UNIT 1: SENTENCE TYPES

CLAUSES
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A clause is a group of words that contains
(at least) a subject and a verb.
Clauses Not clauses
ecology is a science to protect the environment
because pollution causes after working hard
cancer
Independent clauses
An independent clause contains a S and a V and expresses a complete thought. It can
stand alone by itself.
E.g. Students normally spend four years in college.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that … followed
by (at least) a subject and a verb.
E.g. …when the semester was over…
Practice 1: Put a tick (V) next to the independent clauses and a period (.) after them.
1. Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers
2. Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
3. During long journeys through several time zones, the body’s inner clock is disrupted
4. For some reasons, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than travel from east to west
5. Also, changes in work can cause jet flag
6. When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example
7. Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
8. There are some ways to minimize it (Oshima)
Practice 2: Determine whether the underlined word groups are dependent clauses,
independent clauses, or not a clause.
1. Although it was raining, Maria went for a jog at Civitan Park.
2. Brianna eats chocolate whenever she gets a poor grade in math.
3. After the flood, the family moved into a temporary shelter.
4. While walking at the park, John saw a raccoon eating potato chips.
5. When you finish your homework, please take the dog for a walk.
6. After Juan completed the assignment, he swam laps at the gym.
7. Christa left home at 4:00 a.m. since she had to drive to Atlanta for a meeting.

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 8. Before completing the assignment, Evan decided to eat a quick lunch
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and
it expresses a complete thought.
A. Some students like to study in the mornings.
S V
B. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
S V
Note: - Sentence B contains a compound verb.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator.
The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (FANBOYS)
Note: - Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
S V , coor S V
B. Alejandro played football, so Marie went shopping.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or
when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
Sub S V , S V
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
S V sub S V
Note: - When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator, a comma is required at
the end of the dependent clause.
- When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the
middle, no comma is required.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
E.g. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't
found anyone to go with.
• independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately"

2
 • independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go with"
• dependent clause: "Although I like to go camping... "
Practice 3: Read the following sentences and label them simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex.
1. Since it rained all weekend, the group decided to stay home.
2. Apples are great for improving your health.
3. The war has taken a toll on morale, but the devastation is coupled with improved
living conditions for many.
4. After the wreck, John decided to turn his life around, and he promptly made some
great investments and gave back to the community from which he had taken for so long.
5. The weekend was filled with walking in the park, shopping at the local market,
swimming and skiing in the bay, and spending time with loved ones.
Practice 4: Complete the following sentences
1. I was disappointed by my failure in the entrance exam to the university this year, but
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. The Japanese have the longest life expectancy in the world because …
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. My friends do not like going out at night, nor…
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. My sister laid …
……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. His impoliteness in the party made…
……………………………………………………………………………………………
6. The tour guide introduced some famous traditional dishes to all of us, which…
……………………………………………………………………………………………
7. My husband didn’t come home until…
……………………………………………………………………………………………
8. My sister became pregnant, so…
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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 UNIT 2: SIMPLE SENTENCES
1. Definition
A simple sentence is a group of word that expresses a complete thought.
E.g. He had given the girl an apple.
A simple sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a period, question mark, or
exclaimation mark.
E.g. The baby cried.
2. Compounds subjects and verbs
A simple sentence can have two subjects
E.g. Kate and I are friends.
A sentence can have a verb phrase
E.g. I go to the bank after work.
A sentence could have both two subjects and two verbs
E.g. Kate and I sang and danced.
3. Sentence elements
A simple sentence has two main parts: the subject and the verb. Sometimes there is an object
and/or other information after the verb.
Subject is the person or thing that does the action. The subject can be a noun or a pronoun.
E.g. Maria and her sister go to piano class every week.
The verb tells what the subject is going. The verb:
+ is usually an action word, such as go, speak, write, swim, and watch.
+ sometimes does not have much actions, such as be (am, is, are, was, were), like,
want …
+ can have two (or more) actions for one subject
E.g. They create and play beautiful music.
Object is the thing or person after the main verb. The object:
+ receives the action of the verb
+ can be a noun or a pronoun
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 + can be two (or more) nouns/pronouns
E.g. Maria’s brother plays guitar and violin.
Other information: Sentences can contain other information after the verb and the object,
such as time words/phrases or place phrases. When a sentence has a time word/phrase and a
place phrase, the time word/phrase usually comes last.

Practice 1. Read these sentences about making tuna salad. Underline each subject.
Circle each verb. Put a box around any around any object.
1. Tuna salad is easy to make.
2. The ingredients are simple and cheap.
3. Two ingredients are tuna fish and mayonnaise.
4. I also use onions, salt, and pepper.
5. First, I cut up the onion.
6. Then I add the tuna fish and the mayonnaise.
7. Finally, I add some salt and a lot of pepper.
8. Without a doubt, tuna salad is my favourite food.
4. A fragment – an incomplete sentence

Practice 2. Identify each group of words as a fragment (F) or a complete sentence (S).
Then add the missing part of the sentence to the fragments to make them complete
sentences.

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5. Subject-verb agreement rules
a. Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
Example: She writes every day.
b. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example: They write every day.
Sometimes, however, it seems a bit more complicated than this. When the subject of the
sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
c. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the
sentence must agree with the subject.
Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-
depth understanding of participants.
d. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still
agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of
the sentence.
Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.
e. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use
a singular verb.
Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.

6
f. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by "or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is
closest to the verb.
Example: The student or the committee members write every day.
g. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone,"
"everybody," "anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no
one" are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.
h. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
Example: Education is the key to success.
i. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings,
proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.
k. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb.
Since "there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Example: There is little administrative support.
l. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered
singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee,"
"family," and "class."
Example: The group meets every week.
Practice 3: Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.
11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.
12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.
13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.
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14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite
subject.
16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.
17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.
19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!
20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.

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 UNIT 3: COMPOUND SENTENCES
Definition
A simple sentence contains a subject, complete verb, capital at the beginning, and
punctuation at the end. It must make sense on its own. It is also called an independent
clause.
A compound sentence follows the same rules as a simple sentence, except it basically
contains three ways to link simple sentences together to form a compound sentence.
With a coordinator:
I enjoy playing tennis, but I hate playing golf.
With a conjunctive:
I enjoy playing tennis; however, I hate playing golf.
With a semicolon:
I enjoy playing tennis; I hate playing golf.
Compound sentences with Coordinators
A compound sentence can be formed with:
Independent Clause, + Coordinator + Independent Clause

Practice 1: Turn the sentence pairs into single compound sentences, each with a coordinator.
1. The black dog has won many prizes. He doesn’t know many tricks.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. She saw a cat ran in front of her. She fell down while roller-skating.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. There was a meteor shower. The crew did not know how to avoid the meteors.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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4. I wanted to buy a baby Chihuahua. I started to save my money.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Gillian did not like to read. She was not very good at it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Pam liked Wayne. Lenna also like Wayne.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. The little boy did not like going to school. He went anyway.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. You can cry like a baby. You can clean your room like an adult.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. She didn’t want to play with Jill. She didn’t want to play with Tim.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Arleen could not play with that boy. Arleen could not play with that other boy.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Compound sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
A compound sentence can be formed with:
Independent Clause; + Conjunctive Adverbs, + Independent Clause
Coordinating Conjunctions Conjunctive Adverbs Meaning
And furthermore, besides, additional idea
moreover, also
but, yet however, nevertheless, still, opposite idea
nonetheless
Or otherwise choice, ‘or else’
so consequently, therefore, result
thus, accordingly, hence

E.g.

