Scientific Skills: Notes and Practice Problems

Rounding

In science, the ability to round numbers properly is an important skill to develop.

The procedure for rounding:
1. Draw a line after the digit to be rounded.
2. Look to the right of the line.
a. If the number is 5 or greater, the number is rounded up.
b. If the number is less than 5, the number is not changed.

Rounding is done at the end of a calculation. If the calculation has multiple steps, extra digits are kept in the
intermediate steps to prevent rounding errors.

Remember that a number is only rounded once.

Example
Round 3.154 to three digits.

Example
Round 87.857 to four digits.

Practice (Rounding)
1. Round the following numbers to the number of digits indicated in the brackets.
(a) 4.6234 [3] (f) 80.45 [2]

(b) 3.9256 [4] (g) 3.7436 [3]

(c) 2.680 [1] (h) 308.6754 [4]

(d) 5.987 [2] (i) 499.8 [3]

(e) 5.9455 [3] (j) 10.78 [3]

Significant Digits

Scientific measurements are always uncertain. Even the best measuring instruments have limitations - thus, readings
from them always contain an estimated digit. One way to express the degree of uncertainty is by counting the number
of significant digits in a measurement. More significant digits means greater certainty in the measurements.

In Figure 1, a millimetre ruler is used to determine the width of a door tag. Looking at the ruler, one could say that the
door tag is at least 89 mm in width, but less than 90 mm in width.

Figure 1 - A ruler used to measure the width of a door tag

(Ruler showing the width of a door tag, Edmonton Public Schools)

Zooming in on the ruler (Figure 2) gives a clear picture of the measurement between the two tick marks.

Figure 2 - A close-up of the ruler measuring the width of a door tag

(Enhanced image of the ruler, Edmonton Public Schools)

It can be seen that the width of the door tag lies between the tick marks for 89 mm and 90 mm. This means that the
person measuring the width is allowed to estimate the next digit. One person may estimate the width is 89.4 mm and
another person might estimate the width is 89.7 mm. Both of these measurements are correct. However, because of the
variation in the last digit due to estimation, this introduced uncertainty in the measurement and requires consideration
of significant digits when using the measurement in calculations.
There are two kinds of numbers encountered in science:
● Exact numbers - these are numbers that can be counted or numbers that are definitions
○ 12 eggs in a dozen
○ 1 principal at a school
○ 1000 m = 1 km
● Exact numbers are considered to have an infinite number of significant digits as they do not involve an estimated
measurement.
● Inexact numbers - these are numbers that are measured with an instrument
○ area of a classroom space
○ a person’s height

The following digits in a measurement are considered significant:

● all non-zero digits
○ e.g., 159 seconds - three significant digits
● zeros between two non-zero digits
○ e.g., 4052 L - four significant digits
● zeros after non-zero digits
○ e.g., 400 - three significant digits
● zeros to the right of the decimal point in a decimal
○ e.g., 2.3000°C - five significant digits
● in scientific notation, all digits of the coefficient (before the × 10n)
○ e.g., 9.70 × 102 g - three significant digits

The following digits in a measurement are not considered significant:

● leading zeros in a decimal number
○ e.g., 0.0072 m - two significant digits
● numbers that are considered exact
○ e.g., definitions (1000 m = 1 km; 60 seconds = 1 minute)
○ e.g., counting numbers (40 students, 8 slices of pizza)

There is a shortcut for determining the number of significant digits in a measurement. Start counting at the first non-
zero digit - everything to the right of that digit will be significant.
Practice (Significant Digits)

1. Determine the number of significant digits for each number below.

(a) 0.820 m (i) 104 004 km

(b) 206 g (j) 2.0 × 104 s

(c) 3 apples (k) 0.0502 m

(d) 9.200 s (l) 520 N

(e) 3405 m (m) 33 ms

(f) 10 books (n) 100 cent

(g) 0.0020 km (o) 120 cm

(h) 54 000 years (p) 0.042 kg

Adding and Subtracting Measurements

When adding and subtracting measurements, the final answer should be rounded to the same number of decimal places
as the measurement with the fewest number of decimal places used in the calculation.

To help with determining significant digits when adding and subtracting measurements, write down the number of
decimal places above each measurement to assist in making a final determination of the number of decimal places the
final answer should contain.

Note: When adding and subtracting measurements, the units must be the same for all measurements.

Example

A student adds 4.80 g of a compound to a beaker with a mass of 50.3 g. Determine the total mass of the beaker and the
compound.

Example

The mass of a container of calcium carbonate is 100.65 g. If the container alone has a mass of 50 g, determine the mass
of calcium carbonate present.
Practice (Adding and Subtracting Measurements)

1. Perform the following calculations giving the final answer with the appropriate number of significant digits and
correct units.

(a) 396.29 cm + 17.5 cm =

(b) 72.6 °C - 14.95 °C =

(c) 23 min + 16.5 min =

(d) 19.177 s - 8.11 s =

(e) 1.46 kg - 1.173 kg + 0.6 kg =

(f) 0.26 s + 2.846 s - 0.7 s =

Multiplying and Dividing Measurements

When multiplying and dividing measurements, the final answer should be rounded to have the same number of
significant digits as the number with the fewest significant digits used in the calculation.

To help with determining significant digits when multiplying and dividing measurements, write down the number of
significant figures above each measurement to assist in making a final determination of the number of significant figures
the final answer should contain.

Example

Perform the following calculation giving the final answer with the correct number of significant digits and units.
46.0 m ÷ 20.00 m/s =

Example

Perform the following calculation giving the final answer with the correct number of significant digits and units.
2.0 m/s × 16.00 s

Practice (Multiplying and Dividing Measurements)

1. Perform the following calculations giving the final answer with the appropriate number of significant digits and
correct units (if applicable).

(a) 204.17 ÷ 3.2 =

(b) 11.6 × 6.24 =

(c) 4848 × 0.0075 =

(d) 6700 ÷ 32.0 =

(e) 0.500 L × 0.65 mol/L =

(f) 35.0 km ÷ 3.8 h =

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers or when it is not possible to round the final
answer to the correct of significant digits unless scientific notation is used.

Proper scientific notation consists of one non-zero digit followed by a decimal point. Remaining significant digits (if any)
follow the decimal point. Once all significant digits are accounted for, add × 10n where n represents the number of
places the decimal point moves.

Any number can be written in the format of scientific notation:

c × 10n

where:
c is the coefficient (1 ≤ c < 10)
n is the exponent
● for numbers less than 1, n will be negative
● for numbers greater than 10, n will be positive
● for numbers between 1 (inclusive) and 10 (exclusive), n will be zero

In order to convert numbers to scientific notation, the following procedure is used:

1. Move the decimal point until it is to the right of the first non-zero digit. If the number contains no explicit decimal
point, it is found at the end of the number.
2. Count how many times the decimal point had to be moved in Step 1. This becomes the exponent n in × 10n.
○ Use a positive exponent if the decimal point was moved left.
○ Use a negative exponent if the decimal point was moved right.
3. Ensure that the coefficient, c, contains the appropriate number of significant digits.

When multiplying and dividing measurements, a common situation is when the final answer has more significant digits
than permitted and the only way to write the measurement with the correct number of significant digits is to use
scientific notation.
Practice (Scientific Notation)

1. Perform the following calculations giving the final answer to the appropriate number of significant digits.
(a) 5250 × 0.26 =

(b) 1.5 ÷ 2300 =

2. Complete the table below by writing the following physical constants in scientific notation to three significant digits.

Physical Constant Physical Constant in Scientific Notation to Three Significant Digits

8 987 551 792 N∙m2/C2

0.000 000 056 704 W/(m2∙K4)

0.000 000 000 008 854 19 F/m

96 485 C/mol

0.007 297 353

300 000 000 m/s

0.000 000 000 000 002 817 9 m

602 214 000 000 000 000 000 000 mol-1

1 235 km/h

0.000 001 256 637 T∙m/A

0.000 000 000 000 000 000 160 22 C

10 970 000 m-1

Unit Conversions

Converting units is an important skill in science. If the conversion being done is metric-to-metric, a conversion chart can
be used. Another method to convert units is known as the factor-label method, which can be used for both metric-to-
metric conversions and non-metric-to-metric conversions.

