Lesson 1: Child Development as a Field of Study

Documenting Normal Child Development

Child development draws the interest and imagination of anyone who cares for kids.
They are born with almost no ability to control their emotions and will cry and scream
Two Essential Reasons to Have a Basic Understanding of Child Psychology:
even at the slightest discomfort. Gradually, they acquire the ability to regulate their
1. Assessing Realistic Expectations - Knowledge about child development helps emotions.
you to have realistic expectations for kids.
 Abnormal is not that abnormal - It usually involves a normal response to
2. Comprehending Worrisome Trends - For instance, the diagnosis of autism has
abnormal events.
increased rapidly over the past decades. Developmental issues (attention deficit
 Normal is not all that normal - No one survives childhood without encountering a
disorders, learning problems, and behavior problems).
few significant problems. No one is perfect.
Factors Affecting Child Development
Analyzing Abnormal Development
A child is not simply a product of the joining of a sperm and an egg. From conception
1. Physical - Children’s bodies do not always function the way they should. Other
forward, many factors from all directions (e.g., media, culture, genetics) affect the
times, bodily symptoms come from emotional distress.
developing child.
2. Learning - Achieving their potential occurs in school. Learning disabilities,
 Genetics - Physical aspects (height, weight, body texture, eye color, the texture attention problems, and intellectual challenges all can serve as obstacles to reaching
of hair, and even physical and mental aptitude) are naturally passed on from this goal.
parents to their children. 3. Autism - Children experience great difficulties relating to others and the world.
 Environment - Physical surroundings can affect the child’s interests and 4. Emotional disorders - Discovering how children control their emotions and
activities majorly, while the mental and emotional surroundings will affect how the impulses. Children are born almost devoid of the ability to control their crying,
child surrounds themselves when they grow up. distress, and behavior. They slowly acquire the ability to soothe themselves and
 Physical and mental well-being - Healthy lifestyle that includes moderate practice delayed gratification.
amounts of sports, and exercise can contribute greatly to their growth and 5. Behavior disorders - Every child misbehaves.
development. 6. Trauma and abuse - Children encounter tragedies and traumatic events.
 Nutrition - Paying complete attention to the intake of vital nutrients when the
Module 1: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches
food is processed.
 Family and Social Life - The love they receive and what they learn about  Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at
relationships from their immediate surroundings, such as their families and conception and continues through the lifespan.
friends.  Development includes growth (positive) and decline (negative).
 Education - The kind of education children receive and constant learning at
home. Major Principles of Human Development
 Play - Create an environment that allows them to play and be creative. 1. Development is relatively orderly – It follows the same structure.
 Cultural Nourishment – Exposure to wonderful things that will inspire them  Proximodistal Pattern - The muscular control of the trunk and the arms
(nature and cultural documentaries, music, art, and cinema). comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers.
 Socio-Economic Conditions - Being open about economic conditions gives a  Cephalo-caudal Pattern - The greatest growth always occurs at the top of
positive view of the world, even with limited opportunities. the head gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example,
neck, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on).
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of Module 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals – The result and the rate of development. Pre-natal period Referring to pre-natal development, Saptrock (2002) asked the
following questions succinctly “How from so simple a beginning do endless forms
3. Development takes place gradually – It doesn’t happen in a snap of a finger. develop and grow and mature? What was this organism, what is it now, and what will
it become? Birth’s fragile moment arrives, when the new born is on a threshold
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of between two worlds.”
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes.
Infancy (from birth to 2 years) P F As newborns, we were not empty-headed
 Biological processes - changes in the individual’s physical nature. organisms. We cried. Kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We slept a
 Cognitive processes - changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and lot and occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles was not o entirely
language. clear. We crawled and then we walked, a journey of 8 thousand miles beginning with
 Socio-emotional processes - changes in the individual’s relationships with a single step. Sometimes we n conformed, sometimes others conformed to us. Our
other people, changes in emotions and personality. development was a continuous creation of complex forms, and our helpless kind
demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two halves “me and
Approaches to Development not me.” And we juggled the need to curb our own will with becoming what we could
will freely. (Santrock, 2002)
 Traditional Approach
 Life-span Approach Early Childhood (3 to 5 years) In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was
1. Development is lifelong. being only four years old. We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives
– It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates development. so busy, busy becoming something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our
thoughts, which worked up into small mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and
2. Development is multidimensional. images and drawings took wings. The blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch.
– Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Our small world widened as we discovered new refuges and new people. When we
said “I” we meant something totally unique, not to be confused with any other”
3. Development is plastic. (Santrock, 2002)
– Development is possible throughout the life-span.
Adolescence (13-18 years) “In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time
4. Development is contextual. of life for us. We clothed ourselves with rainbows and went brave as the zodiac,
– Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. flashing from one end of the world to the other. We tried on one face after another,
searching for a face of our own. We wanted our parents to understand us and hoped
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. they would give up the privilege of understanding them. We wanted to fly but found
Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. that first we had to learn to stand and walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply
– The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as and awkward moments we became acquainted with sex. We played furiously at adult
individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back games but were confined to a society of our own peers. Our generation was the
stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage. fragile cable by which the best and the worst of our parents’ generation was
transmitted to the present. In the end, there were two but lasting bequests our 4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
parents could leave us one being roots, the other wings. (Santrock, 2002) 5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality
Early adulthood (19-29 years) Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, 7. Readiness for reading
sometimes leaving little time for anything else. For some of us, find ing our place in 8. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience
adult society and committing to a more stable li take longer than we imagine. We still
ask ourselves who we an and wonder if it isn’t enough just to be. Our dreams Middle Childhood (6-12)
continue and our thoughts are bold but at some point we become more pragmatic
Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives at times angel of light, at other times 1. Learning physical skills, necessary for ordinary games
of torment. And we possibly will neve know the love of our parents until we become 2. Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself
parents ourselves (Santrock, 2002), 3. Learning to get along with age- mates
4. Learning an appropriate sex role
Middle adulthood (30-60 years) In middle adulthood what we have been forms what 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
we will be. For some of us, middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
to discover what we are running from and to and why. We compare our life with what 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
we vowed to make it. In middle age, more time stretches before us and some 8.Achieving personal independence
evaluations have to be made, however reluctantly. As the young/old polarity greets 9. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society
us with a special force, we need to join the daring of youth with the discipline of age
in a way that does justice to both. As middle- aged adults we come to sense that the
generations of living things pass in a short while and like runners hand on the torch Adolescence (13-18)
of life. (Santrock, 2002).
1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes. 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine
Late adulthood (61 years and above) The rhythm and meaning of human social role 3. Accepting one’s physique
development eventuall wend their way to late adulthood, when each of us stands 4. Achieving emotional independence of adults
alone the heart of the earth and “suddenly it is evening”. We shed th leaves of youth 5. Preparing for marriage and family life
and are stripped by the winds of time down to the truth. We learn that life is lived 6. Preparing for an economic career
forward but understood backward We trace the connection between the end and the 7. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior
beginning of l and try to figure out what this whole show is about before it over 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Ultimately we come to know that we are what survives of w (Santrock, 2002).
Early Adulthood (19-29)
Developmental Task
1. Selecting a mate
Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5) 2. Learning to live with a partner
3. Starting a family
1. Learning to walk 4. Rearing children
2. Learning to take solid foods 5. Managing a home
3. Learning to talk 6. Starting an occupation
7. Assuming civic responsibility Behavior is therefore determined by biology.
Genetic make-up of parents has endowed to the child as early as conception is an
important factor in the child’s development.
Middle Adulthood (30-60) Also a Determinist view – suggests all behavior is determined by hereditary factors:
Inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we are born with.
1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults “All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception.”
2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre-
3. Satisfactory career achievement programmed to emerge with age.
4. Developing adult leisure time activities Is a developmental approach:
5. Relating to one’s spouse as a person Example:
6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age Piaget: Children’s thought processes change at predetermined age-related stages
7. Adjusting to aging parent changes in age are related to changes in behavior.

Later Maturity (61-and over) Nurture:

An individuals behavior is determined by the environment — the things people teach
1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health them, the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in.
