GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Ch:2
2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8

Dr. AREEJ ALGHOUL

 2.5: The Modern View of Atomic Structure:
The simplest view of the atom is consists of:
 a. A tiny nucleus:
 It contain protons with + ve charge
and neutrons with no charge.
 b. an electrons move around the nucleus.
Note:
In neutral atom:
 # of electrons = # of protons
Isotopes:
• The isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
• For example: sodium atoms have two isotopes.
• Both have 11 protons and 11 electrons, but they differ in the number
of neutrons in their nuclei.
• Q: Write the symbol for the atom that has an atomic number of 9 and
a mass number of 19. How many electrons and how many neutrons
does this atom have?
• The atomic number 9 means the atom has 9 protons. This element is
called fluorine, symbolized by F. The atom is represented a
 2.6: Molecules and Ions
• The chemical bonds: are the forces that hold atoms together in
compounds.
• Types of chemical bonds:
• 1. Covalent bonds. 2. Ionic bonds.
• 1. Covalent bonds.
atoms can form bonds is by sharing electrons.
The resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.
Molecules can be represented in several ways.
• a. chemical formula ( the simplest method)
• b. structural formula (the individual bonds are shown)
structural formula
• Structural formulas may or may not indicate the actual shape of the
molecule.
• The molecules can be represented in several ways.
• The structural formula.
• The space-filling model: which shows the relative sizes of the atoms
and thr relative orientation in the molecule.
• The ball-and-stick models are also used to represent molecules.
 For CH4 molecule:
• (a)The structural formula. (b) Space-filling model. (c) Ball-and stick model.
2. Ionic bonds:
• An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a net charge (positive or
negative ).
• An example of an ionic compound is the table salt (NaCl), which forms
when neutral chlorine and sodium react.
one electron is lost from Na (11 protons and 11 electrons), to form Na+
(11 protons and 10 electrons).

one chlorine (17 protons and 17 electrons) is accept the electron to

form a negative charge ion Cl- (17 protons and 18 electrons)
A positive ion is called cation. A negative ion is called anion.

Because anions and cations have opposite charges, they attract

each other. This force of attraction between oppositely charged
ions is called ionic bonding.
2.7: An Introduction to the Periodic Table
 The Periodic Table
The number shown above each symbol is
the atomic number.
• Notes:
• Metals tend to form positive ions.
• Nonmetals tend to form negative ions.
• Elements in the same vertical column in the periodic table form a
group (or family ) and generally have similar properties.
• The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called
periods.
• Horizontal row 1 is called the first period (it contains H and He); row
2 is called the second period (elements Li through Ne); and so on
2.8: Naming Simple Compounds
• In early chemists there was no system for naming compounds.
common names were used, such as:
 Sugar
 Epsom salts.
 Milk .
As chemistry grew, nearly 5 million chemical compounds are currently
known.
Memorizing common names for these compounds would be an
impossible task.
• To solve this problem, we will begin with the systems for naming
inorganic binary compounds.
• Binary compounds: are compounds composed of two elements
• We will consider both ionic and covalent compounds.

• Ionic compounds: is formed between metal and nonmetal

Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I)
• Binary ionic compounds contain a positive ion (cation) always written
first in the formula and a negative ion (anion).
For example
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)
• Metal with nonmetal
• The metals form more than one type of positive ion.
• The charge on the metal ion must be specified, using Roman
numeral to indicate the charge of the cation.

Roman numeral (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, ……..)
The common cations(type I and type II) and
anions
Type II

• *Note
• mercury(I) ions always occur bound
together to form Hg2+2 ions.

These are transition metals, they form

only one type of ion, and a Roman
numeral is not used
Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ion
Oxyanions
• Oxyanions: are anions contain an element with different numbers of
oxygen atoms.
• If there are two members in such a series:
• the smaller number of oxygen atoms ends in -ite
• the larger number of oxygen atoms ends in -ate
• Ex.
• sulfite (SO3)-2
• sulfate (SO4)-2.
Oxyanions
• If more than two oxyanions in the series, the following prefixes used
to the name:
• hypo- (less than)
• per- (more than)

