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ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2021-2023 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
HISTORY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FRANCE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Just Us for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL HISTORY

1.6. 1793:
1. Timeline for Key Dates 21 January 1793, Louis XVI is executed in the Place de la
Revolution
1.1. Before 1789: 1 February, War declared on Great Britain and the Dutch
Republic
1614, last summoning of the Estates-General before 1789 10 March Revolutionary Tribunal established
(175 years ago and only met in times of national 11 March, Revolt in the Vendee
emergency) 6 April Committee of Public Safety created
1756 - 1763, The Seven Years’ War 2 June, Girondin deputies purged
1770, Louis XVI marries Marie Antoinette 24 June, New constitution approved
June 1774, Louis XVI becomes king at age 20 17 July, Abolition of feudalism in France
1778, France enters the American War of Independence 27 July, Robespierre joined the CPS
1781 - 1787, Economic crisis 23 August, Decree of levee en mass issued
17 September, Law of Suspects
1.2. 1789: 22 September, Year II began
29 September, General Maximum introduced
5 May, Estates General meet 5 October, New revolutionary calendar
June, Tennis Court Oath 16 October, Battle of Wattignies
14 July, Storming of the Bastille 4 December, Law of 14 Frimaire established revolutionary
4-10 August, August Decrees government
August, Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
2 November, Nationalisation of Church Property 1.7. 1794:

1.3. 1790: 24 March, Execution of Hebert and his leading supporters

5 April, Danton and Desmouline executed
21 May, Creation of the Paris Sections 8 June, Festival of the Supreme Being
12 July, Civil Constitution of the Clergy 27-28 July Coup of Thermidor
16 August, Reorganisation of the judiciary 28 July, Execution of Robespierre
27 November, Clergy must take the oath

2. Causes and Outcomes of

1.4. 1791:
2 March, Dissolution of guilds
the 1789 Revolution
March - April, the Pope denounces the oath
14 June, The Le Chapelier Law 2.1. Long Term Causes
20 June, Flight to Varennes
17 July, Champs de Mars massacre Louis XVI’s weaknesses
27 August, Declaration of Pillnitz He was indecisive and easily influenced by those
13 September, Louis accepts new constitution around him
9 November, Decree against emigres (vetoed by Louis in Taxation system
12th) There was a lot of corruption due to the system of
venality (the ability to buy/sell positions, so the King
could not dismiss ministers)
1.5. 1792: The Third Estate had to pay many taxes like taille (land
tax), gabelle (salt tax), tithes (paid to the Church) and
March, Guillotine to be used for executions
feudal dues (peasants paid to landowners)
20 April, War declared on Austria
Structure of French society
27 May, Decree against refractory priests
Made up of First, Second and Third Estate
1 August, Brunswick Manifesto
First Estate contained any one part of the Church
10 August, Tuileries is attacked, Louis is overthrown
The Second Estate contained the nobility
September, September Massacres
The Third Estate contained everyone else (made up of
20 September, Battle of Valmy
around 95% of the total population)
22 September, France is declared a Republic
The First (clergy) and Second (nobility) Estate had
October, Elections are held for the National Convention
many privileges
6 November, Battle of Jemappes
The First was
19 November, Decree of Fraternity

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2024 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is authorised
for personal use only by Just Us at Al Khor International School on 04/09/24.
CAIE AS LEVEL HISTORY

Exempt from taxes (only paid an annual don Louis exiled the Assembly, but a noble uprising forced
gratuit to the King which was about 5% of the Louis to call the Assembly back
Church’s income) France was bankrupt by 1788, resulting in the calling
Had censorship powers of the Estates-General in order to get the approval of
Controlled many educational institutions and the nation
hospitals
The Second was 2.3. Meeting Of The Estates-General
Exempt from taxes
Had the right to operate mills, ovens and wine 5 May 1789, the Estates-General met in Versailles
presses The Estates-General was made up of deputies from all
Had rights to hunting and fishing three Estates
Were tried in their own courts There was much excitement surrounding the meeting as
The Third had none of these privileges which it had not been called for the past 175 years
increased financial burden and thus resentment However, the King did not make a decision or set an
towards the State agenda at the meetings
The Enlightenment The Third Estate frustratedly broke away and formed the
It was a movement of writers and thinkers in the 18th National Assembly on 17 June
century They also took the Tennis Court Oath on 23 June
They challenged a range of views and ideas In the oath, they agreed to not dissolve until they created
They used rational thought instead of tradition which a constitution for France
undermined the idea of an absolute monarchy and the This was an act of defiance against the King
Church’s position The King responded by ignoring their actions and tried to
However, they were not against the regime and were set up reforms
not revolutionary However, the reforms were not enough and popular
protest rose
2.2. Short Term Causes Therefore, the King was forced to recognise the National
Assembly and allowed the First and Second Estate to join
War the National Assembly
The Seven Years’ War (1756-63)
France lost against Britain in India and North 2.4. Revolt In Paris
America
As a result, France lost most of its oversea Many Parisians were unhappy with the King as they
colonies supported the Assembly
This included profitable sugar-producing colonies The King, however, brought in 25,000 troops to the Paris-
The American War of Independence (1776 - 1783) Versailles area
France joined the rebels and provided military and The King became more confident as he now had a
financial support considerable military force
They spent over one billion livres on the war effort This resulted in the King dismissing Necker (Controller-
They did regain some lost territories General) who was widely popular
Soldiers were also exposed to ideas of liberty and Revolutionary speakers told the Parisians to take up arms
democracy, which they would spread when they in response to the mobilisation and the sacking
returned to France This resulted in the Storming of the Bastille
Financial crisis After Parisians seized muskets and cannons, they
Caused by the wars, corruption in the tax system and needed gunpowder
bad harvests The Bastille was a royal prison and had gunpowder
During the 1780s, there was disastrous weather On July 1789, the Bastille was under siege and
causing very poor harvests captured
Food prices rose, demand for manufactured goods The commander of the Bastille resisted and was
dropped and unemployment rose beheaded
France was close to bankruptcy by 1786 This disturbance resulted in the need for a governing
Calonne, the Controller-General, created a reform in body
1786 The Commune of Paris was set up
This reform would tax the First and Second Estate They set up the National Guard to protect people’s
The King and Calonne tried to get approval from the property from royal forces
Assembly of Notables in February 1787
The Assembly rejected it as they believed the approval
of the nation was needed
2.5. Revolt In The Provinces

These were known as the Municipal Revolution of July

3.1. Reforming Programmes
1789
Many rural towns supported the National Assembly By the end of 1789, many people wanted a constitutional
In response to the King’s actions, old councils were
monarchy
removed and a National Guard was formed in every town
Deputies in the National Assembly sought to reform
The King’s old intendants fled so the King lost control over
France to create a constitutional monarchy
provincial towns They tried to apply the principles of the Declaration of
Peasants also revolted by attacking nobles and landlords Rights which were the ideas of equality, liberty and
in fear of plots against them
fraternity
This was known as the Great Fear
France was divided into departments, districts and
communes
2.6. The August Decrees Elected councils would run these divisions, thus
decentralising power
In order to quell the chaos, the National Assembly created The principle of democracy within these divisions was also
new reforms implemented
From 4-11 August, the reforms included:
Abolishment of tithes and venality
3.2. The Right To Vote
All financial and tax privileges to be abolished
Special privileges for areas to be abolished
A concept of ‘active citizens’ was introduced
All citizens to be eligible for all offices This only allowed men who paid a certain amount of tax to
This was a huge success, but the King did not recognise it vote (three days’ labour in taxes)
officially
Citizens who did not pay this amount were known as
‘passive citizens’
2.7. The Declaration Of The Rights Of However, ‘active citizens’ could only vote for electors
Those who paid even more tax (ten days’ labour in taxes)
Man And Citizen
could become an elector, who chose members of councils
and elected deputies to the National Assembly
The Assembly drew up the Rights of Man and Citizen on
26 August 1789 To become a deputy in the Assembly, an ‘active citizen’
It stated that: had to pay 54 days of manual labour in taxes.
Most Frenchmen could not meet this qualification
All men are born free and equal
Therefore, this system was heavily in favour of the
Power rests with the people
Freedom of expression wealthy and was a form of indirect democracy
Fair taxation
Its main points were liberty, equality and fraternity 3.3. Taxation And Finance
The King did not recognise this as well
The old taxation system was despised
The gabelle (salt tax) was abolished in March 1790
2.8. October Days, 5 - 6 Within a year, nearly all unpopular indirect taxes were
also abolished
During October, the King reinforced his guards
The soldiers held anti-revolutionary demonstrations in The new tax system would be based on equality, where
support of the King citizens would pay according to their ability to do so
Many Parisians resented the King for this Taxes would be collected by a municipal council
The abolishment of indirect taxes meant taxation fell on
Meanwhile, there was also a food shortage in Paris
producers rather than consumers
Thousands of women marched from Paris onto Versailles
to demand bread This system was fairer as there would be no more
The National Guard under Lafayette joined them exemptions
The women got into the King’s palace
The King was forced to move to Paris and accept the 3.4. The Sale Of Church Land
reforms made by the National Assembly
The National Assembly was also forced to come to Paris To deal with the financial crisis, Church land was
Many thought this marked the end of the Revolution nationalised on 2 November 1789 and assignats were
introduced
This provided money for the state
3. Constitutional Monarchy Those who bought the land would be more invested in the
revolution
1789-92 It was hoped the Clergy would support the new regime as
the state now paid their salaries