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income The kind of environment the child is subjected to that contributes to development.
3. Adjusting to death of spouse Also a determinist view – proposes all human behavior is the result of interactions
4. Establishing relations with one’s own age group with the environment.
5. Meeting social and civic obligations Behaviorist theories are nurture theories. Behavior is shaped by interactions with the
6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters environment.
Humans are born as an empty vessel – waiting to be filled up by experiences gained
Module 3: Issues on Human Development from environmental interaction.
No limit to what they can achieve:
Three Issues in Human Development Depends on quality of external influences and NOT genes.
The quality of the environment is KEY
Nature versus Nurture You can become anything provided the environment is right.
Continuity versus Discontinuity
Stability versus Change Behavior is often a result of the interaction between NATURE and NURTURE.

Nature versus Nurture An individuals characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people;
The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology (nature) or example:
learned through interacting with the environment (nurture). Temperament: how active, responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part
determines their caregivers responses.
Nature: Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to expectations of
Behavior is caused by innate characteristics : The physiological/biological masculine and feminine characteristics.
characteristics we are born with.
Aggression: Displaying aggressive behavior create particular responses from other What is the Theory of Development?
people. Developmental stage theories are theories that divide child development into distinct
stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behaviour. There are a
Continuity vs Discontinuity number of different views about the way in which psychological and physical
development proceed throughout the life span.
Continuity and discontinuity are two competing theories in developmental psychology
that attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives. Stability vs Change
Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity disagree with one another in how they
assess the changes that someone undergoes throughout the course of their life. Stability:
Implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the life span.
The Continuity Theory Idea that personality traits remain stable of a person over time.
Says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course.
Shows that development is a continuous process that occurs gradually in small Change:
increments. Modified by interactions with family, peers and acculturation.
Examines the way someone changes in a quantitative and continuous respect. Idea that a personality can shift overtime as a result of life experiences.
The stability-change debate describes the developmental psychology discussion
The Discontinuity Theory about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain
Contends that people change abruptly. These changes can be described as a wide constant or change throughout the life span.
variety of someone’s social and behavioral makeup, like their emotions, traditions,
beliefs, habits, personality and so on. For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that way for
Says that development is made up of a series of discrete stages that represent major their entire life?
and abrupt transformations in functioning. One of the fundamental questions in developmental psychology along with nature vs.
Looks at these changes through the lens of a qualitative analysis with an emphasis nurture. Typically cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are used in research
on the discontinuous nature of how someone changes. concerning stability vs. change.

Developmental psychology encompasses a very wide array of observations related Change Theorists – argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family,
to how people think, behave and interact with their environment as well as other experiences at school, and acculturation.
people. This field, at first, was focused on how young children develop but, in recent
years, it has expanded past the pediatric setting to encompass studies of how people Studies of children have often revealed impressive stability over time in aspects of
change throughout the course of their entire lives, up until the point of their death. development such as the attachment to their parents or in personality. However,
there is evidence which suggests a contrary view, that change is both possible and
Is Child Development Continuous or Discontinuous? indeed, is likely under appropriate conditions.
Not all psychologists, however, agree that development is a continuous process.
Some view development as a discontinuous process. They believe development Freud was one of the first psychologist to emphasize the critical nature of our early
involves distinct and separate stages with different kinds of behavior occurring in experiences for our later development. He believed that how we resolve our sexual
each stage and aggressive urges is strongly tied to the nature of our personality as adults.
Psychoanalysts believe that personality traits developed in the first 5 years predict by enhancing the parenting skills, the environment the child is in, or one’s interaction
adult personality. or behavior toward children among others. Also, researches in child development
may shape and improve policies that can be considered and implemented to
Module 4: Research Designs in Child Development enhance the well-being of a developing child.

