Section 3.

1 Quadratic Functions and Models 3-1

Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

3.1 Quadratic Functions and Models

■ Polynomial Functions ■ Quadratic Functions ■ Graphing Techniques
■ Completing the Square ■ The Vertex Formula ■ Quadratic Models

Key Terms: polynomial function, leading coefficient, dominating term, zero polynomial,
quadratic function, parabola, axis of symmetry (axis), vertex, quadratic regression

Polynomial Functions

Polynomial Function
A polynomial function f of degree n, where n is a nonnegative integer, is a function of the
form
f ( x ) = ______________________________,
where an , an −1 , , a1 , and a0 are complex numbers, with an ≠ 0 .

Polynomial Function Function Type Degree n Leading Coefficient an

f ( x) = 2

f ( x) = 5x − 1

f  x  4 x2  x  1

f  x   2 x3  12 x  5

f  x   x 4  2 x3  3x 2

Quadratic Functions

Quadratic Function
A quadratic function f is a function of the form
f ( x ) = _______________________,
where a, b, and c are complex numbers, with a ≠ 0 .

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3-2 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Graphing Techniques

EXAMPLE 1 Graphing Quadratic Functions

Graph each function. Give the domain and range.

(a) f  x   x 2  4 x  2 (by plotting points)

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 Section 3.1 Quadratic Functions and Models 3-3

(b)
1

g  x    x 2 and compare to y  x 2 and y  12 x 2
2


1
(c) F  x    x  42  3 (and compare to the graph in part (b))
2

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3-4 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Completing the Square

EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Parabola (a = 1)

Graph f  x   x 2  6 x  7. Find the largest open intervals over which the function is
increasing or decreasing.

Reflect: Explain how to determine whether a quadratic function opens up or down.

EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Parabola ( a ≠ 1)

Graph f  x   3 x 2  2 x  1. Identify the intercepts of the graph.

Reflect: Explain how to determine the x-intercepts of a quadratic function. Explain how to
determine the y-intercept of a quadratic function.

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 Section 3.1 Quadratic Functions and Models 3-5

The Vertex Formula

The vertex form of f  x   ax 2  bx  c is given by ____________________________.

It is not necessary to memorize the expression for k, because it is equal to
f ( h) = __________ .

Graph of a Quadratic Function

The quadratic function f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c can be written as

y = f ( x ) = ____________________, with a ≠ 0,
where h = __________ and k = __________ .

The graph of f has the following characteristics.

1. It is a ________________ with vertex ________________ and the vertical line

________________as axis.
2. It opens ________________ if a > 0 and ________________ if a < 0.
3. It is ________________ than the graph of y = x 2 if a < 1 and ________________ if
a > 1.
4. The y-intercept is ________________.
5. The x-intercepts are found by solving the equation ________________.
● If b 2 − 4ac > 0, then the x-intercepts are ________________.
● If b 2 − 4ac = 0, then the x-intercept is ________________.
● If b 2 − 4ac < 0, then there are ________________.

EXAMPLE 4 Using the Vertex Formula

Find the axis and vertex of the parabola having equation f  x   2 x 2  4 x  5.

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3-6 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Quadratic Models

EXAMPLE 5 Solving a Problem Involving Projectile Motion

A ball is projected directly upward from an initial height of 100 ft with an initial velocity of
80 ft per sec.
(a) Give the function that describes the height of the ball in terms of time t.

(b) After how many seconds does the ball reach its maximum height? What is this
maximum height?

(c) For what interval of time is the height of the ball greater than 160 ft?

(d) After how many seconds will the ball hit the ground?

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 Section 3.1 Quadratic Functions and Models 3-7

Reflect: If the equation of a parabola is y  ax 2  bx  c, how can we determine if the

y-coordinate of the vertex gives the maximum or minimum value of y?

EXAMPLE 6 Modeling the Number of Hospital Outpatient Visits

The number of hospital outpatient visits (in millions)
for selected years is shown in the table. In the table, 3
represents 2003, 4 represents 2004, and so on, and the
number of outpatient visits is given in millions.

