mouse:

(a) Place the mouse on a flat surface
(b) Hold the mouse with the right hand (if you are right handed), using the thumb
and the two fore fingers.
(c) The index finger should rest on the left button and the middle finger should
rest on the right button.

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CHAPTER TWO

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
A System - is a collection of independent entities that collectively work together to achieve a
desired goal.
A Computer system – is a collection of entities that work together to process and manage
information using computers.

Computer system consists of three main components

i) Hardware – these are the physical or tangible computer components e.g. Keyboard.
Mouse, monitor, system unit etc.
ii) Software – these are set of instructions or programs that direct a computer on what to
do. They are classified into two categories namely: system software and application
software.
iii) Liveware – refers to a computer user or operator who commands a computer to
perform certain tasks.

Hardware
 The hardware elements of the computer are grouped into four categories namely:
1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. Storage devices
4. C.P.U (Central Processing Unit)

1. Input devices
 Input is a way of entering or keying data and information into the computer using input
devices.
 Data may be entered into a computer using keying devices such as keyboard or using
pointing devices such as mouse.

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 The main purpose of input devices is to convert human readable data into machine
readable form.

 Input devices are classified according to how they are used to enter data; this include:
i) Keying devices e.g. keyboard, keypads
ii) Pointing devices e.g. mouse, track ball
iii) Scanning devices
iv) Speech recognition
v) Touch screen digitizer and digital cameras

Keying devices
 These are the most common input devices. They enter data into a computer by typing.
 A computer keyboard resembles a typewriter keyboard,
 Examples include: keyboard and keypad.
 A keypad is a tiny keyboard which is mostly used on small portable computers,
calculators, palmtop, mobile phones etc.
 Types of keyboard include:
 Traditional keyboard – is the most common type of keying device. It is a full
sized rigid keyboard.
 Flexible keyboard – is a more portable keyboard that can be folded and
packed into a bag.
 Ergonomic keyboard – is a keyboard specially designed to provide comfort
and alleviate wrist strain.
 Braille keyboard – is a keyboard designed for use by the blind. It consists of
keys identified by raised dots.

A diagram of a Standard keyboard

A diagram of an Ergonomic keyboard
Pointing devices
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 They are used for controlling a pointer on the screen.
 Examples include: mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen, pointing stick touch etc.

Mouse
 A mouse is a pointing device mainly used in GUI (Graphical User Interface)
operating system.

A diagram of a standard mouse

 Types of mouse include:

 Standard mouse – is also called traditional mouse. It has a ball underneath,
two buttons and an optional scroll button located between the left and the right
buttons.
 Optical mouse – it does not have any moving parts instead, it uses principles
of light to move the pointer on the screen.
 Cordless mouse – is also called wireless mouse. It is a battery powered
mouse that uses radio or infrared waves instead of being physically connected
to the system unit.

Uses of a mouse
i) Used to select icons and options from menus
ii) Used to position the cursor when editing text
iii) Used to select text or objects
Advantages of a mouse
i) Easy and convenient to use
ii) It is cheap
iii) Selects a position on screen faster than a keyboard

Disadvantages of a mouse

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i) The mouse requires a flat surface to operate
ii) It is not accurate for drawing purposes
iii) It cannot be used to input text easily

Track ball
 It is like a mouse that has been turned upside down. The ball is on top and the user
just rolls the ball without moving the whole gadget. It does not require a flat surface
or extra space for movement.

A diagram showing different styles of track ball

Joystick
 It is a hand held device with an upright handle that resembles a gear lever.
 The handle is moved sideways, upwards or downwards to control the position of the
cursor on the screen.
 Joysticks are mainly used to play computer games.

Light pen
 It is a light sensitive device with the size of an ordinary pen.
 It is sensitive to presence and absence of light through a light sensitive cell at its end.
 A light pen does not emit/ produce light instead it reacts to the light emitted by the
display using a photo sensitive detector at its base.

Uses of light pen

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i) Design tool – used to indicate which shape to draw, where they should be drawn on
the screen and the size.
ii) Reading bar codes - indicating the point on a screen e.g. when selecting options for
drawing.

Advantages of a light pen

i) Provides a direct mode of input
ii) More accurate than using a mouse

Disadvantages of light pen

i) Can only detect the presence and absence of light
ii) Can only be used with monitors that are able to sense light shinning on the screen.

A diagram of different versions of light pen

Other pointing devices

 Pointing stick
 Touch pad

Scanning devices
 These are input devices that can read or capture data directly into the computer as
electronic signals from source document. Documents that can be read may include:
bank cheques, electricity meter reading etc.
 Scanner is like a photocopying machine that captures a copy of text or a drawing
from a piece of paper and then produces the same in a computer.

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 Scanning is the process of using a scanner to capture information from a document
into the computer.
 After scanning a document, its copy which looks more like a photocopy of the
original is referred to as bitmap of the original document. This is because the copy is
made up of tiny dots called bits.

Classification of scanners
 Scanners are classified according to the technology they use to capture data.
i) Optical scanners
ii) Magnetic scanner

i) Optical scanners
 They use the principles of light to sense the document contents.
 An optical scanner converts the data into digital form and passes it to the computer
for processing.

Types of optical scanners

i) Optical Mark Reader/ Recognition (OMR)
ii) Optical Bar Reader/ Recognition (OBR)
iii) Optical Character Reader/ Recognition (OCR)

Optical Mark Reader/ Recognition (OMR)

 It detects marks/ lines which have been made in exact positions on a piece of paper
using a pencil or a soft pen.
 The reader detects the presence or absence of a mark on a form by sensing reflected
infrared light.
Uses of OMR
1. Marking multiple choice examination
2. Voters’ registration process
3. Pay roll data entry
4. Students’ university application forms

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5. National examination registration forms
6. Supermarkets for stock records
7. Insurance premium collection

Advantages of OMR
1. Data can be prepared where it is collected e.g. students sitting for a multiple choice
examination mark the answers themselves.
2. Data can be prepared without any other special equipment.
3. Has low error rates

Disadvantages of OMR
1. The person putting the marks on the document/ form has to follow instructions
precisely.
2. It’s difficult for a computer to check marked data i.e. verification of data is difficult.
3. Documents may be difficult to understand and fill.

Optical Character Reader/ Recognition (OCR)

 It recognizes characters as well as real objects, text, pictures and drawings then
transforms them into a softcopy that can be manipulated using a computer.
 It operates more like a human eye.
 The most common type of this scanner is the flatbed scanner.

Uses of OCR
1. Stocktaking sheet- the computer prints out stock sheet in OCR characters and the
stock checkers enter actual quantities on the form in careful handwriting. The sheet
can then be read by OCR into the computer for amending the stock records.
2. In electricity billing

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Advantages of OCR
1. Provides a faster input compared to typing.
2. The contents of the documents are both human or machine sensible.
3. Data can be captured at the source hence errors are limited.

Disadvantages of OCR
1. Documents should not be folded or creased for accurate reading.
2. Expensive methods of input because special technique and equipment are required.
3. Only a certain font type is acceptable.

Optical Bar Reader/ Recognition (OBR)

 Bar codes are lines of different thickness that identify a product’s information such as
country of manufacture, name of manufacturer and the item code.
 Each item is labeled with a Universal Produce Code (UPC) identifying it. The code is
a set of bars and spaces of varying thickness and width representing a number code. A
space represents a ‘0’ while a bar represents a ‘1’.
 The code recorder moves across the bars. The bars are scanned by a laser beam which
generates electrical pulses corresponding to the reflected light received. These pulses
are compared with standard codes stored in the computer and the details of the price
and description printed out on a receipt.

A diagram of Barcodes

ii) Magnetic scanners

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 Captures data by use of magnetic technology. The data being read can either be in
form of special magnetic characters or a continuous magnetic strip.

Types of magnetic scanners

(a) Magnetic Ink Character Reader/ Recognition (MICR)
(b) Magnetic stripe recognition

(a) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

 MICR reader recognizes character formed from magnetic ink.
 The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron (II) Oxide that
gives them a magnetic property. As the document passes into the reader, the ink is
magnetized and therefore the characters are recognized by the strength of magnetism.
 The magnetized characters cause current to flow through the read head then the
MICR recognizes these characters and conveys them to go as computer input in terms
of electrical signals.

Uses of MICR
1. In banks for cheques processing
2. In local authorities for payments of rates by installments.
N/B: An example MICR device is a cheque reader that reads the cheques number, the branch
number of the bank and the customer’s account number and sends the details to the
computer for updating the customer’s account.

Advantages of MICR
1. It is fast, accurate and automatic
2. The codes are both machine and human readable
3. Reduces forgery

Disadvantages of MICR
1. MICR readers and encoders are very expensive
2. MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
3. MICR system is based on magnetism and can be damaged

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An example of MICR characters mainly used in banker’s cheques

(b) Magnetic stripe recognition

 A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape mostly found at the back of a plastic card
Magnetic stripe
e.g. ATM.

An example of the back view of an ATM card

Speech recognition/voice input devices

 Microphone is used to enter data into the computer system.
 Special systems can recognize standard vocabulary of spoken words through a
microphone linked into a computer system.
 A user must train the system to recognize his/ her voice by repeating each word
several times. Each word is analyzed and filed for later matching and identification.
Uses of speech input
1. Suitable for the handicapped especially those with impaired hands.
2. Electronic funds transfer
3. House/ car security using voice activated locks
4. Voice activated toys and games

Limitations of speech input

1. Limited vocabularies to most systems
2. Speaker’s variability - these include varying in speech, tones, accents, intonation and
pronunciation etc.
3. Homophones - some records of sounds will sound the same.

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4. Recognition is slow i.e. the vocabulary and speech response is relatively low.

Touch screen
 It is an input method that utilizes the technology of touch sensitive screen. When the
user touches the screen the computer detects the finger and responds to it.
 Used in places where keyboards are prone to damage due to the environment. They
are also used in areas where there is little space for keyboard.

Advantages of touch screen

1. No extra peripherals are needed except the monitor.
2. Effective where a keyboard /mouse would get wet or dirty.
3. Useful for people who work when standing or moving about.