Assignats were bonds that the public could use to buy The key terms of the Constitution were:
Church lands All priests and bishops were to be elected
It would be used just like banknotes Priests were to be paid by the State
The bourgeoisie benefited from this as they had a surplus There was to be no absenteeism
of cash Most of the Clergy were opposed to the principle of
election
3.5. Economy However, most of them also wanted to find a compromise
The Assembly did not want to compromise as this would
All deputies in the National Assembly believed in laissez- give the Church a privileged position, something they
faire were trying to avoid
Therefore, they introduced free trade in grain in August Instead of agreeing, the Clergy waited for the Pope to give
1789 and removed price controls his verdict
They wanted the price and distribution of essential goods The Assembly grew tired of waiting and on 27 November
to be controlled by the market itself to avoid scarcity, high 1790, decreed that the Clergy must take an oath to the
prices and starvation constitution
On October 1790, internal tariffs were abolished so a This split the Clergy as they would be choosing between
national market was created (all goods could move freely their faith or the State
within France) Only a third of the Clergy took the oath
The metric system was also created to help with this The Pope then condemned the Civil Constitution in March
national market and April 1791
Many then retracted their oath
There were now two Churches in France
3.6. Employer-Worker Relations One was the Constitutional Church that accepted the
Revolution
The deputies were determined to get rid of any
The other was a nonjuring Church of refractory priests
organisations that had special privileges and restrictions
This was a huge area of counter-revolution
regarding employment
Refractory priests were expelled and peasants felt a
This would open up a range of crafts and occupations to
sense of betrayal as they were very close with their local
more people
parish priests
As a result, guilds were abolished in 1791
The Le Chapelier Law (14 June 1791) was passed,
forbidding trade unions and employers’ organisations 3.9. New Constitution
Collective bargaining, picketing and strikes were declared
illegal The National Assembly drew up a constitution which was
No one in the Assembly objected to these measures agreed on in September 1791
Under the new proposals, a legislative assembly would be
created
3.7. Legal System They would be elected every 2 years
The King could appoint ministers and was given a
The Assembly applied the principle of equality so all areas
suspensive veto
followed the same system
Foreign policies needed the consent of the Assembly and
The penal code was made more humane; torture and
the King had to obey all laws
mutilation were abolished
The new judicial system was the most lasting reform of
the National Assembly 3.10. The Revolutionary Clubs
Justice was made free and equal to all and thus very
popular As there were no political parties, clubs played an
important role
Clubs informed the public on major issues, supported
3.8. The Civil Constitution Of The Clergy election candidates and pressured deputies in the
Assembly
The Assembly wanted the Church to be free from
The Jacobin Club:
absenteeism and plurality
The Jacobins had a high entrance fee
They wanted it to be independent of Rome and closely
They were against a monarchy
linked to the State
Maximilian Robespierre was the leader of a minor
They also wanted it to be democratic but did not want to
group of radical Jacobin deputies
interfere with the doctrines of the Church or with its
The Cordeliers Club:
spiritual functions
This club was more radical than the Jacobin Club and
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was approved on 12
had no entrance fee
July 1790

It supported direct democracy and the right to The Left: 136 deputies, most of them part of the
insurrection Jacobins, a small group from the Girondins
Its main support was from the working class, though The Right: 264 deputies who were members of the
its leaders were bourgeois Feuillant Club (supported the constitutional monarchy)
George Danton and Camille Desmoulins were a part The Centre: 345 deputies who were on neither side
of this club
Marat was a radical journalist that wrote the L’Ami du 3.15. The Growth Of The Counter-
Peuple, a newspaper
Revolution
3.11. The Sans-Culottes The deputies were worried by the nonjuring clergy and
the émigrés, whose numbers had increased greatly since
The sans-culottes were the normal urban workers in Paris
the flight to Varennes.
They were not a class
What alarmed the Assembly most was the desertion of
Many of them were ‘passive’ citizens
army officers.
They suffered greatly from inflation and led riots as grain
By the end of 1791, 6,000 army officers had emigrated
prices rose by 50% in 1791 due to poor harvests
(60% of all officers)
Clubs were able to use their discontent to demand the
The Assembly passed two laws in November 1791
government for change
One declared that all non-jurors were suspects
The sans-culottes made the Revolution more radical in
The other said émigrés who did not return to France
many ways
would forfeit their property and be regarded as traitors
The King vetoed these laws, which decrease his popularity
3.12. The Flight Of Varennes He appeared to be undermining the Revolution

The Flight occurred on June 1791

Louis XVI regretted accepting the Civil Constitution of the The Overthrow Of The
Clergy as he was deeply religious
He wanted to flee to Lorraine and use their army to Monarchy 1792-3
negotiate
He left on 20 June 1791
However, he was caught the day after and was brought
3.16. The Impact Of War On French
back to Paris Politics
Before he left, he had left a letter which denounced the
Revolution It seemed likely that the constitution of 1791 would
The King lost all his popularity and the people’s trust survive
On 16 July, the Assembly suspended the King until the new The outbreak of Austria on April 1792 prevented this
constitution was made The war directly led to the fall of the monarchy, civil war
and the Terror
3.13. Champ De Mars Massacre, July
1791 3.17. Declaration Of Pillnitz (27 August
1791)
50,000 went to the Champ de Mars, a huge field in Paris
They were there to sign a republican petition After the flight to Varennes, the Austrians and Prussians
The National Guard was summoned and fired on the felt that they had to support Louis
peaceful and unarmed crowd They made it in the form of a public declaration
Leaders of the movement were arrested It appeared to threaten French internal affairs
This meant the removal of any extremist opposition for a It did not have much of an impact on the French
while When the constitution was passed in September 1791, the
Austrian monarch Leopold welcomed it, so Austrian
3.14. Legislative Assembly intervention seemed remote

The King’s acceptance of the constitution on September 3.18. Support For War
1791 marked the end of the National Assembly
It was replaced by the Legislative Assembly Marie Antoinette hoped for war in hopes of France being
Those in it were mainly bourgeois defeated and Louis regaining his old powers
The makeup of the assembly was: Army commanders like Lafayette and Dumouriez wanted
the war to increase their prestige and strengthen the

Revolution There was now an expectation of a military coup in

Brissot, a politician in support of the Revolution, wanted support of the King
the war to expose traitors and the King’s true colours
He hoped it would allow France to extend its revolutionary 3.22. The Rise Of The Sans-Culottes
ideals (fraternity)
Leaders of the Paris Sections held an armed
3.19. The Declaration Of War (20 April demonstration on 20 June 1792 in response
Their leaders came from the Cordeliers Club
1792) They invaded the Tuileries, many of them part of the
National Guard
On 7 February 1792, Austria and Prussia became allies
Louis stayed calm and did not withdraw his veto
In response, the King was forced to dismiss his Feuillant
However, it showed the weakness of the King and the
minister in March 1792
Assembly and the growing power of the Sections
He replaced them with a more radical government, which
On 11 July, the Assembly declared a state of emergency in
included some Girondins
which every Frenchman was called on to fight
The new ministers now obeyed the Assembly and not the
In return, the sans-culottes would get the vote (previously
King
only ‘active citizens’ could vote)
Now the government and Assembly wanted war
When Austria’s monarch died, France decided to declare
war on 20 April 1792 3.23. The Fédérés
They hoped to fight Austria solely, but Prussia joined
Austria Many of the fédérés were militant revolutionaries and
This resulting conflict is known as the Revolutionary War republicans
This would last 10 years, resulting in the death of 1.4 They became a powerful pressure group, calling for the
million French people and would alter the course of the removal of the King
Revolution New insurrections were being prepared by radicals and
the fédérés
The Girondins changed their stance and tried to prevent
3.20. Military Crisis the uprisings
The Girondins warned Louis that he should recall the
The French army was not prepared
ministers dismissed on 13 June
Over half of its 12,000 officers had emigrated
The King rejected their offer
When France advanced into the Austrian Netherlands on
The Jacobin leader, Robespierre, was cooperating with the
20 April 1792, they met firm resistance
central committee of the fédérés and on 29 July he put
By the end of May, all three commanders advised that
forward his proposals:
peace should be made
Abandonment of the constitution of 1791
Treason and traitors were blamed for France’s failures,
The overthrow of the monarchy
which were justified
The establishment of a National Convention, elected
Marie Antoinette had sent details of French military plans
by universal male suffrage
to the Austrians