(a) Prepare a scatter diagram, and determine a

quadratic model for these data.

(b) Use the model from part (a) to predict the number of visits in 2020.

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3-8 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

3.2 Synthetic Division

■ Synthetic Division ■ Remainder Theorem ■ Potential Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Key Terms: synthetic division, zero of a polynomial function, root (or solution) of an
equation

Division Algorithm
Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) be polynomials with g ( x ) of lesser degree than f ( x ) and g ( x ) of
degree 1 or more. There exist unique polynomials q ( x ) and r ( x ) such that

f ( x ) = ______________________________,

where either r ( x ) = 0 or the degree of r ( x ) is less than the degree of g ( x ).

Synthetic Division

To avoid errors, use ____________ as the coefficient for any missing terms, including a
missing constant, when setting up the division.

EXAMPLE 1 Using Synthetic Division

Use synthetic division to perform the division.
5 x3  6 x 2  28 x  2
x2

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 Section 3.2 Synthetic Division 3-9

Special Case of the Division Algorithm

For any polynomial f ( x) and any complex number k, there exists a unique polynomial q ( x)
and number r such that the following holds true.
f ( x) = ( x − k ) q ( x) + r

Remainder Theorem

Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f ( x) is divided by x − k , then the remainder is equal to _________.

EXAMPLE 2 Applying the Remainder Theorem

Let f  x    x 4  3 x 2  4 x  5. Use the remainder theorem to find f ( −3).

Potential Zeros of Polynomial Functions

A zero of a polynomial function f ( x ) is a number k such that f ( k ) = ______. Real

number zeros are the ____-values of the ____-intercepts of the graph of the function.

A zero of f ( x ) is a ____________, or ____________, of the equation ____________.

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3-10 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 3 Determining Whether a Number Is a Zero

Determine whether the given number k is a zero of f ( x).

(a) f  x   x3  4 x 2  9 x  6; k  1

(b) f  x   x 4  x 2  3 x  1; k  1

(c) f  x   x 4  2 x3  4 x 2  2 x  5; k  1  2i

Reflect: What is the process for determining whether a number is a zero of a polynomial
function?

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 Section 3.3 Zeros of Polynomial Functions 3-11

3.3 Zeros of Polynomial Functions

■ Factor Theorem ■ Rational Zeros Theorem ■ Number of Zeros
■ Conjugate Zeros Theorem ■ Zeros of a Polynomial Function
■ Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Key Terms: multiplicity of a zero

Factor Theorem

Factor Theorem
For any polynomial function f ( x ), x − k is a factor of the polynomial if and only if
______________.

EXAMPLE 1 Determining Whether x − k Is a Factor

Determine whether x − 1 is a factor of each polynomial.
(a) f  x  2 x 4  3x2  5x  7

(b) f  x   3 x5  2 x 4  x3  8 x 2  5 x  1

EXAMPLE 2 Factoring a Polynomial Given a Zero

Factor f  x   6 x3  19 x 2  2 x  3 into linear factors given that −3 is a zero.

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3-12 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Rational Zeros Theorem

Rational Zeros Theorem

p p
If q
is a rational number written in lowest terms, and if q
is a zero of f , a polynomial
function with integer coefficients, then p is a factor of the _________________________,
and q is a factor of the _________________________.

EXAMPLE 3 Using the Rational Zeros Theorem

Consider the polynomial function.
f  x   6 x 4  7 x3  12 x 2  3 x  2
(a) List all possible rational zeros.

(b) Find all rational zeros and factor f ( x ) into linear factors.

The rational zeros theorem gives only possible rational zeros. It does not tell us whether
these rational numbers are actual zeros.

Reflect: Explain the relationship between factors of a polynomial function and zeros of a
polynomial function.

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 Section 3.3 Zeros of Polynomial Functions 3-13

Number of Zeros

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every function defined by a polynomial of degree 1 or more has at least one complex zero.

Number of Zeros Theorem

A function defined by a polynomial of degree n has at most ____ distinct zeros.

