EAPP REVIEWER

Lesson 1

Academic Reading

Reading- process of engaging with scholarly texts to understand, analyze, and

critically evaluate the content

-fundamental skill for students, researchers, and professionals who need to

comprehend complex ideas, theories, and research findings.

Aspects of academic reading

 Purposeful
-Academic reading is goal-oriented. Readers seek to understand specific
concepts, gather information, or evaluate arguments.

 Analytical
-Requires analyzing the structure, arguments, evidence, and methodology used
in the text.
-Involves evaluating the credibility and relevance of the information.

 Active engagement
-Involves interacting with the text through questioning, annotating,
summarizing, and reflecting.
-Encourages critical thinking and deep comprehension.

 Comprehensive
-Often involves reading various types of texts, including research articles, essays,
textbooks, and reports.
-Requires understanding of different academic structures and formats.

Strategies for affective Academic Reading

Previewing  skim text to get overview of its main idea
 Look at headings, subheadings, abstracts, introductions,
and conclusions.

Questioning  Before reading, formulate questions based on the title,

abstract, or introduction.
 During reading, generate questions about the content,
arguments, and evidence.

Annotating  Mark important passages, underline key points, and write

notes or comments in the margins.
 Highlight significant terms, concepts, and arguments.

Summarizing  summarize sections of the text in your own words

 helps understand and retention of information

Critical Thinking  Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments

presented.
 Consider the validity, reliability, and relevance of the
evidence and methodology.
Making  Relate the content to prior knowledge, other texts, or real-
Connections world applications.
 Helps integrate new information into existing
frameworks.

Reflecting  Reflect on how the reading impacts your understanding of

the topic.
 Consider implications, future research directions, or
practical applications.
Note Taking  Create organized notes that capture key points, concepts,
and references.
 Use tools like outlines, concept maps, or summary tables.

Challenges Ahead
1. Complex Language
-breakdown sentence
-look up familiar terms
- use context to aid comprehension

2. Defense Information
 -take breaks
-read in smaller section
-summarize frequently

3. Unfamiliar Topics
-Conduct preliminary research to build background knowledge and context.

4. Distractions
-Create a focused reading environment and eliminate interruptions.

5. Retention
-Review notes regularly, discuss the material with peers, and apply the knowledge
practically.
Benefits of Academic Reading

1. Enhance Knowledge
- Expands understanding of various subjects and disciplines.
-Keeps readers informed about current research and developments.
2. Develops Critical Thinking:
-Encourages analysis, evaluation, and synthesis of information.
-Fosters the ability to form reasoned judgments and arguments.
3. Improves Writing Skills:
-Exposure to different writing styles, structures, and vocabularies.
-Helps develop clear, precise, and well-argued writing.
4. Supports Research
-Provides the foundation for conducting and reporting research.
-Helps identify research gaps and formulate hypotheses.

LESSON 2
Academic Writing & Academic Texts

Academic Writing
-formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications.
-characterized by its clear, concise, and structured approach to presenting
arguments, research findings, and analysis.

Academic Text
- a written work that is produced in an academic setting and is intended for an
academic audience.
-characterized by its formal tone, structured format, and evidence-based content.
- used to communicate ideas, research findings, and scholarly discussions

Characteristics of Academic Text

Formal Tone Structured Format
 Uses formal language and avoids  Follows a clear and logical structure,
 colloquialisms, slang, and often including sections such as an
contractions. introduction, body, and conclusion.
 Maintains an objective and  Organized with headings and
impersonal tone. subheadings to guide the reader.
Evidenced-Based Analytical and Critical
 Relies on evidence from research,  Involves analysis, evaluation, and
data, and scholarly sources to synthesis of information.
support claims.  Encourages critical thinking and the
 Properly cites sources using a formation of reasoned arguments.
specific citation style (e.g., APA,
MLA, Chicago).
Specific Terminology
 Uses discipline-specific terminology
and jargon.
 Aims for precision and clarity in
presenting information.

Common Types of Academic Texts

1. Essays
-Written assignments that explore a specific topic or question.
-Typically include an introduction, thesis statement, body paragraphs, and
conclusion.
2. Research Papers
-In-depth studies that present original research or analysis.
-Structured with sections like abstract, introduction, literature review,
methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
3. Theses and Dissertations
-Extensive research projects required for advanced degrees.
-Involve original research and contribute new knowledge to the field.
4. Book Reviews
-Critically evaluate and analyze books, discussing their content, strengths,
weaknesses, and contributions to the field
5. Reports
-Present findings from research, experiments, or investigations.
-Include sections like introduction, methods, results, and recommendations.
6. Conference Papers
-Written presentations delivered at academic conferences, often summarizing
research findings or theoretical discussions.
7. Textbooks
-Provide comprehensive overviews of subjects, designed for educational purposes
and structured into chapters with explanations, examples, and exercises.

Purposes of Academic Texts

Communicate Research and Ideas Demonstrate Understanding and
 Share new knowledge, insights, and Critical Thinking
discoveries with the academic  Show mastery of a subject or topic
 community. through thoughtful analysis and
 Contribute to scholarly discourse argumentation.
and ongoing research in the field.  Engage with existing research and
contribute to academic debates.

Educate and Inform Document and Record

 Provide clear and well-supported  Create a permanent record of
information to educate and inform research findings, methodologies,
the audience. and analyses.
 Serve as learning resources for  Ensure transparency and
students and scholars reproducibility in research.

Examples of Academic Texts

1. Journal Articles
-Published in scholarly journals, peer-reviewed, and focused on specific research
questions or topics.
2. Academic Books
-Monographs or edited volumes that provide in-depth exploration of a particular
subject.
3. Review Articles
-Summarize and synthesize existing research on a topic, providing a comprehensive
overview and identifying future research directions.
4. Policy Paper
-Analyze and propose solutions to policy issues, often used in fields like public
policy, economics, and social sciences.
5. Grant Proposals
-Written requests for research funding, detailing the research question,
methodology, significance, and budget.

LESSON 3
The Structures of Academic Texts

Different structures commonly found in academic texts:

1. IMRaD (Introduction, Methods,  Introduction: Presents the research
Results, and Discussion) question or hypothesis, background
information, and the study's
 Commonly used in: Scientific objectives.
research papers  Methods: Describes the procedures
and techniques used to conduct the
research.
 Results: Summarizes the data and
findings of the study.
 Discussion: Interprets the results,
discusses their implications, and
 suggests future research directions.

2. Argumentative Structure  Introduction: Introduces the topic

and presents the thesis statement.
 Commonly used in: Essays, position  Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph
papers, and opinion pieces presents a specific argument or
piece of evidence supporting the
thesis. Counterarguments and
rebuttals may also be included.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the main
points and reinforces the thesis.

3. Problem-Solution Structure  Introduction: Identifies a problem or

issue.
 Commonly used in: Policy papers,  Problem Description: Provides
reports, and proposals details about the problem, its
causes, and its effects.
 Solution Proposal: Suggests one or
more solutions to address the
problem.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the
problem and proposed solutions,
often calling for action.