Introduction: In this regard, results should be as reliable as possible, so that improvements or

Different questions like how cartoons affect the cognitive development of children, suggestions can effectively improve a child’s development. To ensure the reliability
how nature affects their intellectual development, or how their exposure to social of these studies, a systematic, science-based process should be employed which
media or virtual games affect their socialization skills are some research questions includes: a clear statement of the problem a researcher wants to address: a carefully
related to child development that are important and are worth exploring. selected and appropriate research design; an organized set of data collection
procedures; an exhaustive and scholarly analysis of data; and a concise, cohesive,
The discipline needs to explore these research questions to understand further how and clear data presentation.
a child and his/her development are affected by the environment to which he/she is
exposed. To be able to do that, the scientific method is essential to address these Research Designs
questions adequately. This, among the other dimensions of child development, The approach by which one answers the research problem is essential. After the
makes this discipline a science. Child development needs to find answers to the formulation of the research problem, the next step involves choosing the most
abovementioned questions to further understand how the child develops, and to do appropriate research design and then the proper combination of data collection
such, appropriate data collection and research design are necessary. This lesson methods. The design is critical to the study as it gives organization and structure to it.
explores research in child development, the methods of data collection, and the In choosing the design, the researcher should consider the following: the main idea
design to be used as success in answering a research question lies in the proper of the study; the respondents and samples; the purpose of the research; its scope
planning and conduct of research. and limitation, and data collection and analysis among others. After this, the
researcher should consider how the data will be gathered, organized, analyzed, and
Importance of Research in Child Development Child Development then written and presented.

Child development is a science that aims to understand and explore how a child The first part involves choosing the research design. Three main designs can be
develops, the factors affecting it, the changes in the factors that might affect used in child det. These designs, to wit (1) descriptive in designs can and (3)
children’s behavior, and the behavioral patterns of a child among others. It is well experiment such as the tone be implemented using correlations of data These three
known that the social, physical, and emotional development of a child is related to research designs interviews, focus group multiple methods surveys. Are further
his/her overall development as he/she grows to be an adult. Therefore, discussed Descriptive Research.
understanding and exploring the several domains (psychomotor linguistic, socio-
emotional, cognitive, etc.) that largely affect the child’s development should be Descriptive research
studied and explored. Also, the influence of external factors as well as the parents’ Designs are targeted to observe and record behavior. In this design, many or most
and/or adult’s roles in a child’s growth and well-being need to be understood and are data collection method serve be used as an exanimate researcher wants to explore
deemed essential subjects for research. how children sods can Interact, and communicate with each other in a free play. The
researcher will then find how he/she can observe and record children at play. This
The results of these studies are vital not just in understanding child development, but type of research describes the phenomena and the behavior of the respondents and
also to suggest and recommend ways on how to improve child development either then use them to predict how people will behave in a given scenario.
 are two types of variables that each researcher encounters: the independent and the
Correlational Research. dependent variables.
This type of research design aims to determine strengths and relationships between
two or more parameters. The stronger the correlation of one parameter to the other, Independent variables are the ones causing a change, while the dependent variables
the more powerful one parameter can predict the behavior of another (McMillan & are the ones that manifest a response to the change. As researchers manipulate or
Wergin, 2010). For example, the researcher wants to determine if there is a change the independent variable, they measure the dependent variable for any
correlation between the aggressiveness of a child and his/her exposure to violent effects caused by a change in the independent variable. To easily understand the
cartoons. In this study, the researcher might look into the aggressiveness of children difference between the two, take this example: A researcher conducted a study to
and their exposure time in watching violent cartoons and then correlate them using determine whether morning brisk walking by pregnant women changes the breathing
an appropriate statistical test. pattern of their newborn babies. To conduct such experiments, the researcher needs
a group of pregnant women who engage in morning brisk walking and another group
In correlational research, a numerical measure known as correlation coefficient is that does not. As the infants are born, the breathing pattern is observed and
computed. This value is based on the level or degree of association between two measured for both groups. Here, the breathing pattern is the dependent variable,
variables being considered. A positive correlation coefficient means a direct while morning brisk walking by pregnant women is the independent variable.
relationship, while a negative coefficient means an inverse relationship. Further, a
negative coefficient means that as one increases, the other variable decreases. On In the same setup, we have two groups: the control group or those pregnant women
the other hand, a positive correlation coefficient signifies that as one increases, the who do not engage in morning brisk walking; and the experimental group of pregnant
other variable also increases. women who engage in morning brisk walking. The control group is where you
compare your experimental group with. The control group provides baseline
This design also answers how strong one is either negatively or positively correlated information to determine whether or not the independent variable did enable a
with the other variable. The higher the value, the higher the correlation. A 0- change in the dependent variable. In doing an experimental study, a random
correlation coefficient means no association between the variables. In addition, a assignment principle is employed in deciding how each participant will be placed in
correlation coefficient of 2.3 is stronger compared to a correlation coefficient of 1.4 each group. Random assignment means that participants are assigned by chance.