EXAMPLE 4 Finding a Polynomial Function That Satisfies Given Conditions (Real

Zeros)
Find a polynomial function f ( x ) of degree 3 with real coefficients that satisfies the given
conditions.
(a) Zeros of −1, 2, and 4; f (1) = 3

(b) −2 is a zero of multiplicity 3; f ( −1) = 4

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3-14 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Conjugate Zeros Theorem

Properties of Conjugates
For any complex numbers c and d, the following properties hold true.

c  d  c  d , c  d  c  d , and c n   c 
n

Conjugate Zeros Theorem

If f ( x) defines a polynomial function having only real coefficients and if z = a + bi is a
zero of f ( x), where a and b are real numbers, then the conjugate
z = _____________ is also a zero of f ( x).

EXAMPLE 5 Finding A Polynomial Function That Satisfies Given Conditions

(Complex Zeros)
Find a polynomial function f  x  of least degree having only real coefficients and zeros 3 and
2+i.

Zeros of a Polynomial Function

EXAMPLE 6 Finding All Zeros Given One Zero

Find all zeros of f  x   x 4  7 x 3  18 x 2  22 x  12, given that 1 − i is a zero.

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 Section 3.3 Zeros of Polynomial Functions 3-15

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let f ( x ) define a polynomial function with real coefficients and a nonzero constant term,
with terms in descending powers of x.
(a) The number of positive real zeros of f either ___________ the number of variations in
sign occurring in the coefficients of f ( x ) , or is ___________ the number of variations
by a positive even integer.
(b) The number of negative real zeros of f either ___________the number of variations in
sign occurring in the coefficients of f ( − x ) , or is ___________ the number of variations
by a positive even integer.

Missing terms (those with 0 coefficients) are counted as no change in sign and can be
ignored.

EXAMPLE 7 Applying Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Determine the different possibilities for the numbers of positive, negative, and nonreal
complex zeros of
f  x   x 4  6 x3  8 x 2  2 x  1.

Descartes’ rule of signs does not identify the multiplicity of the zeros of a function.

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3-16 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

3.4 Polynomial Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models

■ Graphs of f  x   ax n ■ Graphs of General Polynomial Functions
■ Behavior at Zeros ■ Turning Points and End Behavior ■ Graphing Techniques
■ Intermediate Value and Boundedness Theorems ■ Approximations of Real Zeros
■ Polynomial Models

Key Terms: turning points, end behavior

Graphs of f ( x ) = ax n

Each graph above has ___________ degree and is an ___________ function exhibiting
symmetry about the ___________. Each has domain ___________ and range ___________
and is continuous on its entire domain ___________. Additionally, these ___________
functions are ___________ on their entire domain ___________, appearing as though they
___________ to the left and ___________ to the right.

Each graph above has ___________ degree and is an ___________ function exhibiting
symmetry about the ___________. Each has domain ___________ but restricted range
___________. These ___________ functions are also continuous on their entire domain
___________. However, they are ___________ on ( −∞, 0 ) and ___________ on ( 0, ∞ ) ,

appearing as though they ___________ both to the left and to the right.

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 Section 3.4 Polynomial Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-17

Graphs of General Polynomial Functions

The absolute value of a in f  x   ax n , determines the width of the graph.

● When a > 1, the graph is stretched ________________, making it ________________.

● When 0 < a < 1, the graph is ________________ or ________________ vertically,

making it ________________.
Compared to the graph of f  x   ax n , the following also hold true.

● The graph of f  x    ax n is ____________ across the __________-axis.

● The graph of f  x   ax n  k is translated (shifted) ____________ k units if k > 0 and

____________ k units if k < 0.

The graph of f  x   a  x  h is translated to the ____________ h units if h > 0 and to

n
●
the ____________ h units if h < 0.

The graph of f  x   a  x  h  k shows a combination of these ____________.

n
●

EXAMPLE 1 Examining Vertical and Horizontal Translations

Graph each polynomial function. Determine the largest open intervals of the domain over
which each function is increasing or decreasing.
(a) f  x   x5  2 (b) f  x   ( x  1)6

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3-18 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

(c) f  x   2( x  1)3  3

Unless otherwise restricted, the domain of a polynomial function is the set of ____________.
Polynomial functions are smooth, continuous curves on the interval ____________. The
range of a polynomial of odd degree is also the set of ____________.

