Chapter 03

Cell Biology
The cell is the basic unit of life and is composed of a plasma membrane and the cytoplasm, which
includes a nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.
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Functions of the Cell
General parts of a cell:
• Plasma (cell) membrane – outer boundary that allows cell interaction with its external
environment.
• Nucleus – directs cell activities.
• Cytoplasm – located between plasma membrane and nucleus; contains organelles that
perform specific functions.
Characteristic functions of the cell
• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance
Plasma Membrane
Functions:
• A boundary separating the cytoplasmic (intracellular) substances from the extracellular
environment of the cells.
• Encloses and supports the cell contents.
• Attaches to the extracellular environment or to other cells.
• The ability to recognize and communicate with other cells.
• Determines what moves into and out of cells.
Production of a membrane potential
An electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane that results from the cell’s regulation of ion
movement into and out of the cell.
• There are more positively charged ions along the outside of the plasma membrane,
giving it a positive charge.
• There are more negatively charged ions and proteins on the inside of the plasma
membrane, giving it a negative charge.
Composition of the Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane is primarily made of lipids and proteins with a very small amount of
carbohydrates.
• Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins)
on outer surface.
Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate.
• Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior of the cell
(hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of the membrane
(hydrophobic).
• Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid nature of the
membrane, providing stability to the membrane.
Fluid nature (fluid-mosaic model) provides/allows.
• Distribution of molecules within the membrane.
• Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is damaged.
• Membranes can fuse with each other.
Integral membrane proteins.
 • Extend deeply into membrane, often extending from one surface to the other.
• Can form channels through the membrane.
Peripheral membrane proteins.
• Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer or
to polar heads of phospholipids.
Glycoproteins or glycolipids.
Allow cells to identify one another or other molecules.
• Distinguish between self-cells and foreign cells.
• Recognition of oocyte by sperm cell.
• Intercellular communication.
Attachment Proteins
Integral proteins.
Cadherins – attach cells to other cells.
Integrins – function in pairs to attach to extracellular molecules.
• Sometimes allow communication due to contact with intracellular molecules.
Transport Proteins: Specificity and Competition
Involve carrier proteins or channels in the cell membrane.
Characteristics.
• Specificity for a single type of molecule based on shape.
• Competition among molecules of similar shape.
• Saturation: rate of transport limited to number of available carrier proteins.
Transport Proteins
Includes channel proteins, carrier proteins, and A T P-powered pumps.
Channel Proteins
Channel proteins – integral membrane proteins that form tiny channels through membrane.
• The channel determines the size, shape and charge of what can move through.
• Hydrophobic regions face outward toward the hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane.
• Hydrophilic regions face inward and line the tunnel.
• The charge of the hydrophilic tunnel determines the types of ions that can move through.
Leak and Gated Ion Channels
Leak ion channels (nongated ion channels): always open.
• Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to ions when the plasma
membrane is at rest.
Gated ion channels: opened or closed by certain stimuli.
• Ligand-gated ion channel: open in response to small molecules that bind to proteins or
glycoproteins.
• Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in charge across the plasma
membrane.
Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
Carrier Protein
Also called transporters.
Integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other.
1. Specific molecule enters the carrier.
2. Molecule attaches to binding site in carrier.
3. Protein changes shape to transport to the other side. Resumes original shape after
transport.
Carrier Protein
Carrier proteins come in several forms.
 • Uniporters – moves one ion/molecule.
• Symporters – move two ions/molecules in the same direction at the same time
(cotransport).
• Antiporters – move two ions/molecules in opposite directions at the same time
(countertransport).
Enzymes
• Enzymes: some act to catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane.
• Example: Surface cells of small intestine produce enzymes that digest dipeptides.
• Some membrane-associated enzymes are always active while other are activated by receptors
or G protein complexes.
Movement through the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
• Only allows certain substances to pass through it.
• Must maintain homeostasis though the composition inside and outside the cell are
different.
• Enzymes, other proteins, glycogen
• Cell volume must stay the same even with movement of materials into and out of the
cell.
• Lipid soluble molecules such as O2, CO2, and steroids readily dissolve in the lipid bilayer
to pass through the membrane.
• Large, non-lipid soluble molecules and ions need transport proteins or vesicles to pass
through the membrane.
Membrane Transport Mechanisms
Passive membrane transport – the cell does not expend A T P; movement from higher concentration
to lower concentration.
• Diffusion.
• Osmosis.
• Facilitated diffusion.
Active membrane transport – A T P is used to move from lower concentration to higher
concentration.
• Active transport.
• Secondary active transport.
Vesicular transport – uses a membrane-bound sac.
• Endocytosis.
• Exocytosis.
Diffusion
Net movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration in solution.
• Results from the constant random motion of all atoms, molecules, or ions in a solution.
• Particles move from both low to high concentration and high to low concentration with
the greater chance of moving from high to low concentration areas.
• Concentration gradient: concentration difference between two points. Solutes move
down their concentration gradient until an equilibrium is established.
• Solute and solvent particles will continue to move even once an equilibrium has been
established.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion
• The magnitude of the concentration gradient; the steeper the gradient, the faster diffusion
occurs.
 • The temperature of the solution; the higher the temperature, the greater the kinetic energy and
the faster diffusion occurs.
• The size of the diffusing molecules; the larger the particles, the slower the rate of diffusion.
• The viscosity of the solvent; viscosity is the fluid’s resistance to flow; the more viscous the
solvent, the more slowly diffusion occurs.
Osmosis
Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of low
concentration of solute (high amount of water) to an area of high concentration of solute (low amount
of water).
• Aquaporins – water channel proteins.
Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis.
Osmotic Pressure
Comparative terms used to describe osmotic pressures of solutions.
• Isosmotic: solutions with the same concentrations of solute particles; equal osmotic
pressures
• Solution with a greater concentration of solute is hyperosmotic; has a greater osmotic
pressure
• Solution with a lesser concentration of solute is hypoosmotic; has a lesser osmotic
pressure

