Polynomial Functions

and Their Graphs

Chapter Sections:
8
8.1Polynomial Functions
8.2Zeros of Polynomial Functions
8.3End Behavior, Leading Term, and Graphs of P(x)

Objectives:
At the end of each chapter, the student should be able to:
1. identify a polynomial function;
2. distinguish a polynomial function from among different
types of functions;
z
3. determine the degree of a polynomial function;
4. determine the value of a function with the use of the Re-
mainder Theorem;
5. use the Factor Theorem to determine the factors of a poly-
nomial;
6. use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the maximum
number of positive and negative zeros of a polynomial func-
tion;
7. locate all possible rational roots/zeroes of a polynomial
equation; and

Polynomial functions are functions defined by polynomials. One distinctive

property of polynomial functions is that they are easy to evaluate because they in-
volve fundamental operations only. Another one is their smooth, rounded turns, and
continuous graphs. For these reasons, transcendental functions are usually expressed
in terms of polynomial functions of infinite terms called power series. Many real-world
situations are modeled by polynomial functions. For instance, productivity in factory
relative to the number of workers is modeled by a second degree polynomial function.
In designing boats, cubic functions called cubic splines are used to design the natural
curves for the hull of a boat. In this chapter, polynomial functions and their proper-
ties useful in the analysis of their graphs are discussed.

172 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section

8.1 Polynomial Functions
 8.1 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

In this section, we consider a special class of functions called a polynomial function in one vari-
able. We discuss its standard form and the important theorems that are useful in finding its zeros.
Properties of polynomial functions that are needed in the analysis of their graphs are also dis-
cussed.

A polynomial function is a function of the form

Definition

where n is a nonnegative integer and .

In the standard form of a polynomial function, the numbers are called its co-
efficients, the number is the constant coefficient or constant term, the number , which is
the coefficient of the highest power, is the leading coefficient, the term is the leading
term, and n is the degree. If all the coefficients of a polynomial function are zero, it is called a
zero polynomial which has no degree.

The domain of a polynomial function consists of all real numbers.

The following polynomial functions have special names.

1. , c is constant  Constant function

2. ,m0  Linear function
3. ,a0  Quadratic function

The zero polynomial function is under the family of constant functions.

Example 8.1.1►Determine if the given function is a polynomial function. If so, identify the coeffi -
cients, the constant term, the leading coefficient, and the leading term, and also give its degree.

a. b.
c. d.
e. f.
Solution. Let us compare and fit each given function to the standard form of a polynomial function.
a. . This is a polynomial function of degree 3.
Coefficients: Constant term: 4
Leading coefficient: 6 Leading term:

b. . This is a polynomial function of degree 5.

Coefficients: Constant term: 10
Leading coefficient: Leading term:

c. . This is not a polynomial function because of the terms and .

d. . This is not a polynomial function because of the terms

and .
Section 8.1 Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions
and Their Graphs 173
e. . This is a polynomial function of degree 7.
Coefficients: Constant term: 2
Leading coefficient: 4 Leading term:

f. . This is a polynomial function of degree 4.

Coefficients: Constant term: 0

Leading coefficient: Leading term:

Example 8.1.2►The following are polynomial functions with their corresponding degrees.
a.  degree 5 (or 5th degree) .
b.  degree 7
c.  degree 9
d.  degree 12
e.  degree 3 (cubic function)
f.  degree 1 (linear function)
g.  degree 2 (quadratic function)
h.  degree 0 (constant function)
i.  no degree (zero polynomial function)

EXERCISE

A. Determine if the given function is a polynomial function. If so, identify the coefficients, the con -
stant term, the leading coefficient, and the leading term, and also give its degree.

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.

11. 12.

B. Determine the degree of each of the polynomial functions.

1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.

9. 10.

174 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions
 8.2 ZEROS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

The graphs of polynomial functions may intersect the x-axis. To get the intersection with the x-
axis, we need to determine the x-intercepts or the zeros of the functions. To find the zeros of a
polynomial function, we need some tools such as the remainder theorem, factor theorem, and syn -
thetic division.

A zero of a polynomial function P is a number x that makes the

Definition
equation true, that is, a root of .

A polynomial function may have many zeros. Finding the zeros of polynomial functions is one of the
most important problems in algebra.

Real Zeros of Polynomial Functions

If P is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then the following are equiva-
lent.
1. c is a zero of P.
2. x = c is a solution of .
3. x  c is a factor of .
4. c is an x-intercept of the graph of P, that is, (c, 0) is a point on the graph of P.