A polynomial function of even degree has a range of the form __________ or _________, for
some real number k.

Behavior at Zeros

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 Section 3.4 Polynomial Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-19

Turning Points and End Behavior

Turning Points
A polynomial function of degree n has at most __________ turning points, with at least one
turning point between each pair of successive zeros.

End Behavior of Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Suppose that ax n is the dominating term of a polynomial function f of odd degree.
1. If a > 0 , then as x → ∞, ____________, and as x → −∞, ____________.
We symbolize its end behavior as____________.

2. If a < 0 , then as x → ∞, ____________, and as x → −∞, ____________.

We symbolize its end behavior as____________.

Suppose that ax n is the dominating term of a polynomial function f of even degree.

1. If a > 0 , then as x → ∞, ______________. We symbolize its end behavior
as______________.

2. If a < 0 , then as x → ∞, ______________. We symbolize its end behavior

as______________.

EXAMPLE 2 Determining End Behavior

The graphs of the polynomial functions defined as follows are shown in A−D.
f  x  x4  x2  5x  4 g  x   x6  x 2  3x  4
h  x   3x3  x 2  2 x  4 and k  x   x7  x  4
Based on the discussion of end behavior, match each function with its graph.

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3-20 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Reflect: How does the term of greatest degree of a polynomial function determine the end
behavior of the graph of the polynomial function?

Graphing Techniques
Graphing a Polynomial Function
Let f  x   an x n  an 1 x n 1    a1 x  a0 , with an  0, be a polynomial function of degree
n. To sketch its graph, follow these steps.
Step 1 __________________________________________________________________

Step 2 __________________________________________________________________

Step 3 __________________________________________________________________

EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Polynomial Function

Graph f  x   2 x3  5 x 2  x  6 .
Step 1

Step 2

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 Section 3.4 Polynomial Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-21

Step 3

Relationships among x-Intercepts, Zeros, Solutions, and Factors

If f is a polynomial function and (c, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of y = f ( x), then
c is a ________of f, c is a ____________ of f ( x ) = 0,
and x − c is a __________ of f ( x ).

EXAMPLE 4 Graphing a Polynomial Function

Graph f  x     x  1 x  3 x  2 .
2

Step 1

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3-22 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Step 2

Step 3

Intermediate Value and Boundedness Theorems

Intermediate Value Theorem
If f ( x) is a polynomial function with only real coefficients, and if for real numbers a and b
the values of f (a) and f (b) are opposite in sign, then there exists at least one real
________ between a and b.

EXAMPLE 5 Locating a Zero

Use synthetic division and a graph to show that f ( x ) = x3 − 2 x 2 − x + 1 has a real zero
between 2 and 3.

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 Section 3.4 Polynomial Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-23

Reflect: If f a  and f b  are not opposite in sign, does the intermediate value theorem
mean that there is no zero between a and b? Give an example.

Boundedness Theorem
Let f ( x) be a polynomial function of degree n ≥ 1 with real coefficients and with a positive
leading coefficient. Suppose f ( x) is divided synthetically by x − c.
(a) If c > 0 and all numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division are nonnegative,
then f ( x) has no zero __________ than c.
(b) If c < 0 and the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division alternate in sign
(with 0 considered positive or negative, as needed), then f ( x) has no zero __________
than c.

EXAMPLE 6 Using the Boundedness Theorem

Show that the real zeros of f  x   2 x 4  5 x3  3 x  1 satisfy these conditions.
(a) No real zero is greater than 3. (b) No real zero is less than −1.

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3-24 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Approximations of Real Zeros

EXAMPLE 7 Approximating Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Approximate the real zeros of f  x   x 4  6 x3  8 x 2  2 x  1 .

Polynomial Models

EXAMPLE 8 Examining a Polynomial Model

The table shows the average price, in dollars, of a
pound of chocolate chip cookies from 2007 to 2018.