4.Cause-Effect Structure  Introduction: Introduces the topic

and states the purpose of the
 Commonly used in: Analytical analysis.
essays and reports  Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph
explores a cause and its
corresponding effect(s).
Alternatively, it can discuss one
cause and multiple effects or
multiple causes leading to one
effect.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the main
points and may discuss the broader
implications.
5.Compare-Contrast Structure  Introduction: Introduces the items
or concepts being compared and
 Commonly used in: Comparative contrasted.
analyses, literature reviews  Body Paragraphs: Organized either
by item (discussing all aspects of one
item before moving to the next) or
by point (discussing each point of
comparison or contrast for both
items).
  Conclusion: Summarizes the main
similarities and differences and may
draw a conclusion based on the
comparison.

6. Chronological Structure  introduction: Introduces the topic

and the time period covered.
 Commonly used in: Historical  Body Paragraphs: Organized in
analysis, narratives, case studies chronological order, detailing events
or developments as they occurred
over time.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the main
points and may reflect on the
significance of the historical events
or developments.

7. Thematic Structure  Introduction: Introduces the topic

and the themes to be discussed.
 Commonly used in: Literature  Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph or
reviews, thematic analyses section discusses a specific theme,
supported by evidence and
examples.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the main
themes and their implications or
connections to the overall topic.

8. Literature Review Structure  Introduction: Introduces the topic

and the scope of the literature
 Commonly used in: Research papers, review.
theses, dissertations
 Thematic or Chronological
Organization: Reviews existing
literature either by theme or in
chronological order, highlighting key
studies, methodologies, and
findings.
 Synthesis: Identifies gaps in the
literature, inconsistencies, and areas
for future research.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the findings
of the literature review and their
implications for the research
question.

9. Mixed Structure  Introduction: Sets the stage for the

analysis or review.
 Commonly used in: Complex  Body Paragraphs: Combines
analyses, comprehensive reviews elements of different structures as
needed (e.g., a literature review
section followed by a thematic
analysis).
 Conclusion: Ties together the
various elements and summarizes
the overall findings and implications.

SUMMARY ( LESSON 3)
 brief statement or account of something that consists of the main ideas and
important details of a text.
 there is no definite or exact length of a summary.
 the length of your summary depends on the main idea and key points you have
covered
 not a place for opinions
 not copy-pasted
 not writing down everything

Main Idea
 What the text is about
 Can be found in the topic sentence or thesis
 Explicit or implied

Key points
 arguments or information that are used to support the main idea
 may be developed or elaborated with supporting details.

Is a summary always in sentences or paragraph?

 Most of the time you are expected to write summaries of academic texts in
sentences or in a paragraph form
 There are others ways or strategies to summarize a text that do not require you
to write complete sentences.

Various Techniques in Summarizing a Variety of Academic Texts

OTHER TECHNIQUES

1. . One-Word Summaries
 Apply critical thinking skills to investigate, read about, and analyze the topic.
 Come up with one good word that fits the topic.
 Defend your word choice with a valid reason. It is not the choice of the one word
that makes this a powerful strategy, but the development of your reason.

2. GIST Strategy
 Title of the Text :
Source:
a. Read the article or section of the text.

b. Fill in the 5Ws and H where applicable

Who: Where:
What: Why:
When: How:

c. Write a 10-word GIST summary

3. Summary Star
 Using the shape of a star,
 first write your preferred one-word title for the article. It can be the theme or
the main idea of the article.
 Then, write two feelings the text conveys in the right corner.
 In the lower right corner of the star, write three words about the setting.
 Next, write four words to describe the problem or conflict.
 Lastly, write five words about the conclusion or ending of the text in the left
corner.

4. Chain of Events

5. Problem-solution Chart
6. Story Pyramid

7. Acrostics

8. R
AF
T

9. Key Points Summary

 You are to make a list of key points from the text in bullet form.

Two Categories of Summaries

 Informative Summaries
 Descriptive Summaries
 Informative Summaries
 objective reports on the text’s content
 accurately convey the information contained in a text or in other type of
resource. An informative summary should be objective i.e. “without personal
opinions in presenting the ideas in the source text”.are recommended for
scientific, non-fictional works or to present objective reports of factual
content.
 main types of informative summaries are:
 outlines
abstracts
synopses

Descriptive Summaries
 is very much rooted in expressing facts. It focuses on the essence of the item
under review, sharing the main point and any important, supporting details.
 The writer’s opinion is rarely found
 It is a concise description of the work, which means the writer uses as a few
words as possible to convey the essential elements of the item being
summarized..
 A writer uses a descriptive summary when he or she wants to gain and
express an understanding of what the author said in the original text.

Evaluative Summaries
 requires the writer to evaluate the item being summarized
 This classification of summary is opinion-heavy.
 While a few basic facts about the piece are required, such as the author and
the title and the main point of the piece, the remainder consists of the
summary writer’s viewpoints of the work.
 The author will detail his or her perception of the work in such areas as
intended audience and purpose and how well these are addressed in the
work
 longer than the typical descriptive summary
 to examine the original text for usefulness, validity, strength of argument, or
other important elements.

Main types of informative summaries

1. OUTLINES
 Present the plan or the “skeleton” of a written material
 Show the order and the relation between the parts of the written material

2. ABSTRACTS
 Present the major point of long piece of text or an article
 Helps readers to decide whether or not they want to read the longer text

3. SYNOPSIS
 Is a brief overview of an article, story, book, film, or other works
 Is a concise, chronological description of a historical event, news event, or other
experiences as they develop in time

Thesis Statements
 the main idea or main point of an informational text. It serves as a roadmap of
the text you are reading.
 provides direction or purpose to the text. It can be expressed anywhere in the
selection or passage you are reading.
 It can be seen at the beginning, middle or end of the text.

Key Features of Thesis Statement

1. A thesis statement states the main idea of the essay in a complete sentence, not
in a question. It must be in DECLARATIVE FORM.
2. Thesis statement is typically the last sentence in your introduction.
3. A good thesis statement often express a writer’s opinion or attitude on a
particular topic. This makes the thesis statement more specific and requires the
writer to explain or prove his/her opinion in the essay.
4. A good thesis statement often lists sub-points or subtopics.
5. Good thesis statement does not state the obvious or announce directly the topic.
Avoid using starters like, “The essay will discuss…or “I’m going to write about…”

The following are the key elements for a strong thesis statement:

1. It is not a fact.
 A fact is irrefutable. Writing a fact as a thesis makes no argument.
 Weak: Cats spend most of their time sleeping.
 Strong: Cats are better than dogs because they keep pests at bay and they
require less work than puppies.

2. It is not a question.
 A question simply does not express one’s claim or comment about a topic.
 Weak: What are the advantages of keeping a pet at home?
 Strong: A person who wants to live happily in life should own a pet because of
their ability to help decrease depression, stress and anxiety.

3. It is not an announcement.
 Avoid saying what you will discuss in the text.
 Weak: This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of owning a pet.
 Strong: Owning a pet brings good than burden because they can lower stress
levels, make one feels safe and teach their owners responsibility.

4. It is not too broad.

 Avoid making vague and confusing thesis statements by making specific and
focused thesis.
 Weak: Too much alcohol consumption is not good for the health.
 Strong: Excessive alcohol consumption increases the risk to health problems as it
may cause liver damage, stomach distress and even cancer.