The following conversion chart is used for metric-to-metric conversions.

(Alberta Education. (2010). p. 1)

Whether multiplication or division is being used depends on whether the conversion requires one to move towards or
away from the common base units.

The factor-label method (also known as unit analysis) is a method used to cancel out unwanted units and replace them
with the desired units. This method is based on the principles that:
● multiplying something by 1 does not change the value
● any value divided by the same value equals 1

Example

Convert 4.50 m to cm using unit cancellation.

If moving away from the common base units (e.g., second to millisecond, gram to kilogram), then the measurement is
multiplied or divided by the conversion factor in the chart.
Remember that if the unit gets larger the numerical value attached will get smaller.

Example

Convert 8.62 × 10-4 g into kg.

Practice (Metric-to-Metric Conversions)

1. Complete the following metric to metric conversions with the correct number of significant digits.

(a) 0.00710 m to cm

(b) 584.0 mg to g

(c) 0.123 km to m

(d) 8.2 x 106 mL to L

(e) 45 m to cm

(f) 130.6 cm to m

(g) 503 g to kg

(h) 198 m to km

(i) 32 000 nm to m

(j) 1 968 mm to m

(k) 125 m to mm
(l) 0.000 500 m to cm

(m) 47 900 g to kg

(n) 0.040 g to kg

(o) 5.98 Mg to g

(p) 0.0082 L to mL

(q) 98 mg to g

(r) 122 mm to m

(s) 0.0034 Tg to g

(t) 80.6 g to mg

(u) 6.92 × 10-9 cm to m

(v) 4.93 × 104 kg to g

The factor-label method can be used for metric-to-metric conversions in lieu of the conversion chart.

Example

The mass of a piece of thread is 0.10 mg. Determine the mass in grams (g) using the factor-label method.

Example

A motorist keeps a steady speed of 105 km/h. Determine their speed in m/s using the factor-label method.

Example

The flow rate of a kitchen tap is 0.25 L/s. Determine the flow rate in mL/min using the factor-label method.
Practice (Factor-Label Method)

1. Complete the following conversions using the factor-label method. Ensure the answer has the correct number of
significant digits and proper units.

(a) Convert 50 g to kg.

(b) Convert 45 kg to g.

(c) Convert 5 120 m/s to km/h

(d) Convert 24 km/h to m/s.

(e) Convert 85 cm/min to m/s.

(f) Convert 54 L/h to mL/s.

(g) Convert 0.625 km to cm.

(h) Convert 15.8 kg/min to lbs/s.

Note: 1 kg = 2.2 lbs
Rearranging Equations

An equation in the data booklet will be written in terms of a single variable. If one must solve for this variable, the
equation is ready to go. However, if one needs to solve for another variable, the equation will need to be rearranged for
that variable.

When rearranging equations, the golden rule of algebra applies:

Whatever operation is done to one side of the equation must also be done to the other side.

This rule must be followed as an equation is all about balance - both sides are equal.

When rearranging equations, the order that is followed is the reverse of BEDMAS. Start with addition/subtraction, then
move to multiplication/division, then exponents and finally brackets.

A subtlety to this rule comes when rearranging equations that have fractions. For these equations, it is assumed that the
numerator has invisible brackets around it to ensure the correct order is followed.

For example, when rearranging the equation for the variable y

To ensure the correct order is followed, a set of brackets must be put around the numerator to ensure the correct
rearrangement is obtained.

When a variable needs to be isolated, the opposite operation must be performed to isolate it (e.g., if a variable is
multiplied by another number, to isolate it, division must be done).

If the variable being isolated is in the denominator of a fraction, it must be brought up to the numerator first before it
can be isolated.

Example

Solve for x in the following equation.

Example

Solve for x in the following equation.

Practice (Rearranging Equations with Numbers)

1. Solve for x in the following equations. Ignore significant digits.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) 15 = (2)(x)(5)

The previous examples dealt with the case where numbers were provided. Equations can be rearranged when there are
no numbers given, which is an important skill to master, especially for 20- and 30-level science courses.

The same rules still apply as before: the same operations must be performed on both sides of the equation and think
about performing the opposite operations to “get rid” of something.

Example
Rearrange the following equation to solve for d.

Example
Rearrange the following equation to solve for m.
Example
Rearrange the following equation to solve for λ.

Practice (Rearranging Equations)

Rearrange the following equations for the indicated variable.

1. Fnet = ma

(a) Solve for m.

(b) Solve for a.

2. W = FΔd

(a) Solve for F.

(b) Solve for Δd.

3.

(a) Solve for m.

(b) Solve for v.

4. Ep = mgh

(a) Solve for m.

(b) Solve for g.

(c) Solve for h.

5.

(a) Solve for Δv.

(b) Solve for Δt.

6.

(a) Solve for vf.

(b) Solve for vi.

(c) Solve for Δt.

Answers

Practice (Rounding)
1. (a) 4.62
(b) 3.926
(c) 3
(d) 6.0
(e) 5.95
(f) 80
(g) 3.74
(h) 308.7
(i) 500
(j) 10.8

Practice (Significant Digits)

1. (a) 3
(b) 3
(c) infinite
(d) 4
(e) 4
(f) infinite
(g) 2
(h) 5
(i) 6
(j) 2
(k) 3
(l) 3
(m) 2
(n) infinite
(o) 3
(p) 2

Practice (Adding and Subtracting Measurements)

1. (a) 413.8 cm
(b) 57.7°C
(c) 40 min
(d) 11.07 s
(e) 0.9 kg
(f) 2.4 s
Practice (Multiplying and Dividing Measurements)
1. (a) 64
(b) 72.4
(c) 36
(d) 209
(e) 0.33 mol
(f) 9.2 km/h
Practice (Scientific Notation)
1. (a) 1.4 × 103
(b) 6.5 × 10-4
2. Completed table below.

Physical Constant Physical Constant in Scientific Notation to Three

Significant Digits

8 987 551 792 N∙m2/C2 8.99 × 109 N∙m2/C2

0.000 000 056 704 W/(m2∙K4) 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2∙K4)

0.000 000 000 008 854 19 F/m 8.85 × 10-12 F/m

96 485 C/mol 9.65 × 104 C/mol

0.007 297 353 7.30 × 10-3

300 000 000 m/s 3.00 × 108 m/s

0.000 000 000 000 002 817 9 m 2.82 × 10-15 m

602 214 000 000 000 000 000 000 mol-1 6.02 × 1023 mol-1

1 235 km/h 1.24 × 103 km/h

0.000 001 256 637 T∙m/A 1.26 × 10-6 T∙m/A

0.000 000 000 000 000 000 160 22 C 1.60 × 10-19 C

10 970 000 m-1 1.10 × 107 m-1

Practice (Metric-to-Metric Conversions)
1. (a) 0.710 cm
(b) 0.584 g
(c) 123 m
(d) 8.2 × 103 L
(e) 4.5 × 103 cm
(f) 1.306 m
(g) 0.503 kg
(h) 0.198 km
(i) 3.2000 × 10-5 m
(j) 1.968 m
(k) 1.25 × 105 mm
(l) 0.0500 cm
(m) 47.900 kg
(n) 4.0 × 10-5 kg
(o) 5.98 × 106 g
(p) 8.2 mL
(q) 0.098 g
(r) 0.122 m
(s) 3.4 × 109 g
(t) 8.06 × 104 mg
(u) 6.92 × 10-11 m
(v) 4.93 × 107 g

Practice (Factor-Label Method)

1. (a) 0.050 kg
(b) 4.5 × 104 g
(c) 1.843 × 104 km/h
(d) 6.7 m/s
(e) 0.014 m/s
(f) 15 mL/s
(g) 6.25 × 104 cm
(h) 0.579 lbs/s
Practice (Rearranging Equations with Numbers)
1. (a) x = 19.2
(b) x = 3
(c) x = 0.5
(d) x = 1.5

Practice (Rearranging Equations)

1. (a)

(b)

2. (a)

(b)

3. (a)

(b)

4. (a)

(b)

(c)
5. (a)

(b)
6. (a)
(b)

(c)
Introduction to Kinematics: Notes and Practice
Problems
Scalars and Vectors
The motion of objects can be described using words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, time elapsed, and
acceleration. These physical quantities can be divided into two categories: scalars and vectors.

