Hand Book

Basics of AC/DC Converter

and Design Procedures

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

－ Table of Contents －

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1. Basics of AC/DC Conversion ........................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Why AC/DC Conversion is Necessary ......................................................................... 1
1.2 Advantages of AC ........................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Basics of Rectification: Full-wave Rectification and Half-wave Rectification ............... 2
1.4 AC/DC Conversion Method: Transformer Method ....................................................... 2
1.4.1 Components Used in the Transformer Method ......................................... 2
1.5 AC/DC Conversion Method: Switching Method ........................................................... 3
1.5.1 Principle of Switching DC/DC Conversion after Rectification .................... 4
1.5.2 Example of Components and Mounting for Switching Method .................. 4
1.6 AC/DC Conversion: Comparison of Transformer Method and Switching Method ....... 5

2. Output Regulation Methods of AC/DC Converter ......................................................................... 5

2.1 Linear Regulator Method ............................................................................................. 6
2.2 Flyback Method ............................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Forward Method ........................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Buck (step-down, non-isolated) Method ...................................................................... 9

3. Design Procedure of AC/DC Converter ...................................................................................... 10

3.1 Firming up the Specifications ..................................................................................... 10
3.2 Selecting a Control (Power) IC .................................................................................. 11
3.3 Design and Peripheral Components Selection .......................................................... 11
3.4 Prototyping & Evaluation ............................................................................................ 12
3.5 Mass production design and evaluation, and shipment inspection ........................... 12

4. Issues and Considerations for AC/DC Converter Design ........................................................... 13

4.1 Discrete Configuration or Use of Power Supply IC? .................................................. 13
4.2 Efficiency .................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Downsizing – Number of Parts and Their Sizes ........................................................ 14
4.4 Protection Functions .................................................................................................. 14
4.5 Certifications and Regulations ................................................................................... 14

5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 14

Revision History .............................................................................................................................. 16

Notes ............................................................................................................................................... 17

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Introduction in 1881 is a famous story, but there is more to the story of

the incandescent electric light. Actually, in those times in
Power supplies can be roughly divided into AC/DC
America, the standard method for power supply was DC.
converters and DC/DC converters. In today's world, AC
In order to accelerate the spread of incandescent lights,
voltage is supplied by power supply companies, but most
Edison embarked on a business of expanding DC 110V
electrical and electronic circuits convert AC voltage to DC
transmission grids. Transmission in DC, however, suffers
voltage for use. In other words, AC/DC converters are the
from the problem of significant voltage drop, so much so
main power source for a variety of devices. The most
that the maximum distance over which power can be
common type of power supply around us is the AC
pumped for practical purposes is approximately 1.5 km,
adapter, and we think its importance goes without saying.
which would have required construction of power
Since AC/DC converters handle high voltages, you may generating stations right where people lived, in cities and
often use existing products. However, in response to towns – a scenario which would be unimaginable now. As
recent power-saving requirements, it has become an alternative, Nikola Tesla devised AC-based power
essential to improve the AC/DC conversion circuits of generation, transmission and utilization methods, and
equipment. fought with Edison in the so-called War of Currents.
This hand book explains the basics of AC/DC conversion Ultimately Tesla and his camp emerged victorious – a turn
and AC/DC converter design procedures as a starting of events that is felt even now – thanks to the advantages
point for AC/DC converters. For more details on design, of the AC system that provides simplicity of voltage
please refer to "AC/DC Design" section on Tech Web. transformation, permits the use of thin and long
transmission wires, and offers the capability to transmit
1. Basics of AC/DC Conversion power with little loss.
This section explains the basic methods of converting AC AC has the following advantages.
(alternating current) voltage to DC (direct current)
voltage: transformer method and switching method. ・Through the use of a transformer, AC permits simple
voltage changes (stepping up and down).
1.1 Why AC/DC Conversion is Necessary
・High-voltage/low-current transmissions can reduce the
Why is an AC to DC (AC/DC) conversion necessary? problem of voltage drop (I2R loss).
In Japan, the electricity that is delivered to homes and ・ Because the conversion to DC is also easy, AC
buildings is mainly 100V and 200V AC. That said, most facilitates the supply of power to DC-driven devices as
electronic circuits built into equipment that run on well.
electricity operate at DC voltages such as 5V and 33V.
Although some devices, such as motors and Simply put, the transmission loss is minimal and the
incandescent bulbs, run at AC voltages without requiring transformations are simple, resulting in low cost.
any conversion, nowadays there are few simple devices In practice, electricity is transmitted from a power-
consisting solely of motors and switches. Most of them generating station to homes as AC at high voltages of
feature some kind of electronic control circuits, all of thousands of volts to 20,000V, and it is stepped down to
which run on DC voltages. Incandescent bulbs are now 100V or 200V in a transformer that is provided on an
increasingly being replaced with LED lights, and as you electric pole just before the destination home.
may know, a LED is basically a DC device. Therefore, the
As a bit of a digression, in the present state of affairs,
answer is that the electricity that we receive from
because power from the outlet in the home is AC, each
transmission grids is AC, the electronic circuits that lie at
device must have an AC/DC converter circuit. From
the heart of electrical gadgets run on DC, and without
power conservation and equipment downsizing
AC/DC conversion electrical products cannot operate at
standpoints, this is deemed wasteful. In the “smart house”
all. Then you might ask, “If that is the case, why isn’t
concept for which research and trial runs are being
power transmitted in DC to begin with?” Well, there are
conducted at various sites, a system is being considered
reasons for power transmission in AC, partly historical in
where DC is directly supplied from the outlet in the home.
nature.
T h i s d o es n o t m e an , h o we ve r, th a t th e pow e r
1.2 Advantages of AC transmission grid will all of a sudden be changed to DC.
Edison's invention of the incandescent lamp electric light The need for AC/DC conversion will not be eliminated.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Such a system may still require high-power-factor, high- Figure 2 shows the general circuit configuration of the
efficiency, large-power AC/DC converters as a master transformer system and the waveforms at various
source for home DC supply devices, as well as local and locations.
medium-power-size AC/DC converters.
1.3 Basics of Rectification: Full-wave Rectification
and Half-wave Rectification
As mentioned earlier, AC has the advantage of being
"easy to convert to DC". This is the basis of the AC/DC
conversion called "rectification", so let us check it out.
Figure 1 shows the operations of full-wave and half-wave
rectifying, which are basic to the concept of rectification.
Both use diodes to clamp the amplitude of the negative
side of the input AC voltage.