3.21. Royal Vetoes 3.24. The Brunswick Manifesto (1

August 1792)
The government had other problems to deal with
There was opposition from refractory priests and counter- The Manifesto was issued by the commander of the
revolutionaries Austrian-Prussian armies
The Girondins had to act Its main terms and threats were:
On 27 May 1792, the Assembly passed a law for the To restore the liberty of Louis XVI and his family
deportation of refractory priests That the city of Paris set Louis free
Another law disbanded the King’s guard and a third set up If the King was harmed, the Austrian-Prussian army
a camp of 20,000 National Guards (known as the fédérés) would inflict ‘an exemplary vengeance’ on the city and
in the provinces its citizens
They were to protect Paris from invasion and a coup by The Manifesto was intended to help the King, but it had
generals the opposite effect
Louis refused to approve these laws Frenchmen were infuriated as they considered it to be
The Girondins protested, but Louis dismissed them on 13 foreign intervention in their affairs
June Many who previously supported the monarchy turned
Dumouriez resigned against it

The Major of Paris went to the Legislative Assembly and

3.27. Girondins Versus Jacobins In The
demanded, on behalf of 47 out of the 48 Sections, the
abolition of the monarchy Convention
The Assembly refused, prompting the need for an
uprising In the elections to the Convention, all men over 21 could
vote
All who showed royalist sympathies were disenfranchised
3.25. The Attack On The Tuileries (10
Therefore, many deputies were Jacobins or Girondins, the
August 1792) rest were undecided and were called the Plain
Until 2 June 1793, it would be a struggle between the
On 9 August, the sans-culottes replaced the city council Jacobins and Girondins
with a revolutionary Commune The Jacobins were also known as the Montagnards
On 10 August, several thousand men from the National Neither group had a majority, so they had to appeal to the
Guard and 2,000 fédérés marched on the Tuileries Plain who were bourgeois
The palace was defended by 3,000 troops, 2,000 of whom At first, the Plain supported the Girondins
were National Guards
The King sought refuge in the Assembly to protect his
3.28. The Trial Of Louis XVI
family
The National Guard guarding the palace sided with the The Jacobins wanted to put the King on trial
attackers
The sans-culottes wanted him tried and executed
The rebels invaded the Assembly and forced it to
The Girondins wanted to prevent the trial
recognise the new revolutionary Commune, which had
They first suggested that the King’s fate should be decided
given the orders for the attack on the palace by referendum
The deputies had to hand over the King to the Commune, This was rejected
who imprisoned him
Before voting, Marat suggested that the decision should
They also agreed to the election, by universal male
be reached by appel nominal to expose traitors
suffrage, of a National Convention that was to draw up a
This resulted in 0 votes for Louis’ innocence
new, democratic constitution However, the Girondins wanted a vote for a reprieve
The Commune was now in control in Paris, although in the The votes came out to be 380 to 310 against the reprieve
rest of France it was the authority of the Assembly alone
This revealed a large chunk of moderates in the
that was recognised.
Convention who were reluctant to support the execution
of the King
3.26. The Proclamation Of The Republic Louis XVI was executed on the morning of 21 January 1793
This was the first Jacobin victory
(22 September 1792)
This worsened the relationships between the Jacobins and
Following Louis’ overthrow, the constitutional monarchists the Girondins
went into hiding
This left the Girondins in charge of the Assembly 3.29. Impact Of War On The Course Of
Before the National Convention replaced the Assembly,
the Assembly did everything the Commune wanted
The Revolution
It passed several radical measures:
In the summer of 1792, the situation of the French armies
Refractory priests who did not leave would be
on the frontier was desperate
deported Lafayette had defected to the Austrians on 17 August
Abolition of all feudal dues without compensation Panic and fear of betrayal swept the country
This effectively ended the feudal system, which peasants
Prussians crossed the French frontier and captured
had unsuccessfully been trying to do since the August
Longwy
Decrees of 1789
By the beginning of September, Verdun, the last major
This was to win over the peasantry fortress on the road to Paris, was about to surrender
After the attack on the Tuileries, Louis XVI was suspended The French capital was under immediate threat from
from exercising his powers
enemy forces
Royal documents were found in the Tuileries after 10
August which showed how the King betrayed the nation by
maintaining links with France’s enemies 3.30. The September Massacres (2-6
On 21-22 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished September 1792)
and the National Convention was proclaimed
This was in effect a second Revolution The Commune called on all patriots to take up arms

Thousands volunteered to defend the capital and the The government ordered a levy of 300,000 troops in
Revolution February 1793
However, there were growing concerns about counter- This triggered a massive uprising on 11 March 1793
revolutionary groups in overcrowded prisons Discontent in the Vendée had been present long before
A rumour started that they were plotting to escape and kill 1793
the helpless population Since 1789, peasants had to pay more in tax
The massacre of prisoners started on 2 September and They were openly hostile towards the Constitution of the
continued for 5 days Clergy as they were deeply attached to the Catholic
The killers were the sans-culottes of the Sections Church
The Commune made no attempt to stop them By May, the government had to withdraw 30,000 troops
The hatred towards Jacobins and their sans-culottes from the front to deal with it
supporters grew However, the uprising never posed a serious threat as
they were ill-disciplined and were not willing to move far
3.31. The Battle Of Valmy (20 from their local areas

September 1792) 3.34. Economic Issues

On 20 September 1792 at Valmy, 52,000 French troops
The economic problems caused by the war added to the
defeated 34,000 Prussians
government’s difficulties
This was a significant victory
To pay for the war, more assignats were printed, reducing
The Prussians retreated to the frontier and the French
the value of those already in circulation
armies took the offensive
By February 1793, the purchasing power of the assignats
On 19 November 1792, the Convention issued the Decree
had fallen by 50%
of Fraternity which promised to spread liberty to all
This pushed up the prices of goods which resulted in
European countries
scarcity and widespread riots

3.32. The War Of The First Coalition 3.35. The Republic Saved
The Republican Convention posed a threat to European
Of greater concern to the government was the threat of
monarchs, especially the Decree of Fraternity
the First Coalition
The Convention unanimously declared war on Britain and
The Austrians pushed into France while the Spaniards
the Netherlands on 1 February 1793
invaded from the South
Between March and September 1793, it seemed France
However, the allies did not coordinate and broke into two
would be at war with most of Europe
This allowed France to repel the invaders and the Republic
The campaign in 1793 began very badly for the French
was saved
A French attack against the Netherlands failed
The French commander, Dumouriez, was defeated by the
Austrians at Neerwinden in March Government By Terror 1793-4
Following his defeat, he plotted with the Austrians to
march on Paris to overthrow the Convention and restore
the monarchy 3.36. The Terror
When his army refused to follow him, Dumouriez
deserted to the Austrians The Terror was the most dramatic phase of the Revolution
Since the Girondins had enthusiastically backed The extremist sans-culottes forced France’s leaders to
Dumouriez, his defection was very important as it further adopt policies that were contrary to the liberal reforms of
weakened their position in the Convention the Constituent Assembly
Once again there was fighting on French soil France’s leaders needed their support to preserve the
With the military situation deteriorating rapidly, a large Revolution
rebellion broke out in the Vendée Government by Terror came because of internal and
external threats
There were two periods of terror:
3.33. The Vendée Rebellion The first began with the attack on the Tuileries on 10
August 1792 and ended with the Battle of Valmy,
In the winter of 1792-3, the counter-revolution in France
September 1792, where the allied invasion was
had virtually collapsed
pushed back
The cause of the uprising in the Vendée was the
The second began with the journée of 31 May to 2
expansion of war and conscription
June 1793, where Girondin deputies were arrested

