Republic of the Philippines

BASILAN STATE COLLEGE

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

PED 107 – A (ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 1)

1ST SEMESTER, ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025
Josephine Antonia M. Gahapon – Assistant Professor IV

UNIT 1: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT TRENDS (1 – 2 Weeks)

A. WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT?

1. Basic Principles
2. Types of Assessments
- Assessment FOR Learning
- Assessment AS Learning
- Assessment OF Learning
3. Users of Educational Assessments
B. COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
1. Measurement
2. Testing
- Standardized Testing
- High Stakes Testing
3. Evaluation
4. Types and Distinctions of Tests
C. HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS
1. Clear Purpose
2. Clear and Appropriate Targets
3. Appropriate Methods
4. Adequate Sampling
5. Objectivity
D. RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS
1. Accountability and Fairness
2. Standards-Based Education
3. Outcomes-Based Education
4. Item Responds Theory

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment;

2. Compare and contrast assessment, evaluation, measurement, and testing;
3. Discuss on the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve
teaching and learning; and
4. Reflect on and discuss the applications of assessment to teaching and learning.

REFERENCES:

1. Buendicho, Flordeliza C.; Assessment of Student Learning 1; TEACH Series, NCBTS

Aligned; Philippine Copyright 2013; Rex Book Store
2. Gabuyo, Yonardo A.; Assessment of Learning I: Textbook and Reviewer; TEACH
Series, NCBTS Aligned; Philippine Copyright 2012; Rex Book Store
3. Navarro, Rosita L., et al.; Assessment of Learning 1; 2017; OBE and K-12 Based;
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
4. https://www.studocu.com

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SUGGESTED TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
 KWL chart may be used to organize class discussion. PSTs will note: What they Know, what they
Want to know, and what they Learned.
 Interactive instruction and facilitated discussion using concept maps.

A. WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT?

According to Evangeline Harris Stefanakis (2002), “The word assess comes from the Latin assidere,
which means to sit beside. Literary then, to assess means to sit beside the learner”.

Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational programs
undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and development.

Assessment is a formative process that focuses on student learning. It involves setting explicit student
learning goals or outcomes for an academic program, evaluating the extent to which students are
reaching those goals, and using the information for program development and improvement.

Assessment is defined as a process for documenting, in measurable terms, the knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and beliefs of the learner (Delclos, et al., 1992 & Poehner, 2007).

Osterhof (2001) defined assessment as “a related series of measures used to determine complex
attribute of an individual or group of individuals. It is the process of observing and measuring learning.

The most common form of assessment is giving a test.

The term assessment in education can be defined in the following way:

Educational assessment seeks to determine how well students are learning and is an integrated part of
a quest to improved education. It provides feedback to students, educators, parents, policy makers,
and the public about the effectiveness of educational services 9National Research Council).

Educational assessment is the process of gathering information about what students have learned in
their educational environments.

Educational assessment is an on-going process, ranging from the activities that teachers undertake with
students in classrooms every day to standardized testing, college theses, and instruments that measure
the success of corporate training programs.

Importance of Assessment

Assessment serves three specific purposes. The results of assessment are generally used to:

1. Provide essential guide for planning, implementing, and improving instructional programs
and techniques;
2. Monitor student progress;
3. Promote learning by providing positive information like knowledge of results, knowledge
of tasks well done, good grades and praises;
4. Measure the outcomes of instruction; and
5. Provide the parents with information on how well their children are doing in school.

Scope of Assessment

The chief purpose of assessment is the improvement of the student. Specifically, it assess the learning
outcomes of instruction which are:

1. Cognitive behaviors (knowledge and information gained, intellectual abilities);

2. Affective behaviors (attitudes, interests, appreciation, and values); and
3. Psychomotor behaviors (perceptual and motor skills and abilities in performing tasks).

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

1. Assessments should be continuous and an integral part of teaching and learning. Continuous
assessment is necessary to provide regular feedback to students. This information can also be
used to modify the purpose of teaching.

2. Assessments should be valid to give students multiple opportunities to demonstrate what they
know. The strategies should be as diverse as the scope of outcomes, and provisions should be
made to asses more than a solo performance.

3. Assessments should be valid. They should accurately assess what they are designed to assess.
Problems of invalidity usually arise when assessment is based on imprecise statements of
educational intent.

4. Assessment should engage the learner. An effective assessment involves democratic relationship
between the teacher and the student. It should enhance the students‟ abilities of being self-
critical and taking responsibility for their own learning.

5. Assessments should be diagnostic. The strategies used to assess students should indicate not only
the result but also the processes that resulted in an acceptable performance. Thus, the
assessment should show the students‟ needs, strengths, and weaknesses.

6. Assessment should values teacher judgment. Teacher judgment based on well-defined

outcomes and classroom experiences is a rich form of student assessment that should not be
considered secondary to formal testing.