This minimizes the likelihood that the result is based on a preexisting difference
One thing that each researcher should keep in mind when using this method is that between
correlation does not equate to causation. In our previous example, the correlational The groups (Graziano & Raulin, 2010).
finding does not mean that being aggressive is caused by increased exposure to
violent cartoons as other factors might affect one’s behavior, most especially Research Time Span
aggressiveness. Causality (a change in one variable is caused by the other variable) In this specific discipline, factors such as the relationship of age to some other
is not determined using this design but can be determined using the next design. It variables are studied. Here, the researchers may have two approaches: first, one
simply says that the two variables either have a relationship or none. can record specific parameters from different individuals with different ages and then
compare them, and second, the researchers may study or collect certain parameters
Experimental Research. from the same respondents over time.
An experiment refers to a carefully regulated procedure where one factor or variable
influences the behavior being studies while all others are held constant (Santrock, The first approve different ages as the Cross-sectional Approach. In this strategy,
2011). In this design, behavior or variable being investigated directs a change in individuals gerundial Apps are compared at one time. The sachin thi is known as the
another variable. It exhibits causal relationship. When using this type of design, there
Longitudinal Approach, where the research with other approach the same 2. ANAL STAGE - (18 months until 3 years)
respondents over time. In this strategy, data collection they data from days to years. THE EREGONUOUS ZONE: Bowel and bladder control
Pleasure focuses on bowel movement (withholding/eliminating faces).
The main advantage of the cross-sectional study is that researchers may have FIXATION:
results in a short span of time as they do not need to wait for the child to grow. It is If parents were over-emphasizing potty training, the child will develop a retentive
efficient in terms of data collection, but it does not have much to show now an character.
individual child changes. It does not explore the stability of the child’s characters. If parents were negligent about potty training, the child will develop expulsive traits
Santrock (2011) stated, “It can obscure the increases and decreases of such as bad temper, cruelty, and messy disorderliness.
development-the hills and valleys of growth and development. 3. PHALLIC STAGE - (3 years to 6 years)
EROGENOUS ZONE: Genitals
The other strategy, the longitudinal approach, can provide rich data on stability and Pleasure zone is the sex organ/genitals
changes in the development of a certain individual, the influences of earlier events FIXATION:
and experiences on the child’s later development, though this is very time- - Oedipus complex in males / Electra complex in females
consuming and expensive. Also, the span of the study sometimes causes many - The boy will have the desire to possess his mother and replace his
participants to drop out that might cause biases in the results of the study. father, and the girl will want to possess the father and remove her mother.
4. LATENCY STAGE - (6 years to puberty)
EROGENOUS ZONE: Sexual feeling is inactive.
Module 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory No fixations occur as the child's energy are focused on peer activities and personal
mastery of learning and physical skills, boys usually relate with boys and girls with
Introduction: girls during this stage.
Freud's views about human development are more than a century old. 5. GENITAL STAGE- (12 years onwards)
He can be considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very EROGENOUS ZONE: Maturing sexual interests.
interesting theory about the unconscious and sexual development. Although a lot of Sexual interest in opposite sex increase
his views were criticized, and some considered them debunked. Freud's theory The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when
remains to be one of the most influential in psychology. sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the
previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with
FREUD'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development The child improves their personal identities, develop caring feeling towards others,
of personality, psychosexual development includes five distinct stages. establish loving and sexual relationships and progress in successful careers.
FIXATION:
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT - Frigidity, impotence, and unsatisfactory relationship
1. ORAL STAGE - (Birth to 18 months)
THE EREGONUOUS ZONE: Mouth THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
Pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting.