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 • When using conjunctive adverbs to link simple sentences, put a semicolon before and a
comma after the adverb. Remember, both sides of the joining word are complete sentences
and must make sense on their own.
Practice 2: Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. You need to put more effort into your work; ________________, you won’t get a passing
grade.
A. Moreover
B. Otherwise
C. Unless
D. Instead
2. We wanted to spend the day at the beach; ______________________, it rained so we
stayed home.
A. Moreover
B. Unless
C. However
D. Additionally
3. She is a very smart girl; __________________, it’s not at all surprising that she gets such
good grades.
A. Again
B. Besides
C. Contrarily
D. Therefore
4. Jared is a millionaire; __________________, his brother Jeremy is always flat broke.
A. In contrast
B. Accordingly
C. Again
D. Likewise
5. He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; ___________________, he lied.
A. In contrast
B. Likewise
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 C. Undoubtedly
D. Instead
Compound sentence with semicolon
This kind of sentence occurs when the two independent clauses are closely related. If they
weren’t closely related, they would be written as two simple sentences, separated by a
period.
E.g.
My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine.
Practice 3: Add a second independent clause to each independent clause below to make
compound sentences.
1. The sky is clear; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The waves were crashing on the shore; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Check back tomorrow; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. He said he was not there yesterday; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. I am happy to take your donation; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. She works two jobs to make ends meet; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Malls are great places to shop; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Italy is my favorite country; …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
Practice 4: Turn the sentence pairs into single compound sentences
1. Let’s go to the swimming pool. It’s hot inside the house.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I don’t want to eat. I don’t want to drink.
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. I don’t want to practice playing with violin. I don’t want to disobey my mother.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. I want to own my own company. I want to pay all my workers a lot of money.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. I need to go to the store. I’m feeling too sick to drive.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Rabbits make good pets. They don’t make too much noise and they are clean.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. I want to go to the circus. I want to ride a pony.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. I didn’t do my homework. My parents punished me.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. I have never visited Asia. I have never visited Africa.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. You can make a big poster. You can make a little clay statue.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Practice 5: Make 5 compound sentences
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 UNIT 4: COMPLEX SENTENCES
I. RELATIVE CLAUSES
Definition
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly
a noun.
For example, the phrase "the man who wasn't there" contains the noun “man”, which is
modified by the relative clause “who wasn't there”.
- A relative clause can also modify
• a pronoun, as in "he to whom I have written", or
• a noun phrase which already contains a modifier, as in "the black panther in the
tree, which is about to pounce". The complete phrase (modified noun phrase plus
modifying relative clause) is also a noun phrase.
- Relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called relative pronouns; in
the previous example, “who” is a relative pronoun.
- Relative pronouns are WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, WHICH, THAT.
Defining relative clause
• These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other nouns
of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the
noun.
• In the sentence:
The man who told me this refused to give me his name
“who told me this” is the relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man we
are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining
clause.
• Defining clause usually follow the + noun, but they can also be used with a/an +
noun.
• Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses

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 Subject Object Possessive
For persons Who Whom/who Whose
That That
For things Which Which Whose/of which
That that

II. Non-defining relative clause

• Non-defining relative clauses do not define the noun, but merely add something to it
by giving some more information about it.
• Unlike defining relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be
omitted without casing confusion.
• Also unlike defining relatives, they are separated from their noun by commas. The
pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining relative clause. The construction is
fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken English.
• Examples: My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this
year.
• Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses
Subject Object Possessive
For persons Who Who/whom Whose

For things Which Which Whose/ of which

NOTES: The relative pronoun can be omitted in a defining relative clause if the relative
pronoun is the object of the relative clause.
e.g. The book (that) I want is on the table.
There’s something (that) you don’t know.

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Practice 1: Fill in the blanks to make relative clause.
1. Alexander Flemming ______ discovered penicillin received the Nobel Prize in 1945.
2. The book _______ I need can’t be found in the library.
3. Here is the beach ________ is the safest for swimmers.
4. Do you know the American woman ________ name is Margaret Mitchell?
5. Jim ________ I have known for ten years is one of my closest friends.
6. John found a cat _______ leg was broken.
7. Don’t sit on the chair the leg ________ is broken.
8. This tree _________ branches are dry should be cut down.
9. The child smiled at the woman ________ he didn’t know.
10. That woman _______ name I don’t remember is a doctor.
Exercise 2: Use a relative pronoun to combine each pair of the sentences below.
1. You sent me a present. Thank you very much for it.
2. Romeo and Juliet were lovers. Their parents hated each other.
3. This is Mrs Jones. Her son won the championship last year.
4. I was sitting in a chair. It suddenly collapsed.
5. This is the story of a man. His wife suddenly loses her memory.
6. Charlie Chaplin died in 1977. His films amused millions of people in the world.
7. Please post these letters. I wrote them this morning.
8. The buildings is the church. Its tower can be seen from afar.
9. Mary and Margaret are twins. You met them yesterday.
10. I’ll introduce you to the man. His support is necessary for your project.
Exercise 3: Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means exactly
the same as the one printed before it.
1. The man that we are talking about is a famous scientist.
 The man about ……………………………………………………….
2. The tree that we picked these fruits from is in front of the house.
 The tree from …………………………………………………………
3. The city that we were born in is very large.
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  The city in ……………………………….……………………………

4. Do you remember the day? We first met on that day.

 Do you remember the day on ………………………………………
….
5. The dog was very frightned. The boys threw stones at it.
 The dog at …………………………………………………………
…..
6. The road was built in 1980. We are driving on it.
 The road on …………………………………………………………….
7. Did you see the letter? It came yesterday morning.
 Did you …………………………………………………………………
8. This is Rex Hotel, and it is the biggest hotel in the city.
 This is Rex Hotel, which ………………………………………………..
Exercise 4: Complete the following sentences, using Relative Clauses:
1. I don’t know the reason ………………………………………………….
2. They have found the handbag ……………………………………………
3. He doesn’t like people ……………………………………………………
4. The police arrested the man ………………………………………………
5. Do you know the country ………………………………………………...
6. I don’t like the women ……………………………………………………
7. The woman............................................................... is my mother.
8. The man.................................................................... is my father.
9. She has lost the bicycle …………………………………………………..
10. This is the house ………………………………………………………….