7. Assessments should be situated. The strategies used to assess students should be reflections of
what they might encounter in the outside world.

8. Assessments should require students to display sensitivity to the “wholes” rather than to discrete
elements. Methods of assessment should allow the students to see the larger picture rather than
a series of small, finite steps.

9. Assessments should have the same meaning for all teachers, parents, and students. Teachers
need to compare their interpretation of student performance, and the assessment information
should be communicated in such a way that it is understood by all stakeholders.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

1. Assessment FOR Learning (Formative Assessment)

The philosophy behind assessment FOR learning is that, assessment and teaching should be
integrated into a whole. The power of such an assessment doesn‟t come from intricate technology
or from using a specific assessment instrument. It comes from recognizing how much learning is
taking place in the common tasks of the school day – and how much insight into student learning
teachers can mine from this material (McNamee & Chen, 2005).

Assessment FOR learning is on-going assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-
to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. This
assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make
adjustments to their learning.

After teaching a lesson, we need to determine whether the lesson was accessible to all students
while still challenging to the more capable, what the students learned and still need to know, how
we can improve the lesson to make it more effective, and, if necessary, what other lesson we might
offer as a better alternative. This continual evaluation of instructional choices is at the heart of
improving our teaching practice (Burns, 2005).

In assessment FOR learning, teachers use the students’ prior knowledge as a starting point of
instruction. The results of assessment are communicated clearly and immediately to the students to
determine effective ways to teach and learn.

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2. Assessment OF Learning (Summative Assessment)

Assessment OF learning is the snapshot in time that lets the teacher, students, and their parents
know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It provides
information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting information, it often has
little effect on learning.

It refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, determine whether or not they have
met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and
make decisions about students‟ future programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence
of achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes o outside
groups like other educational institutions.

Assessment OF learning or summative assessment is done after instruction. It is used to identify what
students know and can do and the level of their proficiency and competency. Its results reveal whether or
not instruction has successfully achieved the desired curriculum outcome. The information from assessment
of learning is usually expressed as grades and is made known to the students, parents, and other
stakeholders for better decision making.

3. Assessment AS Learning

Assessment AS learning develops and supports students‟ metacognitive skills. This form of
assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. As students engage in peer and
self-assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge and use it for
new learning. Students develop a sense of ownership and efficacy when they use teacher, peer, and
self-assessment feedback to make adjustments, improvements, and changes to what they
understand.

Assessment AS learning is done for teachers to understand and perform well their role of assessing FOR
and OF learning. It requires teachers to undergo training on how to assess learning and be equipped with
the competencies needed in performing their work as assessors. To assess FOR and OF learning, teachers
should have the needed skills in assessment. This could be made possible through the different forms of
capability building.

Assessment for learning: Assessment of learning: Assessment as learning:

Teachers use evidence Use of a task or an activity Students are their own
about students' knowledge, to measure, record and assessors. Students monitor
understanding and skills to report on a student's level of their own learning, ask
inform their teaching. achievement with regards questions and use a range of
Sometimes referred to as strategies to decide what
to specific learning
„formative assessment', it they know and can do, and
expectations. These are
usually occurs throughout how to use assessment for
the teaching and learning often known as summative new learning.
process to clarify student assessments.
learning and
understanding.

USERS OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

Who are the primary users of educational assessment? What are their roles in educational assessment?

1. Teachers
2. Students
3. Parents
4. Supervisors
5. Policy Makers/ Educational Decision-Makers

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Purpose of Educational Assessment

Assessment is used to:

 Inform and guide teaching and learning. A good classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of
student learning that informs teachers‟ instructional decisions. It provides teachers with
information about what students know and can do. To plan effective instruction, teachers also
need to know what the student misunderstands and where the misconceptions lie. In addition
to helping teachers formulate the next teaching steps, a good classroom assessment plan
provides a road map for students. Students should, at all times, have access to the assessment
so they can use it to inform and guide their learning.

 Help students set learning goals. Students need frequent opportunities to reflect on where their
learning is at and what needs to be done to achieve their learning goals. When students are
actively involved in assessing their own next learning steps and creating goals to accomplish
them, they make major advances in directing their learning and what they understand about
themselves as learners.

 Assign report card grades. Grades provide parents, employers, other schools, government, post-
secondary institutions and others with summary information about student learning.

 Motivate students. Research (Davies, 2004 & Stiggins, et al., 2004) has shown that students will
be motivated and confident learners when they experience progress and achievement, rather
than the failure and defeat associated with being compared to more successful peers.