5. It is a complete sentence.
 A phrase does not convey complete ideas or thought. Stating the thesis in
complete sentence makes it easier for the reader to understand the main idea of
the text

6. It requires support.
 To make your thesis statement persuasive, facts, surveys, reports etc. should be
used as proof or evidences to support your claim or opinion on the topic

7. It takes a stand.
 The thesis should clearly show your claim about a subject/topic.

8. It is arguable.
 The thesis should be contestable, debatable or argumentative. Again, the thesis
statement should never be a factual statement.

OUTLINING READING TEXTS

In Various Deciplines

 Outlining
 skill for any academic or professional who engages with complex texts.
 It helps organize information, identify key arguments, and understand the
structure of a piece of writing.
 This presentation explores the art and science of outlining, covering its types,
elements, strategies, and benefits.

 It is a structured process of summarizing the main points and subpoints of a text

in a hierarchical format.
 involves breaking down complex ideas into smaller, manageable components,
making it easier to comprehend and analyze the material.

ORGANIZATION CLARITY

Outlining provides a clear framework for Outlining clarifies the main ideas and
the text’s structure, helping to their supporting details, promoting
understand the relationships between better comprehension.
ideas.

EFFICIENCY CRITICAL THINKING

Outlining saves time and effort by Outlining encourages active engagement
offering a concise overview of the text, with the text, requiring readers to
reducing the need to re-read lengthy identify key concepts and connections.
passages.

KINDS OF OUTLINES
1. TOPIC OUTLINES
 use short phrases or keywords to represent the main ideas and supporting
details. They offer concise overview of the text and are ideal for quick
summaries.

2. SENTENCE OUTLINES
 use complete sentences to express the main ideas and supporting points. They
provide more detailed information and are often used for essays or formal
writing.

Key Elements of an Effective Outline

 Clear Structure
 Concise Language
 Logical Flow
 Completeness

OUTLINING STRATEGIES FOR DIFFERENT TEXT TYPES

 SCIENTIFIC
 Focus on key concepts, definitions, and experimental methods

 LITERARY
 Identify themes, characters, plot points, and literary devices.

 HISTORICAL
 Outline major events, historical figures, and their significance.

OUTLINING TECHNIQUES FOR NON-FICTION TEXTS

1. First, identify the main points of the text, which often represent the central
arguments or ideas.
2. Next, identify the supporting evidence for each main point, including examples,
statistics, and research findings.
3. Finally, analyze the logical structure of the text, identifying the relationships
between ideas and overall argument.
OUTLINING TECHNIQUES FOR FICTION TEXTS
1. Identify major plot points, including the exposition, rising action, climax, falling
action, and resolution.
2. Analyze the character development of key character, identifying their
motivations, relationships, and growth throughout the story.
3. Examine the underlying themes and symbols, exploring their significance and
how they contribute to the overall meaning of the text.

TIPS FOR CREATING CLEAR AND CONCISE OUTLINES

 Use consistent formatting
 Keep it Brief
 Proofread Carefully
 Use Visual Cues

THE BENEFITS OF MASTERING OUTLINING SKILLS

1. Improved Comprehension
2. Enhanced Critical Thinking
3. Effective Study Habits
4. Improved Writing Skills

Basic Principles and Rules in Outlining

1. Principle of Division
2. Principle of Classification
3. Principle of Coordination
4. Principle of Subordination

Principle of Division
 Every part of an outline that has subtopics should have at least two parts or
subsections

Principle of Classification
 Similar ideas should go together. This implies that there should be no
overlapping of topics and subtopics in an outline.
Principle of Coordination
 Ideas of equal rank and value are coordinate, therefore, they belong to the same
level of the outline. Coordinate headings must be expressed in parallel
construction. They must be expressed in parallel structure to form a specific kind
of outline. A topic outline uses phrases in all its headings and subheadings while
a sentence outline makes use of full statements.
EX:

Principle of Subordination
 There are big ideas and small ideas; small ideas should fall under the appropriate
big ideas.

Outline Format
 A traditional outline starts with a Thesis Statement (TS). This is a one- sentence
statement of the main idea of the article. Then the body of the article is divided
and subdivided this way:

 Main ideas are labeled with Roman Numerals (1st level of an outline)
 Supporting ideas developing the main ideas are labeled with capital letters,
indented. (2nd Level)
 Details developing the supporting ideas are labeled with Arabic number,
indented. (3rd Level)
 Minor details developing the details are labeled with small letters. (4th Level)
EX:

Facts vs opinions

Facts
 statement that can be proven to be true by the use of evidence.
 Factual statements are true in all cases and for all people; in other words, facts
are universal.

A fact is a word from the Latin factum, "something done’’

-is an event or thing known to have happened or existed. It is a truth that has been
verified from experience or observation.

EXAMPLES:
 Dogs are mammals.
 Albany is the capital of New York.
 Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on Earth.

Opinion
 Opinions, unlike facts, are neither true nor false.
 An opinion can express a belief, attitude, value, judgment, or feeling.
 An opinion is what someone thinks, feels or believes.

An opinion--from Latin word opinion, "to believe"

-is a judgement or belief not founded on a certainty or proof.

EXAMPLES
 Dogs are the best mammals in existence.
 Albany is the most interesting city in New York.
 World War II was a terrible war.

CITATION
 are a way of giving credit when certain material in your work came from another
source.
Purpose for citing sources
 To give credit to the original author of a work.
 To promote scholarly writing.
 To help you target audience identify your original source.

When do I need to cite?

 Whenever you borrow words or ideas, you need to acknowledge their source.

The following situations almost always require citation:

 whenever you use quotes
 whenever you paraphrase
 whenever you use an idea that someone else has already expressed

Forms of Citation:
1. In-text Citation
2. Reference Citation

1. In-text Citation
 The writer to cites the details of the reference used in a certain part of his/her
essay .

In-text Citation in APA Style

Two of the three reviewed studies focusing on communication in non- internet and
internet relationships mediated by FtF, phone or email modalities found that the
frequency of each modality's use was significantly linked to the strength of the
particular relationship (Cummings et al., 2002).

Reference Citation
 Refers to the complet bibliographic entries of all references used by the writer.
 This appears in the references list found at the last part of the paragraph.

Reference Citation in APA Style

Cummings, J.N., Butler, B., 7 Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of online social
relationships. Communication of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108

 These two forms of citations are dependent on each other.

 Once a source is cited in-text it should also appear in the reference list or else it
may be considered as a form of plagiarism.

STYLE GUIDE

1. APA ( American Psychological Association)

  psychology, education, hrm, business,
economics, and other social sciences

2. MLA ( Modern Language Association)

 literature, arts and humanities

3. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and

Electronic Engineers)
 engineering

4. AMA (American Medical Association)

 medicine, health sciences, and other natural sciences

5. Chicago (The Chicago Manual Style)

 reference books, non-academic periodicals (e.g., newspapers, magazines,
journals, among others)
Guidelines ( APA In-Text Citation)

Types of In-Text Citations

1. Narrative Citation
 The author's family name is included as part of a sentence followed by the Year
in parentheses
 Example: Smith (2010) discusses how....
Works with only 1 author:
 According to Sipacio (2014), APA style is required for business majors.
 APA style is required for business majors (Sipacio, 2014)

Direct quotation less than 40 words:

 According to Sipacio (2014) "beginners found the APA style guide too complex"
(p. 56).
 He claimed that "beginners found the APA style guide too complex" ( Sipacio,
2014, pp. 56, 69) because of several factors.