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II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
1. Clauses of time6
- Finite adverbial clause of time are introduced by such subordinator as after, before, since,
until, when, as soon as …
E.g., when I last saw you, you lived in London.
Buy your ticket as soon as you reach the station.
- The –ing clause may be introduced by after, before, since, until, when(ever), while
E.g., He wrote his greatest novel while working on of freighter.
Before working here, I had worked in Japan.
- The –ed clause may be introduced by once, until, when(ever), and while
E.g., Once published, the book caused remarkable stir.
2. Clauses of place
- Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by where or wherever.
E.g., They went whenever they could find a work.
Where the fire had bees, we saw nothing but blackened ruins
3. Clauses of condition
- Finite adverbial clauses of condition are introduced chiefly by the subordinator “if”
(positive condition) and unless (negative condition):
E.g., If it rains, I will go to school by bus.
I’ll go out unless it rains.
4. Clauses of concession
- Clauses of concession are introduced chiefly by “though” or “although”. Other
conjunctions include while, whereas, even if, and if (occasionally).
E.g., No goals were scored, though it was an exciting game.
Whereas John seems rather stupid, his brother is clever.
Even if you dislike music, you will like this concert.
5. Clauses of reason or cause
- Clause of reason or cause are most commonly introduced by the conjunctions because,
as, or since:
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 E.g., I lent him the money because he needed it.
As/ Since Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others.
6. Clauses of purpose
- Clauses of purpose are usually infinitival, introduced by in order to, so as to, in order
for N, to.
E.g., I left early to catch the train
They left the door open in order for me to hear the baby.
- Finite clause of purpose may be introduced by so that, so (informal), in order that
(formal):
E.g., John visited London in order that/ so/ so that he could see the Buckingham
palace
7. Clauses of result
Clauses of result may be introduced by so that, so (informal)
E.g., We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden soon looked beautiful.
Practice 1: Combine each pair of sentences below so as to form a single sentence
containing a conditional or concessive clause.
1. Stand up here. Then you can see the mountain clearly.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Stand up. Otherwise you won’t be able to see anything.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Stand up here. That is the only way you can see any thing.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. We strained our eyes, but we couldn’t see anything.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. You can strain your eyes, but still you won’t be able to see anything.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. You could have the best binoculars in the world. But still you won’t be able to see
anything more.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. I will let you come with me on one condition. You must do exactly what I tell you.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. I am sure this story is untrue. Otherwise, it would be an absolute scandal.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. I am sure that never really happened. Otherwise, we would all be dead now.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. You might need some help at some time. Then you must let me know.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. It doesn’t matter what I say. He always does something different.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. You can tell me or not. But any case I will find out the truth.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
14. I have no idea what the solution is. But we shall certainly find it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
15. His difficulties was very great indeed. But he always overcame them in the end.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Practice 2: Use the following sets of words and phrases to form complete sentences.
1. When/ you/ live/ Washington/ you/ meet/ Robert H. Davidson?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Since/ I/ meet/ you/ I / have/ be/ read/ your book.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Once/ your book/ publish/ it/ will / sell/ very rapidly.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. When/ you/ be/ Rome/ do/ as/ Rome/ do.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Until/ you/ ask/ speak/ you/ would/ well/ advise/ remain/ silent.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Before/ he /serve/ army/ he/ be/ student.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. While/ he/ be/ army/ he/ learn/ a great deal/ electricity.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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8. When/ you/ enter/town/ you/ will/ see/ monument/ straight/ in front of you.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. After/ he/ travel/ around/ world/ Forbes/ settle/ down/ peacefully/ in/ native village.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. When/ I/ last/ see/ you/ you/ live/ Washington.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. If/ you/ phone/ me/ I/ come/ at once/
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. They/ come/ wherever/ they/ could/ find/ work.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. Although/ he/ ill/ he/ go/ school/ yesterday.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
14. I/ be/ glad/ go/ home/ although/ I/ enjoy/ myself.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Practice 3. Rewrite the following sentences using the given words without changing the
meaning.
1. It rained a lot but we enjoyed our holiday. (although)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Though we had planned carefully, a lot of things went wrong. (in spite of)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. I managed to sleep despite the fact that there was a lot of noise. (although)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. I was feeling well but I went home early. (though)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. I had an umbrella but I got very wet in the rain. (even though)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Although my foot was injured, I managed to walk to the nearest village. (in spite of)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. He was very tired. He couldn’t go to school. (so)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. She was very lazy. She failed the exam. (because)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

21
9. She was very industrious. She passed the exam. (because of)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. He was very busy. He couldn’t go to the concert. (therefore)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. He drove so fast. He had an accident. (because of)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. He was lazy. He failed the exam. (if)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. Alan is beautiful. Many boys flirt her. (so)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Practice 4: Fill in the gap in the following sentences with until or by the time that
1. Please wait ………..I return.
2. Don’t wait………… I come back.
3. ……….. I come back, I want you to be on your way.
4. They had left……….we returned.
5. It was dark ………they arrived.
6. They did not arrive………it was dark.
7. We rode hard……it was dark.
8. Don’t pour the water in………..it’s boiling.
9. The waiter was boiling……….the electricity failed.
10. The electricity was not cut off…….the water boiled.
Practice 5: Make 10 sentences using adverbial clauses
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

22
III. NOUN CLAUSES
Definition
Noun clauses are dependent clauses that function as noun. Noun clauses, like gerunds
and infinitives used as nouns, are singular, thus they can always be replaced by the third
person singular pronoun it.
Types and functions
1. That-clause
That-clauses are built in a very simple way. That, the introductory word, is followed
by a statement in its normal word order. The formula looks like this:
That-clause = that + statement
That-clause can be:
- subject: That the game was canceled surprised us.
- direct object: I told him that he was wrong.
I knew
- subject complement: The assumption is that things will improve.
- appositive: Your assumption, that things will improve, is unfounded.
- adjectival complement: I’m sure that things will improve.
* Note:
- That can be omitted, but not in the case it is the first word in a sentence. For example:
The assumption is things will improve. (Correct)
The game was canceled surprised us. (Incorrect)
- That should not be omitted when there is linguistic material between the verb of
independent clause and the subject of the that-clause
We hoped, in a moment of optimism, that the government would consider our problem.
2. Wh-clause
Wh-clauses are noun clauses beginning with Wh-words such as how, what, when,
where, which, who, whom, whose, why, whatever, whomever, whoever, whichever, however,
whenever, wherever.
23
- subject: How the book will sell depends on the author
- direct object: I can’t imagine what make him do it
- indirect object: He gave whoever came to the door a smile
- subject complement: The mystery is how he overcame all those troubles
- appositive: My original question, why he did it, has not been answered
- adjectival complement: I wasn’t certain whose house I was in
- prepositional complement: Vote for whichever candidate you like
3. Yes-no interrogative clause
The dependent yes-no interrogative clauses are formed with if or whether. They can be:
- subject: Whether it rains or not doesn’t matter
- object: I don’t care whether/ if it will rain
* Note:
- Only whether can introduce a clause functioning as subject
Whether your car breaks down is not important to me (correct)
If your car breaks down is not important to me (incorrect)
- Only whether can follow prepositions
Our final decision depends on whether you agree or not (correct)
Our final decision depends on if you agree or not (incorrect)
- A clause beginning with whether cannot be negative, except as the second part of an
alternative question:
I don’t care if it doesn’t rain (correct)
whether it doesn’t rain (incorrect)
whether it rains or (whether it does) not (correct)