The Assessment Process

An effective classroom assessment:

 addresses specific outcomes in the program of studies

 shares intended outcomes and assessment criteria with students prior to the assessment activity
 assesses before, during, and after instruction
 employs a variety of assessment strategies to provide evidence of student learning
 provides frequent and descriptive feedback to students
 ensures students can describe their progress and achievement and ariticulate what comes next
in their learning
 informs teachers and provides insight that can be used

The assessment process starts with planning based on the program of studies learning outcomes and
involves assessing, evaluating, and communicating student learning, as shown in the following diagram.

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B. COMMON TERMINOLOGIES

In the field of testing, the terms test, measurement, assessment, and evaluation are often used
interchangeably. Identifying the nuances in their meaning may aid test developers and test users to
design and construct effective tests and use the results appropriately.

MEASUREMENT

Thorndike and Hagen (1986) defined measurement as “the process of quantifying observations and/or
descriptions about quality or attribute of a thing or person”. The process of measurement involves three
steps:

1. Identifying and defining the quality or attribute that is to be measured;

2. Determining as set of operations by which the attribute may be made manifest and
perceivable; and
3. Establishing a set of procedures or definitions for translating observations into quantitative
statement of degree or amount.

McMillan (1997) stated that measurement involves using observation, rating scales, or any other non-
test device that secures information in a quantitative form. The term measurement can refer to both
the score obtained and the process used.

Measurement is the process of making empirical observations of some attribute, characteristic, or

phenomenon and translating those observations into quantifiable or categorical form according to
clearly specified procedures or rules 9Gredler, 1997)

Educational measurement, then, refers to the process of determining a quantitative or qualitative

academic attribute of an individual or group of individuals.

One common example of measurement is when a teacher gives scores to the test of the students like
getting 23 correct answers out of 25 items or getting 95%in the first quarter exam.

TESTING

Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure designed to assess the
quality, ability, skill, or knowledge of the students by giving a set of questions in uniform manner.

A test is one of the many types of assessment procedure used to gather information about the
performance of students.

A test refers to a tool, technique, or a method that is intended to measure students‟ knowledge or their
ability to complete a particular task. In this sense, testing can be considered as a form of assessment.
Tests should meet some basic requirements, such as validity and reliability.

Testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance or achievement of the
learners.

Testing also refers to the administration, scoring, and interpretation of the procedures designed to get
information about the extent of the performance of the students.

STANDARDIZED TESTING

Standardization is the process of trying out the test on a group of people to see the scores which are
typically obtained. This process provides a mean (average) and standard deviation (spread) relative to
a certain group.

A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a consistent manner. The tests are designed in
such way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are
consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined, standard manner (Popharn, 2003).

Standardized tests also determine a student‟s academic level. They become the basis for early tracking,
then on-going tracking, reflecting the belief that homogenous achievement groups facilitate more
efficient and effective teaching and learning (Perrone, 1991).

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Standardized tests are tools designed to allow measure of student performance relative to all others
taking the same test.

Types of Standardized Testing

1. Norm-referenced testing. It measures performance relative to all other students taking the
same test. This is the type of test you can use if you want to know how a student is compared
to the rest. This type of testing is the most common found among standardized testing. For
example, if a student is ranked in the 86th percentile, that means, he/she did better than 86% of
others who took the test.

2. Criterion-referenced testing. It measured factual knowledge of a defined body of maerial.

Multiple-choice tests that people take to get their license or a test in fractions are both
examples of this type of testing.

Comparison of Norm-referenced Test and Criterion-referenced Test

Dimensions Criterion-referenced Tests Norm-referenced Tests

To determine whether each To rank each student with respect to
students has achieved specific skills the achievement of others in broad areas
or concepts. of knowledge.
Purpose
To find out how much students To discriminate between high and low
know before instruction begins and achievers.
after it has finished.
Measures specific skills which Measures broad skill areas sampled
make up a designated curriculum. from a variety of textbooks, syllabi, and
Content
These skills are identified by the judgments of curriculum experts.
teachers and curriculum experts.
Each skill is tested by at least Each skill is tested by less than four
four items in order to obtain an items.
adequate sample of student Items vary in difficulty.
Item Characteristics performance and to minimize the Items are selected that discriminate
effect of guessing. between high and low achievers.
The items which test any given
skill are parallel in difficulty.
Each individual is compared with Each individual is compared with
a present standard for acceptable other examinees and assigned a score –
achievement. The performance of usually expressed as a percentile, a grade
other examinees is irrelevant. equivalent score or a stanine.
Score Interpretation A student‟s score is usually
expressed as a percentage. Student achievement is reported for
Student‟s achievement is broad skill areas, although some norm-
reported for individual skills. referenced tests do report student
achievement for individual skills.

HIGH-STAKES TESTING

High-stakes tests are tests used to make important decisions about students. These include whether
students should be promoted, allowed to graduate, or admitted to programs.

High-stakes tests are designed to measure whether or not content and performance standards
established by the state have been achieved.