2. Parenthetical Citation

Guidelines (APA Reference Citation)

 Apply hanging indention
 Text should be double spaced
 Arranges references in alphabetical order on a last name basis
 Do not cut or add titles
 Italicize titles

Abstract

 An abstract is a very concise statement of the major elements of your research

project.
 It states the purpose, methods, and findings of your research project.
 An abstract is a condensed version of a full scientific paper.

Length: between 150 and 250 words.

Layout: usually one single paragraph; font size is different from the main text.
Position: usually at the beginning of the paper (but it can appear elsewhere, e.g. in
book of abstracts or on-line).

ABSTRACTS ARE NOT ...

 Not substitutes for the article and should not be cited as references
 Not a summary of the entire article; should present main finding
 Do not contain enough information for a critical evaluation of the research
 Not fully peer-reviewed; up to 60% are never followed by a complete scientific
article
CHARACTERISTCS OF AN ABSTRACT
 Accurate, coherent, and readable
 Concise, specific, and selective
 Self-contained, i.e, stand alone
 Complete and internally consistent
 No references
 No tables or figures
 No or few abbreviations (must be defined)
 Conclusions should be based on data/info presented within the abstract

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF ABSTRACT ?

 Introduce journal articles
 Inform readers about the article content
 Help readers to decide whether or not to read the article
 Overview conference programs,
Abstract collections and book chapters

WHY SHOULD I KNOW HOW TO WRITE ABSTRACT ?

 Helps you present complex information in a clear, concise manner
 Helps you read abstracts more effectively
 Helps you conduct research
 Helps you write abstracts for future publications
 Helps you condense report information into a short format for database
searches

MAKE THE ABSTRACT EASY TO READ

 Do not use abbreviations without first defining them.
 Don't omit articles or other little words in an effort to save space.
 Avoid jargon.
 Write in the third person singular.
 Use active verbs rather than passive verbs.
 Use short sentences, but vary sentence structure so that the abstract doesn't
sound choppy.
 Use complete sentences.

REACTION PAPER

WHAT IS A REACTION PAPER?

 is a form of paper writing in which the writer expresses his ideas and opinions
about what has been read or seen
 presents your reasonable response (logical opinion) to anything seen, heard,
read, or experienced
 may be informal and two pages long
 focused on personal appreciation of the subject
 expression of personal judgments
 Unlike in some other forms of academic writing, it is OK to use the personal
pronoun “I” in a reaction paper.
 contain own thoughts on the problem, discussed in the original text

TYPES OF REACTION PAPER

1. ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER
 A genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect,
generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a
concise manner.
 It is generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published
material.
 Argumentative assignments moreover require empirical research where student
collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments.

2. ANALYTICAL PAPER
 It is like an illustration essay in some ways.
 include information from a range of sources but the focus on this type of paper
is analyzing the different viewpoints represented from factual rather than
opinionated standpoint.
 focuses on the findings, methodology or conclusions of other researchers and
will conclude such a paper with summation of the findings and suggested
framework for further study on the issue.

3. DEFINITION PAPER
 Relatively self-explanatory.
 This describe a topic from a factual standpoint that is usually devoid of emotion
or opinion of the author.
 It contains only actual fact found in another's research paper findings and left
unanalyzed.
 It can also provide a valuable information framework for other argumentative or
analytical reports on the same topic.

4. CAUSE AND EFFECT PAPER

 It trace the probable expected results from a particular action or policy in a
logical progression that is easily followed by the readers.
 This will not only outline the predicted result from the action/situation specified,
but also where applicable show the range of results that could arise from this
one situation through to its logical conclusion.

5. REPORTS
 A document that presents information in an organized format for specific
audience and purpose.
 Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are
almost always in a form of a written documents.

6. COMPARE AND CONTRAST PAPER

 A common form of academic writing, either as an essay type on its own, or as
part of a larger essay which includes one or more paragraphs which compare or
contrast.
 To compare is to examine how things are similar, while to contrast is to see how
they differ.
 Therefore, Compare and Contrast looks for the similarities and difference of two
or more topics or objects.

7. INTERPRETIVE REPORT
 It provides analysis of another piece of writing.
 An assignment to interpret a work of literature, figuring out where to start, what
literary elements to analyze and what to interpret does not have to be an
impossible task.

OUTLINE OF A REACTION PAPER

OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
- A brief summary of the text that will be discussed in the paper.
II. BODY
- Your thoughts, feelings and opinions.
III. CONCLUSION
-This is where you’ll take a stance on whether you recommend this work to others
and the reasons for your answers.

HOW TO WRITE A REACTION PAPER?

I. SUMMARY/SYNOPSIS
- What are you reacting to?
GOAL: Show that you understand the thesis, main ideas, and supporting ideas in the
piece you're writing about.
Identify all the "basic information” about the book that you can identify, including:
• the author of the piece, the title of the piece, the title of the book or journal from
which it was taken (if relevant), the publisher, and the year of publication

• the topic or subject of the piece

For example:

"The Triangle Shirt-Waist Fire" or "Revitalization efforts underway in Roxbury's

Codman Square."

- In other words, tell what the piece is about in a word or a phrase;

the author's purpose or motive for writing the piece
For example:

"to expose the dangerous conditions factory workers in the United States faced prior
in the early decades of the twentieth century" or "to show how residents can unite
to improve their neighborhood";

the author's thesis statement (might be similar to the purpose, but not
necessarily);
• the author's primary supporting ideas.

II. Analysis/Evaluation
- What are the strengths and weaknesses of the piece?
Goal: Show that you understand what the author does well and what he or she does
not do so well.

1. Answer the "w" questions, like why, why not, what, what if, what for, where, why
there, who, how, when . . Specific questions you might take up include:
• was the piece convincing? why or why not, specifically? is it well-researched? are
the sources the author uses reputable? why or why not?
• did the author overlook or leave out anything important? what?
• did the author overemphasize or overprivilege anything? what?
• is the author one-sided (even if he or she takes your side), or does the author
presented a balanced view?

III. Your Reactions

- How do you react to the piece on a personal
level? How does the piece relate to your experience?
Goal: Share your own impressions and your own experiences with readers.

Here are some questions you might consider answering:

• did the piece hold your interest? Why or why not?
• did the piece bother or annoy you? why or why not?
• what would you ask, or tell, the author of the piece if you could?
• what did you realize as a result of reading the piece?
• what questions does the piece raise for you
- about the material, about other things?
• does the piece remind you of other readings you've done for the class? compare
and contrast the piece to those readings.

Survey Questionnaire

Questionnaire
 series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful information
about a given topic.
 a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large
number of individuals, often referred to as respondents.
 Adequate questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a survey.
 Appropriate questions, correct ordering of questions, correct scaling, or good
questionnaire format can make the survey worthwhile

A questionnaire is simply a list of mimeographed or printed questions that is

completed by or for a respondent to give his opinion.