Disadvantage of touch screen

1. Unsuitable for inputting large quantities of data.

A diagram of a touch screen

Digitizers/ graphic tablet

 The user writes on graphic tablet using a stylus pen.
 The image being drawn does not appear on the tablet but on the computers screen.
 Mostly used for tracing detailed architectural and engineering drawings and designs.

Digital cameras
 They capture images the same way as other cameras, only that the image is stored in
digital form.
 The images are entered directly into the computer for editing or printing by
connecting the camera to the computer using a special cable.

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Interactive whiteboard
 It is also known as smart board.
 It is a large interactive display that is connected to a computer. The computer display
is projected onto the board’s surface where users control the computer.
 Smart boards are used in places like classrooms, corporate board rooms and
broadcasting studios.

A diagram of a smart board

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

 It is also referred to as the Processor.
 It is the brain of the computer and carries out all the processing.
 It is mounted on a circuit board called mother board (system board)
Parts of CPU
i) Control unit
ii) Arithmetic logic unit(A.L.U)
iii) Main memory(MM)
iv) Auxiliary processors (AP)

i) Control Unit (CU)

 It coordinates all processing activities in the C.P.U as well as input, output and
storage operations
Functions of the control unit
1. Directs the flow of information in the C.P.U, main memory and storage media.
2. Control the instructions the C.P.U will perform next.

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ii) Main Memory (Primary Storage)
 Provides storage location for data and instructions accessed by the control unit.
Functions of the main memory
1. Holds data awaiting processing
2. Holds data that has been processed awaiting to be output
3. Holds data being processed
NB: Computer memory can be classified into:
i) Read Only Memory (ROM)
ii) Random Access Memory (RAM)
iii) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 It carries out all the arithmetic and logical operations of the CPU
 The basic arithmetic operations include: addition, subtraction, multiplication and div-
ision.
 Logical operations include: equal to, not equal to, less than, greater than etc.
Functions of ALU
i) Carries out all the mathematical computations in the computer
ii) Carries out all the logical comparison of values
NB: In order for ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage
locations called registers. A register is a special temporary storage location for holding
data just before processing and after processing.

TYPES OF MAIN MEMORY

1. ROM (Read Only Memory)
2. RAM (Random Access Memory)

1. READ ONLY MEMORY

 It is used to store programmed instructions/ data permanently or semi permanently.
 Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required unchanged for a very long
time e.g. booting instructions, computerized fuel pump instructions etc.

Types of ROM

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a) MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)
 Once contents are written on it by the manufacture they cannot be changed.
b) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 Allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it.
c) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 The content stored in the memory can be erased by exposing them to ultra violet
(UV) light and then reprogrammed for another use.
d) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 This type of ROM can be erased and programmed using electricity e.g. BIOS

Characteristics of ROM
1. Can only be read but cannot be written on it unless it is a special type of ROM
2. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off
3. Stores permanent instructions from the manufacturer
2. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
 It is most common type of main memory
 It is called random access memory because its content can be read directly regardless
of the sequences in which it is stored.
NB: The content in RAM is held temporarily and therefore, the content is lost once the
computer is turned off.
Types of RAM
a) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 It is a very fast memory and holds its content as long as there is power.
 It is more expensive than DRAM.
b) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 Holds its content for short time, even when power is on. To maintain its content, it
must be refreshed severally per second.

Characteristics of RAM
1. Data can be read (retrieved/ opened) & written (stored) in it.
2. It is volatile (temporary) storage because its content is lost when the power is
switched off.

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3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in RAM.

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES

 Apart from ROM and RAM, there are several types of special memories found inside
the CPU or found in the input/ output devices.
NB: These memories increase the overall performance of the CPU during processing of
data & instructions. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.

a) Buffer
 It is a special purpose memory used to provide temporally storage so that the CPU is
set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or to
be output.
 For example, a printer cannot work at the speed of the CPU, therefore the printer
buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform
other functions.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.
b) Cache memory
 It is a very high speed type of SRAM whose purpose is to allow the processor to
access data and instructions faster.
c) Registers
 They are special purpose memories which hold data temporarily before and after
processing.
 Unlike buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.
Purpose of registers
i) Used for holding instructions currently being processed.
ii) It is a high speed storage location.
Examples of Registers
i) Accumulator – Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of ALU.
ii) Instruction register - Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into
a form that CPU can understand it.
iii) Address register - Temporarily holds next piece of data waiting to be processed.

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iv) Storage register - Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the
CPU and the main memory

Memory capacities
 Memory and storage capacity is measured in units called bytes.
 A byte is equivalent to a single character. A character can be letters of the alphabet,
punctuation marks, digits, symbols. Eg. A – Z, 0 – 9 etc
 A byte is made up of 8 bits. Bit is an acronym standing for BInary digiT.
 There are two standard 8-bit codes widely used today to represent information in
computers i.e. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).

 E.g Character “A” = 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 in ASCII

8 Bits

8 Bits = 1 byte
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 bytes (1 Thousand bytes)
1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 bytes (1 Million bytes)
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 bytes (1 Billion bytes)
1 Terabyte  1,000,000,000,000 bytes (1 Trillion bytes)

FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE CPU

 The ALU, CU and the Main Memory are linked through electrical pathways called
buses.
 A complete bus is an electrical pathway for signal to flow from one point to another
in circuit.
Types of computer buses
i) Control bus
ii) Address bus
iii) Data bus
i) Control bus

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 It is a pathway to all timings and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other
parts of the system.
ii) Address bus
 It is the pathway used to locate the storage position in the memory where the next
instruction or data is to be executed are found.
iii) Data bus
 The pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.
CPU Organization/ Structure

Control Unit
(CU)

Data Input Arithmetic & Logic Unit Data Output

(ALU)

Input devices Output devices

e.g. Keyboard e.g. Printer
Main Memory
(MM)

Data to be stored Data to be processed

Computer Bus
Secondary Storage
(Auxiliary storage)
e.g. Hard disk, CD

. NB: The arrows ( ) represent computer buses

Types of processor and their clock speed.

 Since 1971 Intel Company has specialized in manufacturing CPU by combining the
ALU& CU on a single tiny processor called Micro-processor.
 Other companies that started manufacturing processor include Advanced Micro
Device (AMD), Cyrix and Motorola.
 The following are the types of processors available in the market today:
 Pentium Pro
 Intel Pentium
 Pentium (I)

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 Pentium (II)
 Pentium (III)
 Pentium (IV)
Processor Clock Speed
 The speed of which a processor executes is determined by its clock speed.
 The system clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz).
 The hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles per second in a
signal.
1 kilohertz (KHz) 1000 hertz
1megahertz (MHz) 1000000 hertz
1gigahertz (GHz) 1000000000 hertz

OUTPUT DEVICES
These are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after
processing operations.

TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES

1. Softcopy Output Devices
2. Hardcopy Output Devices

1. SOFTCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that produce intangible output. They include: Speakers, Monitors (Screen)
and LED (Light Emitting Diodes) among others.
NB: The term softcopy output refers to the intangible output; mainly displayed on the screen
or through devices like speakers.
- Softcopy output is temporary that is, the output is no longer available when the devices are
not powered either through electricity or from other sources of power.

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i) MONITOR (VDU)
It displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operation being carried
out by the computer.
NB: The size of a monitor is measured in inches (“) diagonally; as in from corner to corner.

Size 15”
(Measured
Diagonally)

TYPES OF MONITORS
a) Monochrome monitors
They display images and text in only one colour mostly black and white.
b) Colour monitors
They display images and text in multiple colours.

Note: Monitors display text and graphics with the help of Video Card (Graphics Adapter).
- Video Card (Graphics Adapter) is a circuit board where the monitor must be connected
for it to display information. The video card is plugged into the motherboard.
- However, some monitors come with on-board video capability and therefore there is no
need for a video card.

Examples of graphic adapters/ Video Cards

Graphics Adapters or Video Cards are circuit boards that enable the monitor to display
information.

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1. Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) - It was the first video card that displayed
text in only one colour and could not support images.
2. Hercules Graphics Cards (HGC) - Supports monochrome images and text.
3. Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA) - Displays text and images using 16 colours.
4. Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) - An improvement of Colour Graphics Adapter.
5. Video Graphics Array (VGA) - Displays images and text with at most 256 colours.
6. Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA) - An improvement of VGA but offering over
256 colours.

- The sharpness and clarity of an image on the screen depends on the type of monitor.
Monitors that display sharp and clear images are said to have high resolution.
- The images on the screen are formed by small dots called pixel (picture element) hence, the
more the number of pixels per square centimeter, the higher the resolution thus high clarity of
the image.
- Resolution-is the measure of how fine, clear or sharp an image appears on the screen.
- Pixel – Are small dots that form an image on the screen.

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN MONITORS (Types of display screens)

There are two commonly used technologies in monitors namely:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Flat Panel Display

1. CRT MONITORS
- It uses a long tube called cathode ray tube that emits light.
- The screen of CRT is curved slightly outwards forming a convex shape.
- The CRT must be refreshed constantly and if the refresh rate is low, the screen flickers
or a line scrolls down the screen.
Characteristics of CRT Monitors
1. The screen is curved slightly outwards
2. They are not portable i.e. they are bulky hence occupy a lot of space
3. They consume a lot of power
4. They are cheap

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2. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) OR FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

- It is made up of 2 sheets of polarized and flexible plastic material & a layer of crystals
between them.
- LCD does not refresh like CRT, instead it sends variable voltages to cells of liquid
crystals & cause the crystals to uncoil.
- Liquid crystal displays are widely used in watches, calculators, cell phones & digital
cameras.

Characteristics of (LCD) or flat panel display

1. The screen is flat
2. They are portable
3. Consume less power compared to CRT
4. They are expensive
5. They occupy less space
6. Provides high quality output compared to CRT

Examples of Flat Panel Displays

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) - They have tiny liquids crystals that reflect light
falling on them from the environment.
2. Electro luminescent (EL) - An improvement of LCD and emits light when
electrically charged.
3. Gas Plasma - Use Gas That Emits Light In Presence Of Electric Current
4. Thin Film Transistor (TFT) - It is the latest technology advancement in displays. It
provides a high quality output than all the others.