and it ended with the execution of Robespierre in July To win the support of the people, on 4 May 1793, a
1794 maximum price was fixed for grain
The Girondins were opposed to all price controls and they
3.37. The Political Crisis continued to be against the sans-culottes
On 26 May, Robespierre sided with the sans-culottes and
The government needed the support of the people to called the sans-culottes to revolt against the Girondins
crush their enemies On 31 May, a rising began in Lyon against the Jacobins
Popular demands would have to be granted to achieve On 2 June, 80,000 National Guardsman demanded the
this expulsion of the Girondins and a maximum price to be
The Montagnards (Jacobins) realised this and drew closer imposed on all essential goods
to the sans-culottes The Convention was forced to arrest 29 Girondin deputies
The Plain also drew closer to the Montagnards and two ministers
These two groups favoured repressive measures Following the purge, a young royalist, Charlotte Corday,
assassinated Marat in the vain belief that it would end the
Revolution
3.38. The Machinery Of The Terror
Military defeat, civil war, severe economic problems and 3.42. The Federal Revolt
anti-republican opposition forced the Convention to pass
a range of measures from 10 March to 20 May 1793 In many departments, rebels resented the influence of
These measures had three objectives: Paris over the Convention and the power of the Jacobins
To identify and punish suspects The first significant city to rebel was Marseille where they
To make the government more effective turned against the local Jacobin club
To meet the economic demands of the sans-culottes The Montagnards called these revolts ‘federalism’
The most serious revolt occurred in Lyon (31 May)
Bordeaux started to revolt after the purge of the Girondin
3.39. Committee Of General Security deputies
Significant resistance occurred in 8 departments
The task of rooting out all anti-republican opposition was
Another serious revolt occurred in the naval base of
given to the Committee of General Security (CGS)
Toulon
On 10 March 1793, a Revolutionary Tribunal was set up in
The government cut off supplies to the city, so the
Paris to try counter-revolutionary suspects
inhabitants negotiated with the British
It was intended to prevent massacres like those of
British troops entered the town on 28 August
September 1792
Half of the French fleet was in Toulon, so this was a major
Representatives-on-mission were sent to provinces to
setback
reassert control over the provinces
Many of the federalists were supporters of the Republic
The summary execution decree allowed the trial and
Their armies were also pitifully small and they did not
execution of armed rebels within 24 hours of capture
want to move too far from home
These were held without a jury and there was no appeal
The government was able to pick them off one by one
This decree condemned more victims than the
Revolutionary Tribunal
Émigrés would have their property confiscated and they 3.43. New CPS
were to be executed if they returned to France
Now most deputies feared the Montagnards for their
treatment of the Girondins
3.40. Committee Of Public Safety However, they needed to be unified to defeat foreign
enemies so they reluctantly followed the Montagnards
On 6 April 1793, the Convention set up the CPS
A new CPS was formed between July and September 1793
The CPS depended on the support of the Convention who
The 12 members were either Montagnards or deputies of
approved the CPS’s power each month
the Plain who supported them
The CPS’s purpose was to supervise the activities of
Robespierre joined the CPS on 27 July 1793
ministers
He was very influential and was linked with the Terror
Danton and the Plains wanted a committee without
He saw the need to garner the support of the sans-
extremists
culottes
Thus, of the nine members selected in April, seven were
He consistently put the good of the country over
from the Plain and two were Montagnards
everything else
There were no Girondins

3.44. Sans-Culottes
3.41. Girondin Opposition

The growth in power of the sans-culottes was largely due

3.47. The Armées Révolutionnaires
to the war
They played an important role in the Revolution in 1789 by (September 1793)
storming the Bastille and bringing the King to Paris during
the October Days On 4 September a crowd gathered before the Hotel de
The National Guard was able to keep them under control, Ville to demand bread and higher wages
until in July 1792, when the National Guard was opened to The following day, Roux urged them to march on the
‘passive citizens’ Convention
No one could control Paris without their support The Convention authorised the formation of a Parisian
The sans-culottes hated the aristocracy armées révolutionnaires which consisted of mainly sans-
They were against priests because they had joined the culottes
aristocrats Their purpose was to:
Most importantly, they wanted direct democracy Ensure the food supplies of Paris and large cities
They believed the people had the right to control and Round up hoarders, refractory priests etc
change their elected representative at any time Mobilise the nation's resources for the war effort
A series of concessions were made to the sans-culottes The Parisian army was successful in supplying Paris with
by the CPS: bread until the spring of 1794
A new constitution was presented on 24 June 1793 Their success was unlikely to last as their numbers were
A new Declaration of Rights which went further than small and they met enormous hostility from the rural
that of 1789 was included which stated the right of population
insurrection and all adult males to have the vote The CPS did not like the revolutionary armies as they were
Conscription was demanded as part of the levée en outside the control of the authorities
masse The armies also created opposition to the Revolution
Economic concessions like maximum prices and anti- through their vicious methods of dealing with the
hoarding laws were introduced peasants

3.45. The Levée En Masse (23 August 3.48. Economic Terror

1793) The Convention had bowed to popular pressure from
Roux in July by passing a law that imposed the death
This decree marked the appearance of total war
penalty for hoarding food
Unmarried men between 18 and 25 were called up to the
On 29 September 1793, the law of the General Maximum
army was passed to control prices
State factories were to be set up to make arms and It fixed the price of bread and many essential goods and
ammunition
services
The government took control of foreign trade and
Wages were also fixed
shipping The peasants hated it because the prices were often
This was remarkably successful in the short term below the cost of production
The sans-culottes needed it so that they could afford to
3.46. The Enragés buy bread
The sans-culottes eventually went into the countryside to
The economic situation continued to deteriorate in 1793 enforce the Maximum
In mid-August, the assignat was below a third of its face The government was in a difficult position as the peasants
value and drought reduced the grain supplies in Paris by could simply stop farming
three-quarters Therefore, the government revised prices in February
One group, the Enragés, and their leader Jacques Roux 1794
demanded action from the government The sans-culottes were disgusted
Roux wanted the Convention to immediately deal with However, it was successful short term as towns and the
starvation and poverty army was fed
He demanded a programme of economic terror where The assignat also rose in value from 22% of its face value
hoarders would be executed and ex-nobles to be purged in August to 48% in December 1793
from the army
Roux continued to denounce the Convention and
3.49. The Political Terror
supported a journée on 5 September 1793
During the journée, Roux was arrested and he took his
In October 1793, the recently approved constitution was
own life in February 1794 suspended until France was at peace
This allowed for extreme politics

The Political Terror took three forms: connected with the old monarchy
The official Terror controlled by the CPS and CGS Churches were closed, church bells were removed and
The Terror in the areas of federal revolt like the crosses were destroyed
Vendée and Lyon The Paris Commune stopped paying clerical salaries in
The Terror in other parts of France, under the control May 1793
of watch committees, representatives-on-mission and In November 1793, they also ordered that all churches in
the revolutionary armies Paris should be closed
The CGS was largely responsible for bringing cases to the Other areas in France followed and by the spring of 1794,
Revolutionary Tribunal most of the country’s churches had been closed
These actions were deeply resented in villages
3.50. Provincial Repression For many people outside the civil war areas,
dechristianisation was the most impactful
By the end of 1793, the federal revolt had been
suppressed by the regular army 3.53. Revolutionary Calendar
Marseille, Lyon and Toulon were recaptured and the
Vendée rebels were crushed On 5 October 1793, a new revolutionary calendar was
Repression followed introduced
From January to May 1794, troops moved through the Its aim was to remove all traces of the monarchy
Vendée, killing nearly every peasant they met and burning It started from 22 September 1792, when the Republic
down their farms was proclaimed
The Vendée became a depopulated wasteland Thus 22 September 1792 to 21 September 1793 became
Thousands were crammed into prisons and were shot Year I
later The new calendar ignored Sundays and festivals of the
Most were ordinary peasants Church
Representative-on-mission and the revolutionary armies
were often responsible for the worst atrocities 3.54. Republic’s Problems
Yet the government encouraged them
At Nantes, 1800 people were drowned In Toulon, 800 By the end of 1793, the government had begun to
were shot without trial overcome the problems it had faced
On 12 October 1793, CPS ordered the destruction of Lyon The federal revolts had been crushed
1900 people were killed by cannon fire or guillotined Food supplies were moving into towns and cities
Around 72% of the executions during the Terror took The value of the assignat was rising
place in these rebel areas The civil war in the Vendée ended
French armies in the war were doing well
3.51. Law Of Suspects (September 1793) The Convention could now start taking back the power
given to the sans-culottes
Under these laws, the government gave some of its
power to local revolutionary committees 3.55. Restoring Government Authority
These committees were full of Montagnards and their
supporters Many local revolutionary committees, revolutionary
They worked with the representatives-on-mission and the armies, and representatives-on-mission were ignoring the
revolutionary armies law
Mass arrest took place The government could not tolerate anarchy
By the end of 1793, most rural communes had a In October 1793, the CPS passed a decree that the
committee government was to be revolutionary until the peace
This meant the suspension of the constitution
3.52. Religious Terror The constitution was never put back into operation

Dechristianisation was not an official government policy 3.56. The Law Of Revolutionary
The driving force behind this campaign came from the
sans-culottes in the Paris Commune, the revolutionary Government (December 1793)
armies and the representatives-on-mission
They hated Catholicism because they felt that it had The Law of Frimaire on 4 December 1793 established a
betrayed the Revolution revolutionary government
The Convention was merely drawn along with it This law gave the CGS and CPS full executive power
The destruction of churches was a symbol of the The CPS was given more extensive powers like controlling
revolutionaries’ determination to destroy everything foreign policy and directing local governments

