| [Toric ist | aD." J toon canscn Toe Comat Bo |, auorores oF Canton |, Versariue Nature oF can |e Gans, Baoes 0 Rings Wal ou a Mr Fauve? {Funciona. Groves) Hateeoue Sones i; Novocaras or Canton Couronos > Gnen Prcesries oF Canton Compounns 1» Some Important CARBON CompounnsETHANOL AND Enwoie Aap Sons mo Derensours Carbon and Its Compounds Sui RARER After studying this chapter, learners will be able to: ‘¢ know about carbon, an ek bon, an element which is of immense significance to us in both its elemental form and in the combined form. a © study about different types of bonding between carbon compounds. « learn about the versatile nature of carbon. explain physical and chemical properties of carbon compounds. ¢ describe in detail about properties of ethanol and ethanoic acid. ¢ know in detail about the properti of soaps and detergents, ee INTRODUCTION Carbon is an essential non-metal. The word ‘carbo'(means ‘coal’) is derived from. the Latin word. This is due to the fact that itis the primary component of coal. From fossil fuels to complex molecules, carbon is present all around us. Itis found in both free as well as in the combined state. It is available as coal, graphite in the elemental state, whereas in the combined state it is present as metal carbonates, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide gas Carbon compounds are present everywhere i.e., in the food that we eat, the clothes that we wear and even in the lead of the pencil by which we write. A compound found. mainly in living beings is known as an organic compound. Organic compounds make up the cells and other structures of organisms and carry out life processes. Carbon is the main element in organic compounds. Without this element, life would not exist. The amount of carbon present in earth's crust and in the atmosphere is quite meagre. The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of mineral (such as carbonates, .d petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide which is the most important gas. In spite of this, small amount of carbon available in native, the importance of carbon seems to be immense. drogen carbonates, coal 4.1 BONDING IN CARBON-THE COVALENT BOND In the previous chapter, we have learnt about ionic compounds and their properties. Ionic compounds are formed of electrovalent bonds due to which they are good conductors of electricity in theit molten state. On the other hand, carbon compounds are largely non-conductors of electricity, Moreover, ionic compounds have high melting (235)Conditions for the formation of covalent bonds are: '« The combining atoms should i have non-metallic "character. ‘¢ The combining ‘tomas should contain 4 to 7 electrons in their outermost (oalence) shell. Exception In hydrogen atom, there is only 1 valence electron, but it forms covalent bond. The combining atoms need 1, 2, 3 or 4 electrons to.complete their octet (but hydrogen completes its duplet (electrons) ¢ The combining atoms should contribute equal number of electrons to form pair of electrons (20) fo be shared. 1 After the sharing of pair of electrons of each combining atoms it should attain stable electronic configuration (noble gas configuration). and boiling points. If we compare this with carbon compounds, itis clear that lower melting and boiling points. Table 4.1. Melting point: Compound Acetic acid (CHzCOOH) Chloroform (CHCl) Melting point (K) 290 209 156 ‘Methane (CH,) 90 ces of attraction between these molecules are not very sty iy what kind of bonds are found in It suggests that for To know more about this, let us stud compounds. The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. Sineg has four electrons in its outermost shell, its valency is four To achieve noble gas configuration, carbon atom has to lose or gain four electrong to form C#* or C* ions. The follwoing situations can be assumed. 1. It could gain four electrons forming C* anion, but it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons i.e., four extra electrons, cations, but it would require a k 2, It could lose four electrons to form C# amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with on to just two electrons. six protons in its nucleus hol Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements. The shared electrons belong to the outer: shells of both the atoms and complete the octet of both. Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons are called covalent bonds. 4.1.1 Covalent Bond A covalent bond is defined ‘as the force electrons between the two atoms.’ The combining atoms pairs of electrons. The covalent bond may form betwee by a mutual sharing of electrons, which are counted towards the stability of both the of electrons, each rest noble gas; ‘ond. The compounds itraction due to mutual sharing of may share one, two or three ilar or dissimilar atoms of the atoms does so, in order to acqu A small line (-) between the two atoms repr formed due to covalent bonding are called cov 4.1.2 Types of Covalent Bonds On the basis of the number of electrons shared by two combining atoms, the covalent bonds are of three types. 1, Single covalent bond cone pair of electrons between the two atoms. It is represented by one shortline (—) between the two atoms. Example : Hydrogen molecule (H—H), chlorine molecule (Cl—C)), hydrochlorie ‘acid (H—C)), ethane (CH;—CH,), etc. 2, Double covalent bond : A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between the two combining atoms. It is represented by. putting (=) two short lines between the two bonded atoms. Examples: Oxygen molecule, 0 = O (Oz). carbon dioxide, CO (0 = C = O)ethene (HC = CHL), ete. A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing ofof 41.2. Formation of single bond covalent ~ nlecule is 0 fect which jas more thant one cof atom, such ater (H,0), ~anmonta (NH) and carbon dioxide (CO), —— M. w Hudrogen molecule : Hydrogen atom has only one electron in its aa oho tt requires one more electron to acquire the nearest noble Gg — cantisation of lum (He : 2), Such hydrogen atoms shore one Dal of een them, This leads ition of a single covalent between the two hydrogen atoms. aa ce i ‘Shared 1—poir of electrons: H) +) —+ GOH) or HH a (1) (2) Two hydrogen atoms Hydrogen molecule (Helum configuration Fig, 4.1. Formation of hydrogen (4) molecule (ii) Chlorine molecule : Chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. Thus. each Cl atom requires one more electron to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ar ; 2, 8, 8). This they do by mutual sharing of one pair of electrons as shown below. + (@ (a ey) or Cl-CI 23.7 287) (2,8,8)(2.8,8) (Chlorine molecule) Two chlorine toms Chlorine molecule (Argon configurations) ion of chlorine (Cl,) molecule : The electronic configuration of hydrogen is K (1) and that of oxygen is K (2), L (6). Thus each hydrogen requires one and oxygen requires two electrons to achieve the stable electr (iif) ay (2) (2.8) (2) Hydrogen Water molecule ‘torn Fig. 4.3. Formation of H,0 molecule (iv) Methane (CH,) molecule : Methane is a covalent compound containing 4 covalent bonds. It contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to central carbon atom. i a be —HCor Ww 4 fomaion ol aaa ehenencocael ae area Fig. 4.4, Formation of methane molecule (v) Carbon tetrachloride (CCly) : The electronic configuration of carbon and chlorine atoms are (2, 4) and (2, 8, 7) respectively. Carbon atom needs four electrons and chlorine atom needs one electron to attain the stable electronic configuration. 4@ + a 24) Hydrogen Carbon ‘atom atomFig. 4.5. Formation of CCl, mol (i) Hydrochloric acid (HCI) molecule : Hydrogen atom has o electron, Itneeds one electron more to complete its duplet [to attain no (Helium, He configuration = 2). Chlorine has 7 valence electrons, I electron more to complete its octet and acquire stable noble gas con} 12,8, (2,8,7) Shared pair Hydrogen Chlerine of electrons ‘atom ‘atom Fig. 4.6, Formation of HCI molecule 4.1.2.2 Formation of double bond covalent compounds () Oxygen molecule : An oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shel. Tequlres 2 more electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas configuration, Two oxsigen atoms share two pairs of elections to achieve nearest neon gag configurations, Shared pair of eleerrons ‘ (ii) Carbon dioxide molecule (COs) : The electron K (2), L (4) and that of oxygen is K (2), L each oxygen atom requires two electrons to configurations, nic configuration of C is (6). Carbon requires 4 and achieve the stable electronic Shred pa of sloctons Doubie bonds etveen ‘gen and exonforme ihe same ff on Seconegativity Sled nonepler maent 0 Brample : Ho, O2 Cha Fr et ‘Acoatent bord setreen