Advantages of Monitors (VDU)

1. The output is almost instant
2. It minimizes the paper work.

Disadvantages of Monitors (VDU)

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1. The screen might not allow the full viewing of all the data
2. Can lure the computer user not to keep hardcopy records

ii) SOUND/VOICE OUTPUT DEVICES

- Voice output device mainly are speakers. The sound may be inform of music, video,
warning or interactive communication with the computer etc.

Advantages of sound output

1. No reading is required
2. It is a fast and natural output
3. Useful in situations where you can’t see or where you are busy

Disadvantages of sound output

1. Not suitable in noisy environment
2. Inappropriate for lengthy information.

Application of sound output

1. Text to speech translation for the blind
2. Emergency messages e.g. in airports
3. Learning aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning

iii) LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED)

- They are light emitting component that display light when an electric current is passed
through them. E.g. the red and green light displayed by the system unit to help the user know
whether it is ON or OFF.
- Most LEDs are used to give warnings.

2. HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that produce tangible output mainly on paper. They include: Printers,
Plotters, COM (Computer Output on Microfilm) etc.

NB: The term hardcopy output refers to the tangible output produced mostly on papers.

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- Hardcopy output is permanent.

i) PRINTERS
They produce hardcopy information mainly on paper.
Types of printers
a) Impact Printers
b) Non-Impact Printers

a) Impact Printers
- The printing head comes into actual contact with the paper. The printing mechanism is
similar to that of a typewriter.
- They use special hammers with characters and the paper is placed behind an inked ribbon.
- The printing head element creates the imprint when the printing head strikes.

Types of impact printers

1. Dot Matrix Printer
2. Daisy Wheel Printer
3. Drum Printer
4. Chain Printer

1. Dot Matrix Printer

- Produces a hardcopy by arranging patterns of dots on the paper using pins held on the
printing head.
- The pins/ needles are activated depending on the character to be formed for printing.

2. Daisy Wheel Printer

- It has wheels with petals on which characters are mounted.
- When printing, the wheel rotates allowing petals to hit a ribbon with different characters.
- It provides a better print quality compared to Dot Matrix though slower.

3. Drum Printer

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- It provides one whole line print at a time.
- The characters are incorporated on circular band that move round the surface of the drum
surface.
- Each band contains all the possible character sets.

4. Chain Printer
- It incorporates engraved character printing slugs on a moving belt/chain.
- The chain /belt moves the character printing slugs at a high speed past printing positions.

b) Non-impact Printers
- These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters.
- The printing head element does not come into actual contact with the stationary.

Types of Non-Impact Printers

1. Inkjet printers
2. Thermal printers
3. Laser printers
4. Electrostatic printers
1. Inkjet printer
- These printers form characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field
that arranges the charged ink particles into characters.
- They are cheap to buy but expensive to run because of the high cost of ink cartridges.
2. Thermal printer
- It uses heat to transfer characters onto a piece of paper.
- It uses special print paper that senses the heated head character images, which are then
passed onto the papers as character prints.
3. Laser printer
- It prints by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum.
- The laser draws the image on the drum by static electricity.
- The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a cartridge & press it onto the paper.
- It is expensive to buy, but it is faster and cheaper to run than ink jets.

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4. Electrostatic printers
- It uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a special paper.

Classification of Printers Based On Printing Speed

a) Character printers
- They print one character at a time. E.g. Daisy wheel, Dot matrix etc.
b) Line printers
- They print one line at a time e.g. inkjet, drum, chain, electrostatic printers.
c) Page printers
- They print an entire page at a time e.g. laser printers, xerographic printers.

Factors to Consider When Selecting a Printer

1. Speed of printing
2. Quality of print output
3. Initial cost and subsequent cost of maintenance
4. Volume of printing expected
5. Interface with the computer system
6. Range of capability for selected printer e.g. multiple copy facility, print styles, page
width etc.
7. The nature of reports to be generated

Differences between Impact and Non-Impact Printers

1. Impact printers are slow while non impact printers are fast
2. Impact use inked ribbons while non impact use thermal/electrostatic
3. Impact are noisy while non impact are quiet
4. Impact printers are cheap while non impact are expensive
5. Impact printers produce multiple copies while non-impact produce single copies.

ii) PLOTTERS

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- They are output devices that mainly produce graphical output e.g. diagrams, maps, posters.
- They are mostly used in the field of engineering and architecture for producing graphical
output.
- The commonly used graph plotters include flat bed plotters and drum plotters.

iii) COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM)

- It records images onto a photographic film, which is viewed by a special microfilm reader.
- This output method provides miniature/ small film strips into the microform.
- Microforms are photographically reduced documents on films.

Types of Microforms
a) Microfilm
- The output is usually on a roll of film, which is about 16mm.
b) Microfiche
- The output is on a page of film where data images are arranged in a grid of patterns. It
measures 105mm by 48mm.

Advantages of COM
1. Saves on stationery and space
2. Faster than printing
3. Not bulky hence portable
4. The contents of COM are not easily read using naked eyes, hence guaranteeing
the security of reports.
5. Have longer life span compared to paper output
Disadvantages of COM
1. It is expensive
2. Cause eyestrain in an attempt to read its content.
3. Additional equipment for viewing its contents are required

Application of COM

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1. In libraries for books, catalogues and references
2. In local authorities to retain town plans, maps etc.
3. In banks, Insurance companies to store personal and customer’s records.

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SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA /BACKING STORAGE/
AUXILLARY STORAGE
- These are devices that compliment the primary memory or the main memory. They store
information for longer period.
- Data is either read from or written to the storage media.
- To write data means to store/save it i.e. moving it from the main storage to backing
storage.
- To read data means to open/ retrieve it i.e. moving it from the backing storage to the
main storage.
Characteristics of secondary storage
1. Non-volatile storage - data stored is permanent unless deleted by the user.
2. Mass storage- stores large volume of data
3. Re-usability- stored data can be erased and the media is re-used to store fresh
data.
4. Data is accessed using read/write heads. The head transfers data while the
medium rotates the drive.
N/B: A storage medium has either serial access or direct access.
Serial access - All the preceding data is read before the required data can be accessed,
e.g. magnetic tapes, compact cassettes.
Direct access - Stored data items can be accessed without reading other data first, e.g.
Compact disk, floppy disk.
Classification of secondary storage
1. Removable storage devices
- These devices are housed outside the system unit hence they can be used in
another computer e.g. floppy disk, CD, zip disks etc.
2. Fixed storage devices
- These devices are housed inside the system unit e.g. hard disk.

REMOVABLE STORAGE DEVICES

i.) Magnetic disks e.g. floppy disks, Zip disks, Jaz disk etc.
ii.) Magnetic tapes
iii.) Optical disks e.g. CDs, DVDs, and optical tapes etc.

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MAGNETIC DISKS
- A magnetic disk is a flat circular platter on which data can be stored using magnetic
process.
- Data can be read from and written to the disk.
Note:
ACCESS TIME - Is the time taken to read the data from the disk to the main storage.
The access time consists of:
i.) Seek time - This is time taken by the read/write head to locate the right track
which contains the required data.
ii.) Rotation delay time - This is time taken for the drive motor to spin the
read/write head until the right contents come and align directly below the
read/write head.
iii.) Data transfer time – This is time taken for data to be transferred to the main
storage.
a) Floppy disk/ Diskettes
- Is a thin, light flexible disk held in a protective cover.
- It is made of small flexible disk coated with iron oxide.
- Floppy disks are inserted in a floppy disk drive which has read/write head.
- Initial floppy disks were large in size but with smaller storage capacities. The two common
disks are 51/4 inch and 31/2 inch. Floppy disks are gradually becoming obsolete and being
replaced by CDs, Memory sticks and Flash disks.
- Each of these disks has low density (single sided) and high density (double sided) versions.
- For the single sided, data can only be recorded on one side; while for the double sided, data
can only be stored on both sides of the disk.
Internal structure of floppy disk
Sector

Tracks

Block

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Advantages of floppy disk

1. They are cheap
2. Small and light weight
3. Exchangeable

Disadvantages of floppy disk

1. Easily damaged
2. Storage area is limited, maximum data stored is 1.44MB (megabytes).
3. Slower than hard disk in terms of data access.
4. Have short life span

b) Zip Disk
- Resemble floppy disk but have higher storage capacity
- They are slightly larger and thicker in size
- It can hold 250MB of data
- They come with portable external zip drive

c) Jaz Disk
- They are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about IGB to 2GB.
- They are used for storing large amounts of data.
- They come with portable external jazz drives.

Maintenance of Magnetic disks

1. Should be kept away from dust
2. Should be kept away from magnetic material/field because data can be lost.
3. Keep away from moisture.
4. Keep away from direct sunlight.
5. Should not drop them to avoid damage.
6. Keep away from excessive heat

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MAGNETIC TAPES
- Magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar (plastic like) material coated with a thin layer of iron
oxide.
- It resembles the ordinary music cassettes.
- Data is stored in blocks separated by inter-Record Gaps (IRG) which is left for the purpose
of stopping the tape.
- Examples of magnetic tapes are: Reel to reel tapes, Cassette tapes & Cartridge tapes.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes
1. They are portable
2. They are cheap
3. Can be erased and re-used
4. Holds a lot of data in a compact space

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tapes

1. Very slow in accessing data since it uses serial access
2. Easily damaged by dust, heat, touch etc
3. The IRG is a waste of space of the storage area

OPTICAL DISKS (LASER DISKS)

1. These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam
2. A laser beam is a very strong concentrated light
3. The laser beam burns tiny holes (pit) into a thin shinny surface to record data
4. Examples of optical disks include: LS 120 super disk, Compact disk, DVDs, Optical
card, Optical tape, Photo CD.

a) LS-120 Super Disk

- It resembles a floppy disk but uses optical technology to read data
- It has greater storage capacity and greater speed of data retrieval.

b) Compact Disk (CD)

- Hold large quantities of data and information, one CD can hold 700 MB.

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- They mostly store video, music, software and data requiring a lot of space.
Forms of CD
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) - When data is recorded on them one
cannot add or change anything.
2. CD-R (Compact Disk Recorder) - They are initially blank and the user can record
data in it. NB: Once data has been written or recorded in it, it cannot be changed but
can be read or opened.

3. CD-RW (Compact Disk Re- Writable) - Unlike the CD-R, CD-RW allows the user to
record and erase information. It behaves like a floppy disk.
NB: Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM. That is (Write Once Read Many)
because they allow the user to record data on them once but read/ open the data as many
times as possible.

c) DVD (Digital Video Disk)

- Also called Digital Versatile Disk.
- They resemble Compact Disk (CD) but have higher storage capacity of up to 4.7 GB. They
are suitable for recording motion pictures e.g. video because they offer better sound and
picture quality than CD.

d) Optical Card
- It resembles Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) but uses optical recordable stripe that
stores information.
- Mainly used in banks and companies.

e) Optical Tape
- It resembles a magnetic tape only that data is stored using optical technology.

f) Photo CD
- This is used to process photographic film or negative to produce and store high quality
photographs on a CD-R.

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ICT Notes

Advantages of Optical Storage Devices

1. Store high volume of data
2. Store data permanently
3. Access of data is faster
4. High quality pictures and sounds
5. It is portable

Disadvantages of Optical Storage Devices

1. Expensive hardware and software for reading
2. Fragile that break easily
3. Very sensitive to dust, water, heat and scratches

FIXED STORAGE MEDIA

Are devices housed within the system unit e.g. hard disk (WINCHESTER DISK)

Hard Disk (Winchester Disk)

It is made up of shiny rigid magnetic disk or platters arranged vertically on a common axis
forming an imaginary cylinder.
Advantages of Hard Disk
1. Store data in large capacity
2. They are faster in terms of data transfer, very malleable
3. They are cheap
Disadvantages of Hard Disk
1. They can suffer from hard disk crash resulting to loss of data
2. They are inflexible i.e. fixed in the system unit
3. Sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can damage the data.

Precautions in Preventing Hard Disk Crash

1. Keep the disk away from dust and smoke. The smoke and dust particles causes
scratches on the surface of the disk as the heads read the data.

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2. Switch off the computer using the right procedure. Improper procedure would risk
head scratches on rotating disks hence clutching them.

Flash Disk
- This is the most current storage device in the market; it is removable media in the emerging
trends in storage devices
- It is a massive storage media move and is reliable and portable
- It is small in size and can store data from 250 MB, 512 MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB etc

POWER SUPPLY AND PERIPHERAL DEVICE INTERFACING

- Any Computer system needs to be connected to a mains power supply through a power
supply cable to the power supply unit or adapter for a notebook/ Laptop PC.

Power supply unit and adapter

- Though computers are connected to AC (Alternating Current) power supply, internal components
require DC (Direct Current) power.
- The work of the power supply unit and the adapter is to convert AC to DC.
Power Cable - is used to supply power to the motherboard and other internal devises inside the
system unit.

Peripheral device interfacing

- Peripheral device interfacing refers to connecting a peripheral device to a computer through ports
using either cables or wireless connectivity.
- A Port - is a socket on the system unit into which a cable from an external peripheral
device like mouse, keyboard is plugged to facilitate transfer of information between the
device and the CPU.
Interface Cable – links all peripheral devices to the motherboard.

TYPES OF INTERFACE CABLES

a) Parallel Interface Cable
- They transmit information simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires).
- It uses 8 lines to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit parallel cable.

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- The advantage of this cable is that they transmit data faster over a short distance.
- It connects to a parallel interface port commonly referred to as Line Printer (LPT).
- Parallel cables are used to connect printers, optical scanners and some removable storage drives
such as zip drive.

b) Serial interface Cable

- They transmit data one bit at a time.
- They are slower than the parallel cables.
- Although they are slower, they are more reliable than the parallel ports because they can support
data transmission to devices connected 15m away.
- Serial ports are also known as COM or RS232 ports.
- Serial cables are generally used to connect devices such as the mouse, Modems and some printers.

c) Universal serial bus (USB) interface

- Universal serial bus is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the conventional parallel
and serial cables and ports.
- Although it transmits only 1 bit at a time, it provides very high-speed and quality data transmission
over distances of approximately 5 meters.
- There are two types of USBs namely:
i) Low speed USB (1.1)
ii) Relatively faster high speed USB (2.0).
- A USB port can be used to connect as many as 127 peripheral devices to a computer daisy chained
to a single port known as the root hub.

USB Symbol

d) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

- They transmit data in parallel but are faster than the parallel cables.
- The advantage of the SCSI port is that it allows connection of multiple devices.

e) Personal System 2 (PS/2) Interface

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- Originally, most computers used the 5-pin DIN to connect a keyboard to the system unit but the
smaller 6-pin mini-DIN (PS/2) interface has replaced this technology.
- Currently most desktop computers come with two PS/2 ports, one for mouse and the other for
keyboard.

PS/2 Port
5 – Pin DIN Port

f) Video Graphics Array (VGA) Interface

- They are used to connect monitors and data projectors.
- They are shaped like letter D with 15 Pins or 9 Pins.
g) Audio interface
Audio interface is used to connect speakers and microphone.
h) Firewire interface
- Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than USB.
- It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.
i) Infrared
- Infrared, also referred to as Infrared, Data Association (IrDA) is a wireless interface that uses infrared
to connect to infrared-enabled devices.
- Communication is over short distances and in line-of-sight i.e. there should be no obstruction
between the communicating devices.
j) Bluetooth
- Bluetooth is also a wireless interface that uses short range radio broadcast to connect to any
Bluetooth-enabled device.

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Summary of Standard Port & Interface symbols

BASIC COMPUTER SETUPAND CABLING

The following precautions should be observed before any setup activity is carried out:
1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them.
2. Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher.
3. Never work alone because you may need help in case of an emergency.
4. Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on the hands by touching an earthed
metallic object and then wearing an antistatic wrist member. This is because your body can
hold as much as 200 volts of static charge that can damage sensitive components on the
motherboard.

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ICT Notes

Tools and Other Requirements

To assemble any computer system you may need the following:
- Screw drivers of different sizes
- Antistatic wrist member
- Pliers
- Device manuals
- Devices drivers (Device software) etc.

Mounting Internal Devices

- External devices are connected to the motherboard through ports, but internal devices are
connected through slots and sockets.
- Before you mount any device, study the manufacturer's manual carefully.

Mounting Hard Drives and Optical Drives

- Hard disks and optical drives are connected using ribbon interface connectors referred to as
controllers.
- There are three types of controllers:
a) Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE)
b) Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
c) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
- EIDE and SATA are commonly used on most personal computers while SCSI is used on servers.
- SATA is meant to be a replacement of both the older Parallel ATA (PATA) and EIDE because it is
more efficient and supports hot-swapping.
- Hot-swapping means that a drive can be removed or inserted while the computer is still on.
- Each EIDE controller supports up to two drives on a single cable. This type of setup is called a
master/slave configuration because one controller directs the activities of both drives.

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To mount Hard disk drive, proceed as follows:

1. Wear antistatic wrist member to discharge any static charge on the body.
2. Determine which drive will be the master and use the drive label information to determine which
jumper settings to use for a master or a slave.
3. Check that a free drive bay is available, slide the disk into that bay and screw it into place.
4. Ensure that there is a free power connector from the power supply unit and connect it to the drive.
5. Identify pin 1 as labeled on the drives socket and match it with the red or brown continuous line
of the ribbon cable. Most cables will only fit in one direction.
6. Connect the interface cable to the drive, then into the controller slot on the motherboard.
7. If installation is complete replace the casing cover.

Installing Floppy Drives

- Floppy drives are installed the same way as the Hard disk drives, only that there is no master/slave
configuration. However you can attach two floppy drives on the same ribbon cable. One floppy drive
will be automatically assigned letter A, while the other will be drive B.

Connecting External Devices

To connect a device to the system unit, you need to identify its port and interface cable.
1. Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to the
device if it is not already fixed permanently
2. Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
3. Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether Power On-Self Test (POST) displays
any error message.
4. A successful boot means that the computer was properly set up.
Note: If the computer is completely new, programs have to be copied (installed) on the hard disk.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE
- Software is a set of instructions that enables a computer to operate. It is also known as programs.

Classification of Computer Software

a) Classification according to purpose
b) Classification according to acquisition
c) Classification according to End-User-License

a) Classification According to Purpose

- They are primarily designed to manage the hardware resources or to help the user accomplish
specific tasks.
- Software according to purpose is further categorized into:
i) System software
ii) Application software.

i) System Software
- It manages the operation of the computer and makes sure that the computer works efficiently.
- It performs operations to avail computer resources to the user.
Its functions include:
1. Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly.
2. Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application programs.
3. Storing and retrieving files.
4. Performing a variety of system utility functions.

System software is further subdivided into four sub-categories namely:

1. Operating systems (OS)
2. Firmware.
3. Utility software.
4. Networking software.

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1. Operating systems (OS)
- The OS is the main program that controls and supervises the execution of user applications and
hardware resources.
-It acts as a go-between (interface) between the applications and the computer hardware.
- It manages input, output and storage operations in a computer.
- Examples of common operating systems are:
- Microsoft Windows (2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8 etc)
- UNIX
- Linux
- Macintosh (Mac OS), etc

2. Firmware
- It is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded permanently on electronic chips.
- Firmware is also referred to as stored logic.
- It is a read-only memory chip (Contents cannot be changed) that is mounted or plugged into the
motherboard. Read-only memory means that its contents cannot be changed.
- It may hold an operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.

3. Utility software
- It is a special program that manages computer files, repairs computer problems and makes the
computer run more efficiently.
- It performs commonly used services like sorting, copying, file handling, disk management etc.
There are two basic types of utility software:
a) System-level utility - These help the user to work with the operating system and its functions. For
example, a utility software tells the user when he/she enters a wrong command and gives suggestions
how the error can be corrected.
b) Application-level utility - These make application programs run more efficiently and smoothly.
Other common utility Programs are:
- Text editor – Used to type text without any special format. E.g. Line editor and
Screen editor.