(a) Using x = 0 to represent 2007, x = 1 to represent

2008, and so on, use the regression feature of a
calculator to determine the quadratic function that
best fits the data. Plot the data and the graph.

(b) Repeat part (a) for a cubic function (degree 3).

(c) Repeat part (a) for a quartic function (degree 4).

(d) The correlation coefficient, R, is a measure of the strength of the relationship between
two variables. The values of R and R 2 are used to determine how well a regression
model fits a set of data. The closer the value of R 2 is to 1, the better the fit. Compare
R 2 for the three functions found in parts (a)–(c) to decide which function best fits the
data.

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 Section 3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-25

3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models

■ The Reciprocal Function f ( x ) = 1x ■ The Function f  x   x1 ■ Asymptotes
2

■ Graphing Techniques ■ Rational Models

Key Terms: rational function, discontinuous graph, vertical asymptote,

horizontal asymptote, oblique asymptote, point of discontinuity (hole)

Rational Function
A rational function f is a function of the form
p( x )
f ( x) = ,
q( x )
where p( x) and q( x) are polynomial functions, with q ( x) ≠ ____.

The Reciprocal Function f  x   1

x

1
Reciprocal Function f ( x ) =
x
Domain: __________ Range: __________

• f ( x) = 1
x decreases on the open intervals ________ and _________.
• It is discontinuous at x = ____.
• The ___-axis is a vertical asymptote and the ___-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
• It is an ________ function, and its graph is symmetric with respect to the ___________.

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3-26 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 1 Graphing a Rational Function

Graph y = − 2x . Give the domain and range and the largest open intervals of the domain over
which the function is increasing or decreasing.

EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Rational Function

Graph f ( x ) = x 2+1 . Give the domain and range and the largest open intervals of the domain
over which the function is increasing or decreasing.

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 Section 3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-27

The Function f  x   1
x2

1
Rational Function f ( x ) =
x2
Domain: __________ Range: __________

• f ( x) = 1
x2
increases on the open interval ________ and decreases on the open interval
_________.
• It is discontinuous at x = ____.
• The ___-axis is a vertical asymptote and the ___-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
• It is an ________ function, and its graph is symmetric with respect to the ___________.

EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Rational Function

Graph g ( x ) = 1
( x + 2)2
− 1 . Give the domain and range and the largest open intervals of the
domain over which the function is increasing or decreasing.

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3-28 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Asymptotes
Asymptotes
p ( x)
Let p ( x ) and q ( x ) define polynomial functions. Consider the rational function f ( x ) = q( x)
,
written in lowest terms, and real numbers a and b.
1. If f ( x ) → ∞ as x → a, then the line x = a is a ______________ asymptote.

2. If f ( x ) → b as x → ∞, then the line y = b is a ______________ asymptote.

Determining Asymptotes
To find the asymptotes of a rational function defined by a rational expression in lowest terms,
use the following procedures.
1. Vertical Asymptotes
Find any vertical asymptotes by setting the denominator equal to ___ and solving for x.
If a is a zero of the denominator, then the line __________ is a vertical asymptote.
2. Other Asymptotes
Determine other asymptotes by considering these three possibilities:
(a) If the numerator has lesser degree than the denominator, then there is a horizontal
asymptote _________ (the x-axis).
(b) If the numerator and denominator have the same degree, and the function is of the
form
an x n +  + a0
f ( x) = , where an , bn ≠ 0 ,
bn x n +  + b0
then the horizontal asymptote has equation _________.
(c) If the numerator is of degree exactly one more than the denominator, then there will
be an __________ (slanted) asymptote. To find it, divide the numerator by the
denominator and disregard the remainder. Set the rest of the quotient equal to y to
obtain the equation of the asymptote.

Reflect: How many vertical asymptotes can the graph of a rational function have? Can the
graph intersect a vertical asymptote? How many other (nonvertical) asymptotes can the
graph of a rational function have? Can the graph intersect a nonvertical asymptote?