Representative-on-missions were now under the control More people were sentenced to death in Paris by the
of the CPS Revolutionary Tribunal during June/July 1794 than in the
All revolutionary armies would now be disbanded previous 14 months of its existence
This ended the anarchy and broke the power of the sans- Many of the victims were nobles and clergyman
culottes
However, it rejected many of the principles of 1789 3.59. Catholics
Instead of decentralisation, it became more of a
dictatorship Robespierre believed in God
He hated the dechristianisation campaign as it made
3.57. Opposition To The Government enemies of the Revolution
He organised a new religion, the Cult of the Supreme
Left-wing opposition came from the published Jacques Being which was passed on 7 May 1794
Hebert and his followers On 8 June 1794 Robespierre organised a large ‘Festival of
His newspaper demanded that more hoarders should be the Supreme Being’ in Paris
executed and property redistributed This new religion pleased no one
This was very popular with the sans-culottes Catholics disliked it because it ignored Catholic doctrine
Hebert called for an insurrection at the beginning of and the Pope
March 1794 and was subsequently arrested Anti-clericals disliked it because it was the first step
Paris remained calm after he and his supporters were toward the reintroduction of Catholicism
guillotined on 24 March Many thought Robespierre was setting himself up as the
The CPS took advantage of the situation by: high priest of the new religion
Closing the Cordeliers Club
Disbanding all popular societies 3.60. Problems
The Paris Commune was purged and replaced by
supporters of Robespierre Robespierre’s popularity among the sans-culottes was
Representatives-on-mission were recalled to Paris falling because of:
The opposition of the right was centred around Danton The execution of Hebert and his supporters
Danton was a leading Montagnard/Jacobin The dissolution of the popular societies
Danton wanted to end the war to end the Terror as well The end of direct democracy in the Sections
Danton had become very wealthy so he was accused of The raising of the Maximum prices in March, resulting
bribery and corruption in inflation and a fall in the assignat
Danton’s friend, Camille Desmoulins supported him and The imposing of the Maximum on wages
wanted the release of citizens who were called suspects On 23 July, the Commune, now filled with Robespierre’s
Danton had a large following in the Convention so he was supporters, decided to apply the Maximum to wages
regarded as a much more serious threat by the CPS This led to a fall in wages by as much as half
The CPS felt the end of the Terror left the door open for This greatly affected the sans-culottes who were wage-
the return of the monarchy earners
Therefore, Danton and his followers were executed on 5 By the spring of 1794, the revolutionary armies had driven
April 1794 all foreign troops from French soil
These purges created an atmosphere of hatred and It seemed that the Terror was not needed anymore
suspicion The dictatorship of the two committees remained
unchallengeable until they fell out between themselves
3.58. The Great Terror In April, the CPS set up its own police bureau with
Robespierre in charge
The Great Terror was centred on Paris and lasted from 10 It was meant to prosecute dishonest officials, but the CGS
June until 27 July, 1794 felt that it interfered with its own control of internal
In order to control all repression, the government security
abolished the provincial Revolutionary Tribunals in May This made them rivals
1794 There were also conflicts within the CPS
Any suspects would now have to be brought to Paris to be Some members disliked the Saint-Just’s Laws of Ventose
tried (26 February 1794)
The supporters of Danton and Hebert still lived, so the Many on the CPS became suspicious of Robespierre
Terror had to continue particularly because of the Cult of the Supreme Being
The Law of Prairial was passed on 10 June 1794
This law removed any semblance of a fair trial and was 3.61. The Coup Of Thermidor
designed to speed up the process of revolutionary justice

During these divisions, Robespierre took a month away It was made up of men who gained from the Revolutions
from public life, possibly due to exhaustion by buying biens nationaux or obtaining government
He returned on 26 July and made a speech to the contracts
Convention about colleagues who were plotting against Therefore, they did not want to return to a monarchy
the government They disliked the Jacobins, popular democracy and the
He did not mention any names which was a huge mistake Terror
Everyone felt threatened as they could be outed by
Robespierre 4.2. Ending The Terror
A number of Robespierre’s colleagues decided to plot
against him before he ordered their arrest The Convention set about dismantling the machinery of
When Robespierre attempted to speak at the Convention Terror
on 27 July he was shouted down Between the end of July 1794 and 31 May 1795 the
The Convention then voted for the arrest of Robespierre Convention:
However, since Robespierre was still popular in the Abolished the Revolutionary Tribunal
Commune, Robespierre was released from prison and an Released all suspects from prison
insurrection occurred Repealed the Law of Prairial
Robespierre tried to order the National Guard to mobilise Closed the Jacobin Club
against the Convention In August, the Convention decreed that 25% of the
Since the two committees were dictatorships, they members of the CGS and CPS would be changed each
refused month
Meanwhile, the Convention also called on the National The CPS was now confined to running the war and
Guard to support the Convention diplomacy
Only a few Sections sent troops The Paris Commune was abolished and power passed to
Robespierre had little faith in the uprising so he did the moderates and property owners
nothing The Thermidorians renounced the Constitutional Church
Meanwhile, Robespierre was declared as an outlaw so he In September 1794, the Convention stopped paying
could be executed by trial clerical salaries, effectively separating the Church and
This persuaded most of the Sections to side with the State
Convention On 21 February 1795, the government restored freedom
On 28 July 1794, Robespierre and his supporters were of worship
executed, known as the Coup of Thermidor State recognition of the Supreme Being was ended
Over 100 members of the Commune were also executed The state was now neutral in all matters of religion
The Terror was finished

4.3. The Uprisings Of Germinal And

3.62. The End Of The Terror
Prairial
The Coup of Thermidor brought to an end the most
dramatic period of the Revolution The Thermidorians removed price controls in December
The Jacobin dictatorship ensured the defeat of the 1794 because they supported a free market and they
Republic’s internal and external enemies believed it was unenforceable
The Republic created a highly motivated citizen army This led to massive inflation and a fall in the value of the
However, there was massive loss of life and devastation assignat
in the Vendée and the areas of the federalist revolt The government now had to buy its war materials at
Many of the extremist policies of the CGS and CPS market price
alienated the Catholics and bourgeoisie To do this, they printed even more assignats
Before the Maximum was abolished, the assignat was
34% of its 1790 value
4. The Directory 1795-99 Now in April 1795 it was worth 8% and 4% in May
Poor harvests in 1794 worsened the situation
The winter of 1794-5 froze rivers and factories had to be
4.1. The Thermidorians closed down
There was an enormous increase in grain shortages and
Those who overthrew Robespierre were known as
general misery
Thermidorians
The Thermidorians were a mixed group of members from
the CGS, CPS and deputies of the Plain 4.4. Germinal (1 April 1795)
The Plain deputies emerged to take control
The hungry turned their fury towards the Convention

The uprising of Germinal was more of a demonstration

4.8. The White Terror In Paris
10,000 unarmed people marched on the Convention
They demanded bread, the constitution of 1793 and the In Paris, the Terror was mainly due to the works of middle-
release of former members of the CPS
class youths
No one in the Convention supported them
They formed gangs to beat up and intimidate Jacobins and
The National Guards appeared and the insurgents
the sans-culottes
withdrew peacefully They were violent but certainly not on the same scale as
In retaliation, the Convention exiled the former members
the Terror
of the CPS but repression towards the people was light

4.9. The White Terror In The Vendée

4.5. Prairial (20 May 1795)
The ‘White Terror’ was much more violent in the north-
This was a much more serious affair
west and south-east of France
It was an armed rising
Guerrilla warfare was revived in the Vendée in 1794
On 20 May, a large crowd of housewives, workers and In the spring, a movement known as the Chouan began in
some National Guard units marched on the Convention to
Brittany
demand bread
They were men who were against conscription
The Convention’s troops sided with the rebels
They attacked grain convoys and destabilised local
The rebel troops was not prepared to fire on the
government by murdering officials
Convention
The Chouans controlled most of Brittany and sought
The crisis was resolved when the Convention agreed to English support
accept the petition and set up a food commission
In June 1795, 3,000 emigres troops landed and joined the
National Guards loyal to the Convention showed up later
rebel forces
and cleared the Assembly
The total rebel forces numbered around 22,000
On 22 May, the Convention took action
General Hoche led 10,000 troops to seal them off
Rebel suburbs were surrounded by 20,000 troops and The rebel forces surrendered and 6,000 prisoners were
were forced to surrender
taken while 640 were shot
The repression resulted in:
This was a huge disaster for the émigrés
40 Montagnards were arrested and 6 were executed
The government wanted to fully wipe out the Chouan, so
Another 36 where executed Hoche was sent with an army of 140,000 to wipe out the
About 6,000 militants were disarmed and arrested
Chouan and the Vendée rebels
By summer of 1796, government authority was restored
4.6. Failures Of The Sans-Culottes in those regions