Example 8.2.1►Find all the real zeros of .

Solution. To find the real zeros of P, we solve the polynomial equation .

So, the real zeros of P are 0, 4, and 1.

Example 8.2.2►Find points of intersection of the graph of with the x-axis.

Solution. To find points of intersection of f with the x-axis, we find the zeros of f.

So, the real zeros of f are 0, 3/2, and 2. Hence, the points of intersection of f with the x-axis are (0,
0), (3/2, 0), and (2, 0).

Polynomials in the two previous examples are still manageable to factor at once. If the degree
of the polynomial gets higher, factoring becomes somewhat tedious to do. We now discuss impor-
tant theorems that will help us do the process of finding the zeros of a polynomial function easier.
The Division Algorithm

Let P and D be polynomial functions with D(x)  0. If P(x) is divided by D(x), then
there exist unique polynomials Q(x) and R(x), where R(x) is either 0 or of degree less
Section 8.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and
than the degree of D(x), such that
Their Graphs 175
 .

The polynomials P(x) and D(x) are called the dividend and divisor, respectively,
Q(x) is the quotient, and R(x) is the remainder.
If in the division algorithm D(x) = x – c, then we obtain as remainder a real number R such that

Example 8.2.3►For the polynomial functions and

, find the quotient Q(x) and the remainder R(x) if P(x) is divided by D(x). Express
P in the form
Solution. To divide P(x) by D(x), we may use long division.

Hence, the quotient is , , and

.

Example 8.2.4►For the polynomial function , find the quotient Q(x) and
the remainder R if P(x) is divided by . Express P in the form
Solution. To divide P(x) by x – 2, let us use long division.

176 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions

Hence, the quotient is , , and .

Example 8.2.5►Let . Find the value of the constant k so that when is

divided by the remainder is 26.
Solution. We perform the long division as follows.

This means that . Since we want R to be 26, we have

Hence, .

If a polynomial function P(x) is divided by x – c, the constant remainder R can easily be deter-
mined by using the remainder theorem. All we have to do is to compute the value of P(c). This theo-
rem is stated as follows.
 The Remainder Theorem

Let P be a polynomial function. If P(x) is divided by x  c, then the remainder is the

value of P(c).

Example 8.2.6►Use the remainder theorem to determine the remainder R if P(x) is divided by the
indicated binomial x – c.
a. ; b. ;
c. ; d. ;
Solution. To get the remainder R, we compute P(c) as follows.

a. In , c = 3.  The remainder is R = 6.

b. In , c = 2.  The remainder is R = 0.

c. In , c = 4.  The remainder is R = 905.

d. In , c = 1.  The remainder is R = 76.

Section 8.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and

Their Graphs 177

Example 8.2.7►Let . Find the value of the constant k so that when is

divided by the remainder is 103.
Solution. We apply the remainder theorem and take c = 3. Compute P(c) and then solve the poly-
nomial equation P(c) = 0.

Hence, k = 5.

Example 8.2.8►If the polynomial is divided by , the remainder is

108 while is a factor of P(x). Determine values of a and b.

Solution. To determine the values of a and b, we form a system of linear equations by applying the
remainder theorem. We begin by computing P(c) and then solve the polynomial equation P(c) = 0.

P(x)  has a remainder 108  P(3) = 108:

  (1)

is a factor of P(x)  P(4) = 0:

  (2)

4(1)  3(2) When a = 2:

 a=2

Hence, we have a = 2 and b = 3.

The following theorem called the factor theorem helps determining whether x – c is a factor of
the polynomial P(x).

The Factor Theorem

Let P be a polynomial function. Then x  c is a factor of P(x) if and only if P(c) = 0.

Example 8.2.9►Determine whether the given binomial x – c is a factor of P(x).

a. ; b. ;
c. ; d. ;
Solution. We apply the factor theorem as follows.

a. We take c = 3 so that . Hence, is a factor of P(x).

b. We take c = 2 so that . Hence, is a factor

of P(x).

178 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions

c. We take c = 3/2 so that . Hence, is not a factor of P(x).

d. We take c = 1/3 so that . Hence,

is a factor of P(x).

Example 8.2.10►Using the factor theorem, determine the value of m so that is a factor of
.
Solution. We apply the factor theorem and form the polynomial equation P(c) = 0 follows.

a. We take c = 5 and get

So, m = 5.

Another tool that can be used in dealing with polynomial functions is the synthetic division.

Synthetic division is a short, simple method of performing division of

Definition a polynomial by a
binomial .

A more general approach of synthetic division was discussed in Section 2.5 of Chapter 2.