 A well designed questionnaire requires thought and effort, and needs to be

planned and developed in a number of stages

Stages of planning a questionnaire:

1. Initial considerations
2. Question content, phrasing and response format
3. Question sequence and layout
4. Pretest (pilot) and revision
5. Final questionnaire

Types of Survey Questions

 Two important aspects of questionnaire design are the structure of the
questions and the decisions on the types of response formats for each question.
 survey questions can be classified into three structures:
 closed,
 open-ended,
 contingency questions.

A. Closed Questions (or multiple choice)

 questions ask the respondent to choose:
 possible set of answers,
 response that most closely represents his/her viewpoint.

 The respondent is usually asked to tick or circle the chosen answer.

 Questions of this kind may offer simple alternatives such as ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.
 also require that the respondent chooses among several answer categories, or
that he/she uses a frequency scale, an importance scale, or an agreement scale.

Example:
How often do you play mobile Legends in a day? Please encircle one answer only.
Never………………………………………1
1 to 3 hours………………………………..2
4 to 4 hours………………………………..3
Nearly the whole day……...………………4

The main advantages of closed questions are:

 the respondent is restricted to a finite (and therefore more manageable) set of
responses;
 they are easy and quick to answer;
 they have response categories that are easy to code, and
 they permit the inclusion of more variables in a research study because the
format enables the respondent to answer more questions in the same time
required to answer fewer open-ended questions.

The main disadvantages with closed questions are:

 They can introduce bias by forcing respondents to choose between given
alternatives or by suggesting options that wouldn't otherwise be considered.
 They limit creativity and restrict the development of ideas.
 They don't allow respondents to qualify their answers or express complex or
subtle meanings.
 Bias may also arise if respondents consistently choose the first or last option,
select what seems socially desirable, or answer all items in the same way.
 Writing them requires skill, as response categories need to be appropriate and
mutually exclusive.

 dichotomous response format,

which means only two mutually exclusive responses are provided.

Example: What is your sex? ___ Male ___ Female

 A dichotomous response format, where respondents choose between two

options (like yes/no), is appropriate for the example.
 However, it shouldn't be overused in surveys because it provides less detailed
information compared to multiple-choice formats, which offer a broader range
of responses.

B. Open-ended Questions
 not followed by any choices
 respondent must answer by supplying a response, usually by entering a
number, a word, or a short text.
 Answers are recorded in full, either by the interviewer or, in the case of a self-
administered survey, the respondent records his or her own entire response.

Example: Who is your favorite Mobile Legend hero? What Korean movie do you love
most?
The main advantages of open-ended questions are:
 they allow respondents to express their ideas spontaneously in their own
language;
 they are less likely to suggest or guide the answer than closed questions because
they are free from the format effects associated with closed questions; and •
 they can add new information when there is very little existing information
available about a topic.
The main disadvantages of open-ended questions are:
 they may be difficult to answer and even more difficult to analyze, they require
effort and time on behalf of the respondent;
 they require the development of a system of coded categories with which to
classify the responses;
 they require the respondent to have some degree of writing ability; and •
 respondent handwriting can be illegible

 Open ended question can produce useful information in an interviewer

administered survey, provided that the interviewers are alert and trained to
probe ambiguous responses

C. Contingency Questions
 A contingency question is a type of closed-ended question meant for a specific
subgroup of respondents.
 Its relevance is determined by a filter question, which directs the subgroup to
answer related questions and instructs others to skip to a later section.
 Contingency questions provide detailed data from a particular subgroup, such as
females, students, or employed individuals.
 Clear and specific instructions are essential for good contingency questions.
 The format for filter and contingency questions can vary, with one option being
to place instructions next to the response category of the filter question.

Example: Do you play Mobile Legends? Yes (answer the question) No (skip the
question number 4))

 the contingency question can be placed at the end of the questionnaire set
apart from ordinary questions that are to be answered by everybody:

Example: ANSWER THIS FINAL SET OF QUESTIONS ONLY IF YOU PLAN ON ENTERING
A COLLEGE NEXT YEAR. OTHERWISE, YOU HAVE NOW COMPLETED THE
QUESTIONNAIRE

SURVEY-EXPERIMENT-OBSERVATIONS

Survey questionnaires
 set of questions to a subject who with his/her responses will provide data to a
researcher
 key to developing a good survey questionnaire is to keep it short while ensuring
that you capture all of the information that you need.

Survey
 method of gathering information from a sample of individuals in order to learn
something about the large population from which the sample has been drawn.
 provide a speedy and economical means of determining facts about peoples’
knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and behaviors.

Survey methods can be classified in many ways:

1. One classification is by size and type of sample –
 special population groups, geographical area, etc.

2. Another classification is by method of data collection –

 mail, telephone interview and in-person interview. Chart audits – extracting
data from sample of medical and other records – come under the heading of
survey methods.

3. Third classification is by survey content –

 voter preferences, consumer spending, transportation habits, and health issues.

Steps to follow in conducting a survey

1. Formulate the survey keeping in mind your overall substantive and analytical
needs.
✓ Define the problem you want to examine.
✓ Identify the population that will be surveyed.
✓ Determine what kinds of variables that you want to measure.
✓ What questions do you want to have answered? ; and
✓ What’s the best way to go about getting those answers?

2. Determine specifically what mode of collecting the data will be used. ✓ Personal
interviews.
✓ Telephone surveys.
✓ Mailed questionnaires/drop-off surveys; and
✓ Web-based surveys and email-based surveys.

3. Determine the number of respondents/ participants of the survey.

4. Develop the questionnaire (the survey instrument)

✓ Each question should fit into the overall plan of research ; and
✓ Each question should be suitable for the mode you have chosen to conduct the
survey and for the population that has been sampled.

5. If you are using telephone or personal interviews, be sure the interviewers are
carefully trained.
✓ Interviewer effects (bias) can wreck otherwise well-designed surveys.

6. Conduct an early pretest of the survey, whenever possible

✓ Use these results to refine the instrument and work out any bus in the survey
procedures. 7. Execute the survey in the field and be ready to deal with problems.

8. Edit and process the data.

✓ Code responses in a reasonable and useable way.
✓ Make data machine-readable ; and
✓ Minimize errors.

9. Analyze the data

✓ Descriptive statistics.
✓ Inferential statistics (build models—ANOVA, ANCOVA, regression, SEM).
✓ Develop your findings or conclusions ; and
✓ Write up a summary of what you have found.