Prairial marked the end of the sans-culottes as a political

4.10. The White Terror In The South
and military force
1795-6 was equally as bad as 1794-5 yet there were no
In the south, the murder gangs of the White Terror were
more uprisings not considered to be a serious threat, so little effort was
The sans-culottes failed because:
spent to eradicate them
The National Guard units were divided
However, this allowed the rebels to quickly establish
There was no central organisation like the Paris
themselves
Commune to coordinate their actions
Prison massacres like the September Massacres took
They were politically inexperienced
place
They had lost the support of the radical bourgeoisie Gangs of youths killed as many as 2,000 in the south-east
The regular army was used to intervene
in 1795
The killing continued throughout 1796 and for much of the
4.7. The White Terror following year

The ‘White Terror’ was an attack on ex-terrorists and all

4.11. Constitution Of 1795
who had benefitted from the Revolution by those who had
suffered under it
The Thermidorians wanted a new constitution that would
White was the colour of the Bourbons, so ‘White Terror’ guarantee the main features of the Revolution of 1789
implies that it was a royalist reaction
(the abolition of privilege, freedom of the individual, and
However, this is only partly true as returning émigrés did
the control of local and national affairs by an elected
take advantage of the attackers
assembly)
The White’s main concern was revenge They also did not want a dictatorship like the CPS to ever
occur again

A new constitution was agreed on 22 August 1795, whose The new constitution rigidly enforced the separation of
main features included: powers
All men over 21 who paid direct taxation were allowed The Directory would have to cancel election results or call
to vote in primary assemblies to choose electors in the army to resolve disputes
The real power laid with the electors who actually While drawing up the new constitution, the Convention
chose the deputies feared that free elections might produce a royalist
Electors had to pay taxes equivalent to 150-200 days’ majority
labour, so electors were very rich and had In order to avoid this it decreed that two-thirds of the new
subsequently suffered from the Revolution in 1793-4 deputies would be chosen from among the existing
To prevent a dictatorship, the legislature was rigidly deputies of the Convention
separated from the executive After the constitution was agreed upon on 22 August, a
plebiscite was held
4.12. The Legislature One million were in favour, 50,000 was against, but four
million did not vote
The legislature was divided into two chambers: The two-thirds decree was only accepted 205,000 to
The Council of Five Hundred, all of whom had to be 108,000
over the age of 30
This Council would initiate legislation and then pass it 4.15. Verona Declaration (24 June 1795)
onto the Council of Ancients
The Council of Ancients was 250 men over the age of The royalists wanted to promote their cause
40 who would approve or object bills, but could not Constitutional monarchists, wanting a return to a limited
introduce or change them monarchy, felt they were gaining public support as they
Elections were to be held every year where a third of the appeared to offer a prospect of stability
members would retire They had hoped to put Louis XVI’s son on the throne, but
he died in June 1795
4.13. The Executive The Comte de Provence, Louis XVI’s brother immediately
proclaimed himself Louis XVII and on 24 June issued the
The executive was to be a Directory of five chosen by the Verona Declaration
Ancients from a list drawn up by the Five Hundred Louis promised to return to the ‘ancient constitution’ of
The five directors would hold office for five years, but one France, which meant restoring the old three orders
had to be replaced each year He also promised to return the properties of the Church
The Directors could not be members of either Council and and émigrés
their powers were limited This antagonised all those who had bought biens
They could not initiate or veto laws nationaux and those who had benefited from the abolition
They could not declare war and had no control over the of the tithe and feudal dues
treasury Although it was not intended as such, the Verona
They were in charge of diplomacy, military affairs and law Declaration turned out to be a great boost to those who
enforcement favoured a Republic
Government ministers and commissioners were under
the executive and would make sure that government 4.16. The Vendemiaire Uprising (5
policy was implemented in the provinces
October 1795)
4.14. Weaknesses In The New The Verona Declaration failed to attract mass support for
Constitution the royalist cause
News of the two-thirds law came as a shock to many
Despite the complex system to balance power, the new Parisians who had hoped that the Convention would be
Constitution had many weaknesses: replaced
The yearly elections created instability as majorities in The Convention’s inability to deal with food shortages and
the councils could be quickly overturned inflation turned many people against the Convention, yet
There was no means of resolving conflicts between many of its deputies would return to the new assembly
the legislature and the executive Royalists felt that restoration of the monarchy was
The Directory could be paralysed if the council refused unlikely given the known hostility of the Convention
to pass laws as the directors could not dissolve or veto Frustration and anger turned into rebellion
laws passed by the councils On 5 October 1795, a large royalist crowd of over 25,000
Meanwhile, the legislature could only alter the gathered to march on the Convention and seize power
Directory by replacing one director a year They greatly outnumbered the 8,000 government troops,
but they had cannons

Under General Bonaparte, the government forces People were tired of war and religious conflict and
crushed the rebellion believed a constitutional monarchy offered peace and
Over 300 were killed or wounded stability
Now the people of Paris would not attempt to intimidate Royalists won 180 of the 260 seats being contested
an elected assembly again This meant the Directory no longer had majority support
Repression was light as only two people were executed and could only rely on a third of the deputies
However, the Sectional Assemblies were abolished and It seemed that in the next elections, the monarchists
the National Guard was put under the control of the new would gain a majority and thus could restore the
General of the Army of the Interior, Napoleon Bonaparte monarchy legally
For the second time in six months, the army had saved the The royalist strength was shown as two of the directors
Thermidorians were sympathetic to the monarchists
Of the remaining directors, two were Republicans
4.17. The Directory They were determined to prevent the restoration of the
monarchy
The directors wanted to provide a stable and liberal On 3-4 September, troops seized all the strong points in
government, which would maintain the gains of the Paris and surrounded the council chambers
Revolution The two monarchist directors and 53 deputies were
Yet they faced many problems arrested
There was no end in sight of the war and it had to be paid The remaining deputies still felt intimidated so two
for decrees demanded by the remaining directors were
The treasury was empty, taxes were unpaid and the approved
assignat had plummeted in value One decree cancelled the elections in 49 departments,
Many people did not expect the Directory to last more removing 177 deputies without providing for their
then a few months replacement
Yet the Directory did survive and survived longer than any A second decree allowed for the deportation of the
of the other revolutionary regimes arrested deputies, directors and some leading royalists
There were a number of factors that contributed to this: The directors then cancelled the local government
The Directory was committed to restoring the rule of elections and made appointments themselves
law This marked the end of parliamentary government and
Many key opponents had been discredited the constitution of 1795
The royalists were deeply divided between extremists The monarchists had been dealt a severe blow
and constitutional monarchists The Directory could now govern without a hostile council
The public was tired of revolution as revolutionary
enthusiasm had disappeared 4.20. Terror
Importantly, the army supported the Directory as a
royalist restoration would end the war After Fructidor, the new Directory took action against
It was the army, above all, that enabled the Directory emigres and refractory priests
to overcome all challenges to its authority During the next few months, many were hunted down and
sentenced to death
4.18. The Babeuf Plot 1796 Clergy were now required to take an oath, rejecting any
support for the monarchy
The first real challenge to the Directory came from Those who refused would be deported
Gracchus Babeuf In the short term, this succeeded in destroying the royalist
He disliked the Constitution of 1795 as it gave power to movement
the wealthy However, this alienated the Catholics, creating more
From 1796, Babeuf organised a coup to overthrow the opponents for the Directory
Directory
However, he received no support from the sans-culottes 4.21. Financial Reform
or former Jacobins
He was arrested in May 1796 after being betrayed by a Many of the financial problems of the Directory were the
fellow conspirator legacy of previous regimes
By February 1796, the assignats were virtually worthless
4.19. The Coup Of Fructidor 1797 Therefore, the Directory issued a new paper currency
known as the mandates territoriaux
The elections of 1797 revealed more support for the These also lost value and by July were worth less than 5%
monarchists of their nominal value
In February 1797 they ceased to be legal tender