High-stake testing in schools is based on the premise that student learning will increase if educators and
students are held accountable for achievement.

By definition, testing becomes high stakes when the outcomes are used to make decisions about
promotion, admissions, graduation, and salaries.

High-stakes testing is often associated with public reporting of testing results as a way to bring
attention to the assessment results. For schools with high or improved performance on assessments,
there are typically rewards (often monetary), and for schools that underperform, there are often
penalties that can result in the replacement of administrators or teachers or retention of students at
grade level.

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Major Theories Underlying test-Based Accountability on High-stakes Tests

1. Motivational theory is the predominant theory underlying test-based accountability. According

to this concept, the extrinsic rewards and sanctions associated with the high-stakes test serve to
motivate teachers to improve their performance. This presumes that educators require external
pressure to improve their teaching.

2. The theory of alignment holds that system-wide improvement is most likely to occur if
educators align the major components of the educational system (standards, curriculum, and
assessments) surrounding schools so that they reinforce each other. Alignment is usually thought
of in terms of synchronizing the surrounding system, but can also be thought of as alignment
between the external accountability of schools and schools‟ sense of internal accountability
(Abelmann & Elmore, 2004).

3. Information theory maintains that student performance data are useful for teachers and
administrators to make decisions about students and programs and that providing such data
to local educators and giving them incentives to improve their performance will guide
classroom and organizational decision-making.

4. Symbolism theory has also contributed to the growth and prevalence of high-stakes testing. In
this model, the accountability system is seen to signal important values to stakeholders and, in
particular, the public. This particular theory is manifested in the notion of “public
answerability” – that is, the idea that the public has a right to expect its resources to be used
responsibly, and that public institutions are accountable for caretaking the public trust. High-
stakes assessments thus serve as evidence that public education is, in essence, responsible and
rigorous and further provide symbolic of the system.

EVALUATION

The verb “evaluate” means to form an idea of something to give a judgment about something. The
term comes from the French word “evaluer”, meaning, “to find the value of”. The origin is from the
Latin term “valere” meaning “be strong, be well, be of value, or be worth”.

In the educational context, the verb “to evaluate” often collocates with terms such as: the effectiveness
of an educational system, a program, a course, instruction, and a curriculum.

According to Weiss (1972), evaluation refers to the systematic gathering of information for the purpose
of making decisions. It is not concerned with the assessment of the performance of an individual, but
rather with forming an idea of the curriculum and making a judgment about it. This judgment is
made based on some kind of criteria and evidence. The purpose is to make decisions about the worth
of instruction, a course, or even the whole curriculum. Evaluation is thus larger and may include an
analysis of all the aspects of the educational system.

Evaluation is a process of summing up the results of measurements or tests, giving them some meaning
based on value judgments (Hopkins & Stanley, 1981).

Educational evaluation is the process of characterizing and appraising some aspect or aspects of an
educational process. It is a systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or
someone using criteria against a set of standards.

Educational evaluation is a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they
intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavouring to facilitae.

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TYPES AND DISTINCTION OF TESTS

There are ways of describing classroom tests and other assessment procedures. This table is a summary
of the different types of assessment procedure that was adopted and modified from Gronlund, Linn, &
Miller, 2009).
Classification Type of Assessment Function of Assessment Example of Instruments
It is used to determine what Aptitude tests; achievement
Maximum Performance individuals can do when tests
performing at their best.
Nature of
It is used to determine what Attitude, interest and
assessment
individuals will do under personality inventories;
Typical performance
natural conditions. observational techniques;
peer appraisal
An assessment used to Standard multiple-choice
measure knowledge and test
Fixed-Choice Test
skills effectively and
efficiently.
Form of assessment An assessment procedure Hands-on laboratory
used to measure the experiment, projects, essays,
Complex Performance
performance of the learner oral presentation
Assessment
in contexts and on problems
valued in their own right.
An assessment procedure Readiness tests, aptitude
used to determine the tests, pretests on course
learner‟s prerequisite skills, objectives, self-report
Placement
degree of mastery of the inventories, observational
course goals, and/or best techniques
modes of learning.
An assessment procedure Teacher-made tests,
used to determine the custom-made tests from
learner‟s progress, provides textbook publishers,
Formative
feedback to reinforce observational techniques
learning, and corrects
Use in classroom learning errors.
instruction An assessment procedure Published diagnostic tests,
used to determine the causes teacher-made diagnostic
of learner‟s persistent tests, observational
Diagnostic learning difficulties such as techniques
intellectual, physical,
emotional, and
environmental difficulties.
An assessment procedure Teacher-made survey tests,
used to determine the end- performance rating scales,
Summative of-course achievement for product scales
assigning grades or certifying
mastery of objectives.
It is used to describe student Teacher-made tests,
performance according to a custom-made tests from
specified domain of clearly textbook publishers,
Criterion-referenced defined learning tasks. observational techniques
Example: multiplies three-
digit to whole numbers
Methods of
correctly and accurately.
interpreting results
It is used to describe Standardized aptitude and
student‟s performance achievement tests, teacher-
according to relative position made survey tests, interest
Norm-referenced
in some known group. inventories, adjustment
Example: ranks 5th in a inventories
classroom group of 40.