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 Section 3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-29

EXAMPLE 4 Finding Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Give the equations of any vertical, horizontal, or oblique asymptotes for the graph of each
rational function.
x +1
(a) f ( x) =
( 2 x − 1) ( x + 3)

2x + 1
(b) f ( x ) =
x−3

x2 + 1
(c) f ( x) =
x−2

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3-30 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Graphing Techniques
Graphing a Rational Function
Let f ( x ) = define a function where p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomial functions and the
p( x)
q( x)

rational expression is written in lowest terms. To sketch its graph, follow these steps.
Step 1 Find any _______________ asymptotes.
Step 2 Find any _______________ or _______________ asymptotes.
Step 3 If q ( x ) ≠ 0, plot the y-intercept by evaluating _______.

Step 4 Plot the x-intercepts, if any, by solving f ( x ) = ____. (These will correspond to the
zeros of the ____________________, p( x) .)
Step 5 Determine whether the graph will intersect its nonvertical asymptote y = b or
y = mx + b by solving f ( x ) = ____ or f ( x ) = ____________.
Step 6 Plot selected points, as necessary. Choose an x-value in each domain interval
determined by the vertical asymptotes and x-intercepts.
Step 7 Complete the sketch.

EXAMPLE 5 Graphing a Rational Function (x-Axis as Horizontal Asymptote)

x 1
Graph f  x   2
.
2 x  5x  3

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 Section 3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-31

EXAMPLE 6 Graphing a Rational Function (Does Not Intersect Its Horizontal

Asymptote)
2x + 1
Graph f ( x ) = .
x−3

EXAMPLE 7 Graphing a Rational Function (Intersects Its Horizontal Asymptote)

3x 2  3x  6
Graph f  x   .
x 2  8 x  16

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3-32 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Behavior of Graphs of Rational Functions near Vertical Asymptotes

Suppose that f ( x ) is a rational expression in lowest terms. If n is the largest positive integer
such that  x  a  is a factor of the denominator of f  x  , then the graph will behave in the
n

manner illustrated.
If n is even: If n is odd:

or or

EXAMPLE 8 Graphing A Rational Function with an Oblique Asymptote

x2  1
Graph f  x  
x2

Reflect: How do we find the vertical asymptote(s) of the graph of a rational function?

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 Section 3.5 Rational Functions: Graphs, Applications, and Models 3-33

Reflect: How do we find the horizontal or oblique asymptote of a rational function?

EXAMPLE 9 Graphing A Rational Function Defined by an Expression That Is Not

in Lowest Terms
x2  4
Graph f  x   .
x2

Reflect: What causes the graph of a rational function to have a “hole” in it?

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3-34 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Rational Models

EXAMPLE 10 Modeling Traffic Intensity with a Rational Function

Vehicles arrive randomly at a parking ramp at an average rate of 2.6 vehicles per minute.
The parking attendant can admit 3.2 vehicles per minute. However, since arrivals are
random, lines form at various times. (Data from Mannering, F. and W. Kilareski, Principles
of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons.)

(a) The traffic intensity x is defined as the ratio of the average arrival rate to the average
admittance rate. Determine x for this parking ramp.

(b) The average number of vehicles waiting in line to enter the ramp is given by
x2
f  x  ,
2 1  x 

where 0 ≤ x < 1 is the traffic intensity. Graph f ( x ) and compute f ( 0.8125) for this
parking ramp.

(c) What happens to the number of vehicles waiting as the traffic intensity approaches 1?

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 Section 3.6 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities 3-35

3.6 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities

■ Polynomial Inequalities ■ Rational Inequalities

Key Terms: nonlinear inequality, polynomial inequality

Polynomial Inequalities
Polynomial Inequality
Let f  x  be a polynomial. A polynomial inequality is an inequality that can be written in
the form
f  x   0.*
* The symbol < can be replaced with >, ≤, or ≥.

Solving a Polynomial Equation or Inequality Using a Graph

Step 1 Rewrite the equation or inequality, if necessary, so that an expression is on one side
with 0 on the other side.
Step 2 Set the expression of the equation or inequality equal to f  x  , and graph the
related function.
Step 3 Use the graph of f  x  to determine solutions as follows.

• The real solutions of f  x   0 are the x-values of the _________-intercepts of

the graph. These are the zeros of f  x .