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- Linker and Loader – Linker accepts separately translated modules as inputs and
combines them into one logical module. Loader transfers the load module of the
linker from storage to main memory for execution.
- Language translator – Used to convert source code of a programming language to
object code.
- Sort & Merge utility – Sort utility arranges records in a file to predetermined
sequence. Merge utility is used to combine two or more input files into one output
file.
- Diagnostic tools - Used to detect and correct system errors. E.g. Norton Utilities,
PC Tools, QAPlus, Dr. Watson etc.
4. Networking software
- It is used to establish communication between two or more computers by linking them using a
communication channel like cables to create a computer network.
- It enables exchange of data in a network as well as providing data security.
- Networking software may come as independent software or integrated in an operating system. An
example of networking software is novel Netware.

ii) Application software

- Application software, also known as application packages are programs that are designed to help the
user accomplish specific tasks.
- Examples of Application software include: Word Processors, Spreadsheets, Desktop
Publishing (DTP), Databases, Computer Aided Design (CAD), Graphics software,
Presentation software, etc.

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- The table below gives a summary of application packages.
Application software Examples Uses
Word Processors - Microsoft word, - Word perfect, Used for typing documents like
- WordPro, - Lotus, etc letters.
Spreadsheets - Microsoft Excel, - Lotus 123, Used in performing
- Quattro Pro, - Visi Calc, - Sage, mathematical calculations.
- Quick Books, etc

Desktop Publishing (DTP) - Microsoft Publisher, Used for designing

- Adobe PageMaker, publications like Newspapers,
- Adobe InDesign, Calendars etc.
- Print Shop Ensemble,
- FrameMaker, - QuarkXPress,
- Interleaf, etc
Databases - Microsoft Access, - FoxBASE Used for keeping records.
- Paradox, - MySQL, - Oracle,
- Sybase, - Informix, - Ingress,
- FoxPro, - Dbase, etc
Computer Aided Design - AutoCAD, Used in technical drawing
(CAD) - SolidWorks, etc
Graphics software - Corel Draw, - Photoshop, etc Used in designing and
manipulating graphics
Presentation software - Microsoft PowerPoint, Used to develop presentations
- Freelance Graphics, etc on slides or overhead
transparencies.

b) Classification According to Acquisition

- Software according to acquisition can be categorized into:
i) In-house developed software
ii) Vendor off-the-shelf software (Standard software)
i) In-house developed software
- These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user's needs.
- For example, a bank may decide to manage its banking operations using a unique program
developed by hired programmers to just meet the needs of that bank only and not other banks.

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- These programs are not available in shops and once developed for a particular company/
organization/ user may not necessarily meet the needs of other users.

ii) Vendor off-the-shelf software/ Standard Software

- They are developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available for purchase through a
vendor, a distributor or directly from the developer.
- A developer may bundle more than one but closely related software into one package to form a suite
or integrated software as opposed to single-purpose software.
- An integrated software combines several general purpose applications into a single package.
- Examples of suites are:
- Lotus Suite
- Microsoft-Office
- Corel Office
Examples of single purpose are:
- QuickBooks
- Sage Pastel.
The term package is sometimes used to refer to those types of software that are packaged and sold
by vendors.
Advantages of standard software (Vendor off-the-shelf) over the in-house developed software
1. They can easily be installed and run.
2. They are cheaper than in-house developed software.
3. They are readily available for almost any task.
4. Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
5. They can easily be modified to meet user's needs.
Disadvantages of Vendor off-the-shelf software
1. They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage.
2. They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may
in turn be expensive.
3. They may lack some features required by the user.

c) Classification according to End-User-License (EUL)

- Software according to End-User-License (EUL) is categorized into:

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i) Open source (non-proprietary software)
ii) Proprietary software
iii) Freeware.
i) Open source or non-proprietary software
- is software whose source code is made available to users for free.
- The users may use, modify and distribute the modified software.
- Examples include: Linux Operating system
ii) Proprietary software
- is software whose source code is hidden from users.
- Modifications are only made by the software manufacturer.
- Proprietary software may be licensed to users at a fee or applied freely.
- Examples include: - Microsoft Operating System
- Microsoft Office
- Adobe PageMaker
- Corel Draw Suite
iii) Freeware
- Is a form of Proprietary software which is freely made available to the user.
- Most freeware may be malicious, and therefore take caution when acquiring one.
Examples include: - Avast Free Edition Antivirus
- AVG Free Edition Antivirus

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Before purchasing a computer, hardware or software resources, it is advisable to do a requirement
analysis of all the requirements necessary in order to balance between cost and user needs.
Requirements analysis involve, identifying user needs, hardware and software evaluating.

HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of factors you need to put into consideration before acquiring a computer or
hardware accessories.
1) Microprocessor type and speed
- The processing power, speed and cost of a computer mainly depends on the type of a
microprocessor and its clock speed.

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- Consider an acceptable speed that meets the user requirements at a fair price.
2) Memory Capacity
- The memory capacity of a computer determines what operating system and application programs
can be installed.
- A computer might be having a Processor with very high speed, but it may perform poorly if it has
low memory capacity.
- When purchasing a Computer or memory modules for upgrade consider the following::
a) The type of memory package e.g. DDR, DDR II
b) Availability of empty memory slot
c) Capacity of memory modules e.g. 128 MB, 256 MB etc
d) Compatibility with other Modules in case of upgrade
3) Warranty
- This is the agreement between the seller and the buyer that spells out the terms and conditions of
maintaining/ replacing the product after sale.
- A good warranty should cover:
a). Scope of cover e.g. Six months, one year, etc
b). Callout response and liability agreement – repair or replace cost.
c). Preventive maintenance.
4) Cost
- It is important to make a market survey from Newspapers, Magazines, and Vendors to compare
prices before purchasing a computer.
- It is important also to know what kind of computer you are buying, i.e. is it a branded computer or a
clone.
- A branded computer; all its components are from one manufacturer and it has not been tampered
with. Some brands are IBM, Compaq, HP etc.
- A Clone Computer; its components have been assembled together perhaps from different
manufacturers. A clone may work well, but the components are not optimized to work with each
other.
- Clones are usually cheaper than Branded computers.
- The cost of a computer depends on:
a) The Processor Speed
b) The RAM Capacity

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c) The Hard Disk Capacity
d) Whether it is a Clone or Branded
e) Its Portability – Laptops are more expensive than Desktops

5) Upgradability and Compatibility

The hardware bought must be compatible across platforms and easily upgradable.

6) Portability
Consider if the computer can be easily moved from one point to another. Laptops can easily be
moved around than Desktops.

7) User needs
Consider how the computer will be used and if some physically challenged people will use it, it must
have features for such. E.g. Braille Keyboard for the Blind.

8) Monitor
- Consider the type of monitor you need depending on size, resolution and technology used on it.
Whether it is CRT or TFT etc.

9) Multimedia capability
- Multimedia refers to the ability for a computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures.
- A multimedia system will consist of speakers, CD/DVD drive, sound cards and a SVGA monitor.

Other considerations
These include available ports, wireless connectivity and the system unit design (Tower or Desktop).

SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS
The following factors should be considered when selecting software:
1) Authenticity
- This is the genuineness, validity and/ or legitimacy of an item.
- An original copy of software is accompanied by the developer’s license and certificate of
authenticity.

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- It is illegal to produce pirated copies of somebody’s software.

2) Documentation
It refers to the manuals/ booklet prepared by the developer having details on how to install, use and
maintain the software.

3) User needs
User needs dictates the type of operating system and application programs one should have. E.g. we
need Microsoft Office in schools for learning, Banks will require accounting software for their
activities, physically challenged people may require software to recognize voice input, etc.

4) Reliability and security

- A good software should have security mechanism to protect data from illegal access. E.g. able to
use passwords and log-in accounts.
- Data security is paramount. Consider security features of the software.

5) User friendliness
- This is a measure of how easily the user can operate the computer.
- A good software will have the WIMP feature; i.e.
W – Has a Window (A Frame like Interface)
I – Has Icons representing commands, Files or folders.
M – Has a Menu of commands to choose from
P – Uses a Pointing device to select commands
6) Cost
The cost must be considered before buying a program against the benefits that it is likely to bring.
7) Compatibility and system configuration
A software product must be compatible with the existing hardware, operating system or application
programs and should be upgradable.
8) Portability
Software portability is the capability of the software to be installed in more than one computer.

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OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
- The OS is the main programme that controls the execution of user applications and enables
the user to access hardware or software resources.
- The OS therefore supervises all the other Programmes in the computer and manages access
to the hardware.

User (Runs Application Programs)

Application Software (Sends user requests to O.S)

Operating System (Receives and executes requests)

Hardware (Receives and performs O.S commands)

Resources under the Control of Operating System (O.S)

1. Processor
2. Main Memory (R.A.M)
3. Input/output devices and ports.
4. Communication devices and ports
5. Secondary storage devices

1. Processor
- It executes tasks called processes.
- The OS arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a particular task
to allow the processor to service another one.

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2. Main memory
- The OS determines which task will remain in main memory awaiting execution and which
one would be sent back to secondary storage to wait.
- The OS is usually installed in the hard disk and must be loaded to RAM during the booting
process.
NB: It is only a small special part of the OS that is loaded to RAM during booting process
because it contains the most necessary commands and procedures for the booting process.
This special part is called the kernel.

3. Input/output devices and ports

- The OS controls all the data input and information output tasks.
- The OS controls the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as
information.
- It also ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right time.
- The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer e.g. the printer
port, USB port etc.

4. Communication devices and ports

- The OS controls the overall communication process between various tasks and computers.
- Communication can either be external or internal whereby the computer system sends and
receives messages from various devices and Programmes.
- External communication can be achieved by connecting an external device to a
communication port using cables or wireless communication.

5. Secondary storage devices

- The OS manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary storage devices.
- It also utilizes the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the computer by
temporarily holding tasks on it that were in R.A.M ready for processing but have to wait
for sometime.