Figure 2. Transformer-based AC/DC conversion

circuit and waveforms at various locations

Here we assume that the input voltage is 100VAC. This

100VAC is converted to a lower AC voltage (step-down)
by means of a transformer, the AC/AC conversion. The
step-down value of the AC voltage should be set to the
voltage value that will produce the desired DC voltage
after rectification. If insulation is needed between the
input and output sides, a transformer can be used to
provide insulation.
The stepped down AC voltage is converted to DC by a
diode bridge rectifier (full wave). It is then smoothed by a
Figure 1. Full-wave rectification and half-wave capacitor and converted to a DC voltage with small ripple.
rectification The rectified DC voltage is equal to the peak AC voltage
Full-wave rectifying uses a diode bridge combining four (AC x√2) minus the forward voltage of the diode.
diodes; it inverts the negative side and outputs it to the When regulation of output is not needed, the DC voltage
positive side, with the result that the full wave turns into can be used directly as a power supply. The initial value
DC. Half-wave rectification only uses a single diode to of the voltage depends upon the winding ratio in the
clamp the negative side, so the negative portion is transformer, and the voltage declines as the load current
clamped, resulting in a half waveform, as the name increases.
implies. In this way, rectification converts AC to DC.
If regulation is needed, it is performed using a voltage
Although the rectified DC waveform is DC, it has a large regulator. In this case, the voltage on the secondary side
ripple, so it is smoothed using a capacitor. However, even of the transformer must be set to a level suitable for
after smoothing, the ripple still remains, and its amplitude, conversion by the regulator. For example, if you want to
the ripple voltage, varies depending on the capacitance make 12VDC in the end, the voltage after rectification
of the capacitor and the load. If the capacitor size and the should be about 18VDC. It is common to set the voltage
load are equal, in terms of full- and half-wave rectifying, not too low to operate and not too high to reduce losses.
full-wave rectification results in a smaller ripple voltage.
1.4.1 Components Used in the Transformer Method
1.4 AC/DC Conversion Method: Transformer Method
Figure 3 shows examples of actual components used in
This section describes one method of AC/DC conversion a transformer-based AC/DC conversion process. All of
that mainly uses a transformer. The transformer method these are images of typical things.
is the most commonly used method in the past.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

＜Summary＞
 The transformer method is the basic method of AC/DC
conversion and has been the most widely used method.
 It is necessary to design the next stage on the premise
that the unregulated DC voltage converted by the
transformer method will drop when the load is taken off.
1.5 AC/DC Conversion Method: Switching Method
The schematic diagram of the AC/DC conversion method
using switching elements and the waveforms at various
Figure 3. Example of components in transformer-
locations are shown in Figure 4.
based AC/DC conversion. From the left: a
transformer, a diode bridge rectifier, and an
electrolytic capacitor

For the transformer used for AC/AC conversion, a low-

frequency transformer is generally used since AC
frequency from power grid is 50 or 60 Hz. Transformers
that are designed as power supply units are called power
transformers or commercial frequency transformers
(commercial transformers). The size (volume) of a
transformer may be thought of as being proportional to
the output power of the power supply unit. A familiar
example is AC adapters, which are supplied in units such
that the larger their current capacity the bulkier and Figure 4. Switching type AC/DC conversion circuit
heavier the units. The basic structure of a transformer and waveforms at various locations
consists of an iron core, and primary and secondary
Whereas in the transformer system, first the 100VAC is
winding wires. A core is commonly made of a silicon steel
transformed to a smaller AC voltage by a power
plate.
transformer for the rectification. In the switching method,
A diode bridge rectifier is supplied as a single package first the 100VAC is directly rectified using a diode bridge
containing four diodes connected to perform rectifying. In (full-wave rectification in Figure 4). Consequently, the
terms of the shape of a diode bridge rectifier, in addition diode bridge should meet the high voltage requirement,
to the configuration shown in the photograph, there are since the 100VAC, at a peak value, measures about 140V.
SIP and DIP with a square package. Four single-unit
In the next step, a capacitor is used to smooth the rectified
rectifying diodes may be combined to form a diode bridge.
high voltage, and in this case also, a high-voltage
The size of a diode also tends to become large as the
capacitor is required.
amount of allowable current increases.
In succession, the high DC voltage is chopped through
For a capacitor, basically an electrolytic capacitor is
the on/off of the switching elements, and the energy is
employed. The required capacitance, which varies with
transmitted to the secondary side through a high-
the load or allowable ripples, ranges from hundreds to
frequency transformer. This operation uses the on/off
thousands of μF. The larger the supply output power, the
frequency, that is, the switching frequency, which is
larger is also the size of the capacitor.
considerably higher than the input AC frequency of
In an AC/DC converter circuit that provides a supply 50/60Hz, for example, measuring tens of kHz. The result
voltage for general electronic circuits, the only component is a conversion to the high-frequency AC square wave
that handles high voltages is the transformer. For other illustrated in Figure 4.
components, a rated voltage matching the specific DC
The chopped square wave AC voltage is rectified with a
voltage to be supplied must be selected.
rectifying diode provided on the secondary side,
smoothed out by a capacitor, and converted to a
predetermined DC output voltage. In Figure 4, rectified