A scalar quantity is a measurement that consists of an amount (also called magnitude). The magnitude is expressed as a
number with units. Examples: time (30 seconds), distance (300 km), speed (50 km/h)

A vector quantity is a measurement that consists of both a magnitude and a direction. Examples: displacement (20 km,
west), velocity (100 km/h, south), acceleration (-3.5 m/s²)

In Science 10, words such as north, south, east, west, left, right, up and down are used to indicate direction. Positive and
negative signs are sometimes used to indicate opposite directions.

To distinguish between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity, vectors are written either in bold typeface or with an
arrow above the variable (common when writing variables by hand). Example: the symbol for average velocity can be
written as v or .

Practice (Scalars and Vectors)

1. Categorize the quantities below as either a scalar or a vector quantity.
(a) 5 m ___________

(b) 30 m/s, east ___________

(c) 5 km, north ___________

(d) 20°C ___________

(e) 200 N, left ___________

(f) 25 volts ___________

(g) 9.81 m/s², down ___________

Distance and Displacement
Distance (𝛥d) is a scalar quantity that refers to the length of the path taken by an object.

Displacement (𝛥 ) is a vector quantity that refers to an object’s change in position. Displacement is the straight line
taken from an object’s starting (initial) position to its final position.

Displacement can be calculated using the following equation:

where:
𝛥 is the displacement (m)

is the final position (m)

is in the initial position (m)

Although the variables above have the units of metres assigned, the units can be any unit that measures length, as long
as all three variables have the same units.

Figure 1 - A graphic showing the difference between distance and displacement

(distance vs displacement, Edmonton Public Schools)

Example
Navya walks to her friend’s house, which is 2.3 km, south from her house. Navya and her friend then walk to the mall,
which is located 1.1 km, south of Navya’s house. Determine (a) the distance Navya travelled; (b) Navya’s displacement
from her home.
Practice Problems (Distance and Displacement)
1. Determine the distance travelled and the displacement of a cross-country runner if they begin at their school, run
5.0 km out and then 5.0 km back and finish at the school.

2. On a map, the town of Newtonville is at a position of 16.2 cm from the top-left corner of the map. The town of
Galileoton is at a position of 32.8 cm from the top-left corner of the map. Determine the distance between the two
towns on the map.

3. Ewan is standing at a position described by dE = +28 m, while Myles is standing at a position described by dM = -31 m.
Determine the displacement from Ewan to Myles.

4. On a football field, the quarterback is standing at a position (measured from the centre line) of dQ = 35 yards, north
while the wide receiver is standing at a position of dWR = 13 yards, south. Determine the displacement from the
quarterback to the wide receiver.

5. After an evening at the mall, Betty walks 1.4 km, east from the mall to his home, while Dawn walks 2.1 km, west
from the mall to his home. Determine the displacement from Dawn to Betty.
6. High Level is 195 km north of Manning and Grimshaw is 84 km south of Manning. Determine the displacement from
Grimshaw to High Level.

7. In the Canadian Forces, the standard length of a quick time pace is 75 cm. During a drill exercise, a corporal takes 14
steps west, 22 steps east, 19 steps west and 17 steps east. Determine the corporal’s (a) distance travelled (in
metres); (b) total displacement (in metres) from their starting point. It may be helpful to draw a diagram.

8. Sir Isaac Newton is taking a walk around an apple orchard. He walks 4 m, east; 2 m, west; 3 m, east, and finally 7 m,
west. Determine Sir Isaac’s (a) distance travelled; (b) total displacement. It may be helpful to draw a diagram.

9. Albert Einstein is wandering through spacetime. First he wanders 2000 m, down, then 4200 m up, then 1800 m,
down, then finally 6400 m up. Determine Einstein’s (a) distance travelled; (b) total displacement relative to his
starting point. It may be helpful to draw a diagram.
Answers

Practice (Scalars and Vectors)

1. (a) scalar (e) vector
(b) vector (f) scalar
(c) vector (g) vector
(d) scalar

Practice (Distance and Displacement)

1. 𝛥d = 10 km; 𝛥 = 0
2. 𝛥d = 16.6 cm
3. 𝛥 = -59 m
4. 𝛥 = 48 m, south
5. 𝛥 = 3.5 km, east
6. 𝛥 = 279 km, north
7. (a) 𝛥d = 54 m
(b) 𝛥 = 4.5 m, east
8. (a) 𝛥d = 16 m
(b) 𝛥 = 2 m, west
9. (a) 𝛥d = 14 400 m
(b) 𝛥 = 6800 m, up
Uniform Motion: Notes and Practice Problems
Uniform Motion
An object undergoing uniform motion is travelling with constant velocity. The object’s speed does not change and it
travels along a straight line.

Speed and Velocity

Speed (v) is a measure of the distance travelled per unit time.

The equation above works for different units, but the units must be consistent.

v - speed (m/s) v - speed (km/h)

𝛥d - distance travelled (m) 𝛥d - distance travelled (km)
𝛥t - time interval (s) 𝛥t - time interval (h)

Velocity ( ) is a measure of the displacement per unit time.

As with the equation for speed, the equation for determining velocity works with different units, but the units must be
consistent.

- velocity (m/s) - velocity (km/h)

𝛥 - displacement (m) 𝛥 - displacement (km)
𝛥t - time interval (s) 𝛥t - time interval (h)

A time interval is a scalar quantity representing the time taken for an action to be completed. It can be in hours (h),
minutes (min), seconds (s), but it is most common to use it in seconds in formulas.

Since velocity is a vector, it has both magnitude and direction.

The above equations are only valid if the motion is uniform.

Example
Alexandra walks 500 m, north to the store to purchase some candy in 7.00 minutes. She then walks 150 m, south to a
park bench in 1.00 minute in order to eat her candy. Determine Alexandra’s (a) average speed (in m/s); (b) average
velocity (in m/s).

Practice Problems (Speed and Velocity)

1. Linna drives her car 120 km at a constant speed for 1.5 hours. Determine Linna’s average speed in km/h.

2. Determine the average speed of a bus that travels 350 km in 3.00 hours.

3. A runner is training for an event. If they run at a pace of 7.2 m/s for 10 s, determine their distance travelled.

4. Determine the time it would take to travel 600 km at an average speed of 85 km/h.
5. A jogger has a pace of 4.50 m/s. If they jog for 150 s, determine their distance travelled.

6. Chris rollerbladed around St. Albert at a constant speed for 2.5 hours. Determine Chris’ average speed (in km/h) if he
covered 21 km while rollerblading.

7. A bullet is fired at 700 m/s and strikes a target 180 m away. Determine the time it takes for the bullet to reach the
target.

8. A driver travels along the Queen Elizabeth II Highway from Edmonton to Calgary (320 km) in 3.00 hours and 10.0
minutes. Determine the driver’s average speed in km/h.

9. Determine the average speed (in both m/s and km/h) of an airplane that flies 408 m in 1.75 s.
10. A rocket ship is moving at a constant speed of 1760 km/h. Determine the total distance travelled (in km) in 2.0 days.
(Note: The final answer will need to be expressed in scientific notation.)