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FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
1. Job Scheduling
2. Job Sequencing
3. Error Handling
4. Input/Output Handling
5. Interrupt Handling
6. Resource control & Allocation
7. Memory Management

1. Job scheduling/ Processor scheduling

- The OS determines which task to be processed first and makes sure that the one which is
currently being processed is closely monitored to avoid wasting time in the processor.
- The OS schedules, controls and monitors the tasks submitted for execution to ensure the
most efficient processing.
- The O.S schedules jobs according to priorities; the higher the priority, the higher the
likelihood of being allocated CPU time.

2. Job sequencing
- The OS keeps a list of jobs or tasks currently being run and clocks them in and out of the
processor.
- It arranges these tasks in a particular order to make it easy for the processor to execute
them and to know how and when to fetch instructions for each task.

3. Error handling
- The OS provides error correction routines to ensure smooth operations within the C.P.U
and possibly make suggestions on how to correct the errors.
- The OS does this by monitoring the status of the computer system and performing error
checks on both the hardware and software.

4. Input/output handling
- The OS co-ordinates the input or output devices and other peripherals making sure that
data flows properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion.

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- The OS also governs the input and output of data and the allocation, storage and retrievals.

5. Interrupt handling
- An interrupt is a break from normal sequential processing of instructions in a programme.
- The OS determines the cause of the interrupt and transfers the control to the most
appropriate programme.
- An external request causes the processor to stop executing current tasks and do something
else before returning the control back to the process that was initially interrupted.
- Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special unique number called
IRQ (Interrupt Request Number)

6. Memory management
- All the data and instructions must be temporarily held in the main memory before and after
processing.
- The OS therefore organizes the main memory into blocks of sizes called page frames.
- Processes are divided equally into pieces that can fit into frames called pages.
- The O.S swaps/ exchanges pages between the main memory and the secondary storage.
- When the hard disk is used to hold the pages it is referred to as a virtual memory.
- The OS constantly assigns the main memory storage pages to data and instructions.
- To access a piece of data or instruction the OS knows how to find each piece of data or
instructions as long as the correct address or the page is used.

7. Resource control and allocation

- Resource control and allocation determines which task uses a particular resource and at
what time.
- In order for the processor to recognize and prioritize the use and request for resources it
gives each resource a unique identification number called an Interrupt Request (IRQ).
- The O.S uses the IRQ number to identify the resource being requested.
- When two tasks request to use the same resource at the same time then one with higher
priority interrupt is granted control.
- When two or more tasks request for a single resource at the same time, a conflict occurs
leading to deadlock.

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- Deadlock is a situation where a shared resource is being requested by two or more
processes at the same time.
- Conflict occurs when two or more resources have a common IRQ.
- NB: examples of resources that can be shared include: Processor, Memory areas protected
against modification, Read only files etc.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

OS can be classified according to:
1. Number of tasks
2. Number of users
3. User Interface

1. CLASSSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF TASKS

a) Single-Tasking Operating System (Single Program OS)
- The OS allows only one program at a time to run in the computer.
- This means that the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must exit
from the program before loading and running another program e.g. MS DOS (Microsoft
Disk Operating system)

b) Multi- Tasking Operating System (Multi-programming OS)

- It allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at the same time.
- The C.P.U switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing,
executing statements from one program then from another program using the concept of
giving a time slice for each program.
- This switching of attention is so fast that it appears as if the programs are being executed
simultaneously.
- Most Graphical User Interfaces are multi tasking e.g. Windows Versions
(95/98/2000/2003/XP/Vista, 7), Linux etc.

2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF USERS

a) Single-User Operating System
- It allows only one user at a time to access the computer. E.g. MS DOS.

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b) Multi-User Operating System (Multi-access operating system)
- It allows more than one user to interactively access a computer at the same time.
- Examples of these are: Novell, UNIX, Linux, and Windows NT/2000

3. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USER INTERFACE

- The term User Interface refers to the method of interaction between computer and the user
and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.

Currently, there are 3 main types of user interface:

a) Command line interface
- The user interacts with the computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a
command line.
- A computer reads instructions from the command line and executes them. After the correct
command is typed the user must press the enter key for the command to be executed.
Examples include: Earlier Versions of MS-DOS, PC-DOS, OS/2 AND UNIX.
- Command line interface operating systems have become unpopular because:
i. it’s difficult to remember the commands

ii. It cannot process complex graphics

iii. It does not make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.

b) Menu driven interface

- This type of interface provides the user with the list of options to choose from.
- This interface therefore is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties in recalling
commands.
- The user is presented with a single menu or a submenu or a sophisticated menu to choose
from. Examples include: DOS editor and DOS shell.

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c) Graphical user interface (GUI)
- This type of interface represents commands as small pictures on the screen called icons.
- An icon is a graphical representation of a command or a file or a folder or an application
which is selected using a pointing device like a mouse.
- GUI has become the latest effort to make user interface more user friendly. Examples of
GUI are Linux, Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows etc.

Features of a User Friendly Operating System

The features are given an acronym WIMP:

a) W - Window – is a rectangular work area where different programs of files are

displayed.

b) I - Icon - is a graphical representation of a command or a file or a folder or an

application.

c) M - Menu – a list of options in form of commands to choose from.

d) P - Pointing Device – A device that enables someone to select icons of menus on

the display screen.

Factors to Consider when Choosing an Operating System

1. Hardware configuration of the computer such as memory size, hard disk capacity
and processor speed.
2. User friendliness of the operating system i.e. is it command-line or menu driven or
GUI.
3. Basic design of the computer i.e. is it an IBM compatible or an apple computer.
4. Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft windows based OS is very common.
5. The cost of the operating system.
6. Reliability i.e. can it run without crushing or hanging
7. The number of users it can support.
8. The application software intended for the computer
9. The documentation available.

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DISK MANAGEMENT USING WINDOWS
Windows provides the user with tools that help the user manage storage devices and media.

These disk management activities include:

1. Formatting of disks

2. Scanning of Storage devices for problems

3. Defragmenting disks

4. Compressing disks

5. Scanning of Storage devices for viruses

6. Backing up data

7. Creating Startup (Boot up) disk

8. Partitioning disks

1. Formatting Disks
Formatting a disk is the process of preparing a new disk for use by imprinting empty sectors
and tracks on the surface of the disk.

The formatting is done so that the OS can recognize and be able to access the disk.

Formatting deletes all the content in the disk.

Other drives which are not disks can also be formatted so as to create a file system on them.
A file system is an efficient way of organizing information on a storage device.

Microsoft Windows operating systems uses the following file systems:

 FAT (File Allocation Table)

 NTFS (New Technology File System)

Apple’s Mac Operating Systems uses the following file systems:

 HFS (Hierarchical File System)

 HFS + (Hierarchical File System Plus)

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Procedure
1. Insert the disk into the drive
2. Double click my computer icon
3. Right click the drive then select format
4. Select the disk capacity e.g. 1.44 MB.
5. Select a File System e.g. FAT 32 or NTFS
6. Select the format type i.e. either quick erase or full.
7. Give the diskette an internal name (label)
8. Click start to begin formatting
9. Once the process is over click close.

2. SCANNING A STORAGE DEVICE FOR PROBLEMS

Windows has a disk management tool called the scan disk that helps the user checkup and
repair minor storage problems such as lost storage location or damaged surfaces.

Procedure
1. Double click My Computer icon.
2. Right click a drive of icon e.g. 3½ floppy disk (A:).
3. From the shortcut menu click properties then click Tools tab.
4. Click the check now button.
5. A prompt appears requesting the use of specifying scan disk options like whether
errors found should be corrected automatically.
6. Once scan disk is complete, windows will give a summary of statistics on errors
encountered if any.

3. DISK DEFRAGMENTATION
Disk Defragmentation is the process of rearranging scattered folders and files in a storage
media.

The main reason of defragmentation is to speed up access to files and folders in storage
media.

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Defragmentation is done using a disk defragmenter tool. This enables the read/write head not
to waste time looking for the same item allover the disk.

Fragmentation is a condition in which files and folders are scattered allover in the storage
surface of the disk. This translates into wastage of time when retrieving data and also
wastage of disk space.

Fragmentation occurs naturally when you use a disk frequently especially when creating,
deleting or modifying files.

Procedure
1. Double click my computer icon.
2. Right click a disk drive icon e.g. 3 ½ floppy disk (A:)
3. From the short cut menu, click properties then click Tools tab
4. Click defragment now button then click defragment, a progress status bar is
displayed.
5. Wait for the process to complete then close the defragmenter.

4. DISK COMPRESSION
Disk Compression is the process of decreasing the amount of space occupied by files and
folders stored in the disk.

This process creates more space in the disk for more files to be stored.

Microsoft Windows provides the user with two compression tools namely:

1. Compression agent
2. Drive space

Procedure
1. Double click My Computer icon
2. Right click a drive icon e.g. 3 ½ floppy disk
3. Click Properties, if you are using windows XP select the Compress drive to save disk
space check box and click OK to start the Zip process.
4. Confirm Attribute Changes; select the options that you want i.e. whether to zip the
folder only or the entire content and then click OK.
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5. SCANNING FOR VIRUSES

A computer virus is a malicious program aimed at conducting unwanted operations like
damaging disk, data or causing a malfunction.

Virus attack may result in complete system failure.

Computer viruses may be spread through storage devices or through e-mail and internet.

To protect a computer against virus attack special programs called antivirus software are
installed in the computer. The antivirus software checks the computer for known viruses and
eradicates them.

Some of the antivirus software available in the market are: Norton antivirus, PC- Cillin,
McAfee, AVG-Grisoft, NOD 32, Avira, Avast, Kerspasky, Quick Heal etc.

Procedure
1. Double click My Computer icon
2. Right click drive icon
3. Select the name of the antivirus program e.g. Norton, Kerspasky, Quick Heal
4. Follow the instructions displayed on the antivirus program to start scanning.

6. BACKING UP DATA
Backing up data is the creation of duplicate copies of data and programs especially on a
separate storage device.
The aim of backing up data is to avoid losing important data and program files in case the
original storage device or the computer fails.
It is therefore, a good practice to keep the back ups of data away from the computer room
to ensure security of the information incase of a calamity such as fire.
Microsoft Windows comes with a back up utility which enables the user to create copies.