FIXATION: 1. THE ID - the id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This
- If the child is too much or too little satisfaction in this stage, as an adult she/he aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive
may become dependent on smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or nail biting. behaviors.
The Id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology " because he was interested in
all desires, wants, and needs. how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget examined the implications of
2. THE EGO - the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also to intelligence and moral
can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum design
The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality and especially in the preschool and elementary curricula.
functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
3. THE SUPEREGO - the superego begins to emerge at around age five. The BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our
parents and society. The superego our sense of right and wrong, the superego * SCHEMA
provides guidelines for making judgments. Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the Cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL individual's way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is
●The Unconscious. Freud said that most of what we go through in our lives, like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a things he has had an experience with.
conscious level. He believed that most of what influences us is our unconscious, The
Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the Example:
unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While If a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a
these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling, and dog is.
doing in perhaps dramatic ways. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It's fury. The child then "puts this description of a
●The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our dog "on file" on his mind. When he sees another similar dog, he "pulls" out the file
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises an aware small part of who we (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and says, "four legs, tail,
are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what barks, fury.... That's a dog!"
makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
●The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the *ASSIMILATION
part of us that we can reach if prompted but is not in our active consciousness. It’s This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
right below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it. previously created Cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this
Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name time a little smaller one, he makes sense of what he is seeing by adding this new
of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious. information (a different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.

Module 6: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development *ACCOMMODATION

This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory is truly a classic in the field of educational sees another animal that looks a little like a dog, but somehow different.
psychology. This theory fueled other research and theories of development and
learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge. For sixty years, Jean Example:
Piaget conducted research on Cognitive development. His research method involved He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny
observing a small number of individuals as they responded to Cognitive tasks that he looking dog. its bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains, “That’s not a funny
designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks. Piaget called his
looking dog. That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now Egocentrism
create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file to his filing cabinet. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume
that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective
*EQUILIBRATION of
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and others. You see this in a five-year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother's
accommodation. When our experiences do not match us schemata (plural of birthday. Or a three-year-old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. daddy.
"uncle" and not daddy.
Disequilibrium Centration
This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing
what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to or event and exclude other aspects.
establish equilibrium once more. Irreversibility.
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development can understand that 2 + 3 is 5 but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism
Stage 1. Sensorimotor Stage This is the tendency of children to attribute human traits or characteristics to
The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a inanimate objects. When at night. The child is asked where the sun is, she will reply
child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more "Mr. Sun is asleep."
organized in his
movement and activity. The term sensorimotor focuses on the prominence of the
senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself Transductive reasoning
and the world. In this stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither
environment with appropriate objects to play with. inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to i.e., if A causes
Object permanence B, then B causes A.
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out Example:
of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. Since her mommy comes home every day around six o' clock in the evening.
When asked why it is already night, the child will say, “because my mom is already
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years old) home."
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now
make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage.
the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following: This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically
Symbolic Function but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-
This is the ability to represent objects and 4 events. A symbol is a thing that 11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked
represents by the following:
something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be Decentering
understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic function This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features
gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to____. The
objects and situations. individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the
Reversibility Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer.
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that Deductive Reasoning
certain operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a
comprehend the com mutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the north pole have
reverse of addition. They cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold
can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled temperatures.
back into a ball of clay.
Conservation From Piaget's findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following
This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like principles:
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development 1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of
of the child's ability of decentering and reversibility. The concrete operational child cognitive development.
can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is 2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that
still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accommodation).
Seriation 3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or
This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based mental operations for a child of a given age avoid asking students to perform tasks
on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size. that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.5.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. Managing a home
In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and
15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and
can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following: Module 7: Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a Erik Erikson, a renowned psychoanalyst, and developmental psychologist proposed
problem and to gather and weigh data to make a final decision or judgment. This can a theory of psychosocial development that outlines eight stages occurring throughout
be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with "What a person's lifetime.
if" questions. The 'psychosocial' term is derived from the two-source word namely psychological
Analogical Reasoning (or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and social (external
This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory.
use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or His theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. However, he extended and
problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. incorporated cultural and social aspects into it.