11. Two cars start a trip of 200 km at the same time. The first car travels at 90 km/h and the second car travels at 110
km/h. Determine how much more time it takes for the slower car to reach its destination. Give the final answer in
minutes.

12. A dog chasing a car runs 67.5 m, north-west in 5.7 s. Determine the dog’s average velocity.

13. A coffee-deprived teacher runs with a velocity of 8.5 m/s, south in order to find some coffee. If the teacher runs for
9.2 s, determine their displacement.
14. In order to catch speeders, police departments use aircraft to observe from the air the time it takes a vehicle to
travel between set points and use this information to determine their speed. A sports car is travelling east on
Highway 14. After 1.2 s, the car passes the 50 m marker on the highway and after 5.5 s, the car passes the 200 m
marker on the highway. Using this information, determine the car’s average velocity in m/s.

15. Nicodemus cycles 5.0 km, east; 7.1 km, west; 12.2 km, east; and 4.7 km, west in a time of 2.00 h. Determine
Nicodemus’ (a) distance travelled; (b) displacement relative to his starting point; (c) average speed; (d) average
velocity.
Multiple Speeds

Some motion problems involve multiple speeds and multiple time intervals.

To determine the average speed, take the total distance and divide by the total time interval.

Example
Max Planck is walking down the science hallway in a school at a constant speed of 1.5 m/s for 5.0 s. After seeing his
friend Albert Einstein, he begins to run towards him with a constant speed of 6.2 m/s for 15.5 s. Determine Max Planck’s
average speed.

Practice (Multiple Speeds)

1. A hiker moves in a straight line at a constant speed of 7.0 m/s for 4.0 s and then at 13 m/s for 20 s. Determine
the hiker’s average speed.
(Hint: Determine the total distance covered by the hiker.)
Answers

Practice (Speed and Velocity)

1. v = 80 km/h
2. v = 117 km/h
3. 𝛥d = 72 m
4. 𝛥t = 7.1 h
5. 𝛥d = 675 m
6. v = 8.4 km/h
7. 𝛥t = 0.257 s
8. v = 101 km/h
9. v = 233 m/s; v = 839 km/h
10. 𝛥d = 8.4 × 104 km
11. 𝛥t = 24 minutes
12. = 12 m/s, north-west
13. 𝛥 = 78 m, south
14. = 35 m/s, east
15. (a) 𝛥d = 29.0 km
(b) 𝛥 = 5.4 km, east
(c) v = 14.5 km/h
(d) = 2.7 km/h, east

Practice (Multiple Speeds)

1. v = 12 m/s
Graphing

Graphing allows one to communicate their results to a wide audience, but it also helps to understand the relationship
between variables being studied. By adhering to proper graphing techniques, the information one wishes to
communicate will be clear and easy to understand.

A proper scientific graph must contain the following elements:

1. A title with proper capitalization that describes what the graph is showing. The title always has the y-variable first
followed by the x-variable.
e.g., Distance as a function of time
2. Labels on the x- and y-axes that state the variables under investigation including the units in parentheses.
e.g., time (s), distance (m), speed (m/s)
3. Scales on the x- and y-axes that are logical and show equal steps between gridlines including the origin (0,0).
(Note: It is recommended to avoid breaking the scale as this can interfere with some calculations.)
4. Points are plotted using a single dot and then circling it with dashed lines. This shows the point is the best estimate.
5. A line of best fit is drawn (unless otherwise stated) to show the trend of the data points plotted. A line of best fit can
be a straight line or a smooth curve. The line should have an equal number of data points above and below it.
6. The graph should use as much of the graph paper as possible (at least 2/3 of the page).
7. Graphs should be done in pencil (in case mistakes are made).
8. If more than one graph is to be plotted on the same grid, a legend must be included.
9. The manipulated variable (what is being changed) goes on the x-axis whereas the responding variable (what is being
measured) goes on the y-axis.
10. When determining the slope of the line of best fit (formula below), points are chosen from the line, not the data
points plotted. Slope can be positive or negative.

Figure 3 shows an example of a properly constructed graph.

Figure 3 - A properly constructed graph

The key features seen in Figure 3 that make it a properly constructed graph:
● appropriate title with the y-variable written as a function of the x-variable
● both axes are labelled with units included
● an appropriate line of best fit has been drawn
● the scale is appropriate for the data points plotted
Figure 4 shows an example of a poorly constructed graph.

Figure 4 - A poorly constructed graph

The reasons why Figure 4 is a poorly constructed graph:

● no title is given
● units are missing on both axes
● the points are connected; a proper line of best fit has not been drawn
Practice (Lines of Best Fit)

1. Draw an appropriate line of best fit for the following graphs.

(a) Graph of displacement as a function of time for a toy car.

(b) Displacement as a function of time for an object undergoing acceleration.

(c) Graph of velocity as a function of time for a car experiencing uniform acceleration.
Practice (Lines of Best Fit)
1. (a) Slight variations in the line of best fit are possible.

(b) Slight variations in the line of best fit are possible.

(c) Slight variations in the line of best fit are possible.

Graphical Analysis - Uniform Motion: Notes and
Practice Problems
Graphical Analysis
Scientists graph data for a variety of reasons. Graphs allow scientists to see trends, that is, see how fast one variable
changes with respect to another. From the shape of the graph, they can tell how the manipulated variable (on the x-axis)
is related to the responding variable (on the y-axis). Graphs also allow scientists to interpolate and extrapolate data.

The term interpolation refers to reading a trend between (inter – between) data points, as shown in Figure 1.

The term extrapolation refers to reading beyond (extra – beyond) the data points that have been collected, as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 1 - Interpolation of a graph

(Interpolation, Edmonton Public Schools) Figure 2 - Extrapolation of a graph
(Extrapolation, Edmonton Public Schools)

Slope
The equation to determine the slope of a (linear) line is given by the following equation:

where:
m is the slope
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are coordinate points on the line of best fit

A line of best fit is a line (linear or curved) that shows the general trend of a set of data points. When constructing a line
of best fit, the number of points above and below the line should be roughly equal.

The slope is the rate the y-variable is changing with respect to the x-variable.

The units of the slope give a good indication of what it represents in a

physical context.

Example
Graph the following data and determine the slope with appropriate units.
time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

wage ($) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Practice Problems (Slope)
1. Graph the following data and determine the slope with appropriate units.

time (day) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

height (m) 1.00 1.15 1.42 1.63 1.74 2.03 2.25 2.42 2.57 2.82
2. Graph the following data and determine the slope with appropriate units.

depth 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

(m)

pressure 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205 220 235
(kPa)
Area
There is no defined equation to determine the area between the curve of a graph and the x-axis because it depends on
the shape of the graph. However, the shape can be broken down into simpler shapes and the area found for each shape.

In Science 10, the shapes encountered will be rectangles, triangles, and trapezoids (which can be broken down into
rectangles and triangles).

Recall for a rectangle:

where:
l is the length
w is the width.

Recall for a triangle:

where:
b is the base
h is the height.

The units of the area give a good indication of the physics quantity represented by the area.
Example
Graph the following data and determine the area under the graph with appropriate units. Give the final answer to three
significant digits.

distance 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

(m)

force (N) 200 200 200 200 200 300 400 500 600
Practice Problem (Area)
1. Graph the following data and determine the area under the graph with appropriate units.

time (s) 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00

speed (m/s) 0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

Application to Uniform Motion

An object in uniform motion has constant velocity (i.e., the object is moving at a constant speed in a straight line).
displaceme

time

Figure 3 - Displacement-time graph for an object undergoing uniform motion

(d-t graph, v constant, Edmonton Public Schools)

Note that the displacement-time graph for uniform motion is a straight line. The displacement is increasing at a constant
rate. The displacement-time graph is a straight line for any object in uniform motion.

The slope of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity of the object.

Figure 4 shows an example of a velocity-time graph for uniform motion.

velocity
time
Figure 4 - Velocity-time graph for an object undergoing uniform motion
(v-t graph, v constant, Edmonton Public Schools)

The velocity-time graph for uniform motion will always be a horizontal line because the velocity is not changing.