• The real solutions of f  x   0 are the x-values for which the graph lies
________________ the x-axis.
• The real solutions of f  x   0 are the x-values for which the graph lies
________________ the x-axis.

EXAMPLE 1 Solving a Quadratic Equation and Inequalities Using a Graph

Use the graph to solve each equation or inequality.
(a) 3  x  1 x  4  0

(b) 3  x  1 x  4  0

(c) 3  x  1 x  4  0

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3-36 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 2 Solving a Polynomial Equation and Inequalities Using a Graph

Solve each equation or inequality.
(a) 5  x  1  x  3  0
2

(b) 5  x  1  x  3  0 (c) 5  x  1  x  3  0
2 2

(d) 5  x  1  x  3  0
2

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 Section 3.6 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities 3-37

EXAMPLE 3 Solving a Polynomial Inequality Using a Graph

Solve 4 x 4  6 x3  x  2 x3  6 x  2.

Rational Inequalities

EXAMPLE 4 Solving a Rational Inequality Using a Graph

x5
Solve  0.
x2

Reflect: When solving a rational inequality, are there any values that must be excluded from
the solution set? Why?

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3-38 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 5 Solving a Rational Inequality Using a Graph

2 1
Solve  .
x  3 x 1

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 Section 3.7 Variation 3-39

3.7 Variation
■ Direct Variation ■ Inverse Variation ■ Combined and Joint Variation

Key Terms: varies directly (directly proportional to), constant of variation,

varies inversely (inversely proportional to), combined variation, varies jointly

Direct Variation

Direct Variation
y varies directly as x, or y is ________________________ to x, if for all x there exists a
nonzero real number k, called the ________________________, such that
y = kx .

Solving a Variation Problem

Step 1 Write the general relationship among the variables as an _______________. Use
the constant _____________.
Step 2 Substitute given values of the variables and find the value of k.
Step 3 Substitute this value of k into the equation from Step 1, obtaining a specific
formula.
Step 4 Substitute the remaining values and solve for the required unknown.

EXAMPLE 1 Solving a Direct Variation Problem

The area of a rectangle varies directly as its length. If the area is 50 m 2 when the length is
10 m, find the area when the length is 25 m.

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3-40 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Direct Variation as nth Power

Let n be a positive real number. Then y varies directly as the nth power of x, or y is
_____________________________________________________ of x, if for all x there
exists a nonzero real number k such that
y  kx n .

Inverse Variation

Inverse Variation as nth Power

Let n be a positive real number. Then y varies inversely as the nth power of x, or y is
_____________________________________________________ of x, if for all x there
exists a nonzero real number k such that
k
y .
xn
If n = 1, then y = kx , and y ________________________ as x.

EXAMPLE 2 Solving an Inverse Variation Problem

In a certain manufacturing process, the cost of producing a single item varies inversely as the
square of the number of items produced. If 100 items are produced, each costs $2. Find the
cost per item if 400 items are produced.

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 Section 3.7 Variation 3-41

Combined and Joint Variation

Joint Variation
Let m and n be real numbers. Then y ________________________ as the nth power of x and
the mth power of z if for all x and z there exists a nonzero real number k such that
y  kx n z m .

Note that and in the expression “y varies jointly as x and z” translates as the product
_______________. The word “and” does not indicate _______________ here.

EXAMPLE 3 Solving a Joint Variation Problem

The area of a triangle varies jointly as the lengths of the base and the height. A triangle with
base 10 ft and height 4 ft has area 20 ft 2 . Find the area of a triangle with base 3 ft and height
8 ft.

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3-42 Chapter 3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 4 Solving a Combined Variation Problem

The number of vibrations per second (the pitch) of a steel guitar string varies directly as the
square root of the tension and inversely as the length of the string. If the number of vibrations
per second is 50 when the tension is 225 newtons and the length is 0.60 m, find the number
of vibrations per second when the tension is 196 newtons and the length is 0.65 m.

Reflect: Explain how to determine if a problem should be solved using a direct variation, an
inverse variation, a joint variation, or a combined variation problem.

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