Osmosis and Cells

Important because large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function.
• Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells when placed in a solution.
• Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) when placed in a solution; water moves out of the
cell.
• Hypotonic: cell swells and may rupture (lysis) when place in a solution; water moves
into the cell.
Facilitated diffusion: mediated transport process carried out by carrier/channel proteins; no A T P
required.
• Move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma
membrane.
• Amino acids and glucose in, manufactured proteins out.

Active Membrane Transport: Active Transport

• Requires A T P.
• Substances can be moved against their concentration gradients (that is, from low to
high), allowing the substance to accumulate on one side of the plasma membrane.
• Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate, the number of A T P pumps,
and amount of A T P.
• Example: sodium-potassium pump that creates electrical potentials across membranes.
Secondary Active Transport
Use of potential energy in concentration gradient of one substance (established by primary active
transport) to help move another substance.
1. A Na+−K+ pump maintains a concentration of Na+ that is higher outside the cell than inside.
2. Na+ move back into the cell through a transport protein that also moves glucose. The
concentration gradient for Na+ provides the energy required to move glucose against its
concentration gradient.
Vesicular Transport
Movement of larger substances by formation or release of a vesicle.
Requires A T P.
Types:
• Endocytosis: movement into cell.
• Phagocytosis: solid particle is ingested and large vesicle is formed.
• Pinocytosis: dissolved molecules ingested and small vesicles are formed.
• Exocytosis: movement out of cell.
Phagocytosis
• Transcytosis: movement through a cell by a combination of endocytosis on one surface and
exocytosis on the opposite surface.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm: cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane.
Composed of cytosol, cytoskeleton, cytoplasmic inclusions, organelles.
Cytosol is the fluid portion.
• Dissolved molecules, ions, and suspended molecules of proteins, especially enzymes.
Cytoskeleton
Supports the cell but allows for movements like changes in cell shape and movements of cilia.
• Microtubules: hollow tubes made of tubulin protein.
• Internal scaffold, transport, cell division.
• Components of centrioles, spindle fibers, cilia, and flagella.
• Actin filaments (microfilaments).
• Structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement.
• Intermediate filaments:
• mechanical strength of nerve cell extensions..
Cytoplasmic inclusions: aggregates of chemicals such as lipid droplets, melanin, glycogen, and
lipochromes.
3.8 The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Organelles: small specialized structures with particular functions.
• Most have membranes that separate interior of organelles from cytoplasm.
• Related to specific structure and function of the cell.
The Nucleus
• Large membrane-bound structure containing D N A.
• Consists of nucleoplasm surrounded by nuclear envelope which is a double membrane with
many fused areas called nuclear pores that regulate movement into/out of nucleus.
• D N A contained in nucleus specifies the structure of proteins.
• R N A serves as an intermediate during protein synthesis and consists of three types: m R N A, r
R N A, and t R N A.
• Nucleolus: dense region(s) within the nucleus where ribosomes are manufactured.
Chromosome Structure
• D N A is found in nucleus, associated with proteins called histones to form chromosomes.
• Nucleosomes are structural units of chromosomes.
• During much of cell cycle, chromosomes are dispersed as chromatin.
• During cell division, chromatin condenses into compact chromosomes.
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis.
Composed of a large and a small subunit.
Composed of ribosomal R N A (r R N A) + proteins.
Types:
• Free – synthesize proteins used inside the cell.
• Attached (to endoplasmic reticulum) – produce integral proteins and proteins secreted
from the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Organelle consisting of a network of membranes that is continuous with outer membrane of
nuclear envelope; internal spaces are cisternae.
• Rough ER: has attached ribosomes; where proteins are produced and modified.
• Smooth ER: no attached ribosomes; manufactures lipids, participates in detoxification, and
calcium ion storage.
Golgi Apparatus
• Flattened membrane sacs, containing cisternae, stacked on each other.
• Modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use.
• Substances packaged into transport vesicles.
Lysosomes.
• Form at the Golgi Apparatus.
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes that function in digesting cellular material.
• Digest material ingested by cell – nutrients and phagocytized bacteria.
• Digest organelles no longer functional (autophagy).
• Tay-Sachs Disease is a rare genetic disorder caused by the inability of lysosomal
enzymes to break down gangliosides, specialized membrane lipids of neurons.
Peroxisomes.
• Smaller than lysosomes.
• Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids.
• Hydrogen peroxide (toxic) is a by-product of breakdown.
• Also contain the enzyme catalase which breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen
Proteasomes.
• Consist of large protein complexes that are not surrounded by membranes.
• Proteins fold to form a barrel-like structure with enzymatic regions on the inside surface
that break down and recycle proteins in cell.
• Proteins at the ends of the barrel regulate which proteins are taken in for breakdown
and recycling.
Mitochondria
Major site of A T P synthesis.
Membranes:
• Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane; contain enzymes of the electron transport chain.
• Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane; contains the enzymes
for the citric acid or Krebs cycle.
Mitochondria increase in number when cell energy requirements increase.
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
Centrioles located in centrosome, a specialized zone near nucleus.
• Center of microtubule formation that are involved in cell shape and movement.
• There are 2 centrioles that are perpendicular to each other made of nine microtubule triplets.
Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and organize microtubules called spindle
fibers.