Metal coins became the only legal currency but these Led by General Napoleon Bonaparte, the French army
were in short supply defeated the Austrians and an armistice was agreed upon
This resulted in deflation as producers and retailers at Leoben in April 1797
lowered prices The Peace of Campo Formio (18 October) 1797 confirmed
The inflation of 1795-7 had made the Directory unpopular what had been agreed in Leoben and confirmed Napoleon
with workers as a great international statesman
Now the Directory became unpopular with businessmen
since lower prices meant lower profits 4.25. Creating States
4.22. Decreasing The National Debt French foreign policy became increasingly aggressive as
the directors sought to keep French conquest and even
After the coup of Fructidor, the Directory had little trouble extend them
with the purged councils France reorganised a number of foreign territories,
Therefore the minister of finance, Ramel, introduced effectively redrawing the map of Europe
some far-reaching reforms These new territories were in effect satellite republics
In September 1797 two-thirds of the national debt was under French influence or control
renounced by a one-off payment to debt holders The spring of 1798 marked the high point of the Republic’s
Their loans to the government were converted into non- power
interest-bearing bonds which could be used to buy In parts of Europe, France had gained a degree of
national property dominance unparalleled in modern European History
This reduced the government’s annual interested on
national debt from 240 million livres to 80 million
4.26. The Second Coalition
The bond holders had no benefit
Within a year the value of the bonds had fallen by 60% Following his successes in Italy, Napoleon departed for
and soon after they became worthless Egypt in May 1798
The bond holders were unhappy with the measures, but it However, his fleet was destroyed
did help stabilise French finances for a time This defeat encouraged other countries to take up arms
against France again
4.23. Increasing Revenue The Second Coalition was formed and Russia also joined
by declaring war in December
In addition to cutting expenditure, Ramel wanted to France declared war on Austria in March 1799 and
increase revenue fighting resumed
He put in place a number of policies: France’s victories were now followed by a series of
A tax on trading licences defeats
A land tax However, arguments within the allies meant the
A tax on movable property immediate danger to France was over
A tax on doors and windows
These measures were among the lasting achievements of 4.27. Coup Of Floreal
the Directory
Ramel also changed the method of collecting direct taxes The persecution of royalists after Fructidor was so severe
Commissioners appointed by the Directors were to collect that they tended to keep away from assemblies in 1798
taxes Although the Jacobins did well in elections, they captured
The continuing war caused the government to revive the less than a third of the seats
indirect taxes from the monarchy The Directory could be sure of majority support among
The octrois was reintroduced and was again very the deputies
unpopular as it raised the price of goods However, the directors persuaded the councils to pass the
Another source of revenue was the plunder from foreign Law of 22 Floreal (11 May 1798) which annulled elections
states like Germany and Italy of 127 deputies, 86 of whom were suspected Jacobins
Peace with Austria also reduced government expenditure There was little justification of the coup of Floreal as the
This allowed Ramel to balance the budget for the first Republic was not in danger
time since the Revolution began

4.28. Jordan’s Law (September 1798)

4.24. War 1794-9
By 1798, there were concerns about the size of the French
The battle in June 1794 was the first of a series of army which was only 270,000 strong
successes for France Jordan’s law proposed that military conscription be
In 1796, France wanted to defeat Austria reintroduced for the first time since 1793

The councils approved this in September 1798 Sieyès wanted to move the councils to Saint-Cloud as the
However, this provoked widespread resistance Jacobins in the Five Hundred had numerous support in
The 1799 elections once again showed the unpopularity of Paris
the Directory The Ancients persuaded the councils to move to the safer
The moderates had become disillusioned with the location
government as news of military defeats reached Paris On 10 November it was clear that a plot was organised by
Sieyès
4.29. Crisis The Council of Five Hundred was furious, so Bonaparte
reluctantly agreed to address both councils
With its armies being forced back into France, the The appearance of Napoleon was not taken positively
Republic could no longer pay for war by seizing foreign He was attacked by Jacobin deputies and had to be
assets rescued by fellow officers
A forced loan on the rich was decreed Napoleon’s brother and president of the Five Hundred,
This was intended to raise 100 million livres Lucien, came to the rescue when he told the troops that
This meant that the wealthy had to give up as much as some deputies were trying to assassinate their general
three-fourths of their income The troops came in and cleared the hall where the Five
The Law of Hostages of 12 July allowed for the Hundred were meeting
imprisonment for anyone resisting the new laws Some hours later, a small group of councillors met and
These measures appeared to be a return to the military approved the decree which abolished the Directory
arrests and harassment of the Terror of Year II It was replaced with a provisional executive committee of
However, only 10 million livres of the forced loans had three members: Sieyès, Roger Docus and Napoleon
been collected
Conscription planned to raise 402,000 troops but only 4.32. Constitution Of 1799
248,000 actually joined because of widespread resistance
Many became brigands or royalist rebels to avoid Paris remained calm as they were reluctant to be involved
conscription in more protest
In 1799 there was a virtual collapse of government There was little rejoicing when news of the coup spread to
administration in the provinces the provinces
The National Guard was not large enough to keep order, Napoleon presented the new constitution on 15
so substantial areas of the countryside were not policed December
at all The republican phase of the Revolution was drawing to a
Government commissioners were killed as they were close
replaced
By November 1799 there was civil war in southern France 4.33. Failure Of The Directory
4.30. The Coup Of Brumaire (November The Directory failed to great stability partly due to the
constitution of 1795 with its annual elections and no
1799) provision for settling disputes
The directors also interfered with election results,
The military situation improved in the late summer of
destroying any respect they had
1799
Increasing reliance on the army paved the way for a
The Russians were being driven out in September
military coup
Sieyès, who had become a director, saw this as an
Many of the Directory’s supporters left due to its
opportunity to stage a coup
economic policies
He wanted to strengthen the executive, but knew that the
Prolonged war created opposition, but the war was
Five Hundred would not agree
needed to enable the regime to survive
Therefore a coup was required for which the support of
The reappearance of the Terror convinced many that the
the army would be needed
Directory should not continue
Moreau was approached, but he recommended
Bonaparte, who had returned from Egypt on 10 October
On his way to Paris, Bonaparte was greeted 4.34. Achievements Of The Directory
enthusiastically by the population
He agreed to join Sieyès’ coup but only on the condition The financial reforms and reorganisation of the tax
that a provisional government of three consuls, who system contributed to economic recovery
would draft a new constitution, would be set up This helped to stimulate industrial and agricultural
expansion
Changes in the administration within the departments
4.31. The Removal To Saint-Cloud were continued by prefects

Napoleon initiated all legislation through the Council of

5. The Consulate State or the Senate
He declared war and made peace
5.1. Napoleon’s Aims
5.5. The Senate
Napoleon wanted to concentrate political power into his
own hands Sieyes intended the Senate to act as a brake on the
He agreed to three consuls, where the second and third executive
consul would have no independent executive authority However, Napoleon was able to turn it into an instrument
and would be more of a consultant of his personal power
Napoleon himself would be first consul Senators were appointed for life, given a substantial
salary and were rewarded with gifts of land and money
Therefore, when Napoleon appointed extra members,
5.2. Legislature
they were all loyal to Napoleon
When the Senate increased from 80 to 140 by 1814, most
Neither Sieyès nor Napoleon wanted the legislature to
have a dominant place in the Constitution of the extra members were appointed by Napoleon
The legislative process was divided between four bodies: This meant the Senate would essentially accept
everything Napoleon suggested
The Council of State
The Tribunate
A legislative body 5.6. Revisions Of The Constitution
The Senate
The Council of State drew up proposals In 1802, the Constitution was revised
The Tribunate could discuss legislations, but could not The Tribunate would be purged of troublesome elements
vote on it Napoleon was made first consul for life
The legislative body would vote on legislation but could Napoleon could also name his successor
not discuss it This essentially made him a sort of hereditary monarch
The Senate considered whether the proposed legislation In 1804, a further revision was made which recognised
conformed to the Constitution Napoleon as Emperor
Plebiscites were held for both revisions and the results
were similar to the one in 1800 - overwhelming support
5.3. New Constitution
for Napoleon
Sieyes and Napoleon recognised the need for the
Constitution to acknowledge the principle of popular 5.7. Establishment Of A Dictatorship
sovereignty
However, they wanted to ensure that the common people By 1804, the normal constitutional channels used for
were excluded from effective political power making law were being ignored
As a compromise, they agreed on the principle of As there was no cabinet system, all ministers reported
universal manhood suffrage, but ensured the electing directly to Napoleon
system would be indirect and have limited influence on This was a top-down government where Napoleon’s
the legislature and executive control of the government system was more absolute
This Constitution essentially gave Napoleon effective than that of the monarchy that ruled France before 1789
political power in France Overall, by 1804 Napoleon had effectively established a
To lend legitimacy to the new Constitution, a plebiscite dictatorship
was held in 1800
The Constitution was supported by over 3 million votes to 5.8. Popular Sovereignty
around 1,500
The plebiscites Napoleon seemed to suggest that the
5.4. First Consul people supported his actions
However, the 1800 plebiscite was organised by
As first consul, Napoleon would have immense influence Napoleon’s brother Lucien who simply added 500,000
over all legislative bodies votes in the ‘yes’ column for the army
From the national list, he could choose the second and Many local officials also doctored results
third consul and members of the Council of State However, the plebiscites did lend some legitimacy as it
He also indirectly influenced the choice of senators, suggested a lack of opposition
tribunes and legislators
Napoleon controlled government appointments, whom he 5.9. Reforms Under The Consulate
allowed no freedom of action