► Steps Followed in Synthetic Division◄

1. Arrange the terms of the polynomial in the decreasing powers of the variable.
2. Write the coefficients of the terms in the first row including missing terms with zero as coeffi-
cients. To the left of the first row, write the number r from .

3. Bring down the first coefficient to the third row. Multiply this by r and place the product in the
second row under the second coefficient of the first row. Obtain the sum of this product and the
second coefficient and place the result in the third row. Repeat this multiply-and-add procedure
for all the succeeding terms until the last term of the first row.

. . . . . . .
________________________________________________

4. The last number of the third row is the remainder and the other numbers from left to right are
the coefficient of the terms of the quotient, which is of degree one less than the given polyno-
mial.

Note: If the divisor is in the form of ax  c, rewrite as x  and use x  as divisor. The resulting quo-

tient is a times what it should be. Hence, this result should be divided by a except the remainder.

Section 8.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and

Their Graphs 179

Example 8.2.11►Using synthetic division, find the quotient and remainder when
is divided by .
Solution. We take c = 3 and form rows as follows.

1 2 10 5 9 3
3 3 21 48

1 1 7 16 39  Remainder

So, the quotient is and the remainder is 39.

EXERCISE

A. Find all the real zeros of each of the following polynomial functions. Use the technique of factor -
ing.
1. 2. .
2. . 4. .

B. Find points of intersection of the graph with the x-axis of each of the following polynomial func-
tions.
1. 2.

C. Use long division

to divide P(x) by D(x). Express the function P in the form
.
Identify the quotient Q(x) and the remainder R(x).
 1. ;
2. ;
3. ;

D. Use long division to divide P(x) by x  c. Express the function P in the form
.
Identify the quotient Q(x) and the remainder R.
1. ;x4 2. ;x+3
3. ;x+2
4. ; 2x  3
E. Do as indicated.
1. Find the value of k so that gives a remainder of 2.
2. is a factor of . Determine the value of m.
3. is a factor of . Determine the value of k.
4. When is divided by , the remainder is 8. Find the value of a.
5. Find the value of b so that 2 is a root of the equation .

F. Use the remainder theorem to determine the function value at the given x-value for each of the
following polynomial functions.
1. ;x=2 2. ;x=4
3. ; x = 2 4. ; x = 3
5. ;x=3 6. ; x = 1/2

180 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions

7. ;x=4
8. ; x = 2

G. Use the factor theorem to verify whether the indicated linear binomial is a factor of the given
polynomial function.
1. ;x–2
2. ;x+3
3. ;
4. ;x+4
5. ;x3
H. Use factor theorem to determine the value of k so that x – c is a factor of the given polynomial.
1. ;x+1 2. ;x2
3. ;x4 4. ;x4
5. ;x+6 6. ;x+2
I. Verify whether the given x-value is a zero of the given function.
1. ; x = 1 2. ;x=2
3. ; x = 4 4. ;x=1
5. ;x=3 6. ;x=3

►Complex Zeros of Polynomial Functions◄

For polynomial functions of degree higher than two, the general method of obtaining their ze-
ros is complicated. In fact for polynomial functions of degree higher than four, there is no general
procedure for finding their zeros. Although there is difficulty of finding the zeros of polynomial func -
tions, a theorem called the fundamental theorem of algebra, guarantees that every polynomial
function of nonzero degree has at least one complex zero.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial function of degree higher than zero, with complex coefficients, has
at least one complex zero.

Complete Factorization Theorem

If P(x) is a polynomial function of degree n  1, there exist complex numbers a, r1, r2,
r3, …, rn (a  0) such that .

However, we limit our discussion to polynomial functions with real coefficients. Hence, we take note
of the following.

1. Every polynomial function P(x) of degree n  1 has exactly n complex zeros which may be real
or imaginary, provided that a zero of multiplicity k is counted k times.
2. If P(x) is of degree n, then there will be n linear factors with complex coefficients.
3. The imaginary zeros of a polynomial function comes in pairs, that is, if a + bi is a zero, then its
conjugate a – bi is also a zero.

Section 8.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and

Their Graphs 181

Example 8.2.12►The function can be written as

. This function has complex zeros 1, 2i, and 2i, that is, one real zero
and two imaginary zeros.

Example 8.2.13►The function can be written as

. This function has complex zeros 1/3 and 2 of multiplicity 2, which are all real
numbers.

Example 8.2.14►Find a polynomial function of degree 3 with integer coefficients and zeros and
.
Solution. Since is a zero, so is . This means that P(x) has the form

To make all the coefficients integers we take a = 3 . Note that any other integer multiple of 3 will
do. Hence, we have .