the atoms af eo elements having different dectronegativities jscalled a polar covalent bord. ‘Molecules in which the atom is bonded bya polar covalent ond are called polar ‘molecules. Example : HCL, H2O, NH¢’, etc Ina polar covalent bond, the shared pair ofelectrons lie ‘more towards the atom which is more clectronegatio Hydrogen Carbon ‘atoms atoms Ethene molecule Ethylene molecule Fig. 4.9. Formation of ethene molecule = Beh a 4 p (4x2) =8 Valence electrons me +4 Valence electrons “12” Valence electrons 4.1.2.3 Formation of triple bond covalent compounds (i) Nitrogen molecule : Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell. It requires three more electrons to acquire a stable configuration of the nearest noble gas (neon) This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons as shown below. “Tiiple bond + — N: or N==N “ 8) (2,8) Wo nitrogen atoms Nitrogen molecule Fig. 4.10. Formation of nitrogen molecule ii) Acetylene (ethyne) CH molecule : Shored pai of electrons “Tple bond i —> H-C=C-H Structural formula Structure of Electron dot of ethyne Ethyne molecule structure of Ethyne Fig. 4.11. Formation of ethyne molecule ‘Covalency of the element in a covalent compound is equal to its total number of electrons involved in the covalent bonding or number of unpaired electrons available for covalent bonding. For example, (i) Hy molecule : Hydrogen atom in H, molecule has covalency of 1 since, each hydrogen atom contributes one electron in the formation of covalent bond (Fig. 4.1). (i) HgO molecule : Covalency of hydrogen in water (H,0) molecule is one as in cane of hydrogen (Hz) molecule. Covalency of oxygen in this structure is 2 since Gxygen shared 2 electrons in the formation of covalent bond (Fig. 4.3). (ii) BF, molecule : In the molecule of boron trifluoride (BFs), covalency of boron is 3 due to sharing of three electrons in the formation of covalent bond (Fig. 4.12)) | EBB) Copiae oe Fig, 4:12. Electron dot st Covolenton bon Unshored pai of and formation of BF (iv) PCly molecule : In the formation of phosphorous trich phosphorous atom share 3 electrons with three chlorine atomy ae fhas.a covalency of 3. Similarly, each chlorine atom of three hag 2 1 due to shared one electron (each of thre chlorine ators) in the for at covalent bond. abnvogmoe(Pa)ovoorbnod Ge) | 2-6 Phosphorous Chlorine Phosphorous ‘atom ‘atoms. trichloride Fig. 4.13. Electron dot structure and formation of PCly (0) PCls molecule : In the formation of phosphorous pentachlorde (P Phosphorous atom share 5 electrons with five chlorine atoms and henee, a covalency of ! Cy), milly, each chlorine atom of ive has a covaleney of dg to shared one electron (each of five chlorine atoms) inthe formation of coven bond. Unstaed pair ee ~ Covet bend Phosphorous atom ‘atoms pena Fig. 4.14, Electron dot struct ormation of PCI, 4.1.3 Characteristics of Covalent Compounds (i) Physical State : Covalent compounds ate |Remember — compounds with high mole general y gases or liquids. But lar masses are solids also. Some exceptions like Example, Solid : Urea, glucose and naphthalene, diamond and graphite Liquids : Water, ethanol, benzene. which are covalent Gases : Methane, chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen. solids have very high (ii) Melting and boiling points : Covalent compounds have low melting and melting and boiling low boiling points because intermolecular forces (cohesive forces) in covalent points. compounds are weaker than those in ionic compounds. (ii) Solubility : Covalent compounds generally dissolve readily in organie solvents but they are less soluble in water. For example, naphthalene which is an organic compound dissolves readily in organic solvents like ether but it is insoluble in water. However, some covalent compounds like urea, glucose, sugar etc, are soluble in water.case mt = a (Ww) Conduetivity : Cova — é 24% share electron sc.valent compounds do not conduct electricity because they available neither ions nor free electrons necessary for conduction are For example, not conduct aa ee like glucose, aleohol, carbon tetrachloride do Table 4.2. Differes Seren —— nces between ion mite os ———onie (Electrovalent) compounds | ic and covalent compounds ey wanster of electrons | eovatent compounds 7 feet rose ama nt ann a p, mey are usual xstaline sof tiple bonds are formed). | Pperaly rave high meting and boting pont 2. Usually gases or liquid, only afew of them are Soi 5 empet elect in sation or moten si a 3. Generally have low meting and boling points Fagny polar and fnise in water. ae 4. Usually non-conductor of electri | piaNaci > Na" + CI 5. Mostly non-polar and do not ionise in water. Few | compound ire Herare paar nature and ionse ih : “a water. HCl -» Ht + Ct | . Show how nitro —— gen shares a covalent bond with hydrogen Inthe formation of ammonia (NH). Ar alelecrons involved in bonding ? ronic configurations of nitrogen and hydrogen are N25 Bee nitrogen atom requites three more electrons to acquire a stable nobis oniguration. On the other hand, each H-atom requres only one elvere to ve the stable helium configuration, This is done by mutually sharing three pai of electrons between one nifrogen ad thes yerogs some ‘shown H oe nN N—H one pl : Nene ofeloctions regen (en hei) ‘Ammonia molecule (en Bonne : conceaen wectons) ne unshared pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom (in ammonia moiecule) is not ved in bond formation and is called a lone pair of electrons, OF CARBOD nts are able to exist in different st tural forms, known as ‘allotropes! pic forms of carbon are diamond and graphite. The itlotropic form of carbon is buckminsterfullerene, which is made up of 60 earbon siamond and graphite are two crystalline allotropes of carbon. They both are valent erystals, However, they differ considerably in their properties. (i) Diamond ond is a crystalline allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol and empirical Structure of diamond : In diamond, the carbon atoms are arranged tetrahedrally: Each C atom fs linked fo its neighbours by four single covalent bonds. This leads toa rigid three-dimensional network of covalent bonds due to which q hard, and has high melting and boiling points. In diamond, Ponded to the other through regular covalent bonds The electrons thus are n the nuclei, and there are no mobile electrons to conduct electicity valence electrons of carbon are used to forming the covalent bonds, Hence does not concluct electricity. Diamond is also denser than graphite (densi. = 3.52 g cm) because of its closely packed structure. DIAMOND is a 105 carat diamond Ea Fig. 4.15. Structure of diamond seized by the aah ee i Properties of diamond : cart + Because of its tetrahedral structure, diamond is one of the hardest kno of British Crown coe Jewels. May it be + Ttreflecs light internally due to its high refractive index (2,45). an ordinary coal or + It does not conduct electricity. the most precious ? Kohinoor diamond; esc unread: it is an allotropic modification of carbon indeed. A saw fitted with diamond is used for sawing marbles. A chip diamond is used for glass cutting, \. Black diamonds are used in mal ng dil Diamonds are used for making dice for drawing very thin wires of harder meta Diamonds are also used for making high precision tools used in surgery such as for the removal of cataract. 1 2, 3 4, Diamonds are used for mali for spacecrafis, (ii) Graphite Graphite is also known as black lead. The name graphite has been taken from the greek word “graphein” (which means to write) in reference to its uses as ‘lead’ in lead) pencils, precision thermometers and protective windows Fig. 4.16 (b). —— Structure of graphite : Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. In a crystal of graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal patterns (Fig, 4.17) in paralll Planes. In a layer of graphite each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three carbon| atoms by covalent bonds. Thus, one valence electron of each carbon atoms is free in every layer of graphite crystal. Thus free electrons make graphite a good conductor of electricity. Each layer is bonded to the adjacent layers by weak forces, Asa result, layer can easily slide over the other.Fig. 4.17. Structure of graphite Properties of graphite : + Graphite is grayish-black, opaque material having metallic (shiny) lus + Itis soft and has a soapy (slippery) touch + Graphite is lighter than diamond, The d 20°C. + Graphite is a good conductor of heat nsity of graphite nd electricity + Graphite has a very high melting point. + Graphite is insoluble in all common sol Uses of graphite 1. For making electrodes in dry cells and ele 2. Graphite is a good dry oil cannot be used lubricant for those parts of machines where 3. For making crucibles for melting metals. 