The area between the graph line and the time (x-) axis gives the displacement of the object. In this case, the shape is a
rectangle.

Practice (Graphical Analysis - Uniform Motion)

1. The graph below shows the distancement-time of a runner. Determine the velocity of the runner.
2. Use the following distance-time graph to answer the following questions about the first 12.0 seconds of a run by a
Labrador retriever.

a. Determine how far the Labrador retriever travelled in the first 5.0 s.

b. Determine the Labrador retriever’s average speed during the first 5.0 s.

c. Determine how far the Labrador retriever travelled during the interval from 5.0 - 10.0 s.
d. Determine the Labrador retriever’s average speed during the interval from 5.0 - 10.0 s.

e. Determine how far the Labrador retriever travelled in the first 12.0 s of its sprint.

f. Determine the Labrador retriever’s average speed for the entire 12.0 s run.
Answers

Practice (Slope)
1. m = 0.04 m/day

2. m = 0.3 kPa/m

Practice (Area)
1. A = 150 m
Practice (Graphical Analysis - Uniform Motion)
1. = 8.0 m/s, west
2. (a) 𝛥d = 10.0 m
(b) v = 2.0 m/s
(c) 𝛥d = 10.0 m
(d) v = 2.0 m/s
(e) 𝛥d = 24.0 m
(f) v = 2.0 m/s
Non-Uniform Motion: Notes and Practice
Problems
Acceleration
There are cases when an object will speed up or slow down, its direction will change, or both speed and direction will
change simultaneously.

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit time. In order to determine the object’s acceleration, the
following formula can be used:

where:
is the acceleration of the object (m/s²)

is the initial velocity of the object (m/s)

is the final velocity of the object (m/s)

𝛥t is the time interval (s)

For the acceleration formula to work correctly, the units in parentheses must be used.

Initial velocity refers to the velocity of the object at the start of the time interval.

Final velocity refers to the velocity of the object at the end of the time interval.

In some problems, the value of a variable may not be given explicitly; rather, it will be implied. Two common implied
values that will likely be encountered:
● An object starting from rest is implied to have an initial velocity of 0 m/s.
● An object coming to a stop (rest) is implied to have a final velocity of 0 m/s.

The implied values are considered to be exact values; hence, they have an infinite number of significant digits.

When using the acceleration formula with vectors, care must be taken with direction and signs.

For example, if one were to define east as positive for their convention and in the problem the final velocity of the
object is going west, this value would need to be entered in the formula with a negative sign, since it is in the opposite
direction that was defined as positive.

When dealing with vectors, it is highly recommended to write a variable list to help ensure vectors have the appropriate
sign respecting the convention defined.
Example Problems
A. A wildlife enthusiast observes a jaguar reaching a velocity of 21 m/s, north from a standing start in a time of 2.0 s.
Determine the acceleration of the jaguar.

B. A coin is dropped (from rest) from the top of a building. Determine the speed of the coin after being in freefall for
2.8 s. (Note: Objects near Earth’s surface have an acceleration of 9.81 m/s², down.)

C. A golf ball is rolling on the floor with a velocity of 2.3 m/s, right when it collides with the wall. The collision lasts for
0.78 s and the golf ball rebounds from the wall with a velocity of 1.7 m/s, left. Determine the acceleration of the golf
ball during the collision with the wall.
Practice Problems (Acceleration)
1. In a record-setting race, a dragster reached a velocity of 145.08 m/s, south in 4.48 s. Determine the dragster’s
average acceleration. Assume the dragster started from rest.

2. A motorist driving their car travelling at 50 km/h decides to test their brakes. After slamming on the brakes, the car
stops in 2.5 s. Determine the car’s acceleration.

3. A truck driving along a country road is travelling 19 m/s, north. After accelerating for 6.8 s, the truck reaches a
velocity of 31 m/s, north. Determine the average acceleration of the truck.

4. A soccer ball is rolling on the field with a velocity of 6.6 m/s, east. Ronaldo rushes in to kick the ball to give it a new
velocity of 18.7 m/s, east. The ball was in contact with Ronaldo’s foot for 0.87 s. Determine the acceleration of the
ball.
5. A missile launches from rest with an acceleration of 45.4 m/s², up. Determine the velocity of the missile after 5.00 s.

6. A car is initially travelling at a velocity of 35 km/h, west in a residential zone. If the car’s average acceleration is 0.58
m/s², west after exiting the residential zone, determine the time it will take for the car to reach a velocity of 50
km/h, west.

7. A CF-18 is slowly taxiing along the runway when it is given the all-clear to take-off. After accelerating at 25 m/s²,
south for 3.0 s, the CF-18’s velocity is 95 m/s, south. Determine the initial velocity of the CF-18.
The last four problems are slightly more challenging. Be careful with direction!

8. A student running in the hallway has an acceleration of 0.20 m/s², east. After 16.0 s, the student has a velocity of 2.1
m/s, east. Determine the student’s initial velocity.

9. A police car driving 25 m/s, north passes a speeding motorist and turns around to execute a traffic stop. If the police
car accelerates at 2.0 m/s², south for 30.0 s to catch up with the speeding driver, determine the police car’s velocity
after 30.0 s.

10. An electric bike is rolling up a hill with a velocity of 3.7 m/s, up the hill. Suddenly, it runs out of power. The bike
continues to roll up the hill, stops, then rolls down the hill. After 10 s, the velocity of the bike is 5.2 m/s, down the
hill. Determine the average acceleration of the bike.

11. On a cold winter morning, a runner is running with a velocity of 3.5 m/s, west when they suddenly realize they
forgot their toque at home. After accelerating at 0.49 m/s², east for a period of time, the runner now has a velocity
of 2.7 m/s, east. Determine the time interval over which the change in velocity occurred.
Answers
Practice Problems (Acceleration)
1. = 32.4 m/s², south
2. = -5.6 m/s²
3. = 1.8 m/s², north
4. = 14 m/s², east

5. = 227 m/s, up
6. 𝛥t = 7.2 s

7. = 20 m/s, south

8. = 1.1 m/s, west

9. = 35 m/s, south
10. = 0.89 m/s², down the hill
11. 𝛥t = 13 s
Graphical Analysis - Non-Uniform Motion: Notes and Practice Questions
There are two types of accelerated motion that can be studied in science:
● uniformly accelerated motion
○ the magnitude of the acceleration remains constant (this is what is studied in high school)
● non-uniformly accelerated motion
○ the magnitude of the acceleration changes (this is not studied in high school)

When discussing accelerated motion, it will be assumed to be uniformly accelerated motion. It may also be referred to as non-
uniform motion.

Examining the displacement-time graphs for uniformly accelerated motion:

displ

Figure 1 - Displacement-time graph for an object with positive acceleration

displ

Figure 2 - Displacement-time graph for an object with negative acceleration

Notice that both graphs are curved, but the shape depends on whether the object is speeding up or slowing down.
● Positive acceleration–the object is speeding up, so the slope of the displacement-time curve increases over time
(Figure 1)
● Negative acceleration–the object is slowing down, so the slope of the displacement-time curve decreases over time
(Figure 2)
Note: Determining the slope for a displacement-time graph of uniformly accelerated motion is beyond the scope of
Science 10.
A sketch of a velocity-time graph can also be done for uniformly accelerated motion:

velocity

tim
e
Figure 3 - Velocity-time graph for an object with constant, positive acceleration
(v-t graph, a non-zero, Edmonton Public Schools)

Since the acceleration is not changing, this means that the velocity is increasing at a uniform rate, so the graph is a
straight line.

The velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion allows one to determine both the slope and the area between
the curve and the time (x-) axis.

The slope of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of the object.