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

AC square wave are omitted. It is the same as half-wave and it is used in a variety of applications. In PWM, the
rectification using a single diode, please refer to Figure 1. input DC voltage is converted to AC with a duty cycle
The rectifier diode on the secondary side needs to have equivalent to the output voltage by switching, and then
a high withstand voltage depending on the circuit rectified back to DC again to obtain the desired DC
configuration and design. The withstand voltage of the voltage.
capacitor should be commensurate with the output
For example, 100VDC is converted into 25:75 AC, with
voltage.
25% of the cycle ON and the rest OFF, as shown in Figure
To convert the DC voltage after rectification and 5. If the AC is rectified and smoothed, that is, averaged
smoothing to the desired voltage value, a control circuit and converted to DC, the voltage will be 25VDC
of switching elements is required to keep the output corresponding to 25% of the cycle. In reality, this is not
voltage constant, shown in Figure 4. the case because of the conversion efficiency (loss), but
it is based on this principle.
In summary, switching AC/DC converter rectifies and
smooths high AC voltage such as 100VAC from the power Essentially, switching DC/DC conversion is a power
grid as it is, converts that high DC voltage to high conversion. In actual PWM control, if the output load
frequency AC by switching, and then rectifies and current increases, the output voltage starts to drop, so the
smooths it again to low DC voltage. The high DC voltage control circuit performs feedback control to supply power
is then converted to high-frequency AC by switching, and to increase the duty ratio and return the output voltage to
again to low DC by rectifying and smoothing. the set value, so the pulse width of ON changes according
to the load current.
The process after rectifying and smoothing the initial AC
is the same as the normal switching DC/DC conversion, 1.5.2 Example of Components and Mounting for
as it involves converting from DC (input) to AC (switching) Switching Method
and back to DC (output). This conversion principle is
Figure 6 shows the front and back sides of the mounting
explained in the next section.
board of an actual switching type AC/DC converter. In
1.5.1 Principle of Switching DC/DC Conversion after basic configuration, the system is the same as the one
Rectification shown in Figure 4. As such, the circuit controls regulation
by providing feedback of the output voltage to a PWM
In the switching method AC/DC conversion, the process
control circuit.
after rectification and smoothing of the input AC voltage
is the same as the switching DC/DC conversion. Figure 5
illustrates the principle.

Figure 5. Principle of switching DC/DC conversion

Figure 6. An actual PWM switching AC/DC converter
(PWM example)

