LESSON 2

Scientific
Measurement
LESSON 2: SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT

Lecture 1: ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Lecture 2: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Lecture 3: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND ROUNDING

OFF NUMBERS

Lecture 4: UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Lecture 5: MEASUREMENT AND SOURCES OF

ERRORS
LECTURE 1

ACCURACY
AND
PRECISION
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy indicates how close a

measurement is to the true or accepted
value.

Precision refers to the closeness of

measurements within a set of data.
 LECTURE 2

SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
Scientific notation is the simplified expression for a very large or
very small number or quantity. The standard form of scientific
notation is as follows:

A x 10 ⁸
A= multiplying number
10= base
8= exponent
Example 1:
Express 18 000 kg in scientific notation

Answer:
1.8x10⁴ kg.
Example 2:
Express 0.0000018 mg in scientific notation.

Answer:
0.0000018 mg is 1.8x10 mg.
-6
LECTURE 3
Significant
Figures and
Rounding Off
Numbers
 Determining Significant Figures
The following are the rules for determining the number of
significant figures of a measurement.

1. Every nonzero digit in a reported measurement is significant.

Example: 189.45 m has five significant digits.
589 cm has three significant digits

2. Leftmost zeroes before the first nonzero digit are not

significant; they only act as placeholders to show the position of
the decimal point.
Examples: 0.017 g has two significant digits.
0.0000008 g has one significant digit.
 Determining Significant Figures
The following are the rules for determining the number of
significant figures of a measurement.

3. Zeros in between nonzero digits are significant.

Examples: 0.00180076 m has 6 significant digits.
21087 m has five significant digits.
4. Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit and to the right of the
decimal point are significant.
Example: 57.00 m has four significant digits.
0.490 m has three significant digits.
56.007900 m has eight significant digits.
 Determining Significant Figures
The following are the rules for determining the number of
significant figures of a measurement.

5. Zeros at the rightmost end of a measurement that lie to the

left of an “understood decimal point” are not significant if they
serve as placeholders. If such zeros were known measured
values, then they would be significant. These values can be
classified as significant if they are written in scientific notation.
Example: 70 000 m has one significant digit.
67 790 m has five significant digits.
1 000 m= 1.000x103 m has four significant digits.
 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

 The answer to an addition or subtraction problem

should not have more decimal places than the least
accurate measurements. In other words, the number
with the least number of decimal places will dictate
the number of decimal places in the answer.

 In multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer

should not have more significant digits than the
measurement having the fewest significant digits.
 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Sample Problems: Addition and Subtraction
Example No. 1: (14.7 g) + (2.028 g)
14.7 g (1 decimal place)
+ 2.028 g (3 decimal places)
16.728 g
The answer is rounded off to 16.7 g because the least number of decimal places is
one, which is in 14.7 g.

Example No. 2: (57.14 m) – (29.5 m)

57.14 (2 decimal places)
- 29.5 (1 decimal place)
27.64 m
The answer i rounded off to 27.6 m, following the number of decimal place in 29.5 m.
 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Sample Problems: Multiplication and Division

Example No. 3: (1008.67 km)/(53.83L)

(1 008.67 km) / (52.83 L) = 19.09275 km/L
The answer is rounded off to significant digits. Thus, the answer
is 19.09 km/L.

Example No. 4: (65.02 cm) x (3.87 cm) x (0.250 cm)

(65.02 cm) x (3.87 cm) x (0.250 cm) = 62.90685 cm3
The answer is rounded off to three significant digits. Thus the
answer is 62.9 cm3
 Rules in Rounding Off Numbers
 If the first nonsignificant digit is less than 5, drop all nonsignificant digits.
 If the first nonsignificant digit is greater than or equal to 5, increase the last
significant digit by 1 and drop all nonsignificant digits.
 If a calculation has two or more operations, retain at least one nonsignificant digit
until the final operation and then round off the answer.
Examples:
 A calculator displays 17.846239 and 3 significant digits are justified.
The first three significant digits are 17.8. The first nonsignificant digit is 4. According to
rule #1, because 4 is less than 5 we round down, discarding all of the nonsignificant digits,
leaving us with 17.8.
 A calculator displays 17.856239 and 3 significant digits are justified.
The first three significant digits are 17.8. The first nonsignificant digit is 5. According to
rule #2, because it is 5 or greater then we add 1 to the last significant digit (the 8 becomes
a 9) and drop all of the nonsignificant digits. The answer is thus 17.9.
LECTURE 4