24
Practice 1: Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose
they serve.
1. The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.
2. He said that he would not go.
3. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.
4. He said that he was not feeling well.
5. I cannot rely on what he says.
6. I don’t know where he has gone.
7. He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.
8. The news that he is alive has been confirmed.
9. The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal.
10. The report that only ten persons were killed in the riots is not true.
Practice 2: Choose the correct answers
1. Do you know _____________________?
A. where we will take the TOEFL test
B. where will we take the TOEFL test
C. where we will taking the TOEFL test
D. which we will take the TOEFL test
2. _________________changed his life forever.
A. That Tomo did
B. What did Tomo do
C. What Tomo did
D. Who Tomo did
3. ______________is unimportant to her peers.
A. If she passes
B. Whether does she pass or not
C. Whether she pass or not
D. Whether she passes or not
4. Sue Ellen does not know ____________________.
A. who the rest of the students are going to come to the movies
25
 B. what the rest of the students are going to come to the movies
C. if the rest of the students are going to come to the movies
D. which the rest of the students are going to come to the movies
5. I wonder _________________.
A. whether or not will she finish her graduate studies before December
B. whether or not she will finish her graduate studies before December
C. if she finish her graduate studies before December
D. whether or not she finish her graduate studies before December
6. They have to do __________________ .
A. whatever he says
B. whoever he says
C. whose he says
D. whomever he says
7. Dorothy Punch taught us __________________.
A. how improve our listening and pronunciation skills
B. how should we improve our listening and pronunciation skills
C. how our listening and pronunciation skills to be improved
D. how to improve our listening and pronunciation skills
8. _________________ is obvious at this point.
A. That she did not pass the TOEFL
B. What she did not pass the TOEFL
C. That did she not pass the TOEFL
D. That she not did pass the TOEFL
9. It is a fact ____________________.
A. how earthquakes are quite prevalent in San Bernardino
B. what earthquakes are quite prevalent in San Bernardino
C. that earthquakes are quite prevalent in San Bernardino
D. that earthquake are quite prevalent in San Bernardino
10. _____________________ was a suggestion by his friend who had successfully passed
the beastly exam.
26
 A. What he should go to the next TOEFL seminar
B. That he should go to the next TOEFL seminar
C. That should he go to the next TOEFL seminar
D. Why he should go to the next TOEFL seminar
Practice 3: Combine each pair of sentences below so as to form one sentence containing a
noun clause. Say in each case the function of the noun clause
1. Is it too expensive or not? That is the crucial question.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. We have only enough water for two more days. I told you so.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. How can we reduce this high temperature? My problem is that.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Don’t they agree with her? I’m not sure.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. People bought coffee pots. The company sent any of those people a $5 refund
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Your car has been stolen. I am very sorry.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Where did the fire start? That was a complete mystery.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. He needs more time to practice on English grammar. That is our conclusion.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. We had to leave in the next day. This decision was made after a long discussion.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
10. When did the fever begin? I’m not quite sure.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
11. My computer is broken. That is a disaster.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
12. When did the fever begin? The seriousness of his condition depends on that.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
27
13. Does it cost too much? That depends on how badly you want it.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
14. What caused the explosion? No one ever discovered.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
15. Does it cost too much? My decision will depends on that.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
16. Why didn’t he say he was feeling ill? The question is irrelevant at his stage.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
Exercise 4: Use the following sets of words and phrases to write complete sentences
1. That/ Bill/ complete/ successfully/ MBA study/ not surprise us.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. What/ annoy/ me/ way/ he/ boast/ what/ he/ do.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. She/ still/ keep/ letter/ whatever/ it/ be/ hand ?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. I/ not sure/ where/ I/ go.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. It/ unfortunate/ that/ weather/ so hot/ camping site.I/ hear/ that/ there/ serious/ traffic
accident/ Regent Street.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. I/ not know/ how/ he/ convince/ his parents.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Audiences/ give/ whoever/ win/ race/ applause.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Problem/ be/ what/ should/ do/ violence/ family.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. I/ not/ know/ if/ he/ tell/ truth.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
10. My advice/ be/ that/ you/ go to doctor.
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……………………………………………………………………………………………..
11. He/ famous/ what/ he/ write.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
12. Success/ our presentation/ dependent/ whether/ prepare/ carefully/ or not.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
13. Good/ news/ that/ he/ win/ scholarship/ make/ his mother/ proud/ happy.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
14. He/ certain/ that/ his friends/ come.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
15. Whether/ you/ finish/ assignment/ be not/ my concern.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

29
 Unit 5: Punctuating Sentence Combinations

I. Commas

One of the punctuation clues to reading you may encounter is the comma. The comma is a
punctuation mark that indicates a pause in a sentence or a separation of things in a list. Commas
can be used in a variety of ways. Look at some of the following sentences to see how you might
use a comma when writing a sentence.
• Introductory word: Personally, I think the practice is helpful.
• Lists: The barn, the tool shed, and the back porch were destroyed by the wind.
• Coordinating adjectives: He was tired, hungry, and late.
• Conjunctions in compound sentences: The bedroom door was closed, so the
children knew their mother was asleep.
• Interrupting words: I knew where it was hidden, of course, but I wanted them to find
it themselves.
• Dates, addresses, greetings, and letters: The letter was postmarked December 8,
1945.
Commas after an Introductory Word or Phrase
You may notice a comma that appears near the beginning of the sentence, usually after a word or
phrase. This comma lets the reader know where the introductory word or phrase ends and the main
sentence begins.
Without spoiling the surprise, we need to tell her to save the date.
In this sentence, without spoiling the surprise is an introductory phrase, while we need to tell her
to save the date is the main sentence. Notice how they are separated by a comma. When only an
introductory word appears in the sentence, a comma also follows the introductory word.
Ironically, she already had plans for that day.
PRACTICE 1
Look for the introductory word or phrase. On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and add
a comma to correct the sentence.
1. Suddenly the dog ran into the house.
2. In the blink of an eye the kids were ready to go to the movies.
3. Confused he tried opening the box from the other end.
4. Every year we go camping in the woods.
5. Without a doubt green is my favorite color.

30
 6. Hesitating she looked back at the directions before proceeding.
7. Fortunately the sleeping baby did not stir when the doorbell rang.
8. Believe it or not the criminal was able to rob the same bank three times.

Commas in a List of Items

When you want to list several nouns in a sentence, you separate each word with a comma. This
allows the reader to pause after each item and identify which words are included in the grouping.
When you list items in a sentence, put a comma after each noun, then add the word and before the
last item. However, you do not need to include a comma after the last item.
We’ll need to get flour, tomatoes, and cheese at the store.
The pizza will be topped with olives, peppers, and pineapple chunks.
Commas and Coordinating Adjectives
You can use commas to list both adjectives and nouns. A string of adjectives that describe a noun
are called coordinating adjectives. These adjectives come before the noun they modify and are
separated by commas. One important thing to note, however, is that unlike listing nouns, the word
and does not always need to be before the last adjective.
It was a bright, windy, clear day.
Our kite glowed red, yellow, and blue in the morning sunlight.

PRACTICE 2
On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned so far about comma use to add commas to
the following sentences.
1. Monday Tuesday and Wednesday are all booked with meetings.
2. It was a quiet uneventful unproductive day.
3. We’ll need to prepare statements for the Franks Todds and Smiths before their portfolio
reviews next week.
4. Michael Nita and Desmond finished their report last Tuesday.
5. With cold wet aching fingers he was able to secure the sails before the storm.
6. He wrote his name on the board in clear precise delicate letters.

31
Commas before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences
Commas are sometimes used to separate two independent clauses. The comma comes after the first
independent clause and is followed by a conjunction, such as for, and, or but.
He missed class today, and he thinks he will be out tomorrow, too.
He says his fever is gone, but he is still very tired.
PRACTICE 3
On your own sheet of paper, create a compound sentence by combining the two independent clauses
with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
1. The presentation was scheduled for Monday. The weather delayed the presentation for four
days.
2. He wanted a snack before bedtime. He ate some fruit.
3. The patient is in the next room. I can hardly hear anything.
4. We could go camping for vacation. We could go to the beach for vacation.
5. I want to get a better job. I am taking courses at night.
6. I cannot move forward on this project. I cannot afford to stop on this project.
7. Patrice wants to stop for lunch. We will take the next exit to look for a restaurant.
8. I’ve got to get this paper done. I have class in ten minutes
9. The weather was clear yesterday. We decided to go on a picnic.
10. I
have never dealt with this client before. I know Leonardo has worked with them. Let’s ask
Leonardo for his help
Commas before and after Interrupting Words
In conversations, you might interrupt your train of thought by giving more details about
what you are talking about. In a sentence, you might interrupt your train of thought with a
word or phrase called interrupting words3. Interrupting words can come at the beginning
or middle of a sentence. When the interrupting words appear at the beginning of the
sentence, a comma appears after the word or phrase.
If you can believe it, people once thought the sun and planets orbited around Earth.
Luckily, some people questioned that theory.

When interrupting words come in the middle of a sentence, they are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas. You can determine where the commas should go by looking for the part of the
sentence that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.
An Italian astronomer, Galileo, proved that Earth orbited the sun.
We have known, for hundreds of years now, that the Earth and other planets exist in a solar
system.

32
 PRACTICE 4
On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and insert commas to separate the interrupting
words from the rest of the sentence.
1. I asked my neighbors the retired couple from Florida to bring in my mail.
2. Without a doubt his work has improved over the last few weeks.
3. Our professor Mr. Alamut drilled the lessons into our heads.
4. The meeting is at noon unfortunately which means I will be late for lunch.
5. We came in time for the last part of dinner but most importantly we came in time for dessert.
6. All of a sudden our network crashed and we lost our files.
7. Alex hand the wrench to me before the pipe comes loose again.