Figure 5 illustrates the principles of voltage stepping Since there are many through-hole mounted components,
down using a pulse-width modulation (PWM) system, it looks similar to the transformer method shown earlier,
which is a representative control method. PWM is a but the diode bridge, primary-side electrolytic capacitor,
control method that controls the on/off time ratio, which is switching element (transistor), and secondary-side
the duty cycle, by keeping the cycle (frequency) constant, rectifier diode are basically designed for high voltage.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Because the transformer must operate at high shows a common AC/DC adapter, the left one is a
frequencies in a range of tens of kHz, it is referred to as transformer type and the right one is a switching type. It
a high-frequency transformer or a switching transformer. is easy to imagine that the switching type is clearly
The core for a switching transformer is generally made of smaller and lighter. Looking at the electrical specifications,
ferrite. the output power of the smaller and lighter switching type
is more than 1W higher.
For switching elements, basically transistors are used,
which are dubbed power transistors, switching transistors,
and the like. The high-power MOSFET for a switching
power supply has gained wider circulation. A switching
transistor is selected to match the required output power.
In situations where the output power is not very high, a
control IC containing the switching transistor may be used
to reduce the number of components required.
The control circuit that regulates the output voltage can
be configured by using transistors, operational amplifiers, Figure 7. Example of an AC/DC adapter: Left:
and other types of discrete devices. In many applications, Transformer type, Right: Switching type
AC/DC conversion ICs have gained in popularity because
of their ability to provide high degree of regulation control The switching method converts AC input to DC and then
and a number of protection functions in one package. to high-frequency AC again, allowing the use of
Especially for on-board AC/DC power supply designs, transformers and output capacitors with smaller values
designing the system with an AC/DC converter IC playing and smaller sizes. This allows for a much smaller form
a central role will be a realistic approach. Incidentally, In factor.
Figure 6, the control IC is mounted around the lower In terms of efficiency, the switching method, which
center on the back of the board, in a small package called extracts only the necessary power by switching, is clearly
SOP8 providing multiple protection functions in addition more efficient than the transformer method, which uses a
to the control function. transformer to step down the voltage, and naturally
1.6 AC/DC Conversion: Comparison of Transformer generates less heat.
Method and Switching Method Since the design will be a combination of efficiency, size,
In the previous sections we provided an overview of and cost, we believe that an understanding of the
transformer and switching system-based AC/DC advantages and disadvantages of the different methods
conversion in terms of operation and circuits. In this will help us make the best choice. The advantages and
section we attempt to summarize their pros and cons. disadvantages of each are summarized in Table 1.
Refer to Figures 2 and 4.
Transformer Method Switching Method
In terms of circuit configuration, due to differences in the ・Relatively simple circuitry ・Complex circuitry (Control
conversion methods employed, the switching method is ・Low noise (Depending on IC required)
the circuit) ・Many high-voltage tolerant
more complicated. In addition, the switching system ・Low cost components
requires a control circuit (basically an IC). ・Bulky volume and ・With switching noise
Although the two methods are similar in the components significant weight ・Smaller and lighter
・Substantial heat ・Low heat dissipation
used, the switching method requires some higher voltage dissipation ・High efficiency
tolerant parts, with some cost implications. ・Low efficiency
However, the main advantage of the switching method is Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of different
its high conversion efficiency, and it is also more AC/DC conversion methods.
advantageous than the transformer method in terms of 2. Output Regulation Methods of AC/DC Converter
size and weight reduction.
We have explained the transformer method and switching
An example is an AC/DC adapter for charging portable method for AC/DC conversion. In this chapter, we will
devices. You may have the impression that recent years' explain the typical output voltage (DC) regulation
products have become smaller and lighter. Figure 7 methods.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Both transformer and switching methods are basically the and smoothed DC from AC to the desired stabilized DC
same until the AC is rectified by a diode bridge and voltage.
converted to DC. The converted DC voltage is usually
＜Summary＞
used to power other devices. In most cases, the supply
voltage of the device must be regulated. For example, if  In the transformer method, a voltage regulator is added
an IC's power supply voltage specification is 5V±5%, the to the rectified and smoothed DC output to regulate the
power supply must be regulated to this range. output.
 In the switching method, the DC/DC converter is also
Therefore, when regulation is required, the rectified and
responsible for regulating the output.
smoothed DC voltage is regulated by a regulating circuit.
Figure 8 shows the configuration of the transformer 2.1 Linear Regulator Method
method with an additional voltage regulator for regulation,
and Figure 9 shows the switching method, where the part The first output regulation method to be introduced is the
surrounded by the orange circle is the part that is suitable one that uses a linear regulator. The linear regulator, also
for regulating the output voltage. known as a 3-terminal regulator, is a widely recognized
power supply IC because it can easily step-down DC
voltage.
The use in AC/DC converters is basically a transformer
system. By optimizing the transforming (step-down)
voltage in the transformer as the input of the linear
regulator, it is possible to use it with not so bad efficiency
and acceptable heat generation.
Figure 8. Transformer method AC/DC conversion
configuration with regulation In addition, since linear regulators have ripple rejection
capability, it may be possible to remove any residual
ripple in the DC after smoothing. Applications that do not
like noise can take advantage of this combination.
It is almost impossible to use a switching system. It is
necessary to replace the DC/DC conversion part with a
linear regulator. However, for example, the DC voltage
directly rectified from 100VAC input is about 140V, and
the allowable input voltage of a general-purpose linear
regulator is about 80V at the maximum. Although it is
possible to make a discrete configuration of a linear
Figure 9. Switching method AC/DC conversion regulator using transistors, etc., it is not a realistic option
configuration considering the loss and heat treatment when stepping
down from a DC voltage of 140V to, say, 12V. In addition,
The reason why the transformer method in Figure 8 is
it is even more difficult to consider the circuit design and
deliberately described as " regulated" is that there is a
the space including the circuit and heat sink. The
non-regulated type of transformer method AC/DC
switching scheme is possible because of the switching
converter that outputs the rectified and smoothed DC
conversion, and if this part is changed to linear regulator,
voltage as it is. The voltage regulator is shown with a
it will not be a switching scheme anymore.
dashed line as an option.
A linear regulator can also be added to a transformer-
On the other hand, the switching DC/DC converter part of
based non-stabilized output converter to provide a
the switching method is an integral part of the circuit.
stabilized output. In the case of adding later, you will have
Since the switching method also regulates the output
to make the thermal design and the power dissipation
voltage in this part, please consider that the output of the
estimation yourself. Note that under conditions of high
switching method is supposed to be regulated.
power dissipation, heat generation will also increase. At
This has been a bit complicated to explain. In the next most, 2W can be handled without a heat sink. Of course,
section, we will introduce a method to convert rectified high loss means low efficiency.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

This section summarizes the advantages and expense of a relatively large peak current flowing into the
disadvantages of the linear regulator method. switching elements, diodes, and output capacitors.
- Advantages We now describe the basic operation of the flyback
system, in reference to Figure 10.
 Simple design, small number of components
 Low noise (no switching noise, ripple rejection)
 Low cost
- Disadvantages
 Efficiency deteriorates when the input/output voltage
difference is large (heat generation increases)
 A heat sink may be required for thermal measures.
 Realistic power dissipation is less than 2W.
2.2 Flyback Method
The flyback method is a method that is widely used in
switching power supplies up to 100W. The circuit Figure 10. Basic flyback method (in continuous
configuration in Figure 9 also uses the flyback method as mode)
an example. When the MOSFET turns on, a current flows to the
There are three types of flyback systems: self-exciting primary winding on the transformer, producing a build-up
ringing choke converter (RCC), separate-excitation PWM of energy. In this case, the diode remains off. When the
type, and quasi-resonant type applying resonance MOSFET turns off, the stored energy is output from the
technology to the RCC. The RCC type has been used secondary winding in the transformer through the diode.
mainly in small-power applications such as system The subsequent rectification/smoothing actions generate
auxiliary power supply units. However, because of a DC voltage. Because of these operations, the flyback
somewhat increased design complexity when compared system is sometimes referred to as an on/off system.
with the PMW type and due to the increasing popularity Figure 11 shows waveforms for the key nodes of the
of PMW type ICs with built-in MOSFET, in small-power flyback system.
applications the RCC type is being supplanted by the In AC/DC converters, it is basically used for switching
PMW type. In the quasi-resonant type, controls are methods. Of course, it can also be used for transformer
provided by a dedicated IC. Due to the fact that the PMW methods, but from the viewpoint of trade-off between
type features low noise and less losses compared with merits and demerits, it is limited to cases where isolation
the PWM, it has made inroads into some applications. is required.
A characteristic of the flyback method is simplicity, ＜Summary＞
requiring fewer components as a switching regulator. The
 The flyback method is often used for switching power
circuit can be constructed with switching transformers,
supplies up to about 100W.
switching elements (transistors), diodes, capacitors, and
some other passive components required by the control  There are three types: self-excited RCC, separately-
IC. excited PWM type, and quasi-resonant type, and PWM
type is often used for small power applications.
For applications that do not require much output accuracy,
the flyback method can be used as an unregulated output  It is simple, has a small number of components, and
power supply by setting the approximate output voltage can be regulated or unregulated, isolated or non-
by the transformer turn ratio (Figure 10). To make a isolated.
regulated output, feedback from the secondary output to
 Basically, it is used for switching type AC/DC converters.
the primary control circuit is required. If isolation is
required, the feedback line can be isolated with a
photocoupler to make an isolated power supply.
In addition, the flyback system offers the advantage of
accommodating a wide input voltage range, at the

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

When the MOSFET turns on, the diode D1 turns on and

supplies a current to the load through the inductor. When
the MOSFET is turned off, the energy stored in the
inductor is supplied as current to the load through diode
D2. The secondary side is the same as a diode (non-
synchronous) rectification DC/DC converter. The
waveforms of each part are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 11. Operating waveforms of each part of the

flyback method

2.3 Forward Method

Given a relatively simple configuration and easy to control,
the forward method represents one of the more popular
methods. It can handle up to about 1.5 kW.
In terms of characteristics, the forward method is capable
of producing larger-power output when compared with the
Figure 13. Operating waveforms of each part of the
flyback method, while requiring both an inductor and a
forward method
flywheel diode (D2). See Figure 12. In addition, similar to
the flyback system, the forward method can be made into The forward method basically does not store energy, so
an insulated power supply unit through the use of an the efficiency of transformer use is better than that of
optocoupler on the feedback line from the output. flyback. Since current flows only during the period when
the transistor is turned on, residual magnetic flux
The operation of the forward method is illustrated in
accumulates, so a flux reset circuit is required (R, C, and
Figure 12.
D on the primary side of the transformer in Figure. 12).
The reset circuit is generally composed of a
resistor/capacitor/diode circuit.In connection with the
reset operation, a voltage as much as 1.5 to 2 times the
DC input voltage is exerted on the switching transistor.
This voltage varies with the snubber resistance and the
capacitor. Recently, a system has come into use
combining an active clamp that is capable of reducing
losses and Vds by recovering the energy that needs to be
reset.

Figure 12. Forward method

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Furthermore, in the case of stepping down, the amount of not through a transformer, however, the buck system
current on the primary side is low, and the amount of produces more current flowing into a switching element
energy trapped in the coils is not all that large. However, than the flyback system for the same output power.
when the forward system is used for stepping up, the Consequently, the buck system is used mainly in small-
current on the primary side increases. Since the energy power applications rather than in large-output power
building up in the coils also varies as the square of the situations. The operation is illustrated in Figure 14.
current, the energy lost in the reset circuit tends to be
large. Consequently, although this circuit is used for
stepping down operations, it is rarely used in stepping up
applications.
In AC/DC conversions, the switching system is mainly
used. Although it can also be used in the transformer
system, similar to the flyback system, the use of the
forward system is limited to applications that require
adequate insulation.
＜Summary＞
Figure 14. Buck method
 It is one of the most popular methods, and can handle
output power up to about 1.5kW. The buck method operates virtually in the same way as
the forward method. The method features a circuit in
 The secondary side is the same as a diode (non-
which the transformer is removed from the forward
synchronous) rectification DC/DC converter.
method (Figure 12) and the D1 is replaced by a MOSFET.
 Requires a reset circuit. When the MOSFET turns on, a current flows to the load
 Basically, used for switching type AC/DC converters. through an inductor, and energy is accumulated in the
inductor as well. During this operation, the diode remains
2.4 Buck (step-down, non-isolated) Method off. When the MOSFET turns off, the energy stored in the
The buck converter is a step-down converter that inductor is supplied to the load through diode D2. The
performs rectifying by means of a diode; it is a MOSFET turns on and off, as in the case of diode D1 in
representative system used in non-insulating step-down a forward method. Figure 15 shows the waveforms for
switching DC/DC converters. “Buck” means voltage step- each part.
down. Its use in AC/DC converters is limited to non-isolated
It is the same as the diode rectification type and non- power supplies when used in switching systems. Relative
synchronous type in DC/DC converters. Compared to the to the transformer system, the buck system offers the
forward method described in section 2.3, the primary and easiest-to-use switching DC/DC method. Although more
secondary sides are not isolated since no transformer is costly than the linear regulator due to an increased
used (Figure 14). In applications where insulation is not number of parts required, the buck method permits
needed, this method, which does not use a transformer, enhanced efficiency while keeping the advantages of the
provides a simple solution. transformer method intact. In terms of efficiency with
respect to the AC input, however, the buck system
In the buck method, not requiring voltage adjustment by
compares less favorably than the switching system-
a transformer, the output voltage is determined solely by
based AC/DC conversion configuration.
controls performed by a MOSFET. For this reason,
feedback from the output is always required (omitted in ＜Summary＞
Figure 14).  Buck (step-down), non-isolated, low power applications.
A characteristic of the buck method is first of all a simple  No transformer is used, but the operation is the same
configuration. For creating small-power power supplies, as the forward method.
the buck system is more advantageous than the flyback
system in cost, which accounts for the increased use of  Since the output voltage is controlled only by controlling
buck systems in power supplies for home appliance the switching element (transistor), the output feedback
micro-controller devices. Because power is transmitted is essential.