Rational Zeros Theorem

If the polynomial function has in-

teger coefficients, then every rational zero of P is of the form (in lowest terms),
where p is an integer factor of and q is an integer factor of .
If the leading coefficient of P(x) is 1, then any rational zero of P is a factor of .

Example 8.2.15►Find the rational zeros of .

Solution. The leading coefficient is 1. So, the only possible rational zeros are integer factors of 60.
These are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60. Since the degree of P is 4,
maximum number of rational roots is 4. We know that c is a zero of P if . So we compute the
function value of P(c) at every possible rational root. For instance,

Continuing the computations for the value of P at all the remaining candidate zeros, we find that
the only rational zeros are 3 and 4.

In the Example 8.2.15, the number of complex zeros is 4. Since the number of real zeros is just
two, this means that the other two zeros are a pair of imaginary numbers.

Example 8.2.16►Find the rational zeros of .

Solution. By the rational zeros theorem, the rational zeros are of the form

Factors of 6: 1, 2, 3, 6 Factors of 2: 1, 2

182 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions

Hence, possible rational zeros are , , , , , , , . Simplifying these frac-

tions and retaining only those distinct results, we get 1, 2, 3, 6, , . The maximum
number of real zeros is 3. Computing the value of P at every possible zero listed, we find that the
only zeros are 1, 2, and .

The number of possible zeros of a polynomial function can be reduced by applying Descartes’
rule of signs and if the lower and upper bounds of zeros can be found.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let be a polynomial function with real coefficients. Then

1. the number of positive real zeros of P(x) is either equal to the number of varia-
tions in sign in P(x) or less than that by an even whole number.
2. the number of negative real zeros of P(x) is either equal to the number of varia-
tions in sign in P(x) or is less than that by an even whole number.

Example 8.2.17►Use Descates’ rule of signs to determine the possible number of positive and
negative real zeros of the given polynomial function.
a. b.
c. d.
Solution. Counting the number of variations in sign in P(x) for:

a. , we have

So, P(x) has one positive zero. Now,

So, P(x) has three variations in sign. Hence, P(x) has three negative zeros or one negative
zero. The number of real zeros is four or two.
b. , we have

So, P(x) has three positive zeros or one positive zero. Now,

So, P(x) has two variations in sign. Hence, P(x) has two negative zeros or no negative zero.
The number of real zeros is five or three.

c. , we have

Section 8.2 Zeros of Polynomial Functions Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and

Their Graphs 183

So, P(x) has two positive zeros or no positive zero. Now,

So, P(x) has three variations in sign. Hence, P(x) has three negative zeros or one negative
zero. The number of real zeros is five or three.
d. , we have

So, P(x) has four positive zero or two positive zeros. Now,

So, P(x) has one variation in sign. Hence, P(x) has one negative zero or no negative zero. The
number of real zeros is five or three.

Let P(x) be a polynomial function. An upper bound of the real zeros of

Definition P is any number that is greater than or equal to the largest real zero. A
lower bound of the real zeros of P is any number that is less than or
equal to the smallest real zero.
 The Upper and Lower Bounds Theorem

Let be a polynomial function with real coefficients and let the leading coefficient be
positive. Then
1. If P(x) is divided by x  c, c > 0, using synthetic division, and if the row that con-
tains the quotient and remainder has no negative entry, then c is an upper
bound for the real zeros of P.
2. If P(x) is divided by x  c, c < 0, using synthetic division, and if the row that con-
tains the quotient and remainder has entries that are alternately nonpositive and
nonegative, then c is a lower bound for the real zeros of P.

Example 8.2.17►Use the upper and lower bounds theorem to show that the zeros of
lie in the interval [3, 1].
Solution.

2 5 1 2 3 2 5 1 2 1
6 3 12 1 6 7
2 1 4 14  Entries alternate 2 6 7 5  All entries
in sign positive

184 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.2 Zeros
of Polynomial Functions

So by the upper and lower bounds theorem, 3 is a lower bound and 1 is an upper bound for the ze-
ros of P and hence the zeros of P lie in the interval [3, 1].

EXERCISE

A. Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the possible number of positive and negative real ze -
ros of the given polynomial function.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7.

B. Determine the upper and lower bounds of the real zeros of the given function.
1. 2.

3. 4.
5. 6.

C. Find all possible rational zeros and then determine all the complex zeros of the given polynomial
function.
1. 2.
3. 4.
 5. 6.