• Q:. Give the systematic name for each of the following compounds:
• a. Na2SO4 b. KH2PO4 c. Fe(NO3)3 d. Mn(OH)2 e. Na2SO3 f. Na2CO3
Answer:
a. Na2SO4 Sodium sulfate
b. KH2PO4 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
c. Fe(NO3)3 Iron(III) nnitrate (Type II must contain a Roman umeral)
d. Mn(OH)2 Manganese(II) hydroxide (Type II must contain a Roman
numeral)
e. Na2SO3 Sodium sulfite
f. Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate
• Q: Given the following systematic names, write the formula for each
compound:
• a. Sodium hydrogen carbonate b. Cesium perchlorate
• c. Sodium hypochlorite d. Sodium selenite
e. Potassium bromate
Answer:
• Name Formula
• a. Sodium hydrogen NaHCO3 OR sodium bicarbonate.
• b. Cesium perchlorate CsClO4
• c. Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl
• d. Sodium selenate Na2SeO4 ( Se is named in the same way
as S they are in the same group)
• e. Potassium bromate KBrO3 ( Br is named in the same way as
Cl, they are in the same group).
2: Covalent Compounds (Type III)
• Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)
• They are formed between two nonmetals

(nonmetal+ nonmetal)
They are named very similarly to binary ionic compounds (Type I)
• The first element in the formula is named first, using the full element
name.
• The second element is named as if it were an anion.
• Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present.
**** NOTE ****

• The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element.

• Ex:
• CO is called carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide
 Ex:

N2O Dinitrogen monoxide

NO Nitrogen monoxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide

We often drop the final o or a of the prefix,

when the element begins with a vowel.
 Common name:
• Some compounds are always referred to by their common names (the
systematic are never used).

• For examples:
Water H2O
 Ammonia NH3
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Q:
• Q1. Name each of the following compounds:
• a. PCl5 b. PCl3 c. SO2

• Q2. From the following systematic names, write the formula for
each compound:
• a. Sulfur hexafluoride b. Sulfur trioxide
• c. Carbon dioxide Solution
Answers
• 1. Formula Name
• a. PCl5 Phosphorus pentachloride
• b. PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride
• c. SO2 Sulfur dioxide
•
• 2. Name Formula
• a. Sulfur hexafluoride SF6
• b. Sulfur trioxide SO3
• c. Carbon dioxide CO2
Q:
• Give the systematic name for each of the following compounds:
• a. P4O10 b. Nb2O5 c. Li2O2 d. Ti(NO3)4

• a. P4O10 Tetraphosphorus (Binary covalent compound (Type III))

• b. Nb2O5 Niobium(V) oxide (Type II binary compound and Nb is a
transition metal and requires a Roman numeral)
• c. Li2O2 Lithium peroxide (Type I binary compound, O2-2 (peroxide)
ions)
• d. Ti(NO3)4 Titanium(IV) nitrate Ionic compound contains the Ti+4
transition metal (requires a Roman numeral) and NO-3 polyatomic ions.
Q:
• Q. Given the following systematic names, write the formula for each
compound:
• a. Vanadium(V) fluoride b. Dioxygen difluoride
• c. Rubidium peroxide d. Gallium oxide
Answer:
• Name Chemical Formula formula
• a. Vanadium(V) fluoride VF5
• b. Dioxygen difluoride O 2F2
• c. Rubidium peroxide Rb2O2
• d. Gallium oxide Ga2O3
Acids
• Compounds that when dissolved in water, produce free H+ ions (protons).
• The rules for naming acids.
• An acid is a molecule in which one or more H+ ions are attached to an
anion.
• 1. If the anion does not contain oxygen and the anion ends in -ide, the
acid is named with the prefix hydro- and the suffix -ic.

• HCl hydrochloric acid

• HCN hydrocyanic acid
• H2S hydrosulfuric acid
Naming of acids
• 2. If the anion contain oxygen (oxyanion)
• -ate -ic and -ite -ite
• For example,
• H2SO4 which contains sulfate anion, is named as sulfuric acid
• H2SO3 which contains sulfite is named as sulfurous acid
• HNO2 which contains nitrite is named nitrous acid.
• HNO3 which contains nitrate is named nitric acid.
Naming of acids
• Acid Anion Name
• HClO4 Perchlorate Perchloric acid
• HClO3 Chlorate Chloric acid
• HClO2 Chlorite Chlorous acid
• HClO Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid