Lecture 5 DAM CONSTRUCTIONWhat is Dam? aDam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store flowing water. Storage of water is utilized for following objectives: >» Hydropower > Irrigation > Water for domestic consumption > Drought and flood control > For navigational facilities >» Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries.Responsibilities of Engineering Team aThe engineering team responsible for construction of a dam at each site must be: 1. able to make reliable predictions about suitable construction methods, and 2. how the dam and its foundation will interact and perform, under any operating condition. aThe predictions will usually involve both judgments and quantitative analyses, based on data provided by the site investigation team.Site selection for ada . Topography . Suitable Foundation . Good Site for reservoir - (i) Large storage capacity (iil) Shape of reservoir basin (iii) Water tightness of the reservoir (iv) Good hydrological conditions (v) Deep reservoir (vi) Small submerged area (vii) Low silt inflow (vill) No objectionable minerals . Provision of sites for: 1. water intake structures and pumping stations for water supply dam 2. Penstocks ( inlet tower ) 3. power station in the case of hydro-electric facilities . Spillway site . Availability of materials . Accessibility . Healthy surroundings Minimum overall cost 10. Other considerationsSelection of type Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site requires a lot of judgment and experience. It is only in exceptional cases that the most suitable type is obvious. Preliminary designs and estimates are usually required for several types of dams before making the final selection on economic basis. . The salient features of different types of dams sections should be kept in mind while selecting the type of dam. Various factors govern the selection of type of dam.| saleetion of type o' Various Factors: Topography and valley shape Geology and foundation conditions Availability of construction materials Overall cost Spillway size and location Earthquake hazards Climatic conditions Diversion problems Environmental considerations . Roadway . Length and height of dam . Life of dam . Miscellaneous considerationsEmbankment dams >» There are several types of embankment dam. >» The designs have varying degrees of in- built conservatism, usually relating to the degree to which seepage within the dam is controlled by provision of filters and drains.Peel Saeed key a Pe ee crest nen aur) aoe og Dea De terThomson Dam, a 166 m high earthfill and rockfill damZones in embankment dams QThere is no universally adopted numbering system for zones_ in embankment dams. aSome dams will have several rockfill zones to accommodate the materials available from the quarry = and excavations required for the spillway.water level natural surface Cutott ‘general foundation foundation HOMOGENEOUS EARTHFILL — SCALE A ZONED EARTHFILL - SCALE B Figure: Schematic cross-sections of typical earthfill damsEARTHFILL WITH VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL DRAIN ~ SCALE 8. NoTEs: 1. Crest detalling and downstream slope protection not shown. 2. Scales relate to overall size, details are not drawn to scale. ‘Scaloa & 10 20m ScaleBQ 20 4am Figure: Schematic cross sections of typical earthfill damsEARTH AND ROCKFILL ~ SLOPING UPSTREAM CORE - SCALE B Figure: Schematic cross sections of typical earth and rockfill and concrete face rockfill damsCONCRETE FACE ROCKFILL ~ SCALE B NOTES: 1. Crest detailing and downstream slope protection not shown. 2 Scales relate to overall size, details are not drawn to scale. Scale B ° 2 dm Figure: Schematic cross sections of typical earth and rockfill and concrete face rockfill damsFigure: Schematic cross- sections | of some earlier dam types HYDAAUUC FILL - SCALE ® NOTES: 1 Gest detaiing and downstream sope protetion not shown, 2 Scales reete to overall se, det re not drawn to scale. capa? 240mZone Description Function Earthfill (“core”) Fine filter (or filter drain) Coarse filter (or filter drain) (i) Upstream filter (ii) Filter under rip rap Fine cushion layer Coarse cushion layer Earth-rockfill Rockfill Coarse rockfill Rip rap Controls seepage through the dam (a) Controls erosion of Zone 1 by seepage water, (b) Controls erosion of the dam foundation (where used as horizontal drain), {c) Controls buildup of pore pressure in downstream face when used as vertical drain (a) Controls erosion of Zone 2A into rockfill, (b) Discharge seepage water collected in vertical or horizontal drain Controls erosion of Zone 1 into rockfill upstream of dam core Controls erosion of Zone 1 through rip rap Provides uniform support for concrete face; limit leakage in the event of the concrete face cracking or joints opening Provides uniform layer support for concrete face. Prevents erosion of Zone 2D into rockfill in the event of leakage in the face Provides stability and has some ability o control erosion Provides stability, commonly free draining to allow discharge of seepage through and under the dam. Prevents erosion of Zone 2B into coarse rockfill Provides stability, commonly free draining to allow discharge of seepage through and under the dam Controls erosion of the upstream face by wave action, and may be used to control erosion of the downstream toe from backwater flows from spillwaysOther types of embankment dams . Concrete face earthfill . Asphaltic core rockfill . Bituminous concrete face earth and rockfill . Steel face rockfill . Geomembrane face earth and rockfillEmbankment dam fo: treatment General foundation Excavation of compressible and low excavation strength soil and weathered rock as is necessary to form a surface sufficiently strong to support the dam and fo limit settlement to acceptable values Cut-off foundation Excavation below general foundation level excavation to remove highly permeable and/or erodible soil and rock Curtain grouting Drilling of holes into the foundation and injecting grout (usually cement slurry) under pressure to reduce the permeability of the rock Consolidation Grouting carried out in the upper part of grouting (also called the cut-off foundation to reduce “blanket grouting”) permeability (of the rock)Figure: Plan of typical embankment dam and associated structuresTypes of concrete dams and their main features a Concrete gravity dams rely on the weight of the concrete to withstand the forces imposed on the dam. Concrete arch dams transpose these forces into the abutment foundation by the arching action and generally impose higher loads on the foundations. Modern concrete gravity and arch dams have a gallery in the dam from which grout holes are drilled to reduce the rock mass permeability of the foundation. Grouting, combined with drainage holes reduces the uplift pressures within the dam foundation and at the dam foundation contact.pillway Me (inside dam) Max. level wo As ow oe a Free board Sluice way Gallery a Figure: Typical Cross-section of a Dam Heel ToeHeel: contact with the ground on the upstream side Toe: contact on the downstream side Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations. > Diversion funnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry. > Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side » Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir.Figure: Typical cross-section of concrete gravity damFigure: Typical concrete gravity dam plan and elevationFigure: Typical concrete arch dam cross sectionFigure: Typical concrete arch dam plan and elevationTrt fryy Plan of slab and buttress dam Plan of multiple arch dam Pian of round-head massive buttress dam Plan of T-head massive buttress dam Figure: Different types of buttress dam> Buttress Dam — Is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports > Buttress - a suppor that transmits a force from a roof o} wall to another supporting structure This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little weakerDam construction aPlanning for Construction . Construction equipment (roller, carrier, bulldozer, ...) Foundation treatment (grouting, : drainage) . Placement (execution management, field and laboratory testing) . Observation (pore-water pressure, settlement, earth pressure, deformation)Steps in Construction of a Dam Step 1 > To build a Dam, the engineers must first dewater the part of the river valley in which they wish to place the dam. This is usually achieved by diverting the river through a tunnel. > The tunnel is built through one side of the valley around the planned construction area. > Aseries of holes is drilled in the rock. > Explosives are placed in the drill holes, blasting takes place and broken rock is then removed. » This procedure is repeated many times until the tunnel is completed. > Diversion tunnels are often lined with concrete.Step 2 > Work on diverting the river starts in summer when river levels are low. > Earth-moving equipment is used to build a small dam (called a cofferdam) upstream of the main construction area. This acts as a barrier to the river and causes if to flow through the diversion tunnel. > Another cofferdam is built downstream of the main dam site to prevent water flowing back into the construction area. >» Pumps are used to remove any water that seeps through the cofferdams. > Diversion tunnels are not always necessary when concrete dams are being built. The river can sometimes be channeled through a large pipe and the dam constructed around it.| Step 3 > The construction methods used in construction a dam depend on the type of dam being built. The 1* stage normally involves the removal of loose rock and rubble from the valley walls and river bed. i > Concrete-faced rockfill dams require a footing (or plinth) to be constructed around their upstream edge. The plinth is made from concrete and serves as a foundation or connection between the dam and the valley walls and floor. » It has an important role in preventing water leakage around the edges of the dam. The area under the plinth is waterproofed by drilling holes and pumping cement grout into cracks in the rock. The thin concrete face on the upstream side of the dam is connected to the plinth via stainless steel and rubber seals called water stops.Step 4 > During dam construction the associated power station and intake works are also being built. >» When the dam is completed, the diversion tunnel is closed and the reservoir begins to fill. The closure of the diversion tunnel has two(2) phases. 1. During low flow a large re-usable steel gate is lowered across the entrance. 2. The diversion tunnel is then permanently eee off by the construction of a concrete plug. > In some instances, dewatering outlets are built into the plugs so water can be released during an emergency.be Major Steps 2.Cofferdams 1. Building a diversion act as tunnel barriers to the river = 4.Closure of th diversion tunnel = 3.Construction of the dam and power stationSpecial consideration of Earthfill dam construction Y All vegetable matter and organic material is cleared from the dam site. v grout holes for the cut-off curtain are drilled to a depth where the grout curtain will effectively seal off the seepage of water beneath the proposed dam.Embankment Dams - Earthfill a AN v The holes are filled with cement-water at sufficient pressure to force it into rock fissures beneath the dam foundationEmbankment Dams - Earthfill v When placing the embankment layers of soil should be kept horizontal, but graded slightly from the centre to the sides. layers should be approximate: — 150 mm after compaction for impervious core. — 225 mm for outer pervious zones.Embankment Dams - v Protection of the embankment from upstream wave action. > stone rip-rap commonly used v¥ Prevention of erosion on dry downstream side. > grass, stone or concrete v¥ No earth dam should be overtopped from the reservoir, spillways are provided to discharge excess water from the reservoirConstruction Monitoring Q For Earth DamsReasons for Co Monitoring Ensure proper materials are used. Ensure proper construction and design is followed. . Quickly modify design and construction practices based on encountered site conditions. “IT IS IMPERATIVE TO HAVE FULL TIME SITE INSPECTION (i.e., 24/7)”Inspection Requirements . Must not hinder or slow down contractor. . Must work with contractor. . Must consider contractor construction practices.Construction Monitoring MATERIALS: a Grain size distibtlion analysis of matetias Core, filters, drains. . Make sure material installed meets specifications. . Make sure that the borrow materials do not change...Construction Monitoring MATERIAL tests: > Triaxial extension/shear - filter and core > Consolidation - core » Hydraulic conductivity Lab tests: ofilters - Constant or falling head ocore - triaxial Field clay: o Double ring infiltrometer oCentrifuge permeanometerConstruction Monitoring Proctor Tests > Source materials in borrow pit > Materials hauled to site Field Compaction > Uncompacted layer thickness (300mm max.) >» Compaction equipment is suitable > Moisture content and Maximum dry density oNuclear Density, sand cone, rubber balloon oMake sure Nuclear density is calibratedGoal of Compaction > Place loose soil in the field and compact it to make soil strong as possible: o Maximum shear strength 0 Very little settlement o Low hydraulic conductivity o Find soil lowest ein highest dry unit weight.Fine aggregate Application primarily for ‘dam construction ‘embankments for road, rail track and airport construction + enches and backills + sanitary landfil construction Clay <0,00¢mm —_Silt0,002-0,06mm Sand ‘Application primatily for “embankments subbases and bases for road, rail track and eiport construction + foundations for buidings ‘trenches and backils Sand 0,06 -2mm Gravel 2-60 mm [Rocasn Cobbles Boulders Application primarily for ‘dam construction embankments for road, ral track and airport construction ‘foundations for buildings Cobbles > 60 mm Boulders > 100 mm % @ % @ Compactability + dificult to compact due to cohesion ‘compaction elect depends strongly ‘on waler content + material needs high compaction energy Compaction equipment primarily ‘heavy and medium size single drum rollers (smooth and padtoot drum) ‘trench compactors and heavy plates ‘Compactability + depends on grading ‘too much compaction may be detrimental ‘Compaction equipment + bratory tandem rolers and single drum rollers (smooth drum) ‘heavy and medium size plates Compactability + layer thickness should be three times thicker than max. particle size +s malerial needs high compaction energy Compaction equipment primarily ‘heavy single drum rollers heavy platesApplication guidelines - vibratory rollers roller static linear amplitude pressure mm kgicm ‘granular bases /subbasesSoil Compaction Measurement — sand replacement nuclear gaugeSoil Compaction Measurement » Use dry sand with known dry density and specific gravity » Use dry sand to get volume of hole > Quick and reliable method Figure 4.15 Field unit weight by sand cone methodSoil Compaction Measurement nuclear gauge v Use radioactive material fo get moisture content and soil density. y Quick method. v Reliable if calibrated. v Radioactive device therefore special transportation and rules must be followed.Compaction Specification: Insitu dry unit weigh t xl Max. dry unit weigh t (Proctor) Compaction level (%) = Q Standard Proctor Specification > 95 to 100 percent of maximum dry unit weight Q Modified Proctor Specification > 92 to 98 percent of maximum dry unit weightCompaction Specification > Make — sure compacted soil same as Proctor material (grain — size distribution analysis). > Add water to soil if too dry. > 95% Density s a z 5 Eg Moisture content, w (%)Field Instrumentation » Measure performance of structure during construction. > Long-term monitoring of structure behavior and health. > Must not impact structure performance. Geotechnical instrumentation can reduce undesirable consequences from construction. These consequences may be the results of adverse Pertamonees, damage to the adjacent facility and/or delays of dam project.Justification for Instrumentation > Engineers should developed justifications for geotechnical instrumentation program on their projects. > In practice such programs are used to save lives, save money and/ or reduce risk of failure In concept, these are simple and easy to understand benefits, but in practice it is difficult to quantify!Reasons fo Install Instrumentation Indicate impending failures Provide a warning Reveal unknowns Evaluate critical design assumptions Minimize damage to the adjacent structures Control construction Control operation Provide data to help select remedial methods to fix problems Documents performance for assessing damages . Inform stakeholders . Satisfy regulators . Reduce litigation . Advanced state- of - knowledge.Field Instrumenfations: a Piezometers (used for measuring pore pressures in ground) v Excess pore water pressure (pwp) in core during compaction. v Uplift pressures. v Foundation head loss. vy Core phreatic surface (indicates the location where the pore water pressure is under atmospheric conditions-i.e. pressure head is Zero). Inclinometers (an instrument used for measuring angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity's direction) v Stability of slopes and foundations Settlement gauges (comprises of a plate with attached measuring rods. The plate is positioned at the depth at which the settlement is prearranged to be measured and the plate level is recorded). Extensometers tis a, device that jis used to measure changes in the length of an object, It is useful for stress- strain measurements and tensile fests).Piezometer installation Casagrande Pieza (Monitoring Well)Poteet Sp Pn Upstream side(u/s)Settlement cell: Pneumatic settlement provide a single point measurement of settlement. They can be read from central location particularly useful where asses is difficult. Monitor consolidation during construction and long term settlement in the foundation of the fill.Dam Monitoring Instruments e Piesometer © —Pressurecell + _Extensometsr Contin’ ctor apie D SSaSSicnneee” J OSM 4 Warne! © Suncying network @ Vibration instrament Fig. Typical embankment dam monitoring instrumentsKey Component Instrumentation Q Put in redundancy > Instruments will get lost due to construction activities > Equipment will stop working Q Protect instrument/equipment from contractors’ workers. > Putin safe areas > Mark instrument/equipment » Protect it during installation and post installation a Arrange for remotely monitor and collect data. a Consider data analysis cost.