All aspects of life were reformed by Napoleon had made any significant progress
Napoleon had no ideology, so he would adopt any ideas To address this problem, Napoleon decided to issue a
that would ensure order and efficiency unified code of law to replace the complex system that
However, this meant his regime would be full of existed at the time.
contradictions Many of the old laws were based on ancient traditions,
For example, in theory Napoleon’s laws guaranteed others were dictated by the Church
equality, but in practice they favoured employers over This generated confusion for governments and the
workers, men over women population
Also, all laws were proclaimed by Napoleon using his Therefore, Napoleon asked the Council of State to design
powers one set of laws for all parts of France
Napoleon claimed to rule by the will of the people and the Napoleon took personal interest in the process, attending
will of God, a claim made by the monarchs before him many meetings
While developing these reforms, Napoleon used men of
5.10. Religion Under Napoleon talent, not caring about their background
The outcome of this was the Civil Code of 1804 or
The Concordat with Pius VII in July 1801 was a major Napoleonic Code
achievement by Napoleon This gave the country a common set of laws that were
After the election of the new pope, Pius VII, Napoleon imposed by Napoleon and could not be challenged by
sought reconciliation between France and Rome traditions and local rights
Napoleon’s decision was purely from a political standpoint
He thought of religion as a way to bond people 5.13. Impacts Of The Napoleonic Code
This would also break up the opposition of the Catholics
and the vast majority of French people would have less The Code kept many of the achievements of the
reasons to oppose him Revolution, but also included a number of illiberal
However, Napoleon’s price for reconciliation was high measures
He gained effective control of the church, appointments of On one hand it confirmed the abolition of feudalism,
clerics, a clerical oath of loyalty to the state and equality before the law and freedom of conscience
acceptance of the loss of church lands during the On the other, it reintroduced slavery to the French
Revolution colonies, gave employers the upper hand in wage
In return, he recognised Catholicism as the ‘religion of the disputes and workers were forced to carry a passbook or
majority of Frenchmen’, the restoration of Sunday worship livret, effectively limiting their freedom of movement
and state responsibility for the payment of the clergy Many of the rights that women had been granted since
After this agreement, Napoleon added the ‘Organic 1789 were reversed
Articles’ to the Concordat in 1802, without the Pope’s The authority of a husband over his wife and children
agreement were restored
These articles introduced religious toleration and made
the Protestant and Jewish churches subject to state 5.14. Education
authority
Education for ordinary people was neglected by Napoleon
5.11. Impact Of The Concordat Napoleon often declared his beliefs in equal opportunities
for all, something he called ‘careers open to talents’, but
In the shorter term, the Concordat reconciled the Catholic he generally failed to ensure that this was carried out in
church to the regime practice
It helped pacify unrest in the Vendée There was no provision for the education of girls
Priests were now a vehicle for Napoleon’s propaganda as Napoleon recognised the need for well-trained and loyal
they had to say prayers for Napoleon servants
Meanwhile, most of the population was content as they In 1802, he instituted a system of state-run lycées or
had their churches, priests and kept the land the Church schools, for the sons of officers and nobles
had forfeited The curriculum was closely supervised and free thinking
Napoleon also insisted on Pius VII to attend his coronation was discouraged
ceremony to suggest that his reign was authorised by God In 1808, Napoleon also set up the Imperial University to
himself oversee the curriculum and inspect schools

5.12. The Napoleonic Code 5.15. Financial Reforms

Since the start of the Revolution, all governments had Possibly the most pressing issue was the need to
tried to bring order to the system of law in France, but few establish financial stability

As Napoleon lacked the skills to implement financial The repression of opposition depended on the
reforms, he appointed a number of very able ministers to effectiveness of local government, who were directed by
undertake this task the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Police
The early financial reforms introduced were: Officials like the prefects were crucial as they were the
Clearer division of roles between the ministry of link between the government and the provinces
finance (which oversaw collection of taxes and The Ministry of Police’s main purpose was to keep a close
revenues) and the treasury (which dealt with watch on all forms of subversion
government expenditure) This was done through spies and informants
Reorganisation of both direct and indirect tax Joseph Fouche, the first minister, reported daily to
collection Napoleon
The first steps in establishing a public banking system Napoleon also had a network of spies to check on
Napoleon centralised the collection of duties by creating a Fouche’s reports
Central Excise Office in 1804 Department prefects sent reports to Napoleon on public
Revenue from indirect taxes increase by over 400% opinion
between 1806 and 1812 The Ministry of Police also had responsibility over
One of the most important reforms introduced by censorship, prison surveillance and monitoring food
Napoleon was the creation of the Bank of France on the 6 prices
January 1800 This system prevent opposition from becoming open and
The Bank of France had the sole right to issue paper notes denied critics publicity
His aim was to improve the efficiency of the state’s
finances 5.18. Chouans
On the 28 March 1803, Napoleon introduced the franc de
germinal, which became the basis of his monetary system While Napoleon was seizing power in Paris, royalist unrest
This reform gave France the most stable currency in had broken out in Brittany
Europe at that time The rebels there were known as Chouans and the unrest
It would remain the basis of France’s currency for the next as the Chouannerie
120 years Napoleon offered them amnesty if the rebels laid down
He began by bringing tax collection under the control of their arms, concessions on religion and an end to laws
the Ministry of Finance, developing a hierarchy of paid tax that attacked emigres
collectors and building up a comprehensive tax register When they refused, in January 1800, Napoleon ordered
He ensured the flow of credit at reasonable rates of the army to crush the Chouannerie
interest by guaranteeing the payment of interest on By April, they were wiped out
government debt There were no more widespread royalist unrest during
Military victory in 1801 also brought plunder while peace the Napoleonic period
in 1802 reduced costs The royalist threat was still there, but they were limited to
Similarly, economic policies such as the offer of credit to assassination attempts and relied on foreign support
businesses, the buying up of foreign grain stocks to
ensure bread-price stability and then a series of good
harvests all contributed to the healthy economic climate
5.19. Censorship
of the Consulate
Napoleon did not believe in freedom of the press
In January 1800, the number of newspapers in Paris was
5.16. Impacts Of Financial Reforms reduced from 73 to 13, and in 1810 to 4
The press bureau of the Police kept a close watch on all
By 1802, Napoleon was able to balance the budget publications
When compared with the financial chaos of the previous Napoleon silenced actors, exiled writers, sacked
regimes, both the Consulate and the Empire were much journalists and imprisoned club leaders
more successful A lot of articles could only be viewed in the government
The currency was stabilised, public debts were honoured newspaper Le Moniteur
and the wages of public officials and the army were paid Plays, books and art were censored as well
However, State military expenditure increase from
around 700 million francs in 1806 to over 1 billion in 1813
The military defeats of 1813-14 also removed this source
5.20. Propaganda
of income and marked a renewed period of financial
Key to Napoleon’s propaganda was attaching falsehoods
instability
to truth
Napoleon had David paint him riding on a white stallion
5.17. Repression System during his campaign, when in reality he rode on a mule

The campaign in Egypt was muddled and murderous, yet On 1 March 1808, Napoleon went further and created a
it was presented as a triumph new imperial nobility
His other military actions abroad undoubtedly assisted in These new titles were awarded directly by the Emperor
cementing his popularity at home for state service
The Arc De Triomphe, begun in 1809, was a celebration of Members of Senate would receive large country estates
Napoleon’s victories and a large annual income
Festivals were organised in Napoleon’s honour
Napoleon also aimed to reconcile people through a policy 5.22. The End Of The Consulate
called ralliement
Napoleon would forgive and forget what people had done In 1804, Napoleon abandoned the Consulate and crowned
in the past if they were loyal to the regime himself emperor
For example, he allowed émigrés to return if they Pope Pius VII was in attendance to represent the approval
accepted his authority of God and the Church
Napoleon claimed that the change would unify the country
5.21. Patronage And Bribery The establishment of the empire was confirmed by
popular approval though plebiscites, giving the
To increase support for Napoleon, he issued a impression of a democracy
considerable amount of gifts, money, land, titles, honours However these votes were doctored
and government appointments This move allowed him to have hereditary succession
After peace with Britain in 1802, Napoleon instituted the This also could have reconciled royalists to a certain
legion d’honneur, to reward those who sacrificed extent
themselves and to encourages other to emulate them
Between 1804 and 1808, new titles were created for the
officials of the new imperial court

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These notes have been created by Derek Peng for the 2021-2023 syllabus
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ZNOTES.

UPDATED TO 2021-2023 SYLLABUS

1.3. 1790: 24 March, Execution of Hebert and his leading supporters

2. Causes and Outcomes of

These were known as the Municipal Revolution of July

The Flight occurred on June 1791

Revolution There was now an expectation of a military coup in

3.21. Royal Vetoes 3.24. The Brunswick Manifesto (1

The Major of Paris went to the Legislative Assembly and

September 1792) 3.34. Economic Issues

The growth in power of the sans-culottes was largely due

3.45. The Levée En Masse (23 August 3.48. Economic Terror

4.3. The Uprisings Of Germinal And

The uprising of Germinal was more of a demonstration

4.9. The White Terror In The Vendée

Prairial marked the end of the sans-culottes as a political

The ‘White Terror’ was an attack on ex-terrorists and all

4.28. Jordan’s Law (September 1798)

Napoleon initiated all legislation through the Council of

5.12. The Napoleonic Code 5.15. Financial Reforms

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