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

 Basically, it is used for switching type AC/DC converters, First, you need to decide on design specifications, select
but it is the easiest to use for transformer type. an IC that meets those specifications, and proceed with
the design task while choosing the various parts that may
be required. The design process requires not only the
design of the circuits, but also the design of a board layout.
After that, prototyping and evaluation are conducted,
followed by mass production. Incidentally, these steps are
applicable not only to the design of AC/DC converters but
also to the design of other power supply units as well.
Here, the second item is listed as “Selecting a power
supply control IC,” the reason being that in the design of
an on-board power supply, the recent circuit design
involves the use of a power supply IC, as was noted
previously.
We believe that the scope of work performed by design
engineers varies widely from one company to another
depending upon the prevailing conditions. For example,
an engineer might be called upon to establish shipping
inspection methods and investigate defect issues, tasks
which may not be a part of design work proper. These
steps, however, represent important feedback items for
the design process, and task of launching a product in the
marketplace must address all these requirements.
3.1 Firming up the Specifications
Figure 15. Operating waveform of each part of the
The first and most important task is to clarify the required
Buck method
specifications. Normally, this is the first and most
3. Design Procedure of AC/DC Converter important task, but power supply specifications cannot be
decided until the entire circuit specifications are decided,
This chapter outlines the design procedure for an AD/DC
which is a fate that we often hear about when the design
converter. Make sure you understand the order of
period is nearing its end and people are in a hurry to get
operations and what needs to be done. You may have a
started. However, it is impossible to proceed unless
solid understanding of circuit diagrams. Any work
something is decided first, so we start with the required
involving tasks other than drawing charts and any specific
voltage and estimated load current as tentative
procedure that must be followed, however, must be
specifications. The main contents that must be decided at
learned by “doing it.” In addition, skills based on
the starting point are as follows.
experience and the ability to make proper judgement are
also a part of critical assets. Making a product requires an ① Firming up required specifications
approach in which theory, knowledge, and experience 1) Input/output: input voltage range, output
complement one another and are brought to bear on a voltage/accuracy
given task synergistically. 2) Load: current, with or without transient (including
The following is a list of standard design steps, roughly sleep/wakeup)
classified and put in order to provide an overview: 3) Standby power, efficiency
4) Temperature: Max/Min, cooling
① Firming up required specifications 5) Size: footprint, height (form factor)
② Selecting a Control (Power) IC 6) Required protection: low voltage, over-voltage,
③ Design and peripheral components selection over-heating
④ Prototyping & evaluation 7) Environmental/application conditions: automotive,
⑤ Mass production design, evaluation and shipment aerospace/communication, RF
inspection 8) Cost

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

If we take input conditions as an example, 100 VAC would power supply IC itself, not to mention the additional time
be adequate for sales in Japan. However, if a given and effort that would be needed in the design and
product is to be sold overseas, universal input capabilities evaluation steps. For these reasons, adding functions
fit for the voltage in the destination country in which the using discrete parts may not be a realistic option. Taking
product is offered, or any voltage across the world, must an approach involving an adroit use of the power supply
be provided. Also, in some countries the AC voltage may IC can lead to increased design efficiency.
be unstable, in which case a wide latitude in tolerance
In selecting a power supply IC, the question is, "Can big
must be taken into consideration. When a large number
be small? The answer to this question is "yes," but it is
of such factors must be addressed, selection of parts
not recommended when considering efficiency and
changes widely. Consequently, it is important to collect as
optimization of external components. It also wastes space.
much relevant information as possible at the outset of a
design effort. Strictly speaking, a design process cannot Also, the ICs for switching power supplies are not very
be started unless specifications are clearly defined. compatible among manufacturers. Although they have
However, the objective being to design an appropriate similar configurations, the pin assignments are often
power supply within a given timeframe, a flexible posture different.
is also good thing to have. As with the 78 series linear regulators, replacement is
3.2 Selecting a Control (Power) IC basically not possible. Changing components during the
design process, especially after the board layout has
Once specifications are fixed (or If we can find out what it
been done, will mean redesigning, so careful
is), we move on to select a power supply IC that can meet
consideration is essential when selecting ICs.
those specifications. In this section, we assume the use
of a power supply IC. 3.3 Design and Peripheral Components Selection
Once an IC is decided upon, you move on with the design
② Selecting a control (power) IC
process by referencing the data sheets for the IC and
1) Method: Transformer, Switching
example applications. In this process, you need to
2) Topology: Step-up, Step-down, Buck-Boost,
determine constants such as the external resistance and
Inverting
capacitance. In the case of a switching AC/DC converter,
3) Topology: Linear, Flyback, Forward
the design of a transformer represents a critical step.
4) Isolation/Non-isolation
③ Design and peripheral components selection
Based on a set of requirements, you select a power 1) Major transformation components︓Transformers,
supply IC by determining whether the AC/DC system to bridges, diodes, and capacitors
be employed is a transformer or switching type, a step up 2) Components required for the IC
or step down, or flyback or forward. In other words, 3) Calculation and optimization of constants
selecting a power supply IC means determining the 4) Transformer design: Size, inductance, number of
specific power supply system to be used. Basically, the turns, structural design (wire diameter and layer
power supply IC is designed to support a specific method, construction)
so you have to choose the IC for the method you have
decided. In a design using a power supply IC, the IC
represents a significant part of investment, and the The first step in transformer design is to consider the size
circuits and parts to be used are substantially determined of the transformer. The transformer size is determined
by the IC selected. Therefore, in practice, the design will based on the power supply method, switching frequency,
be centered on the IC. output power, etc. The inductance (L) of the main winding
(primary winding) and the number of turns of each
Power supply ICs are available in a wide variety of types, winding are determined to prevent magnetic saturation.
including the functions that they provide. An important After that, you begin the structural design process. You
point in selecting a power supply IC is to find an IC that determine the wire diameter of the wire material while
supports the necessary functions for the power supply ensuring an adequate layer configuration by taking the
being designed. In particular, implementing protection required degree of coupling into account, as well as an
functions using an external circuit requires a larger adequate creeping distance that complies with safety
number of additional parts and a greater footprint than the standards, and by making sure that wires can be wound