Commas in Dates, Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters

You also use commas when you write the date, such as in cover letters and e-mails. Commas are used
when you write the date, when you include an address, and when you greet someone.
If you are writing out the full date, add a comma after the day and before the year. You do not need to
add a comma when you write the month and day or when you write the month and the year. If you need
to continue the sentence after you add a date that includes the day and year, add a comma after the end
of the date.
The letter is postmarked May 4, 2001.
Her birthday is May 5.
He visited the country in July 2009.
I registered for the conference on March 7, 2010, so we should get our tickets soon.
You also use commas when you include addresses and locations. When you include an address in a
sentence, be sure to place a comma after the street and after the city. Do not place a comma between
the state and the zip code. Like a date, if you need to continue the sentence after adding the address,
simply add a comma after the address.
We moved to 4542 Boxcutter Lane, Hope, Missouri 70832.
After moving to Boston, Massachusetts, Eric used public transportation to get to work.
Greetings are also separated by commas. When you write an e-mail or a letter, you add a comma after
the greeting word or the person’s name. You also need to include a comma after the closing, which is
the word or phrase you put before your signature.

Hello,
I would like more information about your job posting.
Thank you,
Anita Al-Sayf
Dear Mrs. Al-Sayf,
Thank you for your letter. Please read the attached document for details.
Sincerely,

33
 Jack FromontERCISE 5
PRACTICE 5
On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about comma usage to edit the following
paragraphs.
1. My brother Nathaniel is a collector of many rare unusual things. He has collected lunch boxes
limited edition books and hatpins at various points of his life. His current collection of unusual
bottles has over fifty pieces. Usually he sells one collection before starting another.
2. Our meeting is scheduled for Thursday March 20. In that time we need to gather all our
documents together. Alice is in charge of the timetables and schedules. Tom is in charge of
updating the guidelines. I am in charge of the presentation. To prepare for this meeting please
print out any e-mails faxes or documents you have referred to when writing your sample.

3. It was a cool crisp autumn day when the group set out. They needed to cover several miles
before they made camp so they walked at a brisk pace. The leader of the group Garth kept
checking his watch and their GPS location. Isabelle Raoul and Maggie took turns carrying the
equipment while Carrie took notes about the wildlife they saw. As a result no one noticed the
darkening sky until the first drops of rain splattered on their faces.
4. Please have your report complete and filed by April 15 2010. In your submission letter please
include your contact information the position you are applying for and two people we can
contact as references. We will not be available for consultation after April 10 but you may
contact the office if you have any questions. Thank you HR Department.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Punctuation marks provide visual cues to readers to tell them how to read a sentence.
Punctuation marks convey meaning.
• Commas indicate a pause or a list in a sentence.
• A comma should be used after an introductory word to separate this word from the main
sentence.
• A comma comes after each noun in a list. The word and is added before the last noun, which is
not followed by a comma.
• A comma comes after every coordinating adjective except for the last adjective.
• Commas can be used to separate the two independent clauses in compound sentences as long as
a conjunction follows the comma.
• Commas are used to separate interrupting words from the rest of the sentence.
• When you write the date, you add a comma between the day and the year. You also add a
comma after the year if the sentence continues after the date.
• When they are used in a sentence, addresses have commas after the street address, and the city.

34
 If a sentence continues after the address, a comma comes after the zip code.
• When you write a letter, you use commas in your greeting at the beginning and in your closing
at the end of your letter.

35
II. Semicolons
Another punctuation mark that you will encounter is the semicolon (;). Like most punctuation marks,
the semicolon can be used in a variety of ways. The semicolon indicates a break in the flow of a
sentence, but functions differently than a period or a comma. When you encounter a semicolon while
reading aloud, this represents a good place to pause and take a breath.
Semicolons to Join Two Independent Clauses
Use a semicolon to combine two closely related independent clauses. Relying on a period to separate
the related clauses into two shorter sentences could lead to choppy writing. Using a comma would
create an awkward run-on sentence.
Correct: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview; appearances are important.
Choppy: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview. Appearances are important.
Incorrect: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview, appearances are important.
In this case, writing the independent clauses as two sentences separated by a period is correct.
However, using a semicolon to combine the clauses can make your writing more interesting by creating
a variety of sentence lengths and structures while preserving the flow of ideas.
Semicolons to Join Items in a List
You can also use a semicolon to join items in a list when the items in the list already require commas.
Semicolons help the reader distinguish between items in the list.
Correct: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey; green, brown, and
black; or red, green, and brown.
Incorrect: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey, green, brown,
and black, or red, green, and brown.
By using semicolons in this sentence, the reader can easily distinguish between the three sets of colors.
Tip
Use semicolons to join two main clauses. Do not use semicolons with coordinating conjunctions such
as and, or, and but.
PRACTICE 1
On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons. If the sentence is
correct as it is, write OK.
1. I did not notice that you were in the office I was behind the front desk all day.
2. Do you want turkey, spinach, and cheese roast beef, lettuce, and cheese or ham, tomato, and
cheese?

3. Please close the blinds there is a glare on the screen.

4. Unbelievably, no one was hurt in the accident.
5. I cannot decide if I want my room to be green, brown, and purple green, black, and brown or
green, brown, and dark red.

36
6. Let’s go for a walk the air is so refreshing.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses.

• Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when those items already require a comma.

37
III. Colons

The colon (:) is another punctuation mark used to indicate a full stop. Use a colon to introduce lists,
quotes, examples, and explanations. You can also use a colon after the greeting in business letters and
memos.
Dear Hiring Manager:
To: Human Resources
From: Deanna Dean
Colons to Introduce a List
Use a colon to introduce a list of items. Introduce the list with an independent clause.
The team will tour three states: New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland.
I have to take four classes this semester: Composition, Statistics, Ethics, and Italian.
Colons to Introduce a Quote
You can use a colon to introduce a quote.
Mark Twain said it best: “When in doubt, tell the truth.”’
If a quote is longer than forty words, skip a line after the colon and indent the left margin of the quote
five spaces. Because quotations longer than forty words use line spacing and indentation to indicate a
quote, quotation marks are not necessary.
My father always loved Mark Twain’s words:
There are basically two types of people. People who accomplish things, and people who claim to
have accomplished things. The first group is less crowded.
Tip
Long quotations, which are forty words or more, are called block quotations. Block quotations
frequently appear in longer essays and research papers.
Colons to Introduce Examples or Explanations
Use a colon to introduce an example or to further explain an idea presented in the first part of a
sentence. The first part of the sentence must always be an independent clause; that is, it must stand
alone as a complete thought with a subject and verb. Do not use a colon after phrases like such as or for
example.
Correct: Our company offers many publishing services: writing, editing, and reviewing.
Incorrect: Our company offers many publishing services, such as: writing, editing, and reviewing.
Tip
Capitalize the first letter following a colon for a proper noun, the beginning of a quote, or the first letter
of another independent clause. Do NOT capitalize if the information following the colon is not a complete
sentence.
Proper noun: We visited three countries: Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
Beginning of a quote: My mother loved this line from Hamlet: “To thine own self be true.”’
Two independent clauses: There are drawbacks to modern technology: My brother’s cell phone died

38
 and he lost a lot of phone numbers.
Incorrect: The recipe is simple: Tomato, basil, and avocado.
PRACTICE 1
On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons or colons where
needed. If the sentence does not need a semicolon or colon, write OK.
1. Don’t give up you never know what tomorrow brings.
2. Our records show that the patient was admitted on March 9, 2010 January 13, 2010 and
November 16, 2009.
3. Allow me to introduce myself I am the greatest ice-carver in the world.