Unit of
Measurement
 International System and English System
The metric system is more commonly used in science than the English system. The International System of Units (SI units), which evolved from
the metric system, provides additional and accurate units of measurement. Its features include decimalization and the use of prefixes.
Fundamental SI
Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m

Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Electric Current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of Matter Mole mol

Luminous Candela cd
intensity

The International System has base units from which all other units in the system are derived. The standards for the base units, except for the
kilogram, are defined by unchanging and reproducible physical occurrences. For example, meter, the base unit for distance, is defined as the
distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second. The standard for the kilogram is the platinum iridium cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Standards in Sevres, France.
 International System and English System
The English System, which still widely used in the United System, includes ounce (oz), pound (lb), inch (in), mile (mi), and quart (qt). The
equivalence between some units of metric and English system are listed below.

Metric and English Conversions

Quantity Metric English Conversion
1 lb= 454 g
Mass g, kg lb, oz 1 kg= 2.2 lb
1 oz= 28.35 g
1 in= 2.54 cm
1 m= 39.37 in
Length cm, m, km in, ft, mi, A 1 ft= 12 in
1 mi= 1.609 km
1 km= 0.62137 mi
1 A= 10-10 m
1 qt= 946 mL
1 L= 1.057 qt
1 L= 2.12 pints
Volume mL, L qt, pints, cups, tsp, 1 L= 4.23 cups
1 tsp= 4.93 mL
tbsp, gal
1 tbsp= 14.79 mL
1 fl oz= 29.6 mL
1 gal= 3.79 L
 Prefixes Used with SI Units
In the International System, a multiple of a unit is formed by adding a prefix to the base unit. The prefixes change
the magnitude of the unit by orders of ten from 1018 to 10-18 as listed in table below.
Metric Prefixes and
Their Equivalents
Prefix Symbol Multiplying Factor
exa- E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018

peta- P 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015

tera- T 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012
giga- G 1 000 000 000 = 109
mega- M 1 000 000 = 106
kilo- k 1 000 = 103
hecto- h 100 = 102
deca- da 10 = 100
deci- d 0.1 = 10-1
centi- c 0.01 = 10-2
milli- m 0.001 =10-3
micro- µ 0.000 000 1 = 10-6
nano- n 0.000 000 000 = 10-9
pico- p 0.000 000 000 000 = 10-12
femto- f 0.000 000 000 000 000 = 10-15
atto- a 0. 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10-18
 Changing Units of Measurement
The basic steps for solving mathematical problems involving changing units of
measurement are the following:

Read and study the problem to determine what is to be solved for.

Identify and tabulate the data given in the problem. Include the necessary
representations of the data and the units of measurements.
Determine the unit relationships and conversion factors needed to solve the problem.
Set up the solution/equation neatly and logically, making sure that unwanted units
cancel. Remember that similar units cancel through division.
Perform the necessary mathematical operations. Make sure that the answer contains
the correct number of significant figures.
Check if the answer is reasonable.
 Changing Units of Measurement
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the number of centimeters in 53.5 inches.
Given: Measurement in inches (53.5 in) 3.How many seconds are there in 2.00 weeks?
Required: Measurement expressed in centimeters Given: Number of weeks (2.00 wk)
Solution: Required: Measure of time expressed in seconds
1 in = 2.54 cm Solution:
53.5 in x 2.54 cm = 136 cm 1 wk = 7 days, 1 day = 24 hr, 1 hr = 60 min, 1 min = 60 s
1 in
2.00 wk x 7 days x 24 hr x 60 min x 60 s = 1.21 x 106 s
1 wk 1 day 1 hr 1 min