Cilia and Flagella

Appendages projecting from cell surfaces, capable of movement.
Cilia move materials over the surface of cells.
• For example, mucus in respiratory tract.
Flagella used for movement by sperm cells.
Microvilli
• Extension of plasma membrane that increases surface area; some modified as sensory
receptors.
• Normally many on each cell.
3.9 Genes and Gene Expression
• Genes are the functional units of heredity.
• Heredity is the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring.
• Each gene is a segment of a D M A molecule that specifies the structure of an R N A molecule
that can function on its own or produce a protein.
• The production of R N A and/or proteins from the information stored in D N A is called gene
expression.
10 Cell Cycle
Interphase: phase between cell divisions.
• Replication of D N A.
• Ongoing normal cell activities.
Mitosis: series of events that leads to the production of two cells by division of a mother cell into two
daughter cells. Cells are genetically identical.
• Prophase.
• Metaphase.
• Anaphase.
• Telophase.
Cytokinesis: division of cell cytoplasm.
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Interphase
Preparation for cell division
• Increase in cell size
• Replication of organelles
• Replication of D N A
• Centrioles duplicated
Subphases
• G1 – first gap phase – cells carries out normal activities
• S – synthesis phase – D N A is replicated
• G2 – second gap phase – preparation for division
Cells in a resting phase that are not actively dividing or that do not divide enter a G0 phase
Cell Division
Interphase – D N A replication occurs.
Phases of mitosis:
• Prophase – chromatin condenses, centrioles migrate to each pole.
• Prometaphase – spindle fibers extend from centrioles to centromeres of chromosomes
and attach to the kinetochore, nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
• Metaphase – chromosomes are aligned at the nuclear equator.
• Anaphase – spindles separate the chromatids that move to opposite poles, cytokinesis
begins.
 • Telophase – chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis
continues.
Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division, separate process from mitosis.
Apoptosis
• Programmed cell death to maintain normal cell numbers, removal of excess tissue, removal of
damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus infected cells, potential cancer cells.
• Regulated by specific genes that produce proteins that initiate cell changes that lead to cell
death.
• Macrophages will ingest the cell fragments.