KINDS OF REPORT

REPORT
 Essential to keep an updated account of the event,situation, and organization
 These documents wish to inform, analyze or recommend
 Often expressed through oral presentations or written
 COMMON MEDIUMS:speeches, televisons, radios and films

Basic STRUCTURE OF REPORTS

I. Title Page
II. Abstract
III. List of Figures and Tables
IV. Introduction
V. Body ( varies according to type of report)
VI. Conclusions
VII. Recommendations
VIII. References
IX. Appendices

Report writing
 Is making a detailed statement abou the company, an event, a situation, and/or
occurrence which is based on an observation, investigations and inquiries
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS REPORTS

FORMAL REPORT
- is a complex account either written or oral that uses formal and structured
language and is usually applied in major projects and organizations

 INFORMATIONAL- presents result , information, and updates and explains

 ANALYTICAL- presents , analyze, and draws conclusions from reports and shows
the why and the how of an occurrence
EXAMPLE: scientific research, feasibility reports, employee appraisals
 RECOMMENDATORY- presents recommendations based on the results and
conclusions

INFORMAL REPORT
-communicates , updates information using free- flowing casual and short usually
about routines and everyday business

EXAMPLES:
 Progress report
 Feasibility report
 Literature review
 Personnel evaluation
 Report on sales

Types of Research Reports

1. ACADEMIC
2. BUSINESS
3. GOVERNMENT AND POLICY
4. SCIENTIFIC
5. MARKET
6. SOCIAL SCIENCE
7. TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING
8. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SUSTAINABILITY

Types of Research Reports and its Contents

1. Academic Research Reports

 known as a research paper or academic paper,
 a formal document that presents the findings, methods, and analysis of an
original research study conducted by scholars, researchers, or students in an
academic or scientific context.

Research reports are a fundamental part of the academic and research process and
serve the following purposes:

1. Contribution to Knowledge
 contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field by sharing new
discoveries, insights, or findings.
 They add to the existing literature and may lead to further research in the area.

2. Communication
 enable researchers to communicate their work to the academic community,
including other researchers, scholars, and students.
3. Evaluation
 Academic research reports are often subject to peer review, where experts in
the field assess the quality and validity of the research.
 evaluation process helps ensure the credibility of the findings.

4. Education
 common requirement in educational institutions, especially at the graduate and
postgraduate levels.
 teach students research skills and critical thinking, preparing them for careers in
academia or research.

Types Academic Research Reports

Journal Articles Theses and Dissertations

 reports are written for publication in  These in-depth research reports are
academic journals and are often typically written by graduate
peer-reviewed students pursuing advanced
 They follow a specific format and are degrees.
written to contribute to the scholarly  They involve original research and
literature in a particular field. contribute to the body of knowledge
in a specific area.

Key features of an academic research reports

1. Title:
 A concise and informative title that reflects the research topic
2. Abstract:
 A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, and key findings.
3. Introduction:
 An opening section that provides an overview of the research problem, the
context of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses.
4. Literature eview:
 A review of existing research and relevant literature on the topic to provide a
theoretical and empirical background
5. Methodology:
 Detailed information on the research methods, data collection procedures, and
analytical techniques used in the study.
6. Results:
 Presentation of the research findings, often in the form of tables, graphs, or
charts.
7. Discussion:
 Interpretation and analysis of the results, along with any implications,
limitations, and potential future research directions.
8. Conclusion:
 A summary of the main findings and their broader significance.
9. References:
 A comprehensive list of sources, articles, books, and other references cited in
the report

2. Business Research Reports

 .a formal document that presents the findings, analysis, and recommendations
of a research study conducted within a business or organizational context.
 Address specific business-related issues, challenges, or opportunities and to
inform decision-making processes.
 play a crucial role in helping businesses make informed choices, solve problems,
and plan for the future.

Categories of Business Research Reports

1. Market Research Reports

 provide data and analysis related to market trends, consumer behavior, and
industry-specific information. They are used by businesses for strategic planning.

2. Feasibility Studies
 assess the viability of a project or business endeavor, considering factors like
market demand, financial aspects, and technical feasibility.

3. Financial Research Reports

 offer analysis and recommendations on investment opportunities, stocks, bonds,
or financial instruments.

4. Competitive Analysis Reports

 evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of competitors in a specific market and
offer insights for strategic decision-making.

Key Aspects of Business Research Reports

1. Purpose
 typically created to address specific business objectives, such as market analysis,
product development, competitive intelligence, marketing strategies, financial
planning, operational improvements, and more.

2. Audience
 primary audience for business research reports includes business executives,
managers, investors, stakeholders, and other decision-makers within the
organization.
 may also be shared with external stakeholders, such as clients, partners, or
regulatory agencies.

3. Format and Structure

 format and structure of a business research report may vary depending on the
specific requirements of the organization, but they generally include the
following sections:
 Executive Summary: A concise overview of the key findings, recommendations,
and the purpose of the report.

 Introduction: A description of the problem or research question being

addressed and the objectives of the study.

 Methodology: Details about the research methods, data collection, and analysis
techniques used.

 Findings: Presentation of the research results, often using charts, graphs, or data
tables.

4. Use in Decision-Making
 Business research reports are instrumental in making decisions related to
investment, strategy, resource allocation, and operational improvements.
 provide evidence-based information that helps organizations adapt to changing
market conditions and stay competitive.

5. Confidentiality
 often contain sensitive and proprietary information, so they may be treated as
confidential documents.

What is the significance of business research report in our society?

 essential tools for organizations seeking to make data-driven decisions, stay

competitive, and respond effectively to challenges and opportunities in the
business environment.
 quality and accuracy of the information and analysis within these reports are
crucial for their success in guiding decision-making processes.

3.Government and Policy Research Reports

 formal documents that provide research-based information, analysis, and
recommendations to inform and guide government officials, policymakers, and
stakeholders in making decisions related to public policy and governance.
 created to address specific policy issues, challenges, or opportunities, and they
play a crucial role in the formulation, evaluation, and implementation of public
policies.

Categories of Government and Policy Research Reports

1. Policy Research Reports

 inform policymakers about research findings related to specific issues, helping
shape government policies and decisions.
2. Government Agency Reports
 often publish reports that provide data, research, and analysis related to various
topics, such as health, education, or environmental issues.

Key Aspects of Government and Policy Reports

1. Purpose
 created with the primary objective of informing and influencing government
policies and actions. They provide evidence-based insights into a wide range of
societal issues, from healthcare and education to economic development and
environmental protection.

2.Audience
 primary audience for these reports includes government officials at various
levels (local, regional, national), legislators, agencies, think tanks, advocacy
groups, and the general public.

3. Structure and Content

 format and structure of government and policy research reports can vary, but
they typically include the following components:

 Executive Summary: A concise overview of the research findings, key

recommendations, and the significance of the report.

 Introduction: A description of the research problem or policy issue being

addressed, along with the research objectives.

 Literature Review: A review of existing research, studies, and relevant literature

to provide a theoretical and empirical background.

 Methodology: Details about the research methods, data sources, and analytical
techniques used in the study.

 Findings: Presentation of research results, often in the form of data, statistics, or

case studies.

 Analysis: Interpretation and analysis of the findings, including their implications

for policy and governance.

 Recommendations: Specific policy suggestions, reforms, or actions based on the

research findings.

 Conclusion: A summary of the main points and potential next steps.

4. Types of Government and Policy Reports

 Policy Analysis Reports: These reports evaluate existing policies, assess their
effectiveness, and propose changes or reforms.
 Program Evaluation Reports: They assess the outcomes and impact of
government programs and initiatives to determine their success and efficiency.
 Legislative Impact Reports: These reports analyze the potential impact of
proposed legislation on society, the economy, and specific stakeholder groups.
 Public Opinion and Surveys: Research reports on public attitudes, opinions, and
perceptions that can influence policy decisions.
 Economic and Budget Analysis Reports: These reports assess the economic
implications of policy choices, including budgetary and fiscal impacts.