Procedure of Creating a Back up

1. Click Start button, point to All Programs, Accessories, System Tools then
Click Back up.
2. Follow the on screen instructions (Wizard) to finish the process.

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7. START UP DISK (BOOT UP DISK)

A Boot up disk is a disk that has booting instructions. The Boot up disk is usually a
floppy disk that is created using the operating system.
The Boot up disk is mainly used when the computer fails to boot or the computer has
problems in booting.
The Boot up disk allows the system to boot to an MS-DOS Command Prompt.
To boot up the computer using the boot up disk, insert the startup disk in the floppy drive,
then switch on the computer. The computer reads the boot up instructions from the disk
then displays a command prompt (A:>) that enables the user to type the commands in
order to diagnose the problem that might have led to the boot failure.

Procedure
1. Double click My Computer icon, then click Control Panel.
2. Select Add /Remove programme.
3. Click Startup disk, then select create disk.
4. The start up disk creation progress will be displayed.

8. PARTIONING A DISK
Partitioning refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more partitions
called logical drives.
A logical drive is a drive that can be accessed as if it is a separate disk but in actual sense it is
a partition of one large physical disk. Each Partition or Logical drive is treated like a separate
disk drive.

Reasons for partitioning a disk

1. For the purpose of back up on the same disk. This means that back up in different
partitions so that if one partition fails the other will still be working
2. When the user intends to install more than one operating system on the same disk but
on a separate partition.
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Before partitioning a disk, you need to know which file systems are used in your operating
system:
1. FAT (File Allocation Table) – was mainly used in MS DOS and Windows 95
2. FAT 32 (File Allocation Table 32 bit) – was mainly used in Windows 98 and
Windows Me. Windows XP also uses FAT 32.
3. NTFS (New Technology File System) – is mainly used in Windows NT, 2000, XP,
2003, and Vista.

Procedure
Before partitioning a disk you must have a start up disk.
1. Insert the start up disk and switch on the computer
2. Select Start with CD ROM support if necessary
3. Let the computer boot to A:\> prompt
4. Type FDISK command and then press enter key
5. A prompt “Do you wish to enable a large disk supporting” appears. Press (Y) to
enable the computer support a large capacity of hard disk of more than 500 MB
otherwise press (N)
6. Choose 1 to create disk partition or logical disk drive.
7. From the sub menu displayed:
(i) Choose 1 to create primary DOS partition which is treated as the
bootable disk or drive C.
(ii) Choose 2 to create extended DOS partitions
(iii) Choose 3 to give your extended DOS partitions drive labels.

NB: Once you finish partitioning the disk, re-boot the computer for the changes to be
effected then format the drive created.

INSTALLING AND CONFIGURING WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Since OS is the supervisor for all other computer programs it must be installed into the
computer hard disk before installing any other program.
Installation refers to the process of copying program files into the hard disk.

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Installation differs from copy paste process in that Installation is specifically meant to copy
executable files in a format that allows the computer to run the program.
To correctly install an OS, carefully study manufacturer’s documentation (readme or html
file) in order to get the correct information on installation procedures and system
requirements.
To install Windows 98 Microsoft recommends the following minimum requirements:
1. At least 486-66 MHz of processor
2. At least 16 MB of RAM
3. At least 170 MB of hard disk space
4. CD-ROM drive because windows 98 comes with a CD-ROM.

Procedure for Installing Windows XP

We shall look at Clean Installation where a computer comes without an operating system.
To perform Clean Installation, the computer BIOS should be set up to boot from CD ROM
drive.
1. Insert the CD/DVD with the OS in the CD/DVD drive.
2. Turn on the computer. The rest of the installation is by wizard.
3. Partition the disk if necessary.
4. Windows XP copies all the files into the hard disk and reboot several times during the
installation process.
5. Once Windows XP is successfully installed, you may be required to set up User
accounts.

TROUBLE SHOOTING WINDOWS RELATED PROBLEMS

Trouble shooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to resolve or fix hardware and
software related problems.
When using Windows, you may experience some problems such as: -

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1. Failure to load the operating system during the booting process.
2. The computer hanging (not responding to commands) often.
3. Abnormal restarting to the computer
4. Displaying a blue screen with the message such as: fatal exception error has
occurred, etc.
The above problems may result from: -
1. Invalid system disk – this occurs as a result of missing system files in the primary
partition needed to load the operating system. Ensure that the active partition is
selected as the start up drive or re-install the operating system.
2. Missing Operating System – Missing system files such as HIMEM.SYS,
CONFIG.SYS etc. during the installation process. This may lead to boot failure. Use
start up disk or rescue disk or re-install the operating system to counter the problem.
3. Corrupted system registry - Registry is a database where Windows stores all its
System software and application software information installed in the computer. If the
registry is corrupted, repair it using emergency repair disk, or restore the registry back
up or re-install the operating system.
4. Infection by malware – this may lead to failure to load the GUI desktop due to
missing or corrupted display drivers by viruses. The viruses may also attack the hard
disk boot sector and lead to boot failure. Locate the malfunctioning device in the
device manager and disable it or start the system in safe mode or scan for viruses.
5. Runtime problems – this is hanging of the system where it does not respond to
commands. Restart the system by pressing the restart keys (Crtl+Alt+Del) in order to
display the Task manager and terminate non-responding programs. Shutdown the
computer and turn it on again if the problem above persists.
6. Hardware conflict or incompatibility caused by IRQ. IRQ conflict that is if two or
more devices are sharing the interrupt request number.
7. Insufficient system memory or damaged system memory.

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HOW AN OPERATING SYSTEM ORGANIZES INFORMATION
Most operating systems organize information in three-tier hierarchy namely:

1. Files

2. Folders

3. Drives

1. FILES
A file is a collection of related data stored in a storage media and given a unique name
that enables the operating system to identify it during storage and retrieval process.

A file must have the following details.

1. A unique name and an extension of three characters e.g. LOVE.DOC

LOVE is the file name while DOC is the extension. The file name and the
extension are separated by a Period/ Full stop (.).

2. The size, date, and the time the file was created or modified.

TYPE OF FILES
a) System files
b) Application files
c) Data files

a) System files
These are files that contain critical information necessary for the computer operation e.g.
System.ini, Autoexec.bat, command.com, msdos.sys, user.dat, system.dat etc

b) Application files
They are also called program files because they hold program or application files.

They have extension such as .exe which represents an executable file.

c) Data files
Data files are user files that contain users, created data. E.g. letter, reports, memos.

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The table below shows files extensions and the file types.

Extension File type Description

.doc Data A Microsoft word document file
.tft Data A graphic file created using an application such as Adobe
Photoshop
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad
.exe Application file An executable file that launches a particular application
.bat System file File containing a series of commands loaded during boot up
.sys System file System file that perform critical operations in a computer

2. FOLDERS (Directory)
A folder or a directory is a named storage location where related files are stored.

A folder enables easy access of files since they are grouped together.

A folder is meant to help the user divide a large storage media into small and manageable
storage locations.

All folders/ directories originate from a root directory/ root folder. A root directory/ root
folder is a special directory where all folders originate from.

A folder/ directory can be created inside another folder or directory; such a folder is called a
subfolder or a subdirectory.

3. DRIVES

A drive is a way in which the operating system recognizes storage devices. Usually, drives
are given labels such as letters (A-Z) to identify.

The table below shows how Microsoft operating system identifies drives.

Storage device Drive label Description

Floppy disk A and B Floppy drives are assigned letters A and B.

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Hard disk C, D, E, F Any hard disk in the computer will take letter
starting from C – F.
Optical disks D, E, F, G Any CD/ DVD attached to the computer may
take any letter from D – Z.
Other removable devices D, E, F, …Z Any removable drive attached to the computer
may take any letter from D – Z.
Network drives Logical Network drives takes D – Z depending on the
number of physical drives attached

The figure below shows how information in the hard disk is organized. The folder system
is hierarchical and forms a tree like structure called a folder tree. To access a certain file,
the right path should be followed from the root folder. In this case, the root folder is C:\>.
C:\>

Folder 1 Folder 2 Folder 3

Subfolder Subfolder Subfolder Subfolder Subfolder

1 2 3 4 5

File 6
File 8
File 1 File 2 File 3 Subfolder File 7
6
File 9
File 4

File 5 File 10

- For instance, to open File 1, follow the path: C:\Folder 1\Subfolder 1\File 1.

- To open File 5, follow the path: C:\Folder 2\Subfolder 3\Subfolder 6\File 5.

- Try the same to other files in the hierarchy.

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SOME COMMON FEATURES IN WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS
Microsoft Windows Operating system is one of the world’s most popular operating system in
use today. It has evolved gradually through upgrading of the previous versions in order to
make it more user-friendly. Some of the recent Microsoft Windows Operating systems
available in the market today include: Windows 2000, Windows NT, Windows XP, Windows
Vista, and Windows 7. Earlier versions include: Windows 95 and Windows 98.
All these versions of Windows have some features in common, which include:
1. They all have similar user structure interface.
2. They all support multiple tasks and multiple users.
3. Various versions of windows operating system automatically accept new
hardware once it is connected to the computer. This feature is called PnP (Plug
and Play).
4. They have ability to handle long file names of up to 255 characters including
spaces.

FEATURES OF WINDOWS DESKTOP

A desktop: A display on the computer screen that appears after the OS has been loaded in the
main memory of the computer.
The desktop consists of; Icons, task bar and the background.
Icons: Small pictures that represent commands, files, folders and storage locations. These
icons are manipulated by pointing devices.
Common icons on the desktop are: My Computer, My Documents, Recycle Bin,
Internet Explorer etc.
Task bar: A bar that enable one to easily switch between different programs that are
currently running. (Multi-tasking). A task bar consist of 3 parts:
Start button: Displays the start menu.
Task Manager: a plain strip that displays buttons of all currently running tasks.
System tray: Displays icons of applications/programs that automatically start and run in the
background. E.g. Time, calendar, anti-virus program, volume control, etc.
Background: The part of the desktop that appears behind the icons on the screen.