The area between the curve and the time (x-) axis gives the displacement of the object, similar to uniform motion. The
only difference is the shape will be a triangle (if dealing with strictly uniformly accelerated motion) and not a rectangle.
Example
The following graph is that of a toy car travelling on a sidewalk. Assume east is positive and west is negative.

(a) At what time(s) is the car not moving?

(b) At what time(s) is the car exhibiting uniform motion? What is the velocity of the car at this/these time(s)?

(c) Determine the acceleration of the car between 0.0 and 10.0 s.

(d) Determine the acceleration of the car between 25.0 and 30.0 s.
(e) Determine the total distance travelled by the car.

(f) Determine the total displacement of the car.

(g) Determine the average speed of the car.

(h) Determine the average velocity of the car.

Practice (Graphical Analysis - Non-Uniform Motion)
1. Two friends go on a road trip across Canada. Graph the data given below and use this to determine the distance
travelled by the two friends.

time (h) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

speed 80 90 100 100 100 80 80 80 80 80 80

(km/h)
2. The graph below shows the velocity as a function of time for a collie herding sheep. Assume right is positive and left
is negative.

(a) Determine the time(s) the collie is not moving.

(b) Determine the time(s) the collie is in uniform motion. Determine the velocity at this/these point(s).

(c) Determine the acceleration of the collie between 0.0 and 5.0 s.

(d) Determine the acceleration of the collie between 25.0 and 35.0 s.

(e) Determine the total distance travelled by the collie.

 (f) Determine the total displacement travelled by the collie.

(g) Determine the average speed of the collie.

(h) Determine the average velocity of the collie.

3. Fill out the summary table below regarding displacement-time and velocity-time graphs.

displacement-time velocity-time graph

graph

y-axis

x-axis

slope

area under curve

uniform motion (what shape is the line?)

non-uniform motion (what shape is the line?)

Answers

Practice (Graphical Analysis - Non-Uniform Motion)

1. 𝛥d = 870 km

2. (a) t = 40.0s
(b) t = 0.0 - 5.0 s, = 5.0 m/s, right; t = 10.0 - 20.0 s, = 10.0 m/s, right
(c) 0
(d) 1.00 m/s², left
(e) 𝛥d = 413 m
(f) 𝛥 = 413 m, right
(g) v = 10.3 m/s
(h) = 10.3 m/s, right

3. See table below.

displacement-time velocity-time graph
graph

y-axis displacement velocity

x-axis time time

slope velocity acceleration

area under curve displacement

uniform motion (what shape is the line?) straight line straight line (flat)

non-uniform motion (what shape is the line?) curved line straight line
Work and Energy: Notes and Practice Problems
Introduction
Energy is a fundamental part of human existence. It fuels the body allowing people to get to and from places (whether
by walking or using public transportation), it powers the electronic devices used on a daily basis. Energy exists in a
variety of forms. Although energy itself cannot be directly observed, its effects on its surroundings can be observed.

The following is a list of some evidence that indicates the presence of energy:
● observing a physical change
● observing a chemical change
● observing a change in speed (e.g., object speeding up or slowing down)
● observing a change in shape
● observing a change in temperature

A fundamentally important principle is that the total amount of matter and energy that was created in the initial stages
of the Universe has not changed. This is generally phrased as the total energy of the Universe is a conserved quantity.

This leads into the next important point: energy cannot be created nor can it be destroyed. It can only change forms
(transform). This will be expanded upon later when dealing with the Law of Conservation of Energy.

The SI unit for the measurement of energy is the joule (J). Written in terms of fundamental units, the joule can be
written as:

How to derive the joule in fundamental units will be shown in more detail later.

Work (Mathematical Analysis)

Recall that a force is defined as a push or a pull.

Work is the energy that is transferred either to or from an object when a force is applied causing the object to move.

Examples of work include lifting an object off the ground (work is being done against the force of gravity) or a car’s
engine doing work to help accelerate the car forward.

To calculate the work, the following equation can be used:

where:
W is the work (J)
F is the applied force (N)
𝛥d is the distance travelled (m)
The above formula works if the applied force is constant.
Note: When an object is moving at constant speed, the net force acting on the object is zero. This means that the net
work acting on the object is also zero. Thus, when an object is travelling at constant speed, no energy input is required in
order for the motion to continue.

Example Problem
Determine how much work is done if a force of 10 N is applied to move a block 3.0 m.

Example Problem
If 1750 J of work is done by applying a force of 150 N to a block, determine the distance the block moves.

Practice Problems (Work - Mathematical)

1. Determine how much work is done if a force of 17.7 N is applied to move a block 100 m.

2. Determine how much work is done by a girl pushing a toy car with a force of 10.3 N for a distance of 5.00 m.

3. If 300 J of work is done to push a box along the floor for a distance of 15.0 m, determine the applied force on the
box.
4. Determine how far a parent can push a 20.0 kg baby carriage by applying a force of 62.0 N, if 2920 J of work is done.

5. If a small motor does 520 J of work to move a toy car 72.6 m, determine the applied force the motor exerted on the
car.

6. A boy on a bicycle drags a wagon full of newspapers at a constant speed of 0.80 m/s for 30 minutes with a force of
40 N. Determine the work done by the boy on the bicycle. (Hint: The distance travelled needs to be determined.)
Work (Graphical Analysis)
In order to determine the work done, an examination of a force-distance (or force-displacement) graph can be done.

Examining the area between the curve and the distance (x-) axis on the force-distance graph below:

Figure 1 - A force-distance graph

(F-d graph, Edmonton Public Schools)
Example
A frictional force of 40.0 N acts on an object for a distance of 2.0 m and then the force decreases to 20.0 N for 1.0 m, as
shown in the graph below.
(a) Determine the work done by friction in the first 2.0 m.
(b) Determine the work done by friction over the whole distance of 3.0 m.
Practice (Work - Graphical Analysis)
1. Determine the work done by lifting an object through a distance of 1.50 m, using the graph shown below.

2. The force exerted on a spring as it is stretched a distance of 30.0 cm is shown below. Determine the work done to
stretch the spring.
Answers

Practice (Work - Mathematical)

1. W = 1.77 × 103 J
2. W = 51.5 J
3. F = 20.0 N
4. 𝛥d = 47.1 m
5. F = 7.16 N
6. W = 5.8 × 104 J

Practice (Work - Graphical Analysis)

1. W = 263 J
2. W = 0.90 J
Potential Energy: Notes and Practice Problems
Introduction
Potential energy is a form of energy that is stored in an object. More specifically, potential energy is energy due to
relative position or condition.

Chemical energy is an example of potential energy - it defines the potential for a chemical substance to undergo a
chemical reaction (e.g., energy stored in sugars when eating food; energy stored in gasoline to drive automobiles).

In Science 10, the primary form of potential energy discussed is gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy

All objects with mass on Earth experience a gravitational attraction towards Earth. Depending on the position of the
mass relative to Earth’s surface, this will define the strength of the potential energy stored due to the object’s position
in Earth’s gravitational field.

This form of potential energy is known as gravitational potential energy.

As an object is raised, work must be done on the object (against the force of gravity), which increases its gravitational
potential energy.

In order to calculate gravitational potential energy, the following equation is used:

where:
Ep is the gravitational potential energy of the object (J)
m is the mass of the object (kg)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (on Earth, g = 9.81 m/s²)
h is the height above or below the reference position (m)

Notice the term reference position for h. When gravitational potential energy is measured, it is measured relative to a
reference height, ho. A common choice of reference height in problems is Earth’s surface, such that the gravitational
potential energy would be measured relative to Earth’s surface.

Examining the equation for gravitational potential energy, this allows one to deduce the joule in fundamental units:
Example Problem
Determine the gravitational potential energy of a 23.5 kg box if it is raised by a distance of 84.2 cm.

Example Problem
A 55.0 kg student preparing to jump off a diving board has 5.26 kJ of gravitational potential energy stored within them
(relative to the water’s surface). Determine the height of the student relative to the water’s surface.