Diagnostic Test measures the knowledge and skills of the student. It is used to identify students‟ strength
and weaknesses in past and present learning.

Proficiency Tests are designed to measure people‟s ability in language whether they have any training
in the language or not.

Achievement Tests are designed to measure student‟s performance in specific academic areas such as
reading comprehension, written or oral expression, and mathematical computations.

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Aptitude Tests are mainly to assess intelligence or knowledge. Aptitude test most commonly consists of
numerical reasoning, verbal reasoning, speed, accuracy abilities, and more.

Placement Tests are planned to provide information which will help to place students at the stage of
teaching program most appropriate to their abilities.

Other Types of Test

1. Non-standardized test versus Standardized Test

- Non-standardized test is a type of test developed by the classroom teachers.

- Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialists. It is administered, scored
and interpreted using a certain standard condition.

2. Objective Test versus Subjective Test

- Objective test is a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an examinee the same
score.
- Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by the judgment of the
evaluators, meaning there is no one correct answer.

3. Supply Test versus Fixed-response Test

- Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an answer, such as an
essay test item or completion or short answer test item.
- Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an answer from a
given option such as multiple-choice test, matching type of test, or true/false test.

4. Individual Test versus Group Test

- Individual test is a type of test administered to student on a one-on-one basis using oral
questioning.
- Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individuals or group of students.

5. Mastery Test versus Survey Test

-Mastery test is a type of test that measures the degree of mastery of a limited set of
learning outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the result.
- Survey test is a test that measures students‟ general achievement over a broad range of
learning outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the result.
6. Speed Test versus Power Test

- Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual can complete over a
certain period of time.
- Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather than speed of response.
It contains test items that are arranged according to increasing degree of difficulty.

C. HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS

Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. To ensure that assessments
effectively measures student learning, they must be designed with careful consideration of several key
components. Here are the essential components of high quality assessment:

1. CLEAR PURPOSE

Why Assessment Purpose Matters?

 Assessment should have a clear and well-defined purpose. It answers the question, what do we
want to achieve with this assessment?”
 Purposes can vary, including diagnosing learning needs, measuring progress, evaluating
teaching effectiveness, or certifying achievement.

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Benefits of a Clear Purpose

 A well-defined purpose guides the design and implementation of the assessment.

 It ensures that the assessment aligns with specific educational goals and objectives.

2. CLEAR AND APPROPRIATE TARGETS

Setting Clear Targets

 Assessment targets, also known as learning outcomes or objectives, specify what students are
expected to know or do as a result of the assessment.
 Targets should be clear, measurable, and aligned with curriculum standards or educational
goals.

Benefits of Clear and Appropriate Targets

 Clear targets provide a roadmap for assessment development and student learning.
 They facilitate the alignment of assessment content with instructional content.

3. APPROPRIATE METHODS

Choosing Assessment Methods

 High quality assessment use appropriate methods that align with the assessment‟s purpose and
targets.
 Assessment methods can include tests, quizzes, projects, observations, portfolio, and more.
 Methods should be chosen based on their ability to provide valid and reliable data.

Benefits of Appropriate Methods

 Using suitable methods enhances the students‟ validity, ensuring that it measures what it
intends to measure.
 It allows for varied and engaging assessment experiences that cater to diverse learning styles.

4. ADEQUATE SAMPLING

Sampling Student Work

 Adequate sampling refers to the selection of a representative sample of a student‟s work or

performance.
 Sampling should cover a range of content or skills to provide a comprehensive view of a
student‟s abilities.

Benefits of Adequate Sampling

 Adequate sampling reduces the risk of drawing inaccurate conclusions based on a limited
sample.
 It provides a more accurate assessment of a student‟s over-all performance.

5. OBJECTIVITY

Objective Assessment

 Objectivity in assessment means that the scoring or evaluation process is fair, unbiased, and
consistent.
 It minimizes subjectivity and personal biases in scoring.

Benefits of Objectivity

 Objective assessment results in fair and equitable evaluations for all students.
 It enhances the reliability and credibility of assessment data.

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Additional Consideration

 Feedback: High-quality assessments often include feedback mechanisms that provide students
with constructive information about their performance.
 Ethical Consideration: Ethical principles should guide assessment practices, ensuring fairness,
equity, and confidentiality.