4. There are three ways to get to the grocery store by car, by bus, and by foot.
5. Listen closely you will want to remember this speech.
6. I have lived in Sedona, Arizona Baltimore, Maryland and Knoxville, Tennessee.
7. The boss’s message was clear Lateness would not be tolerated.

8. Next semester, we will read some more contemporary authors, such as Vonnegut, Miller, and
Orwell.
9. My little sister said what we were all thinking “We should have stayed home.”’
10. Trust me I have done this before.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Use a colon to introduce a list, quote, or example.

• Use a colon after a greeting in business letters and memos.

39
IV. Quotes
Quotation marks (“ ”) set off a group of words from the rest of the text. Use quotation marks to
indicate direct quotations of another person’s words or to indicate a title. Quotation marks always appear
in pairs.
Direct Quotations
A direct quotation is an exact account of what someone said or wrote. To include a direct quotation in
your writing, enclose the words in quotation marks. An indirect quotation is a restatement of what
someone said or wrote. An indirect quotation does not use the person’s exact words. You do not need to
use quotation marks for indirect quotations.
Direct quotation: Carly said, “I’m not ever going back there again.”
Indirect quotation: Carly said that she would never go back there.

Writing at Work
Most word processing software is designed to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
While this can be a useful tool, it is better to be well acquainted with the rules of punctuation than to
leave the thinking to the computer. Properly punctuated writing will convey your meaning clearly.
Consider the subtle shifts in meaning in the following sentences:
• The client said he thought our manuscript was garbage.
• The client said, “He thought our manuscript was garbage.”?
The first sentence reads as an indirect quote in which the client does not like the manuscript. But did he
actually use the word “garbage”? (This would be alarming!) Or has the speaker paraphrased (and
exaggerated) the client’s words?
The second sentence reads as a direct quote from the client. But who is “he” in this sentence? Is it a
third party?
Word processing software would not catch this because the sentences are not grammatically incorrect.
However, the meanings of the sentences are not the same. Understanding punctuation will help you
write what you mean, and in this case, could save a lot of confusion around the office!
Punctuating Direct Quotations
Quotation marks show readers another person’s exact words. Often, you will want to identify who is
speaking. You can do this at the beginning, middle, or end of the quote. Notice the use of commas and
capitalized words.
Beginning: Madison said, “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for
dinner.”
Middle: “Let’s stop at the farmers market,” Madison said, “to buy some fresh vegetables for
dinner.”
End: “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner,” Madison said.

40
 Speaker not identified: “Let’s stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”
Always capitalize the first letter of a quote even if it is not the beginning of the sentence. When using
identifying words in the middle of the quote, the beginning of the second part of the quote does not
need to be capitalized.
Use commas between identifying words and quotes. Quotation marks must be placed after commas and
periods. Place quotation marks after question marks and exclamation points only if the question or
exclamation is part of the quoted text.
Question is part of quoted text: The new employee asked, “When is lunch?”
Question is not part of quoted text: Did you hear her say you were “the next Picasso”?
Exclamation is part of quoted text: My supervisor beamed, “Thanks for all of your hard work!”
Exclamation is not part of quoted text: He said I “single-handedly saved the company thousands of
dollars”!
Quotations within Quotations
Use single quotation marks (‘ ’)9 to show a quotation within in a quotation.
Theresa said, “I wanted to take my dog to the festival, but the man at the gate said, ‘No dogs
allowed.’”
“When you say, ‘I can’t help it,’ what exactly does that mean?”
“The instructions say, ‘Tighten the screws one at a time.’”
Titles
Use quotation marks around titles of short works of writing, such as essays, songs, poems, short stories,
and chapters in books. Usually, titles of longer works, such as books, magazines, albums, newspapers,
and novels, are italicized.
“Annabelle Lee” is one of my favorite romantic poems.
The New York Times has been in publication since 1851.
Writing at Work
In many businesses, the difference between exact wording and a paraphrase is extremely important. For
legal purposes, or for the purposes of doing a job correctly, it can be important to know exactly what
the client, customer, or supervisor said. Sometimes, important details can be lost when instructions are
paraphrased. Use quotes to indicate exact words where needed, and let your coworkers know the source
of the quotation (client, customer, peer, etc.).
PRACTICE 1
Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper, and correct them by adding quotation
marks where necessary. If the sentence does not need any quotation marks, write OK.
1. Yasmin said, I don’t feel like cooking. Let’s go out to eat.
2. Where should we go? said Russell.
3. Yasmin said, it didn’t matter to her.

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 4. I know, said Russell, let’s go to the Two Roads Juice Bar.
5. Perfect! said Yasmin.
6. Did you know that the name of the Juice Bar is a reference to a poem? asked Russell.
7. I didn’t! exclaimed Yasmin. Which poem?
8. The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost, Russell explained.
9. Oh! said Yasmin, Is that the one that starts with the line, Two roads diverged in a yellow
wood?
10. That’s the one, said Russell.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes and titles of short works.
• Use single quotation marks to enclose a quote within a quote.
• Do not use any quotation marks for indirect quotations.

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V. Apostrophes
An apostrophe (’) is a punctuation mark that is used with a noun to show possession or to indicate
where a letter has been left out to form a contraction.
Possession
An apostrophe and the letter s indicate who or what owns something. To show possession with a
singular noun, add ’s.
Jen’s dance routine mesmerized everyone in the room.
The dog’s leash is hanging on the hook beside the door.
Jess’s sister is also coming to the party.
Notice that singular nouns that end in s still take the apostrophe s (’s) ending to show possession.
To show possession with a plural noun that ends in s, just add an apostrophe (’). If the plural noun
does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s (’s).

Plural noun that ends in s: The drummers’ sticks all moved in the same rhythm, like a machine.
Plural noun that does not end in s: The people’s votes clearly showed that no one supported the
management decision.
Contractions
A contraction is a word that is formed by combining two words. In a contraction, an apostrophe shows
where one or more letters have been left out. Contractions are commonly used in informal writing but
not in formal writing.
I do not like ice cream.
I don’t like ice cream.
Notice how the words do and not have been combined to form the contraction don’t. The apostrophe
shows where the o in not has been left out.
We will see you later.
We’ll see you later.
Tip
Be careful not to confuse it’s with its. It’s is a contraction of the words it and is.
Its is a possessive pronoun.
It’s cold and rainy outside. (It is cold and rainy outside.)
The cat was chasing its tail. (Shows that the tail belongs to the cat.)
When in doubt, substitute the words it is in a sentence. If sentence still makes sense, use the contraction
it’s.

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PRACTICE 1
On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding apostrophes. If the sentence is
correct as it is, write OK.
1. “What a beautiful child! She has her mothers eyes.”’
2. My brothers wife is one of my best friends.
3. I couldnt believe it when I found out that I got the job!
4. My supervisors informed me that I wouldnt be able to take the days off.
5. Each of the students responses were unique.
6. Wont you please join me for dinner tonight?

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Use apostrophes to show possession. Add ’s to singular nouns and plural nouns that do not end in
s. Add ’ to plural nouns that end in s.
• Use apostrophes in contractions to show where a letter or letters have been left out.

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VI. Parentheses
Parentheses ( ) are punctuation marks that are always used in pairs and contain material that is
secondary to the meaning of a sentence. Parentheses must never contain the subject or verb of a
sentence. A sentence should make sense if you delete any text within parentheses and the parentheses.
Attack of the Killer Potatoes has to be the worst movie I have seen (so far).
Your spinach and garlic salad is one of the most delicious (and nutritious) foods I have ever tasted!
PRACTICE 1
On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding parentheses. If the sentence is
clear as it is, write OK.
1. Are you going to the seminar this weekend I am?
2. I recommend that you try the sushi bar unless you don’t like sushi.
3. I was able to solve the puzzle after taking a few moments to think
about it.
4. Please complete the questionnaire at the end of this letter.
5. Has anyone besides me read the assignment?
6. Please be sure to circle not underline the correct answers.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Parentheses enclose information that is secondary to the meaning of a sentence.