2. How many feet are there in 21.7 km?

Given: Measurement in kilometres (21.7)
Required: Measurement expressed in feet
Solution:
From tables 4.2 and 4.3, 1 km= 1000 m, 1 m= 39.37 in, 1 ft= 12 in
21.7 km x 1000 m x 39.37 in x 1 ft = 7.12 x 104 ft
1 km 1m 12 in
 LECTURE 5

Measurement and
Sources of Errors
Mass and Weight
Mass is defined as the amount of matter in an
object. The mass of an object is a fixed quantity
that is independent of the object’s location.

Weight, in contrast, is the pull of gravity on

an object and depends on the object’s
location.
Two objects of equal masses will have equal weights if they are measured in
the same place.
Mass and Weight

The mass of an object is measured using weighing balances,

which may be of different types with different certainties. The
triple beam balance is accurate to one decimal place in grams,
while the top-loading balance is accurate to two decimal places.
The analytical balance is accurate to three decimal places.
Volume
 For a pure liquid like water, simple get its exact volume using graduate
cylinder.
 For a regularly shaped soli such as block, coin, or cylindrical object,
determine its volume by measuring its applicable dimensions (length,
width, radius) and using the appropriate formula .
Density
The density (ρ) of a material is its mass (m) per unit of volume
(V) it occupies. In equation,
ρ=m
V
Densities of solids and liquids are usually reported in grams per
millilitre (g/mL) or grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3); those
water, it has density smaller than that of water; when an object
sinks, it is denser than water, but its mass is greater than that of
the displaced water. For two immiscible liquids forming layers,
the liquid with the lower density forms the upper layer; the one
with the higher density stays at the bottom.
Temperature
Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of
matter. It indicates the energy of the particles in a
substance.

Heat and temperature are related, but they are not

equivalent terms. Heat is the total energy that results from
the molecular motion inside an object. Temperature, on the
other hand, is a measure of the average heat or thermal
energy of the particles of an object. It may be expressed in
degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Celcius, or Kelvin.
Temperature
Example:
What Kelvin temperature corresponds to 10.0ºF?
Solution:
Tf → Tc → TK
Tf → Tc : ºC= (ºF – 32) = (10.0 ºF – 32) = -12.2ºC
1.8 1.8
Tc → TK: K = ºC + 273.15 = -12.2ºC + 273.15 =
260.95 ≈ 261
Sources of Errors in Measurement
The discrepancies usually observed between and theoretical results
can come from many different sources. These sources errors can be
grouped into three main types: (1) random or indeterminate errors,
(2)systematic error, and (3) gross errors:

1. Random errors are inherent to the measuring apparatus. They

cannot be reduced by the experimenter, especially when finer
measurements are obtained. The uncertainties in burettes or
pipettes, expressed as a ± value, are examples of random
errors. Random errors affect the precision of measurements.
Sources of Errors in Measurement
2. Systematic errors are those that can be attributed to definite causes.
Systematic errors can be predicted and eliminated if the experimenter
thoroughly understands the fundamental aspects of measurement.
• Operative errors, also called personal errors, are caused by the
incompetence of the experiment. This type of error may result when a
color-blind experiment performs color-dependent measurement, or
when an experimenter has bias for even number over odd numbers.
• Method errors are caused non-ideal chemical or physical behaviour of
the reaction system..
• Instrumental errors are caused by failures or imperfections of the
measuring device. This type of error may result when weighing
balances are used without being calibrated.
Sources of Errors in Measurement
3. Gross errors are those that are severe enough
that the measurement or the entire analysis
altogether has to be repeated. This type of error
results in outliers, which are measurements that
are isolated from all the other measurements. An
example of this error is an unnoticed spill of a
substance while measuring its mass.
Thank
You!