CRITERIA FOR HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

1. Assessment of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills: Most of the tasks students encounter should tap
the kinds of cognitive skills that have been characterized as “higher-level” – skills that support
transferable learning, rather than emphasizing only skills that tap rote learning and the use of
basic procedures. While there is a necessary place for basic skills and procedural knowledge, it
must be balanced with attention to critical thinking and applications of knowledge to new
contexts.

2. High-Fidelity Assessment of Critical Abilities: In addition to key subject matter concepts,

assessments should include the critical abilities articulated in the standards, such as
communication (speaking, reading, writing, and listening in multi-media forms), collaboration,
modelling, complex problem solving, planning, reflection, and research. Tasks should measure
theses abilities directly as they will be used in the real world, rather than through a remote
proxy.

3. Standards that are Internationally Benchmarked: The assessments should be as rigorous as

those of the leading countries, in terms of the kind and content and tasks they present, as well
as the level of performance they expect.

4. Use of Items that are Instructionally Sensitive and Educationally Valuable: The tasks should be
designed so that the underlying concepts can be taught and learned, rather than reflecting
students‟ differential access to outside-of-school experiences (frequently associated with their
socio-economic status or cultural context) or depending on tricky interpretations that mostly
reflect test-taking skills. Preparing for and participating in the assessments should engage
students in instructionally valuable activities, and results from the tests should provide
instructionally useful information.

5. Assessments that are Valid, Reliable, and Fair: In order to be truly valid for a wide range of
learners, assessments should measure well what they purport to measure, accurately evaluate
students‟ abilities, and do so reliably across testing contexts and scores. They should also be
unbiased and accessible and used in ways that support positive outcomes for students and
instructional quality.

D. RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS

Recent trends in classroom assessment have emerged. Heavy objective testing at the end of an
instruction is being replaced by alternative assessments that may be done during the teaching process.
Alternative assessments include authentic assessment, performance-based assessment, portfolios,
exhibitions, demonstrations, journals, and other forms of assessment that allow students to construct
their original responses.

The recent trends of classroom assessment are summarized in the table below (McMillan, 1998)

TRENDS OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

FROM TO
 Sole emphasis on outcomes  Assessment of processes
 Isolated skills  Integrated skills
 Isolated facts  Application of knowledge
 Paper-and-pencil tasks  Authentic tasks
 Decontextualized tasks  Contextualized tasks
 A single correct answer  Several correct answers
 Secret standards  Public standards
 Secret criteria  Public criteria
 Individuals  Groups
 After instruction  During instruction

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  Little feedback  Considerable feedback
 Objective tests  Performance-based tests
 Standardized tests  Informal tests
 External evaluation  Students‟ self-evaluation
 Single assessment  Multiple assessments
 Sporadic  Continual
 Conclusive  Recursive

Education is an evolving field that continually adopts to meet the changing needs of students and
society. Here are some trends and focuses in education.

1. ACCOUNTABILITY AND FAIRNESS/ACOUNTABILITY AND PURPOSE

Accountability is a more encompassing term than assessment. It can include more than the collection of
data from tests, record reviews, and other performance assessments.

A system is accountable for all students when it makes sure that all students count (or participate) in
the evaluation program of the education system. Counting all students does not mean that all students
can take the same tests. Rather, it means that all students‟ learning progress are accounted for and
included when reporting on the education system.

The reporting of test results represents the simplest form of accountability.

Stronger incentives for educational change are provided by accountability mechanisms that use
information from assessments to make consequential decisions about students, teachers, or schools.

Assessment and accountability policies can provide clear direction for teachers and principals in terms
of student outcomes and can become a positive impetus for instructional and curricular changes
(Goertz, 2000, Kelley, et al., 2000, O‟Day & Smith, 1993, Popham, 2000).

When assessments are aligned with learning goals, accountability systems can motivate classroom
instruction to focus on those outcomes (Stecher, et al., 1998).

Policy makers and educators in many states view assessment linked with accountability as a powerful
strategy for ensuring that all students are held to the same set of high standards (Grissmer & Flanagan,
1998, Massell et al., 1997, Olson, 2001).

Fairness is closely related to, but distinct from, the societal concepts of equality, equity, and justice and
the measurement concepts of bias, reliability, and validity.

Differences in performance on a test may be due to differing access to learning, or because the test is
biased in favor of one group.

Wood (1987) described these different aspects of fairness as the opportunity to acquire talent (access
issues) and the opportunity to show talent to good effect (fairness in the assessment).

Fairness in assessment cannot be considered in isolation from access issues in the curriculum and the
educational opportunities offered to the students: fairness in access opportunities both to schooling and
to the curriculum provides the „level playing field‟ that must precede a genuinely fair assessment
situation.

Fairness assessment can be achieved in different ways, with some conditions or strategies being more
important in some situations than others, depending on the purpose of the assessment and the
individuals assessed.

Conditions for Fairer Educational Assessment

1. Opportunity to learn. It can simply mean exposure to test content or refer more broadly to the
alignment between curriculum and assessment. It can also refer to gamut of socio-economic
and educational factors that enable learning, including the availability and quality of resources
(i.e., teachers, learning materials, technology, etc.) and students‟ ability to use them within an
environment or system. While ensuring opportunity to learn for every student in the fullest

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 sense is a social justice issue beyond the scope of any one assessment, it should be considered in
planning and interpreting results in both classroom and external assessment.
2. Constructive environment. It is one that respectfully encourages students to fully participate
and disclose their knowledge and learning through assessment. This requires an extent of buy-
in, meaning that an assessment must be perceived as worthwhile, or at least necessary.
Interactions between students, teachers, principals, and parents can affect the environment for
external assessments and hence the quality results. For classroom assessment to genuinely and
openly serve learning, high levels of trust and respect must be nurtured, not only between
teachers and students but also between classroom peers.
3. Evaluative thinking. This involves asking questions, identifying assumptions, seeking evidence
and considering different explanations, or in brief, critically evaluating assessment practices. In
external assessment, evaluative thinking should be part of a formal process (i.e., panel reviews,
DIF). In classroom assessment, teachers‟ self-evaluation about assessment tools, tasks, and
interactions should be part of reflective practice. Reflection is particularly important for
recognizing assumptions or beliefs that might lead to bias, and for receptivity to the knowledge
and learning of diverse students, even when it diverges from the expected. Most importantly,
all educational assessments benefit from the acceptance of responsibility for fairness and
thoughtful planning administration and interpretation.

ACCOUNTABILITY AND PURPOSE

Accountability in Education

 Accountability has become a central theme in education, emphasizing the need for schools,
teachers, and institutions to take responsibility for student outcomes and performance.
 It involves measuring and evaluating educational processes and outcomes to ensure that
schools are meeting specific goals and standards.

Purpose-Driven Education

 Purpose-driven education focuses on aligning educational goals with a clear sense of purpose
and direction
 It encourages students to connect their learning experiences with personal and societal goals.
 Emphasizes the importance of understanding the “why” behind education to motivate and
engage students.

Key Takeaways

 Accountability ensures that educational institutions are held responsible for student success.
 Purpose-driven education connects learning with a sense of meaning and direction, motivating
students to excel.

Trend

 Increased emphasis on accountability in education, with a focus on clear educational goals and
outcomes.

2. STANDARDS-BASED EDUCATION

An educational or learning standard is a written description of what students are expected to know or
be able to do by a certain time in their educational career. Standards do not indicate the curriculum or
materials to be used to meet student goals.

Standards-based refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic reporting that are
based on students demonstrating understanding or mastery of the knowledge and skills they are
expected to learn as they progress through their education.

What is Standards-Based Education?

 Standards-Based Education involves designing curricula and assessments around clear learning
standards and objectives.
 It defines what students should know and be able to do at each grade level or educational
stage.

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Benefits of Standards-Based Education

 Provides consistency and uniformity in education, ensuring that all students receive a similar
education regardless of location.
 Facilitates the assessment of student progress and helps identify areas where additional support
may be needed.

Challenge

 Critics argue that a strict focus on standards can lead to “teaching to the test” and limit
educators‟ creativity and flexibility.

Key Takeaways

 Standards-Based Education sets clear expectations for learning outcomes.

 Balancing standards with innovative teaching methods is essential for a well-rounded
education.

Trend

 Adoption of educational standards that define what students should know and be able to do
at each grade level.

Standards-based education, therefore, involves using pre-determined standards to plan the scope and
sequence of instruction, as well as what activities and materials will be used to achieve the goals of
each standard. Assessments are used in standards-based education to determine the on-going progress
of students, which will drive instruction choices and to document that students have reached mastery of
the standards for each grade.

In schools that use standards-based approaches to educating students, learning standards – i.e. concise,
written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of
their education – determine the goals of a lesson or course, and teachers then determine how and
what to teach students so they achieve the learning expectations described in the standards.

Most standards-based approaches to educating students use state learning standards to determine
academic expectations and define “proficiency” in a given course, subject area, or grade level.
The general goal of standards-based learning is to ensure that students are acquiring the knowledge
and skills that are deemed to be essential to success in school, higher education, careers, and adult life.
If students fail to meet expected learning standards, they typically receive additional instruction,
practice time, and academic support to help them achieve proficiency or meet the learning
expectations described in the standards.

Importance of Standards-Based Education

1. Students are completely aware of what they are expected to know or be able to do. The
standards are clear and precise, often written in kid-friendly language. Many teachers post the
standards for each content area so students see how each lesson fits into bigger plan.