Parentheses are always used in pairs.

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VII. Dashes

A dash (—)13 is a punctuation mark used to set off information in a sentence for emphasis. You can
enclose text between two dashes, or use just one dash. To create a dash in Microsoft Word, type two
hyphens together. Do not put a space between dashes and text.
Arrive to the interview early—but not too early.
Any of the suits—except for the purple one—should be fine to wear.
PRACTICE 1
On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding dashes. If the sentence is clear
as it is, write OK.
1. Which hairstyle do you prefer short or long?
2. I don’t know I hadn’t even thought about that.
3. Guess what I got the job!
4. I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.
5. You have all the qualities that we are looking for in a candidate intelligence, dedication, and a
strong work ethic.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Dashes indicate a pause in text.

• Dashes set off information in a sentence to show emphasis.

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VIII. Hyphens
A hyphen (-)14 looks similar to a dash but is shorter and used in different ways.
Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as One
Use a hyphen to combine words that work together to form a single description.
The fifty-five-year-old athlete was just as qualified for the marathon as his younger opponents.
My doctor recommended against taking the medication, since it can be habit-forming.
My study group focused on preparing for the midyear review.
Hyphens When a Word Breaks at the End of a Line
Use a hyphen to divide a word across two lines of text. You may notice that most word-processing
programs will do this for you. If you have to manually insert a hyphen, place the hyphen between two
syllables. If you are unsure of where to place the hyphen, consult a dictionary or move the entire word
to the next line.
My supervisor was concerned that the team meet-
ing would conflict with the client meeting.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Hyphens join words that work as one adjective.

 Hyphens break words across two lines of text.

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PRACTICE 1
Each sentence contains a punctuation error. On your own sheet of paper, correct each sentence by
adding the correct punctuation. The headings will let you know which type of punctuation mistakes to
look for. If the sentence does not need corrections, write OK.
Commas

1. The wedding will be July 13 2012.

2. The date by the way is the anniversary of the day that they met.
3. The groom the bride and their parents are all planning the event.
4. Actually all of their friends and relatives are involved in the planning.
5. The bride is a baker so she will be making the wedding cake herself.
6. The photography the catering and the music will all be friends.

Semicolons
1. Some people spend a lot of money hiring people for wedding services they are lucky to have
such talented friends.
2. The flowers will be either roses, daisies, and snapdragons orchids, tulips, and irises or peonies
and lilies.
Colons
1. There will be three colors for the wedding: white, black, and gold.

2. They’ve finally narrowed down the dinner choices salmon, steak, and a vegan stew.
3.Their wedding invitations contained the following quote from the Roman poet Ovid If you want
to be loved, be lovable.
Quotes

1. The invitations said that the wedding would be “outdoor casual.”’

2. “What exactly does ‘outdoor casual’ mean?” I asked the bride.
3. She told me to dress comfortably and wear shoes that do not sink into the ground.
Apostrophes

1. On the day of the wedding, the grooms parents were going to rent a limo.
2. My brothers wife will make the arrangements.
3. Shes a great party organizer.
Parentheses
1. On the day of the wedding, the bride looked more beautiful than ever and I’ve known her for
fifteen years.
2. All the details were perfect in my opinion.
Dashes

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 1. Everyone danced at the wedding except my mother.
2. It was to be expected she just had hip surgery.
Hyphens

1. The groom danced with his new mother in law.

2. It was a spectacular, fun filled day for everyone.

PRACTICE 2
Each sentence contains a punctuation error. On your own sheet of paper, correct each sentence by
adding commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, parentheses, hyphens, and dashes as needed.
1. My mothers garden is full of beautiful flowers.
2. She has carefully planted several species of roses peonies and irises.
3. She is especially proud of her thirty year old Japanese maple tree.
4. I am especially proud of the sunflowers I planted them!
5. You should see the birds that are attracted to the garden hummingbirds, finches, robins, and
sparrows.
6. I like to watch the hummingbirds they are my favorite.
7. We spend a lot of time in the garden planting weeding and just enjoying the view.
8. Each flower has its own personality some seem shy and others seem bold.
9. Arent gardens wonderful?
10. You should come visit sometime Do you like to garden?

PRACTICE 3
The following paragraph contains errors in punctuation. On your own sheet of paper, correct the
paragraph by adding commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, parentheses, hyphens, and dashes as
needed. There may be more than one way to correct the paragraph.
May 18 2011
Dear Hiring Manager
Allow me to introduce myself in my previous position I was known as the King of Sales. I hope to earn
the same title within your company. My name is Frances Fortune. I have thirteen years experience in
corporate sales and account management. I have been the top rated seller for two years in a row in my
previous position. Clients recognize me as dependable honest and resourceful. I have a strong work
ethic and great interpersonal skills. I excel at goal setting and time management. However you don’t
have to take my word for it I will be happy to provide personal and professional references upon
request. Youre welcome to contact my previous employer to inquire about my work performance. I
look forward to speaking with you in person in the near future.
Sincerely

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 UNIT 6: PARALLELISM AND SENTENCE PROBLEMS
I. Parallelism
Parallelism means that the sentence structures should be grammatically balanced. It is the
repetition of grammatical patterns within a sentence or a series of sentences. By using
similar grammatical forms to express equal ideas, your sentences will flow smoothly, and
your writing style will improve.
Here are some examples of parallel elements.

These elements, on the other hand, are not parallel.

Example:
Words and Phrases
With the -ing form (gerund):
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
With infinitive phrases:
Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
Not Parallel: Mary likes to hike, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
With adverbial phrases:
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.
Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately,
and in a detailed manner.
Clauses
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
— Or —

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The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do
some warm-up exercises before the game.
Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they
should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Lists After a Colon
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Conjunctions- and, or, but
Parallel: I enjoy biking and walking down by the pier
Not Parallel: I enjoy biking and to walk down by the pier.
Parallel: Boy Scouts at the camp can learn cooking, canoeing, swimming, or rope-
making.
Not Parallel: Boy Scouts at the camp can learn cooking, canoeing, swimming, or how to
make ropes.
Parallel: The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial
aircraft.
Not Parallel: The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not commercial
aircraft.
Correlative Conjunctions: both………..and, either…..or, neither…….nor, not
only……but also.
• We were told to either reduce the staff or find new customers.
• Agnes was neither going to classes nor doing her assignments.
• I would like to buy both a new house and a new car.
• As young recruits, we were told not only what to do but also what to think.

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Practice 1: Circle the response that correctly completes the sentence in a parallel
manner.

52
Practice 2: Rewrite each of the following sentences, using parallel structure.
1. The summer in Louisiana is very hot and has high humidity.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Teresa is a gifted woman- a chemist, does the carpentry, and she can cook.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The shape of the rock, how big it was, and its colors reminded me of a small turtle.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. He is an affectionate husband, a thoughtful son, and kind to his kids.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
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5. Joe would rather work on a farm than spending time in an office.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Every afternoon in the mountains, it either rains or there is hail.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Sesame Street teaches children nursery rhymes, songs, how to be courteous, and being
kind.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
II. Sentence Problems
1. Sentence Fragments
Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't contain a complete idea. A
common fragment sentence is a dependent clause standing alone without an independent
clause.
• I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't study.
• She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very good idea.
• She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind her.
• I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist who left Europe
to live in the USA.
Study the following four examples of sentence fragments and the suggested methods for
correcting them.
Fragment 1: Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to going to school.
Problem: This is a subordinate clause (an adverb clause of reason).
To correct: Attach it to an independent clause.
Complete Sentence: Because some students have part-time jobs in addition to going to
school, they have very little free time.
Fragment 2: For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment.
Problem: No main verb
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a subject and a verb.
Complete Sentence: For example, the cost of renting an apartment has increased.
Fragment 3: Having no money and being lonely in the big city.
Problem: This is a participial phrase. It has no subject or verb.
To correct: (a) Rewrite the phrase to include a subject and a verb.
(b) Attach the phrase to an independent clause.
Complete Sentences:
(a) She had no money and was lonely in the big city.
(b) Having no money and being lonely in the big city, the woman committed suicide.