Practice Problems (Potential Energy)

1. A parent lifts their 17 kg baby 1.8 m above the ground. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the baby
relative to the ground.

2. A 580 kg satellite circles Earth at an altitude of 120 km. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the satellite
relative to Earth’s surface. Use g = 8.98 m/s².

3. An airplane has a mass of 3.7 × 105 kg and cruises at an altitude of 12 km. Determine the gravitational potential
energy of the airplane relative to the ground.
4. A 20 kg anvil has a gravitational potential energy of 360 J relative to the ground. Determine the anvil’s height above
the ground.

5. A ball is held at a distance of 2.45 m above the ground. If the gravitational potential energy stored in the ball is 120 J,
determine the mass of the ball.
Answers

Practice (Potential Energy)

1. Ep = 3.0 × 102 J
2. Ep = 6.25 × 108 J
3. Ep = 4.4 × 1010 J
4. h = 1.8 m
5. m = 4.99 kg
Work-Energy Theorem: Notes and Practice
Problems
As an object changes its position vertically, its gravitational potential energy changes.

In order to determine the change in gravitational potential energy, the following equation can be used:

where:
𝛥Ep is the change in gravitational potential energy (J)
m is the mass of the object (kg)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (on Earth, g = 9.81 m/s²)
Δh is the change in height (the difference between the final and initial heights) (m)

When an object is being moved vertically, there is work either being done by or against the force of gravity. Therefore, it
can be said that there is a relationship between work and gravitational potential energy.

Specifically, if an object is being raised, the gravitational potential energy is the work done against the force of gravity. If
an object is being lowered, the gravitational potential energy is the work done on the object by the force of gravity.

This allows a powerful conclusion to be drawn: the change in gravitational potential energy is equal to the work done on
the object.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

This is sometimes referred to as the work-energy theorem.

Example Problem

Brenda lifts her toys into her treehouse in a homemade elevator that has a mass of 2.5 kg. The treehouse is 3.50 m
above the ground. Determine how much work Brenda does when she lifts 9.0 kg of toys into the treehouse.
Practice Problems (Work-Energy Theorem)

1. In a record-breaking lift, Lewis performed a 225 kg clean and jerk. In doing so, he raised the weights a distance of
2.45 m from the floor to a position above his head. Determine how much work Lewis performed against the force of
gravity in this event.

2. During a major downtown fire, firefighters pumped 800 000 L of water to the 20th floor of a building 86 m above the
street. Determine how much work was done pumping the water against the force of gravity. (Note: 1.0 L of water
has a mass of 1.0 kg.)

3. A 3200 kg elevator is lifted from a height of 10.0 m above the ground to a height of 35.0 m above the ground.
Determine the:
(a) elevator’s initial gravitational potential energy relative to the ground.

(b) elevator’s final gravitational potential energy relative to the ground.

(c) work done by the motor to lift the elevator.

4. An object with a mass of 35 kg is raised 1.0 m above the ground.
(a) Determine the gravitational potential energy of the mass relative to the ground.

(b) Determine the amount of work the mass can do when it strikes the ground.

5. In lifting up a 15.0 kg box against the force of gravity, 125 J of work is done on the box. Determine the change in
height the box experienced during the lift. Give the final answer in centimeters.

6. On the Moon, an astronaut is able to lift her 115 kg partner 30 cm off the ground by doing 56 J of work on him.
Using this information, determine the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon’s surface.
Answers
Practice (Work-Energy Theorem)
1. W = 5.41 × 103 J
2. W = 6.7 × 108 J
3. (a) Ep = 3.14 × 105 J
(b) Ep = 1.10 × 106 J
(c) Ep = 7.85 × 105 J
4. (a) Ep = 3.4 × 102 J
(b) W = 3.4 × 102 J
5. Δh = 84.9 cm
6. g = 1.6 m/s²
Kinetic Energy: Notes and Practice Problems
If work is done on an object, it will move.

When an object moves, it has energy associated with that motion. This is known as kinetic energy.

To calculate kinetic energy, the following formula is used:

where:
Ek is the kinetic energy (J)
m is the mass of the object (kg)
v is the speed of the object (m/s)

Examining the equation for kinetic energy, this allows one to deduce the joule in fundamental units in another manner:

Example Problem

A 10.0 g bullet is fired out of a pistol and moves at 300 m/s. Determine the kinetic energy of the bullet.

Example Problem

A 125 kg person has 7.50 × 103 J of kinetic energy. Determine the speed of the person.
Practice Problems (Kinetic Energy)

1. Determine the kinetic energy of a 2.50 kg bowling ball moving at 5.00 m/s.

2. Determine the mass of a football player running with a speed of 8.2 m/s that has a kinetic energy of 2.8 × 103 J.

3. Determine the kinetic energy of a 1000 g brick that is thrown with a velocity of 22 m/s, east.

4. A 0.375 kg baseball is thrown with a speed of 35.0 m/s. Determine the kinetic energy of the baseball.

5. Determine the speed (in km/h) of a 1750 kg car moving with 17 kJ of kinetic energy.
6. A falling piano reaches a speed of 120 km/h. Determine the kinetic energy of the falling piano if its mass is 357 kg.

7. Determine the kinetic energy of a 185 g apple falling with a velocity of 25 km/h, down.

8. A feather floats to the ground at 25 cm/s with 1.6 × 10-5 J of kinetic energy. Determine the mass of the feather in
grams.

9. Determine the speed (in km/h) of a 0.025 kg snail moving with 6.5 × 10-6 J of kinetic energy.

10. What happens to the kinetic energy of an object if its mass is increased by a factor of 10?

11. What happens to the kinetic energy of an object if its speed is increased by a factor of 10?
Answers

Practice (Kinetic Energy)

1. Ek = 31.3 J
2. m = 83 kg
3. Ek = 2.4 × 102 J
4. Ek = 230 J
5. v = 16 km/h
6. Ek = 1.98 × 105 J
7. Ek = 4.5 J
8. m = 0.51 g
9. v = 0.082 km/h
10. Increases by a factor of 10
11. Increases by a factor of 100
Conservation of Mechanical Energy: Notes and Practice Problems
Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy of a system is the sum (total) of the potential energy and the kinetic energy at any given time. In
Science 10, only gravitational potential energy is being considered for potential energy.

The mechanical energy of the system can be determined using the following equation:

where:
Em is the mechanical energy (J)
Ep is the gravitational potential energy (J)
Ek is the kinetic energy (J)

As gravitational potential energy is measured relative to a reference point, the mechanical energy is also measured
relative to the same reference point.

A system is a collection of objects that are being analyzed at a particular time. If one is examining the motion of a ball in
the air, the system would be the ball plus Earth (Earth must be included since it is supplying the gravitational field).

Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

An important principle is that in the absence of external forces (e.g., friction), the total mechanical energy of the system
remains constant. This is known as the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, also referred to as the Law of
Conservation of Energy.

In order to gain an appreciation for the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, the next example will be broken
down into multiple steps to highlight the methodology for these types of problems.

Example

To throw a ball in the air, the hand must apply a force over a distance (e.g., do work) to give the ball kinetic energy.
Suppose a 0.25 kg ball is thrown into the air by doing 12.5 J of work on the ball.
● As the ball leaves the hand, the gravitational potential energy will be 0 J, as measured from the height of the hand,
and the kinetic energy will be 12.5 J.
○ From this information, the initial speed of the ball can be determined (using the kinetic energy).
● As the ball travels upwards with an initial speed of 10 m/s, the ball is doing work against the force of gravity and the
kinetic energy is transformed into gravitational potential energy (e.g., Ep is increasing). As the kinetic energy
decreases, the speed of the ball also decreases.
● When the ball reaches its highest point, it will have stopped moving at that instant, so its kinetic energy will be 0 J,
but it will have gained 12.5 J of gravitational potential energy. All of the initial kinetic energy has been transformed
into gravitational potential energy.
○ From this information, the maximum height of the ball relative to the hand can be determined.