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

on the effective spool on the bobbin. An example of designed circuit works correctly before prototyping, and
transformer specifications is given below for your then use it to further check the operation of the actual
reference. prototype.
The next problem is the case where the circuit is correct
but the prototype does not work properly. In most cases,
this will be due to the board layout, so in this case, using
the evaluation boards provided by IC manufacturers is a
good way to go. The detailed specifications may be
different from your own design specifications, but it can
serve as a sample for comparison. In many cases, IC
manufacturers provide recommended examples of board
layouts, so it is more efficient to refer to them when
designing.

④ Prototyping & evaluation

1) Using an evaluation board/tools
2) Board prototyping and evaluation of operations
and performance under assumed conditions
3) Debugging & optimization
4) Check for compliance with required specifications
& Trade-off

For measuring efficiency as one of the evaluation items,

a power meter capable of measuring AC may be used. Of
Figure 16. Example of transformer specification. course, efficiency can be assessed by combining a
Not only transformers, but also component selection and voltmeter, an ammeter, or a clamp-type ammeter;
design considerations require knowledge of electricity however, newer power meters can display the efficiency
and electronics, as well as knowledge of components, itself.
and especially experience. Although we proceed with the Furthermore, be sure to use an oscilloscope to observe
design with these knowledges, there will be times when the waveform at each point, since abnormal waveforms,
things do not go well. In such cases, it is a good idea to noise, and spikes can be discovered only through the
use the support of IC manufacturers and component observation of waveforms. If the circuit, operating
manufacturers to proceed with the design quickly and properly on the surface, behaves erratically, waveforms
without waste. can often reveal the cause of the problem.
3.4 Prototyping & Evaluation In the evaluation process, it is also important to check
After making drawings, completing a parts list, and tolerance with respect to input/output voltages, load
preparing a board layout, you can move on to the creation current, and temperature. A design that fails to provide for
of a prototype and the evaluation of its performance. The an adequate margin of safety can result in increased
first step in the prototyping process is the verification of numbers of rejects during the mass production process,
the basic operation. That said, it is not unusual that what and highly variable production yields in some lots. Each
operation is the correct one is not known in advance. component that constitutes a circuit is always subject to
variability. The design must be able to achieve target
In such cases, simulation data can be referred to. In specifications in a manner that glides over such
recent years, the development of simulation technology variabilities.
has been remarkable, and free simulators are available,
too. Also, IC manufacturers provide many device models 3.5 Mass production design and evaluation, and
for simulation. Normally, it is effective to take the shipment inspection
approach of using simulation to check whether the When finished with the debugging and optimization

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

processes, you move on to making decisions on mass total of the expertise that power supply manufacturers
production. had nurtured, and the discrete configuration held an
upper hand in terms of the ease of tuning, functionality,
⑤ Mass production design and evaluation, and and cost. Now, the power supply IC has evolved to the
shipment inspection point where it incorporates features that fulfill many needs
1) Reflection of prototype evaluation results so that high-performance power supply units can be built
2) Mass-production prototyping to produce a certain with great ease and in flexibility. The best of all, the
quantity number of components required in a power supply unit
3) Final decision on mass production has been reduced, providing advantages in size and
reliability. In device design for which rapid Time-to-Market
At such a time, there may be cases where required is a paramount requirement, we believe that it is critical to
specifications are not completely met. In such a case, a improve the efficiency of the power supply design process
redesign may be required to satisfy the specifications that which is prone to delay.
are essential, or trade-offs may need to be considered in ＜Summary＞
order to achieve the overall goal by making compromises
 If you don't have deep experience and know-how in
on some aspects of the design.
power supply design, it is practically better to use power
These are the steps and items to check. We think it is supply ICs.
common to proceed with the design in roughly this order,
 Using a power supply IC reduces the number of
but the details may vary from company to company.
components, improves size and reliability, and shortens
However, the details vary from company to company. In
the design time in many cases.
any case, the design progresses with both proper
planning and flexible responses. 4.2 Efficiency
4. Issues and Considerations for AC/DC Converter Improving the efficiency of power supply is a critical issue
Design in view of the demand for energy conservation in these
times. Concomitant with this requirement, the amount of
This section describes some of the possible issues and
power consumed when a device is in a standby status is
considerations for the design of AC/DC converters. Each
also an important improvement goal, and various
of the considerations listed in the design procedure in
measures have been taken to meet this need.
Chapter 3 will be covered, but we have picked out the
ones that are most likely to cause problems. These issues Whereas the efficiency of a switching DC/DC converter
are not only related to AC/DC converter design, but also can reach almost 95%; in the case of an AC/DC converter,
to power supply design as a whole. the conversion efficiency on the primary side actually
leaves some room for improvement. Also, as the power
4.1 Discrete Configuration or Use of Power Supply
to be handled increases, a power factor correction (PFC)
IC?
is needed, requiring additional circuits and expertise on
The consideration of whether to use a discrete the part of the design engineer.
configuration or an IC for power supply may be
In order to improve the efficiency of AC/DC converters,
decreasing. This article is written mainly from the
switching methods are promising. As mentioned above,
perspective of designing an onboard power supply. While
this requires high voltage components, which increases
some cases may be made for the adoption of a discrete
the number of components and naturally increases the
configuration, the advantages of using a power supply IC
cost of the components slightly. In addition, the design
are as discussed a lot in the preceding sections. In these
becomes a little more complicated, and the time required
times we believe that the best approach is to fully utilize
for evaluation increases as well. However, these are
the capabilities of a power supply IC. Power supply ICs
necessary as a trade-off for the higher efficiency,
are provided with most of the circuits and functions
standards, and regulations of recent years.
required for optimal controls. The designer can achieve a
virtually perfect power supply unit by adjusting those ＜Summary＞
functions and optimizing them to suit his/her own design.  Improvement of the efficiency of AC/DC converters is a
In days past, power supply units represented the sum must.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