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Fragment 4: Many people who get married before they are mature enough.
Problem: This is a noun followed by a dependent (adjective) clause.
To correct: Rewrite the clause by eliminating the adjective clause aspect.
Complete Sentence: Many people get married before they are mature enough.
Practice 3: For each following statement, identify whether the main subject is
missing, the main verb is missing or whether the sentence is complete.

55
Practice 4: Read the following sentences. Mark them F if they are sentence fragments or
S if they are complete sentences. On a separate piece of paper, rewrite each fragment to
make a complete sentence.
1. Looking at the yellow leaves on the path.
2. The desire of all mankind to live in peace and freedom, for example.
3. Second, the fact that men are physically stronger than women.
4. The best movie that I saw last year.
5. For example, many students have part-time jobs.
6. Although people want to believe that all men are created equal.
7. Finding a suitable marriage partner is a challenging task.
8. Many of my friends who didn’t have the opportunity to go to college.
9. Working during the morning and attending classes during the afternoons.
10. Because I don’t feel that grades in college have any value.
11. The nuclear accident that occurred in Russia in 1968, the worst nuclear accident in
history.
12. The first hint of the tragedy came two days after the accident occurred.
13. I often wonder about the road not taken.
14. Eyes beaming and tears of joy streaming down her cheeks.
15. The aroma of home-made bread always makes me think of my dad.
2. Choppy Sentences
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. They are the result of using too many
simple sentences, like those that follow. Although simple sentences are quite effective
sometimes, overuse of them is considered poor style in academic writing.
Example:
a. Choppy: I sewed a set of buttons onto my coat. The buttons were shiny. The buttons
were black. The coat was old. The coat was green.
Correct: I sewed a set of shiny black buttons onto my old green coat.
b. Choppy: Martha moved in the desk chair. Her moving was uneasy. The chair was hard.
She worked at her assignment. The assignment was for her English class.
Correct:
• Martha moved uneasily in the hard desk chair, working at the assignment
for her English class.
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 • Moving uneasily in the desk chair, Martha worked at her assignment for her
English class.
• Martha moved uneasily in the hard desk chair as she worked at her
assignment for her English class.
• While she worked at the assignment for her English class, Martha moved
uneasily in the hard desk chair.
Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three simple sentences to
make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make one compound or a
complex sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the simple sentences are equal
or whether one sentence is dependent on the other.
- If the simple sentences are equal, make a compound sentence, using a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a conjunctive adverb (moreover,
however, otherwise, therefore, etc.)
- If one sentence depends on the other, make a complex sentence, using a
subordinating conjunction (who, which, when, although, because, since, if, etc.)

Practice 5: Improve the following choppy sentences by combining them to make

either compound or complex sentences:
1. Gasoline is becoming expensive. Automobile manufacturers are producing smaller
cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.
2. The computer has undoubtedly benefited humanity. The computer has also created
problems for humanity.
3. Government and private agencies have spent billions of dollars advertising the dangers
of smoking. The number of smokers is still increasing.
4. Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. Some students go to college
to get a degree.
5. There is no time to make a pot roast. There is no time to cook a chicken. There is no
time to prepare a stew.
6. The grading system at our college should be abolished. The students don’t like getting
grades. The instructors don’t enjoy giving grades.

57
3. Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written
one after another with no punctuation.
• I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have ever visited.
• Getting married is easy staying married is a different matter.
A comma splice is a sentence in which two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by
a comma without a coordinating conjunction.
• I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very clearly.
• He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.
A run-on/ comma splice can be corrected by adding:
A period
• Getting married is easy. Staying married is a different matter.
A semicolon
• Getting married is easy; staying married is a different matter.
A coordinating conjunction
• Getting married is easy, but staying married is a different matter.
A subordinating conjunction
• Although getting married is easy, staying married is a different matter.
Practice 6: Select better correction for each of the run-on sentences by circling the
correct option.

58
59
Practice 7: Correct the following run-on / comma splice sentences.
1. A foreign student faces many problems, for example, he has to cope with a new
culture.
2. San Francisco is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people many cultures and ethnic
groups living there.
3. Learning a new language is like learning to swim it takes a lot of time.
4. Ask for assistance at the reference desk in the library, there is always a librarian there.
5. Hang-gliding is a dangerous sport you can easily break your leg.
6. You can’t come into this room we are having a lesson.
7. I need a hammer, I am going to repair the shed.
8. My husband is very upright if I hazard receiving the bribe and he knows he will blame
me.
9. I do not like the registration process, I know that at this point I have no choice but to
go through with it.
10. He even quit his summer job this year he did not want to get up early each morning.
Practice 8: Some of the following sentences are run-ons or comma splices, and some are
correct. Check each sentence. If it is incorrect, write RO or CS in the space at the left. If
the sentence is correct, leave the space blank. Then on a separate sheet of paper, rewrite
the incorrect sentences correctly.
Example:
..RO..Two letters arrived on Monday a third came on Wednesday.
..........An encyclopedia is a valuable source of information, it contains summaries of
every area of knowledge.
....... Because of the rapid expansion of human knowledge, it is difficult to keep
encyclopedia current.
....... ..Almost as soon as an encyclopedia is published, it becomes obsolete.
..........Home editions encyclopedias are shorter and more concise than library editions,
they don’t contain as much detailed information.
..........Articles in encyclopedias are written by experts in each subject, who are often
university professors.

60
..........An editor of an encyclopedia doesn’t write articles he only collects and edits
articles written by other experts.
..........To find a book on a certain subject, you should look in the card catalog but to find
a magazine article on a subject, you should look in a periodical index.
..........A periodical index, which is also called a periodical guide, does not contain any
articles, it merely gives a list of articles and tell you where to find them.
.........The reference room of the library has several periodical indexes one is the Reader’s
Guide to Periodical Literature.
......... If you can’t find any information on a subject, you can always ask a librarian to
help you, they are paid to assist students.
4. Stringy Sentences
A stringy sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses, often connected by a
coordinating conjunction such as and, or, so, and because, forming one very long
sentence.
• John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm clock did not ring,
so he was still asleep when his boss called him at 10.30 to ask where he was and
tell him that he would lose his job if he was late again.
• Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and its numbers are
increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where whale hunting has been banned,
it is still at risk of extinction as its habitat is being polluted by waste from oil
tankers and its main food, the plankton, is being killed off by harmful rays from
the sun, which can penetrate the earth's atmosphere because there is a huge hole in
the ozone layer over Antarctica.
Practice 9: Improve these stringy sentences.
1. He enrolled in an advanced calculus class, but he found it too difficult, so he
dropped it.
2. The tidal wave ruined the crops, and it destroyed several villages, and it caused
many deaths, so it was a real disaster.
3. The analysts worked many hours on the computer program, but they couldn’t find
the cause of the problem, so they finally gave up, and they went home.
4. Junk food is bad for your health, and it also contains no vitamins, and it damages
your stomach, so people shouldn’t eat it.
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5. The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to conserve
water every day, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse water, but the
situation is improving.

62