● The ball will now begin to fall. As it falls, gravity again does work and the ball loses gravitational potential energy,
which is transformed into kinetic energy (e.g., the speed of the ball increases).
● Just before the ball lands in the hand, it will have 12.5 J of kinetic energy, but 0 J of gravitational potential energy.
● When the ball hits the hands, the person will need to do 12.5 J of work on the ball to bring it to a stop.

What is important to note in this example is that, at any point in the flight of the ball, it always had 12.5 J of mechanical
energy relative to the hand. The number did not change.

The above example also highlights an important point when dealing with the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy:
● if the kinetic energy of an object increases, it comes at the expense of potential energy (e.g., potential energy
decreases)
● if the potential energy of an object increases, it comes at the expense of kinetic energy (e.g., kinetic energy
decreases)

Example Problem

A 10.0 kg water balloon is dropped from a height of 12.0 m. Determine the speed of the balloon just before it hits the
ground. Assume 100% energy conversion.
Practice Problems (Conservation of Energy)

1. According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, the gravitational potential energy that a dropped ball starts with is
equal to its kinetic energy just as it is about to hit the ground as long as air resistance is small enough to be ignored.
Use this to determine the speed of a 5.0 kg ball dropped from a height of 3.7 m just before it hits the ground.

2. A 100 g ball is dropped from a height of 5.00 m. Determine the maximum speed of the ball (e.g., the speed just
before it hits the ground).

3. A 1.00 kg ball is thrown upwards with an initial speed of 2.0 m/s. Determine the maximum height reached by the
ball.

4. On August 2, 1971, astronaut David Scott dropped a 1.32 kg hammer and a 0.0030 kg feather on the Moon from a
height of 1.6 m. He released both at the same time and observed they hit the ground at the same time. The
acceleration due to gravity on the Moon’s surface is 1.64 m/s². Determine the speed of the hammer and of the
feather just as they reach the Moon’s surface.
Answers

Practice Problems (Conservation of Energy)

1. v = 8.5 m/s
2. v = 9.90 m/s
3. h = 0.20 m
4. v = 2.3 m/s
Efficiency
Energy efficiency is a measure of the amount of useful output energy (e.g., the energy used to do work) to the total
input energy. It is common to express efficiency as a percentage.

Many processes are surprisingly inefficient. For example, many cars are only around 15 to 25 percent efficient. That is,
only 15 to 25 percent of energy derived from the chemical potential energy of the fuel is converted into mechanical
energy.

As mentioned previously, by the second law of thermodynamics, no process is 100% efficient. Some energy in the
process will be converted to forms of energy that cannot be used to do work (e.g., heat, sound).

When efficiency is determined, any source of energy that is unable to do work is considered to be wasted. With the
example of the car, energy is lost in the form of heat from the exhaust, noise (as the car can be heard running) and
friction between the tires and the road (which generates heat).

Efficiency is calculated as follows:

The equation for efficiency is flexible with units in that the two values of energy do not have to be in joules. They can be
in any appropriate unit to measure energy, however, both measurements must have the same units. For example, if
useful output energy is measured in kilojoules (kJ), then the total input energy must also be given in kilojoules for the
equation to work properly.

Example Problem

While camping, a camp stove supplies 1.30 MJ of heat to warm up a pot of soup. The soup gains 250 kJ of thermal
energy. Determine the efficiency of the heating process.

Example Problem

In a design challenge, a student is tasked with building a roller coaster track to determine its efficiency in converting
energy. The marble (m = 0.35 kg) started at a height of 1.2 m above the ground and exited the track with a speed of
0.96 m/s. Determine the efficiency of the roller coaster track in converting gravitational potential energy to kinetic
energy.
Practice Problems (Efficiency)

1. For each of the following devices, identify the input energy, useful output energy and waste output energy.
a. Lightbulb

b. Car

c. Television

2. Why is the input energy never equal to useful output energy in mechanical systems?

3. An electric tea kettle uses 560 kJ of electric energy to heat the water inside. If the water gains 195 kJ of thermal
energy, determine the efficiency of the heating process.

4. A rower does 5.89 kJ of work to gain 2.91 kJ of kinetic energy. Determine the efficiency of the rower.
5. How have the laws of thermodynamics changed our understanding of energy transformations in technological
systems?

6. Engines are very inefficient, often converting only 25% of chemical energy in fuel to mechanical energy. If an engine
produces 100 kJ of mechanical energy, determine the initial amount of chemical energy from the fuel.

7. A refrigerator converts electrical energy into mechanical energy with an efficiency of 37%. If the refrigerator uses
10 MJ of energy in a day, determine the amount of mechanical energy generated in a day.

8. A phone charger uses 1.735 × 104 J of electrical energy to charge the battery. If 1.017 × 104 J of energy is stored in
the battery, determine the efficiency of the charging process.
9. a. Identify the energy transformations that occur in a coal-fired power plant.

b. Evaluate its efficiency in producing electrical energy by analyzing energy losses in the system.

10. A crane at a construction site uses 9.27 × 105 J of electrical energy to pull up a load of supplies to workers building a
skyscraper. If the crane lifts a 950 kg load of supplies 15.0 m vertically, determine the efficiency of the crane.
(Hint: Determine the work done in lifting the load of supplies against the force of gravity.)

11. Caitlyn is at a local target range practicing with her bow. Preparing for a shot, she draws back the string and stores
29 J of elastic potential energy in the bow. When she releases the string, the 27 g arrow has a speed of 24 m/s.
Determine the efficiency of Caitlyn’s bow in converting elastic potential energy to kinetic energy.
12. During a weightlifting competition, J.R. raises a 275 kg barbell a vertical distance of 1.75 m. If J.R. uses 6.93 kJ of
energy from his muscles to complete the lift, determine the efficiency of his muscles in producing work against the
force of gravity.

13. A 36 000 kg rocket loaded with candy is fired into the air. The chemical potential energy stored in the fuel of the
rocket is 7.50 × 1012 J. When the rocket reaches an altitude of 2.30 km above Earth’s surface, it is travelling at 6500
m/s. Determine the efficiency of the rocket in converting chemical potential energy from the fuel to mechanical
energy.

14. When heating water, 4.184 J of energy is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. When cooking
spaghetti, a 1.50 kg pot of cold water needs to have its temperature raised from 22.4°C to 100.0°C. If the burner
requires 2.85 × 106 J of electrical energy, determine the efficiency of the burner in boiling the water.
(Hint: Use the mass and temperature change of the water to determine the total energy required to heat the
amount of water given to the boiling point.)
Answers

Practice (Efficiency)
1. a. input: electrical energy
useful output: light energy
waste output: thermal energy
b. input: chemical potential energy
useful output: kinetic energy
waste output: thermal energy, sound energy
c. input: electrical energy
useful output: light energy, sound energy
waste output: thermal energy
2. The second law of thermodynamics states that no energy transformation is 100% efficient. Every time energy
changes forms, some energy is converted to thermal energy that is not contributing to the useful output of the
mechanical system.
3. efficiency = 34.8%
4. efficiency = 49.4%
5. Understanding that energy cannot be created or destroyed and that no energy transformation is 100% efficient
applies to the design of technological systems. Reducing the number of energy transformations will improve the
efficiency of technological systems. Harnessing waste energy for useful purposes is another way to improve the
efficiency of technological systems.
6. Echemical = 400 kJ
7. Emechanical = 3.7 MJ
8. efficiency = 58.62%
9. a. Chemical potential energy → thermal energy of water → kinetic energy of steam → kinetic energy of turbine →
electrical energy
b. Energy is wasted as thermal energy in every transformation that occurs. Friction of the moving parts generates
thermal energy and thermal energy from the combustion of coal heats up the machinery and is lost to the
environment.
10. efficiency = 15.1%
11. efficiency = 27%
12. efficiency = 68.1%
13. efficiency = 10.2%
14. efficiency = 17.1%