5.Use in Decision-Making
 provide the evidence and analysis needed to make informed choices, allocate
resources, and address societal challenges effectively.

6. Public Accountability
 These reports promote transparency and accountability in government.
 presenting well-researched information, they hold government officials
responsible for their policy decisions and their impact on society.

4.Scientific Research Reports

 also known as scientific papers or research papers, are formal documents that
present the findings, methods, and analysis of original scientific research
conducted by scientists, researchers, and scholars.

Categories of Scientific Research Reports

Lab Reports
 common in scientific fields and detail experiments, methodology, results, and
conclusions. They are often required in academic and laboratory settings.
Research Proposal and Grant Reports
 submit these reports when seeking funding for research projects.
 They outline the research goals, methods, and expected outcomes.

Key Aspects of Scientific Research Reports

1. Purpose
 reports are created to communicate the results of scientific investigations and to
contribute to the body of scientific knowledge.
 serve as a means of disseminating new discoveries, validating research methods,
and sharing insights with the scientific community.
2.Audience
 fellow scientists, researchers, academics, and professionals in the specific field
of study.

3. Structure and Content

Scientific research reports generally follow a standardized structure, including the
following sections:

 Title: A concise and informative title that reflects the research topic.
 Abstract: A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and
conclusions.
 Introduction: An opening section that provides context for the research,
outlines the research questions or hypotheses, and explains the significance of
the study.
 Literature Review: A review of previous research and relevant literature in the
field to establish the research's theoretical and empirical background.
 Methodology: Detailed information on the research methods, data collection
procedures, and analytical techniques used in the study.
 Results: Presentation of the research findings, often in the form of data tables,
graphs, or figures.
 Discussion: Interpretation and analysis of the results, along with their
implications and limitations.
 Conclusion: A summary of the main findings and their significance for the field.
 References: A comprehensive list of sources, articles, books, and other
references cited in the report.

4. Types of Scientific Research Reports

 Original Research Papers: These reports present the outcomes of original
research studies, including experiments, observations, and data analysis.
 Review Articles: These reports provide comprehensive and critical summaries of
existing research in a specific field, helping researchers understand the state of
knowledge.
 Short Communications: Brief reports that convey significant findings, often in a
condensed format.
 Case Studies: Reports that analyze specific instances or examples to provide
insights into broader scientific principles or phenomena.

5. Peer Review
 undergo a peer review process, where experts in the field evaluate the quality,
validity, and methodology of the research.
 Peer-reviewed reports are considered more credible and reliable.

6.Contribution to Science
 contribute to the advancement of science and innovation by sharing new
knowledge, methods, and discoveries
7. Academic and Professional Development
 important for the academic and professional development of researchers and
scholars.

8. Access to Knowledge
 typically published in scientific journals or conference proceedings and are
widely accessible to researchers and the public.

5. Market Research Reports

 a formal document that provides a comprehensive analysis and insights into a
specific market, industry, or business sector.
 typically prepared by market research firms, industry analysts, or organizations
to help businesses and decision-makers understand market conditions, trends,
consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes.

Categories of Market Research Reports

Consumer Behavior Reports

 focus on understanding consumer preferences, buying habits, and trends in
various industries.

Competitive Analysis Reports

 assess the strengths and weaknesses of competitors in a particular market and
provide insights for strategic decision-making.

Key Aspects of Market Research Reports

1. Purpose
 purpose is to help businesses and organizations make informed decisions by
providing data-driven insights.

2.Audience
 includes businesses, entrepreneurs, investors, marketers, and decision-makers
seeking to understand market dynamics and opportunities.

3. Structure and Content

market research reports follow a standardized structure, including the following
sections:

 Executive Summary: A concise summary of the key findings, market trends, and
recommendations.
 Introduction: An overview of the purpose of the report, the market being
studied, and the research objectives.
 Methodology: Details about the research methods, data sources, and analytical
techniques used in the study.
 Market Overview: Information on the size, scope, and key characteristics of the
market, including market segmentation.
 Industry Analysis: A review of the industry's structure, key players, and
competitive landscape.
 Market Trends and Insights: Presentation of data and analysis related to market
trends, consumer behavior, and other relevant factors.
 Competitive Analysis: Assessment of competitors, their strengths and
weaknesses, and market positioning.
 Market Opportunities and Challenges: Identification of opportunities for growth
and potential obstacles.
 recommendations: Specific strategies and actions that businesses can take
based on the research findings.
 Conclusion: A summary of the main points and a forward-looking perspective on
the market.
 Appendices: Additional data, charts, graphs, or supplementary information.

4. Types of Market Research Reports

 Industry Reports: These reports focus on a specific industry, providing a
comprehensive overview of its current state, trends, and future prospects.
 Market Size and Segmentation Reports: These reports analyze the size of a
market and its sub segments, helping businesses identify target markets.

5. Use in Decision-Making
 invaluable for businesses and organizations looking to develop effective
marketing strategies, launch new products or services, enter new markets, or
make informed investment decisions.

6. Strategic Planning
 align their strategies with market realities, enabling them to adjust product
development, pricing, marketing, and distribution strategies.

7. Risk Mitigation
 help identify potential challenges and risks in the market, allowing businesses to
develop risk mitigation strategies.

8. Investment and Funding Decisions

 use market research reports to assess market conditions and industry potential
before making investment decisions.

9. Competitive Advantage
 Understanding the market landscape and consumer preferences can provide a
competitive advantage for businesses looking to differentiate themselves in the
market.

6.Social Science Research Reports

 Social science research reports are formal documents that present the findings,
analysis, and conclusions of research studies conducted within the field of social
sciences.
 aim to provide a better understanding of human behavior, societal trends, and
the complex interactions that shape our social, political, economic, and cultural
environments.

Categories of Social Science Research Reports

Survey and Polls

 These reports present the findings of surveys or opinion polls conducted to
gather data on public opinions and social trends.

Case Studies
 Case study reports analyze specific real-life situations, often used in psychology,
sociology, and business studies.

Key Aspects of Social Science Reports

1. Purpose
 created to investigate and shed light on various aspects of human society and
behavior.
 They often focus on social issues, policies, and the relationships between
individuals, groups, and institutions.

2. Audience
 includes policymakers, social scientists, researchers, educators, government
officials, non-governmental organizations, and anyone interested in the study of
human behavior and social phenomena.

3. Structure and Content

Social science research reports generally follow a standardized structure, including
the following sections:
 Title: A concise and informative title that reflects the research topic.
 Abstract: A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and
conclusions.
 Introduction: An opening section that provides context for the research,
outlines the research questions or hypotheses, and explains the significance of
the study.
 Literature Review: A review of existing research and relevant literature in the
field to establish the theoretical and empirical background.
 Methodology: Details about the research methods, data collection procedures,
and analytical techniques used in the study.
 Results: Presentation of the research findings, often using qualitative and
quantitative data.
 Analysis: Interpretation and analysis of the results, along with their implications,
limitations, and potential policy or practical implications.
 Conclusion: A summary of the main findings and their broader significance.
 Recommendations: Specific policy suggestions or actions based on the research
findings.
 References: A comprehensive list of sources, articles, books, and other
references cited in the report.

4. Types of Social Science Research Reports

 Sociology Research Reports: These may explore issues related to social
structures, cultural dynamics, and societal trends.
 Political Science Research Reports: These investigate political systems,
government policies, and political behavior.
 Economics Research Reports: These analyze economic factors, market trends,
and policy implications.
 Psychology Research Reports: These focus on human behavior, cognition, and
psychological well-being.
 Education Research Reports: These examine educational practices, learning
outcomes, and educational policy.
 Anthropology Research Reports: These explore cultures, social norms, and
human diversity.
 Public Policy Research Reports: These address policy issues, program
evaluations, and recommendations for policymakers.

5. Use in Decision-Making
 play a crucial role in shaping policies, programs, and initiatives
 inform decision-making processes and guide the development of evidence-
based solutions to societal challenges.

6. Public Awareness and Advocacy

 also serve to educate the public, raise awareness of social issues, and support
advocacy efforts to address social concerns.

7. Academic and Professional Development

 They contribute to their scholarly recognition and the advancement of their
fields.

7.Technical and Engineering Research Reports

 formal documents that present the findings, methodologies, and analyses of
research studies conducted within the fields of engineering, technology, and
applied sciences.
 aim to disseminate knowledge, share engineering innovations, and provide in-
depth analysis of technical and scientific research.

Categories of Technical and Engineering Research Reports

Technical Reports
 These reports detail the technical aspects of research projects, experiments, or
engineering endeavors.

Project Progress Reports

 These documents provide updates on the status of ongoing projects, including
accomplishments, challenges, and future plans.

Key Aspects of Technical and Engineering Research Reports

1. Purpose
 created to advance knowledge in the fields of engineering and technology,
provide practical solutions to technical challenges, and share insights into
scientific principles and engineering practices.

2. Audience
 reports includes fellow engineers, scientists, researchers, academics, students,
industry professionals, and organizations involved in technical and engineering
fields.

3. Structure and Content

These reports typically follow a standardized structure, including the following
sections:

 Title: A clear and informative title that reflects the research topic.
 Abstract: A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and
conclusions.
 Introduction: An opening section that provides context for the research,
outlines the research objectives, and explains the significance of the study in the
engineering or technical domain.
 Literature Review: A review of existing research, technical principles, and
relevant literature to establish the theoretical and practical background.
 Methodology: Detailed information on the research methods, data collection
procedures, experimental design, and analytical techniques used in the study\
 Results: Presentation of research findings, often using engineering data,
experimental results, schematics, diagrams, and technical specifications.
 Analysis: Interpretation and analysis of the results, along with their implications
and limitations. This section may also include mathematical models and
simulations.
 Conclusion: A summary of the main findings and their practical, engineering, or
scientific significance.
 Recommendations: Specific technical or engineering suggestions, including
potential applications or future research directions.
 References: A comprehensive list of sources, articles, patents, standards, and
other references cited in the report.

4. Types of Technical and Engineering Research Reports

 Mechanical Engineering Research Reports: These focus on areas such as
materials science, mechanical design, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics.
 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Research Reports: These address topics
like circuit design, electrical systems, electronics, and telecommunications.
 Civil Engineering Research Reports: These cover subjects such as structural
engineering, construction, transportation, and geotechnical engineering.
 Computer Science and Software Engineering Research Reports: These delve
into algorithms, software development, artificial intelligence, and data analysis.

5.Use in Decision-Making
 valuable insights for engineers and professionals in making informed design,
construction, manufacturing, and technology development decisions.
 They guide research and development efforts and inform the design and
implementation of engineering projects.

6. Academic and Professional Development

 Technical and engineering research reports are essential for the academic and
professional growth of engineers, scientists, and researchers.
 They contribute to scholarly recognition and the advancement of engineering
fields.

7. Innovation and Technological Advancements

 serve as a source of innovation and contribute to technological advancements
by sharing engineering principles, best practices, and novel technical solutions.

8. Environmental and Sustainability Reports

 formal documents that present the findings, analysis, and recommendations of
research studies conducted within the fields of environmental science,
conservation, sustainability, and related disciplines.
 aim to address environmental challenges, promote sustainable practices, and
contribute to the protection of natural resources and ecosystems.

Categories of Environmental and Sustainability Research Reports

Environmental Impact Assessments

 These reports evaluate the potential environmental effects of proposed projects
or developments.

Sustainability Reports
 These reports assess and promote sustainable practices in various sectors,
including agriculture, energy, transportation, and business.

Key Aspects of Environment and Sustainability Research Reports

1. Purpose
 created to advance knowledge about the environment, promote sustainable
practices, and inform actions that minimize environmental impact and promote
long-term ecological balance.

2. Audience
 includes environmental scientists, conservationists, policymakers, government
agencies, non-governmental organizations, businesses, and individuals
interested in environmental and sustainability issues.

3. Structure and Content

These reports typically follow a standardized structure, including the following
sections:

 Title: A clear and informative title that reflects the research topic.
 Abstract: A brief summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and
conclusions.
 Introduction: An opening section that provides context for the research, outlines
the research objectives, and explains the significance of the study in the context
of environmental conservation and sustainability.
 Literature Review: A review of existing research, ecological principles,
environmental regulations, and relevant literature to establish the theoretical
and empirical background.
 Methodology: Detailed information on the research methods, data collection
procedures, fieldwork, laboratory analyses, and ecological models used in the
study.
 Results: Presentation of research findings, often using data, ecological
indicators, charts, graphs, and geographical information systems (GIS) data.
 Analysis: Interpretation and analysis of the results, along with their ecological
and sustainability implications, limitations, and potential applications.
 Conclusion: A summary of the main findings and their significance for
environmental conservation, sustainability, and ecological balance.
 Recommendations: Specific ecological, environmental, and sustainability
suggestions, including potential policy changes, conservation measures, and
future research directions.
 References: A comprehensive list of sources, articles, environmental regulations,
and other references cited in the report.

4. Types of Environmental and Sustainable Research Reports

 Conservation Research Reports: These focus on the preservation of natural
habitats, species, and biodiversity.

 Climate Change Research Reports: These address the impacts of climate

change, adaptation strategies, mitigation efforts, and policy recommendations.
 Water Resource Management Reports: These analyze water quality, availability,
and management strategies for freshwater resources.
 Renewable Energy Research Reports: These investigate the feasibility and
sustainability of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and
hydropower.

5. Use in Decision-Making
 Environmental and sustainability research reports inform decisions related to
land use, resource management, conservation policies, ecological restoration,
and sustainable development.

6. Public Awareness and Advocacy

 These reports play a crucial role in educating the public, raising awareness about
environmental issues, and supporting advocacy efforts to address ecological and
sustainability concerns.

7. Sustainable Development
 Reports on sustainability inform efforts to balance economic development with
environmental protection, social equity, and long-term ecological health.