D. Find all possible rational roots, and then find all roots of the equation.
1. 2.
3. 4.

E. Find a polynomial function of least degree with integer coefficients with the given complex ze-
ros.
1. 1, 1, 3 2. –1/3, 2, 1/2, 2 3. 2, 5, 3 (multiplicity 2)
4. 2,  5. –1, 2, 3  2i

F. Find a polynomial equation of least degree with integer coefficients with the given complex
roots.
1. 3/2, –2, 2. –5, 2, 3/2, 2 3. –5, –2, 5/6, 3/2, 1
4. 2i, , –3 (multiplicity 2) 5. 2, 3, –4, –3/4

G. Find a polynomial function of smallest degree which satisfies the given conditions.
1. f(1) = f(3) = f(6) = 0, f(4) = 12
2. f(3), f(1) = f(3) = f(4) = 0 , f(0) = 36
3. f( ) = f( ) = f(1) = 0 , f(1) = 24
4. f(2) = f(0) = f(3) =0, f(1) = 18
5. f(2 + 3i) = f(2  3i) = f(3 + 2i) = f(32i) = 0, f(1) = 160
6. f(1) = f(3) = f(-3) = 0 , f(2) = 30
7. f(2) = f(3) = f(1) = f(2) = 0 , f(1) = 4

Section 8.3 End Behavior, Leading Term, and Graphs of P(x) Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and
Their Graphs 185

8.3 END BEHAVIOR, LEADING TERM, AND GRAPHS OF P(x)

The graphs of polynomial functions of degrees 1 and 2 which are called linear and quadratic
functions, respectively, are lines and parabolas. These functions are usually studied and discussed
in high school algebra. As the degree of the polynomial function gets higher, the more complicated
the graph can be. One interesting feature of the graph of a polynomial function is its “smooth con-
tinuous” curve, that is, it has no breaks, holes, corners or cusps.

The graph of a polynomial function

Definition
consists of all ordered pairs (x, P(x)) that satisfy the function rule.

Example 8.3.1►The following are the possible graphs of polynomial functions.

y y

x x
Example 8.3.2►The following are not possible graphs of polynomial functions.
y y
cusp
 hole
o
x x

corner break

►End Behavior of a Polynomial Function◄

The end behavior of a polynomial function is the behavior of its graph as x becomes nega-
tively or positively large.

The end behavior of the graph of the polynomial function P(x) is determined by the degree n and
the sign of the leading coefficient as given by the following rules:

1. If and
a. n is even, as x becomes large both positive and negative, the graph of P goes up, that is, the
function values increases positively.

186 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.3 End Behavior, Leading
Term, and Graphs of P(x)

b. n is odd, as x becomes large negative, the graph of P goes down to the left and as x becomes
large positive, the graph of P goes up to the right.
y

2. If and
a. n is even, as x becomes large both positive and negative, the graph of P goes down, that is,
the function values increases negatively.
 y

b. n is odd, as x becomes large negative, the graph of P goes up to the left and as x becomes
large positive, the graph of P goes down to the right.
y

Section 8.3 End Behavior, Leading Term, and Graphs of P(x) Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and
Their Graphs 187

►Graphs of a Polynomials Functions◄

Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Steps to be Followed in Sketching the Graph of a Function

1. The domain of the function is (, +). The function is continuous for all values in
its domain.
2. Determine the range of the function. If n is even and , the range is the inter-
val [m, +), where m is the minimum value of the function. If n is even and
, the range is the interval (, M], where M is the maximum value of the function.
If n is odd, the range is (, +).
3. Determine the factors of the polynomial with the aid of the Factor Theorem.
4. Find the zeroes of the function (x-intercepts) with the aid of the Remainder Theo-
rem. There will be at most n real zeroes and at most n  1 turning points.
5. Identify intervals of x-values as determined by the regions left or right of the ze-
roes of the function.
6. Test the sign of P(x) in each of these intervals by using any value of x in the inter-
val. The graph in that whole interval is above the x-axis if the sign of P(x) is posi-
tive while the graph will be below the x-axis if sign of P(x) is negative.

Example 8.3.3►The following are polynomial functions and their corresponding graphs.
a. b. c.
Solution. Following the steps discussed in this section, we come up with the following graphs.
a. b. b.

y y

4
6

x 3
4 1 3

2
1

x
4 4 2 3 5

188 Chapter 8 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs Section 8.3 End Behavior, Leading
Term, and Graphs of P(x)

c.
y

x
4 2 3 5

3

5

EXERCISE
Sketch the graph of each of the given polynomial functions.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.