COMMON ITEMS AT THE START MENU

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Programs/ All programs: Displays a list of all programs installed in the computer. This
menu has a small solid arrow called a side kick menu which when clicked on displays a list
of other menus.
Documents/ My Recent Documents: Displays a list of 15 most recently accessed files.
Settings/ control Panel: It provides tools from which the user can select and make changes
to the computer set up. N/B: Never tamper with this menu as you may interfere with the
computer's functionality.
Find/ Search: It enables the user to search for a file, folder, picture or even music incase the
user forgets the name and location.
Help/ Help & Support: One can learn more about the OS using this menu. It also gives
detailed information on how to troubleshoot a problem in case the computer fails to function
properly.
Run: It enable one to:
Install programs on the hard disk.
Open files and folders from a storage location.
Run programs from a removable storage media.
Log on/ log Off
Log on: Is a security measure that restricts one from accessing the computer unless one has a
user ID and password.
Log off: Exiting from one's user account in order to move to a log on window.
Shut down: Enables one to turn off, restart, standby or hibernate the computer.
Turn off: Shuts down the OS so that one can safely turn off the computer.
Restart: Shuts down the OS and starts it again.
Standby: It puts your computer in low power state so that you can quickly resume windows
session. It does not switch off the computer.
Hibernation: Is where a computer stores whatever it has in memory to your hard disk and
then shuts down the computer but will then resume to its previous state when put on.

MANAGING/MANIPULATING FILES AND FOLDERS WITH THE OS

Files and folders can be managed or manipulated using Windows Explorer or My Computer
icon.

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Either of the two lets you to view the arrangement of storage devices/ their storage locations,
files and folders.
Windows Explorer:
It displays files, folders and drives in a hierarchy/tree structure.
The computer tree has an upside down tree structure with the highest level being the
root (desktop).
To launch the Explorer window:
Click on START menu then click on ALL PROGRAMS.
Click on ACCESSORIES then select WINDOWS EXPLORER
The Explorer window appears that divides the window into two panes:
The left pane: Displays a tree structure consisting of storage locations i.e. drives, files and
folders.
The right pane: Displays a list of files and sub-folders contained in an open
drive or folder.
In windows Explorer window, some items have a plus (+) or minus (-) sign
Plus sign: Means the item has some other lower items. Therefore, to display
them, just click on the plus sign.
Minus sign: Means that all sub-folders in that level have been accessed. Click on
it to reduce (collapse) the tree.
My Computer icon
It displays the different drives and folders found in the computer. E.g. drives, control
panel and other resources.
To display files and folders in a particular drive:
Double click the drive icon e.g. C
A window appears having files and folders stored in the root of the drive.
Double click the folder to display its content.

i) Creating a folder/ directory

In windows:
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location for the new folder.

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From File Menu, click on NEW, then click on FOLDER. A new folder with a temporary
name NEW FOLDER appears.
Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name and press ENTER key.
In DOS:
The command MD (Make Directory) is used to create a directory.
C:\>MD directory name Then Press Enter e.g. C:\>MD jane Then Press Enter
To create a sub-folder, follow the same procedure, but choose a folder to be its storage
location.

ii) Opening a folder/ directory

In windows:
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, click the plus sign against the storage location that
contains the folder you wish to open.
From Folder tree, select the folder. Its contents will be displayed on the right pane.
In DOS:
The command DIR (Directory) is used to display/ view a list of files and directories.
C:\>DIR directory name Then Press Enter e.g. C:\>DIR Jane Then Press Enter

iii) Creating a new File

In windows:
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location for the new file.
From File Menu, click on NEW, then click on TEXT DOCUMENT. A new file with a
temporary name appears on the right of Explore window.
Type a new name for the file to replace the temporary name and press ENTER key.
In DOS:
We create a file using either COPY CON or EDIT command.
COPY CON
At C-prompt, type COPY CON followed by the file name.
C:\>COPY CON filename. Extension Then Press Enter e.g. C:\>COPY CON
Job.DOC Then Press Enter

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To create a document file called John with the text "Home is the sweetest place to
stay" type C:\>COPY CON John.DOC
Home is the sweetest place to stay
<Ctrl Z>
EDIT command
This is the latest version of DOS that has an editor screen for creating text files. It is a
full screen editor that allows one to create, edit, save and print files.
To create a file using EDIT
C:\>EDIT File name Then Press Enter

iv) Renaming a File/ folder

Is the changing of the previous name of a file or folder to a new one.
In windows:
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, select file/folder you wish to rename.
From File Menu, click on RENAME,
Type a new name for the file/ folder and press ENTER key.

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In DOS:
The command REN (Rename) is used to rename files or folders.
C:\>REN Old Name New Name Then Press Enter e.g. C:\>REN Jane Job Then
Press Enter

v) Saving changes to a File/ folder

Save: Saves a file with existing name
Save As: Saves a file with a different name and location.
To save a file:
Click on FILE, then SAVE AS
In the Save As dialog box, select where the document is to be saved.
Type its name then click on SAVE button.

vi) Deleting Files/ Folders

In windows, if you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in the recycle
bin.
A recycle bin: Is a storage place where deleted objects (files, folders or programs) are
temporarily held. The items in the recycle bin can then be deleted completely or restored if
necessary.
Recycle bin is a default icon on the desktop which cannot be removed.
N/B: Never attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
Items deleted from removable devices are never held in the recycle bin but are
completely lost.
To delete a file in windows
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, select file/folder you wish to delete.
From File Menu, click on DELETE.
A message appears on the screen prompting you to delete.
Confirm by clicking on yes.

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In DOS:
The command for deleting a file is DEL (Delete).
C:\>DEL Job.txt, Then Press Enter Deletes a file in drive C called Job with the
extension .txt.
The command for deleting a folder is RD (Remove Directory)
e.g. C:\>RD Directory name Then Press Enter e.g. C:\>RD Jane, Then Press
Enter Deletes/ Removes a directory called Jane in drive C.

vii) Restoring Deleted Files/ Folders

To restore/empty deleted files/ folders from the recycle bin;
Double click the recycle bin on the desktop
Choose Empty the recycle bin or select the deleted files/folders then click on Restore All
items.
Choose Yes if prompted to empty the recycle bin.

viii) Copying/ Moving Files and Folders

Copying: Creating a duplicate file or folder in another storage location. The command
COPY/PASTE is used.
Moving: Changing the location of files and folders. The command CUT/PASTE is used.
When you cut or copy a file/ folder, it is temporarily held in storage location called the
Clipboard.
In windows:
To copy a file or folder
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window
From the folder tree on the left pane, select file/folder you wish to copy.
From EDIT Menu, click on COPY,
Select the folder or drive you want it copied
From EDIT Menu, click on PASTE
A copy dialog box will be displayed showing that the information/ item is being copied in a
new location.
To move a file or folder
Using My Computer icon, display the Explore window

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From the folder tree on the left pane, select file/folder you wish to move.
From EDIT Menu, click on CUT,
Select the folder or drive you want it moved to.
From EDIT Menu, click on PASTE
A move dialog box will be displayed showing that the information/ item is being moved to a
new location.
In DOS:
The command COPY is used to copy files or folders.
C:\>COPY Source File Destination drive
e.g. C:\>COPY Jane.txt A: Then Press Enter Copies a file Jane.txt which is in drive C to
drive A.
To copy a file to a folder e.g. jane.txt to a folder named Job in drive C, C:\>COPY Jane.txt
Job
ix) Changing Files and Folders
In windows, to change from one folder to another, simply click or select the folder you wish
to change to in the windows Explorer.
In DOS: We use CD (Change directory) command
C:\>CD Directory name , Then Press Enter

x) Sorting Files and Folders

Sorting: Arranging files and folders in a particular order. i.e either alphabetically, by size, or
date of last modification or creation.
To sort a file or folder:
Open the storage location that contains the files/folders you want sorted.
Under VIEW menu, point to Arrange Icon By
Choose the method of sort. i.e. by name, Date modified or size etc

xi) Selecting Multiple Files and Folders

If you want to manipulate multiple files and folders or multiple non-continuous files and
folders, you can select them by clicking each item as you hold down CTRL (Control) Key
or SHIFT key.
To select all files in an open folder:

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Open the folder, then click EDIT menu and click on SELECT ALL.
OR
Press Ctrl+A on the keyboard.
xii) Searching for Files and Folders
It is used when one is not sure of the name of a file or folder and its location.
To search for files and folders:
From the START menu, click SEARCH.
In the Search dialog box, type the name of file or folder and its location
Click Search.

THE APPLICATION WINDOW

A rectangular area on the screen where text or graphical images are entered.
You can open an application file by:
Double clicking a file icon from the start menu / desktop.
Using My Computer icon, display the Explorer window, then from File menu, click on NEW
then Microsoft Word document.
Parts of the Application Window:
Title bar: A bar located at the top of the window that displays the name of the active
application program
It contains the title of the window's contents. The title bar has 3 buttons:
Minimize button: Reduces a window to an icon.
Maximize /Restore button: Stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to
its original size.
Close button: Exits an application.
Menu bar: A bar located below the title bar that provides a list of commands that can
manipulate a task. E.g. FILE, VIEW, EDIT, INSERT, FORMAT etc.
Tool bar: Are icons which are short cuts to menu commands. There are several tool bars
Formatting tool bar: Contain icons for formatting a document.
Standard tool bar: Contain icons for making certain changes to a document.
Picture tool bar: For working with pictures in a document.
Auto shape tool bar: working with preformatted shapes.
Table and borders tool bar: Working with tables

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Work area: An area where text or graphical objects are inserted. It has an insertion pointer.
Status bar: An interactive strip at the bottom of the window that displays activities of the
programs that are currently running. E.g. Ready, Saving, Cursor position etc
Scroll bar: Are horizontal and vertical bars that the user drags to move upwards, downwards,
right or left of the document.
Rulers: Are vertical and horizontal onscreen rulers that enable the user to position text or
objects in their right position. It is used to adjust column width, change page margins, set tabs
etc. if it is not visible: Click on VIEW, then on drop down menu click on RULER.

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