 The switching method is promising as a choice, but the Not all of these will be needed in every power supply
cost of components and the time required for design circuit, but most of them are essential or even better
and evaluation will increase. features to have. In recent years, most of the necessary
protection functions have been incorporated into control
 It is necessary to deal with the demand for higher
ICs, so it is in your best interest to take advantage of them.
efficiency by carefully considering the trade-offs.
Especially in the case of AC/DC converters, the input is
4.3 Downsizing – Number of Parts and Their Sizes
the AC voltage from the outlet, so sometimes large surges
Downsizing is also a critical requirement nowadays. due to lightning strikes may be applied. In addition, even
Downsizing of AC/DC converters can be achieved by for home use, the voltage is as high as 100-200VAC, and
opting for the switching system. Section 1.6 shows an high currents of several tens of amperes can flow through
example comparison of AC adapters, and the differences it, so if a failure occurs, the damage can be enormous.
are obvious.
The circuit diagrams shown in this handbook are only
The transformer, which is a bulky and heavy part, has schematic diagrams, and the fuses in the AC line, which
undergone downsizing as a constituent part. In the should be there, are omitted. It is common sense, but I
secondary-side switching DC/DC conversion circuit, the would like to confirm this just in case.
smaller inductors and capacitors can be used by
＜Summary＞
increasing the switching frequency. This may be a good
strategy for achieving size reductions albeit at the  The protection function is particularly important
expense of a diminished efficiency. Therefore, especially for AC/DC converters with high voltage input.
optimization based on the trade-off between size and
 Many protection functions are provided in control ICs.
efficiency is required.
4.5 Certifications and Regulations
Control ICs also help to incorporate many peripheral
functions, reduce the number of components, and reduce There are many certifications and regulations for power
the footprint. Today's control ICs have five or six different supplies. One of them is Energy Star, which is often seen
protection functions, depending on the model. If they and is related to efficiency and standby power
were to be configured as discrete components, a consumption. In terms of safety, PSE certification is
considerable number of parts and space would be mandatory for power supply units such as AC adapters in
required. Japan. EMC compliance is required for noise.

As a result, even though the number of components may These requirements are a diverse set, some being
increase slightly, the adoption of a switching method and applicable across the world and others limited to a
optimization of operating conditions are the specific country or region. Any product offered globally
considerations for miniaturization. needs to comply with the lows and regulations applicable
in the respective countries. Furthermore, it should be
＜Summary＞
borne in mind that acquiring such certifications requires
 Adopting a switching method increases the number of tests, with attendant time, expenses, and a considerable
components, but allows the form factor to be reduced. amount of work.
 Higher switching frequency enables the use of smaller ＜Summary＞
peripheral components, but the efficiency decreases,
 There are certifications and regulations for efficiency
so optimization based on trade-offs is necessary.
and standby power, safety, and noise.
4.4 Protection Functions
 The content varies by country and region.
Protection functions are important for power supplies not
 When designing, consider what will be required in
only in terms of safety but also in terms of availability. The
advance and prepare for it.
main types of protection functions are those for input
(overvoltage, drop below operating range, etc.), output 5. Conclusion
(overload and short circuit, reverse voltage, overvoltage, AC/DC conversion is essential as long as the power
etc.), and temperature (overheating, increase in ambient supply from the power grid is AC. In recent years, AC/DC
temperature, etc.). converters are increasingly using switching

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

methods to meet the global demand for energy saving

and miniaturization. In order to design, it is necessary to
understand the basics of each method and its
characteristics. In addition, please refer to the design
procedure as well, although it is only an outline.

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Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Revision History

Date Version Details

2021.02.25 001 Initial version
Changed the text in "2.3 Forward Method".
2021.04.04 002
Changed Figure 13 for correction.

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 Hand Book
Basics of AC/DC Converter and Design Procedures

Notes
1. The information contained herein is subject to change without notice.
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© 2021 ROHM Co., Ltd. - 17 - TWHB-06e-002