4. For manufacturing lead pencils, 5. Graphite is used as ne moderator in nuclear reactors. 6. For the manufacture of gramophone reco 7. For the manufacture of artificial diamond. Table 4.3. Comparison of the Properties of Diamond and C [ Diamond Graphite 1, Itoccurs natu 1, Itocours nat n free state | artificially ha natural substance| 2. itis soft and greasy tot high relative density (about 3.5). | 3. Its relative density is parent and has high retractive| 4 index (2.45) bla 5. ttis non-conductor of heat and 6. 2 good cor electricity and electricity |g, itbume haat 900°C to give CO. 6. It bums in air at co. | 7. Itoceurs as octahedral crystals onal crystals | 8. Itis insoluble in all solvents. 8. Its insoluble in all ordinan 700-800°C tc(ii) Fullerenes Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon that were discovered in 1985 by p ‘Curl Jr, Harold Kroto and Richand E. Smalley. They have been foun, in the interstellar dust as well as in geological formations on earth, They q® cage-lke spherical molecules with formulae Czo. Cao» Coos Cro: Cras Cas ete, The commonly known fullerene is Cay which is named as ‘buckminster fullerene’ ag. designer of the geodesic dome, American architect Richard Buckminster Filler has marvelously symmetrical sp Structure of Fullerenes : Ca) molecule It is a fused-ring of aromatic system containing 20 hexagons and 12 peng atoms. The structure bends around and closes to form a soccer ball-shaped 18.Fullerene Therefore, itis called buckyball. Fullerene looks different from diamond and graphs Fig. Uses : [Renember — 1. They are wonderful lubricants because the balls can roll between the surfagy In addition to three 2, Alkali compounds of Ceo (AsCea) are super conducting materials even at hig allotropic forms, temperatures of the order of 10-40 K. carbon also exists in three amorphous or microcrystalline COTS TO 1. Give three reasons for the existence of a large number of carbon forms of graphite. ‘These are charcoal, compounds. fee carbo ack, 2. Draw electron dot structure of the followings : CoH, CO2, CHs, H20 3. Which allotrope of carbon conducts electricity and how? 4,3 VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON The number of carbon compounds known toda and this number far exceeds the total number of comp It is the nature of the covalent bond that enables ca compounds, The main characteristic properties of a carbon formation of a very large number of compounds are discussed is approximately three million I junds formed by other elements i n to form a large number ol atom that lead to the 4.3.1 Self Linking Property of Carbon (Catenation) The property of self-linking with atoms of the same element is known 2 catenation. Carbon has a unique property of linking itself to other carbon atoms to give open chain or/and cyclic structures. Catenation is favoured by atoms whet atom to atom covalent bond is quite strong. This characteristic reflects the strength of the bond between adjacent carbon atoms in the molecule, both in relationship to similar bonds involving other elements of the carbon family and in relationshif to bonds between carbon atoms and atoms of many other elements. In carbom C—C bond energy is very high (347.3 kJ mol) causing catenatio Only the carbon-hydrogen, carbon-fluorine, and carbon-oxygen single bond (CH, C—F and C—O) are stronger than the carbon-carbon single bond (C—O), each of these is weaker than the carbon-carbon multiple bonds (C = C or C= C).19. Open chain, branched chain and cyclic compounds of carbon. No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in caf compounds. The sttong and stable carbon-carbon bond gives a large number compounds. * Silicon can also make long chains within its compounds, but, since the silicon ‘oxygen bond is much stronger than that between two silicon atoms, the chains typically contain -O-Si-O-Si.- type links form compounds with hydrogen is known as silanes. _ Further, due to tetravalency of the carbon atom it can be bonded to two, three oF four carbon atoms by forming single and multiple bonds. Therefore, chains of carbon atoms may be linear, branched or cyclic. 