According to Erikson's theory, individuals face specific tasks and challenges at each
Example. stage of their lives, which need to be resolved to develop a healthy personality and
sense of self.
His theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, If parents encourage their children's creative efforts and let them explore the world
dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others. within the limits they set up then children develop a sense of initiative.
However, if children's natural curiosity is suppressed or criticized, they may develop
Erikson's 8 Stages Of Psychosocial Development feelings of guilt, may lack ambition, and hesitate to take initiative.
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 1 - Trust vs. mistrust 5 to 12 years old
Birth to 12-18 months old The primary conflict is whether the child can develop a sense of competence and
This is the most important period of a child's life, as it shapes their view of the world mastery.
as well as their overall personality. Industry - refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is
The primary conflict is whether the infant can trust the world around them to meet demanded.
their needs. On the other hand, if their needs are neglected or inconsistently met, Inferiority - is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when they
they may develop mistrust and anxiety. cannot finish or master their school work.
Erikson believed that early patterns of trust influence a child's social and emotional During this stage, a child is learning new skills. When they productively navigate this
development. If a child successfully develops trust, they will feel safe and secure in stage, they feel useful and develop a sense of self-worth.
the world. However, if they aren't supported in learning new skills, they may develop a sense of
According to his theory, a parent essentially shapes their child's perception and worthlessness or inferiority.
future relationships. If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion
of hope, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out 12 to 18 years old
well in the end. The primary conflict is whether the adolescent can develop a sense of identity and
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt personal values.
18 months to 3 years old Ego identity - knowing who you are and how you fit into the rest of society.
The primary conflict is whether the child can gain a sense of independence and self- Role confusion - is an uncertainty about one's place in society and the world.
control. As they transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin to feel confused or
They strive to make choices, accomplish tasks, and demonstrate their autonomy insecure about themselves and how they fit into society. As they seek to establish a
while minimizing shame and doubt. sense of self, teens may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.
Supportive and encouraging caregivers who allow a toddler to explore and According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and
manipulate his or her environment, and make choices help them develop a sense of developing a sense of direction in life.
autonomy or independence. However, strict or critical caregivers may instill shame Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
and doubt in children, inhibiting their selfconfidence. 18 to 40 years old
One of the most admirable and frustrating things about two and three-year-olds is The primary conflict is whether the individual can form close, relationships with
their determination. "Can do" is their motto. others.
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships. Struggling at this stage, on the
3 to 5 years old other hand, can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation.
The primary conflict is whether the child can develop a sense of purpose and An example of intimacy vs. isolation would be one person forming healthy
initiative. relationships with romantic partners in adulthood as well as a circle of friends,
Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play acquaintances, family members, and others.
and other social interactions.
Isolation, on the other hand, would be marked by a lack of social connections, poor Moral reasoning refers to the cognitive process that takes place as an
or unhealthy relationships, and a general lack of social social support. individual decides on a course of action that may be right or wrong. Kohlberg's
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation investigation into moral development entailed providing his subjects with a moral
40 to 65 years old dilemma and examining their response. He was less interested in their actual
The primary conflict is whether the individual can contribute to society and future response than the moral persuasion leading to their conclusion.
generations.
Generativity - an extension of love into the future. Embodied in these three levels are six phases of sequential growth:
Stagnation - failure to find a way to contribute, caring for no one. obedience and punishment, instrumental purpose, good boy nice girl, law and order,
Individuals seek to contribute to society, whether through their career, parenting, or social contract and universal ethical principle. These three levels and six stages of
involvement in the community. moral development are the fundamental structure of Kohlberg's theory.
However, if generativity is not developed, rejectivity, or a lack of meaning in one's life
and in one's actions, can occur. According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages:
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
Over 65 years old Pre-conventional Level
The primary conflict is whether they can look back on their life with a sense of Moral reasoning is based on the consequence/result of the act, not on
satisfaction and fulfillment. This is the stage of reflection. the whether the act itself is good or bad.