2. By adopting and following standards, and informing students of their goals, administrators can
hold teachers and students accountable for classroom progress.

3. Standards-based instruction guides planning and instruction and helps teachers keep their
focus on the learning target. Teachers aware of what materials were taught in previous years
and what will be taught in years to come. They are free to concentrate on the limited number
of skills and concepts included in their grade-level standards.

4. Well-written standards include not only what students will be able to do and what they will
know but also the expected time in their education they should have mastered the skill or
concept. Students can set their own goals and track their own progress.

The Benefits of Standards-Based Education

1. Improved Feedback
2. Student Ownership of Learning

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 3. More Relevant Instruction
4. Emotional Safety and Lessen Fear of Testing
5. Accurate Measurement of Learning
6. Learning Provides Intrinsic Motivation

3. OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION (OBE)

Outcomes are clear learning results that we want students to demonstrate at the end of significant
learning experiences. They are not values, beliefs, attitudes, or psychological states of mind. Instead,
outcomes are what learners can actually do with what they know and have learned they are tangible
application of what has been learned. This means that outcomes are actions and performances that
embody and reflect learner competence in using content, information, ideas, and tools successfully.
Having learners do important things with what they know is a major step beyond knowing itself.

What is Outcomes-Based Education (OBE)?

 OBE shifts the focus from what is taught to what students can demonstrate as a result of their
learning.
 It emphasizes defining clear learning outcomes and assessing whether students have achieved
them.

Key Principles of OBE

 Clearly Defined Outcomes: Learning Outcomes are specific, measurable, and relevant to real-
world skills and knowledge.
 Assessment-Centered: Assessment methods align with the defined outcomes.
 Continuous Improvement: OBE promotes on-going evaluation and adjustment of curricula.

Benefits of OBE

 Ensures that education is relevant and prepares students for real-life challenges.
 Facilitates student-centered learning, allowing learners to take ownership of their education.

Challenge

 Designing and assessing clear learning outcomes can be complex and time-consuming.

Key Takeaways

 OBE focuses on the practical application of knowledge and skills.

 It encourages students to become active participants in their learning journey.

Trend

 Shifting the focus from what is taught to what students actually learn and can demonstrate
through measurable outcomes.

Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is a process that involves the restructuring of curriculum, assessment
and reporting practices in education to reflect the achievement of higher order learning and mastery
rather than the accumulation of credit limits (Tucker, 2004). Thus, the primary aim of OBE is to
facilitate desired changes within learners, by increasing knowledge, developing skills and/or positively
influencing attitudes, values and judgment. OBE embodies the idea that the best way to learn is to first
determine what needs to be achieved. Once the end goal (product/outcome) has been determined,
the strategies, processes, techniques, and other ways can be put into place to achieve the goal.

Outcome-Based Education means clearly focusing and organizing everything in an educational system
around what is essential for all students to be able to do successfully at the end of their learning
experiences. This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do,
the organizing curriculum, instruction, and assessment to make sure this learning ultimately happens.

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The keys to having an outcome-based system are:

1) Develop a clear set of learning outcomes around which all of the system‟s components can
be focused; and
2) Establishing the conditions and opportunities within the system that enable and encourage
all students

For example, the possible outcome “explain the major causes of inflation in capitalist economies”
implies that to be successful, the learner will be expected to develop both the competence of explaining
and the knowledge of the major causes of inflation in capitalist economies.

Since outcome-based systems expect learners to earn out the processes defined within an outcome
statement, they are careful to build those processes directly into the outcome through demonstration
verbs. Therefore, one key to recognizing a well-defined outcome is to look for the demonstration verb
or verbs that define which processes the learner is expected to carry out at the end.

4. ITEM RESPONSE THEORY

What is Item Response Theory?

 Item Response Theory (IRT) is a statistical framework used in educational assessment to analyse
the performance of test items and the abilities of test takers.
 It models the relationship between a person‟s ability and their likelihood of responding correctly
to individual test items.

Key Concepts in IRT

 Item Parameters: IRT calculates item difficulty and discrimination parameters, which help
determine how well an item discrimination between high and low-ability students.
 Person Parameters: It estimates a person‟s ability level based on their responses to multiple
items.

Benefits of IRT

 IRT provides more precise and informative measures of student ability.

 It allows for computerized adaptive testing, tailoring test questions to an individual‟s ability
level.
Challenge

 Implementing IRT requires specialized knowledge in statistics and psychometrics.

Key Takeaways

 IRT enhances the accuracy and fairness of educational assessment.

 It has the potential to revolutionize the way standardized tests are designed and administered.

Trend

 Implementing of advanced assessment methods, such as IRT, to improve the accuracy and
fairness of testing.

Psychometric theory offers two approaches in analysing test data: the Classical Test Theory (CTT) and
the Item Response Theory (IRT).

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