4.3.2 Tetravalent Nature The atomic number of carbon is 6. Hence, its electronic configuration will be It I> Carbon atom has 4 electrons in its outermost valence shell so it valency is four. It needs four more electrons to complete its octet. The carbon atom completes its octet only by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms. Due to its tetravalent nature carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons with one, two, three or four carbon atoms or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms. P=6 A aN=6 i 7 e \ —+H ag H or H—C—H | 4 H H a Carbon atoms can forms four single covalent bonds. (electrons 2, 4) e.g, CH; (Methane) Fig. 4.20. Tetravalency of carbon Tetravalency of carbon atom allows it to combine easily with other carbon atoms to forma stable chain like structure i.e., exhibiting the property of catenation. Catenation usually occurs because the atomto-atom covalent bond is quite strong. The chains having different chain lengths, and structures and combination with different elements, lead to the formation of a large number of compounds. A x hed to four atoms with four single bonds. "Tetrahedral geometry Linked to three atoms with two single and one double bond. Trigonal geometry Linked to two atoms with one single and one triple bond. Linear geometry Organic compounds Carbon forms a large number of compound by virtue of tetravalency and catenation. Thes inorganic compounds. ofits ttv0 characteristic pro compounds can be classified as organi, arlie the organic compounds were defined as those compounds which are derived Irving beings. But itis now possible to synthesize organic compounds in the labo therefore, they are now defined as compounds of carbon, The compounds of carbon, which are not Compounds. Most of the inorganic compounds are obtained from va For example, limestone, marble and dolomite organic compounds, are called inoreayh rious mine ‘ontain carbon as carbonates, The of mopsanic compounds are carbides of metal (e.g., CaC, calcium carbide), HON, @ and oxides of carbon such as CO; and CO, Phe organic compounds are obtained from natural sources such as plants and anti omplex organic compounds such as carbohydrate m also provide many organie enol, naphithalene etc. are obtained from coal, twhereas petrolewin is source of petrol, diesel, Kerosene, lubricating ols, wa and other conipounds. In addition, a large variety of sumnthy number is increasing daily. Thus, the nu inorganic ones is very la Plants and animals are sources of c starch, oils, proteins, drugs etc. Coal and petr compounds. Composnds like benzene, mbe 4.3.3 Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are Hydrocarbons can be divided into various cl Compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen lasses as shown in fig. 4.21.a se 247 c HYDROCARBONS Open chain hydrocarbons Closed chain hydrocarbons (Aliphatic compounds) @.g., Benzene, Polypropane ’ Vict i? = heinaen Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons | Y Jooeens ee Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes eg., Methane, Ethane eg,, Ethe e.g., Ethyne, Propene Propyne Fig. 4.21. Classification of hydrocarbons Here we shall discuss about saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons 4.3.4 Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds (i) Saturated Compound Compounds of carbon and hydrogen in which carbon atoms contain only one (carbon-carbon) bond are known as saturated hydrocarbons. Theit carbon- hydrogen bonds are also single covalent bonds. They ate called saturated compounds because all the four bonds of carbon are fully utilised and no more hydrogen or other atoms can be added, They are also representative of open-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons. hese saturated hydrocarbons are called as alkanes. The general formula of alkane is CuHen+2 i) Methane (CHs) is the simplest alkane in whi four hydrogen atoms are linked to the carbon atom in a tetrahedral manner as shown below. H c. H H Ny Electron dot structure _(b) Molecular formula of methane Fig. 4.22. Electron dot structur .d molecular formula of methane (ii) Ethane (CzHs) : If instead of a hydrogen atom, the carbon atom is further linked to another carbon atom, we get another alkane, namely ethane (C;Hg) Ga) Ye yu y Kaa po) Cate Vor H H ra ard ee Electron dot structure of ethane (b) Moleclular formula of CoH, Fig. 4.23, Electron dot structures and molecular formula of ethane.