Integrity vs. despair involves a retrospective look back and life and either feeling STAGE 1: Punishment/Obedience. One is motivated by fear of punishment He will
satisfied that life was well-lived (integrity) or regretting choices and missed act to avoid punishment.
opportunities (despair). STAGE 2: Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain
The integrity versus despair stage begins as the aging adult begins to tackle the later. You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours.
problem of his or her mortality. Conventional
The onset of this stage is often triggered by life events such as retirement, the loss of Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or "norms" of society.
a spouse, the loss of friends and acquaintances, facing a terminal illness, and other This may include approval of others, law and order.
changes to major roles in life. STAGE 3: Social Approval. One is motivated by what others expect in behavior -
good boy, good girl. The person acts because he/she values how he/ she will appear
to others. He/she gives importance to what people will think or say.
STAGE 4: Law and Order. One is motivated to act to uphold law and order. The
person will follow the law because it is the law.
Module 8: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Module 9: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg began his career as a professor of developmental
psychology at Harvard University. He later segued into the study of moral education, Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896. His work began when he was
conducting most of his research in this area. Influenced by stage theorists like Jean studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. In his lifetime, he
Piaget, Kohlberg proposed that humans develop moral reasoning by means of wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development, and
progressive succession. educating students with special needs. His ideas about language, culture, and
cognitive development have become major influences in psychology and education
today.
 Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in
cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be -focused heavily on how an individual's cognitive development became evident
understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which through the individual's own processing of the tasks
development happens. -gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive
Scaffolding is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to development of individuals.
assist the learner accomplish a task. -the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one's
Socratic method - This method was a systematic question and answer approach that development.
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding.
This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led Cultural Factors
him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive Piaget
development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of Vygotsky
Development.
as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive
Piaget and Vygotsky development that allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between muscles to complex reasoning
the 1920' and 30's but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child
development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding module, it would
be easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky's.
Piaget Language
Vygotsky Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that
others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world
More individual in focus believed that there are universal stages of cognitive and solve problems. Language serves a social function, but it also has an important
development individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
More social in focus did not propose stages but emphasized on cultural factors in Children talk to themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, "Gagawin
cognitive development ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport (holding two long
blocks)." For Vygotsky, this "talking-to-oneself" is an indication of the thinking that
Did not give much emphasis on language goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech.
Stressed the role of language in cognitive development Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be
Social Interaction immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of
Piaget competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development. However, with the
Vygotsky guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more
advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of competency. The difference
more individual between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the
more social guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development.
The zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part of the child's
teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the child's development. environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and laws. The
Scaffolding belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he other layers and reaches the individual.
cannot accomplish independently. It should involve the judicious assistance given by The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates to a
the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of child's environments. This involves "patterns of stability and change" in the child's
proximal development. It when done appropriately can make a learner confident and life.
eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
Example: A simple and concrete example of this is when we help children learn to The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of
ride a bicycle - first with training wheels, then as we hold the bicycle steady for them the child's environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the
(with some verbal coaching as well), and finally without any help, as children ride interplay within the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This
independently. dynamic interaction of the systems happens meantime, while the child's physical and
cognitive structures also grow and mature. This bioecological theory helps us
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory determine how the different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world
affect the child as he or she goes through the more or else predictable sequence of
Bronfenbrenner's model, also known as the Bioecological Systems natural growth and development.
theory, presents child development within the context of relationship systems that
comprise the child's environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that The Role of Schools and Teachers
influences the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different
structures. The term "bioecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly funded early
impacts as a key factor in one's development. childhood program in the US. He concluded that "the instability and unpredictability
of family life is the most destructive force to a child's development." Research tell us
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment that absence or lack of children's constant mutual interaction with important adults
has negative effects on their development. According to the bioecological theory, "if
The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises the relation- ships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have
structures which the child directly interacts with. Bronfenbrenner's theory investigates the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the
the interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult)
layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these bi-directional relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show
influences. However, interactions at outer layers still influence the structures of the themselves especially in adolescence as
microsystem. anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self- direction."
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the
child's microsystem.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does
not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass
media.