E> Networks and digital communication > 3.1 Network topologies ‘+ [earn about the different network topologies +) learn about the advantages and disadvantages of the different network topologies. eo Rte Eee) ‘What do you already know? + Thore are several different types of network, including personal area networks (PANS), local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANS). The type of network needed depends on how many devices are in it and how large an area it covers geographically2. Networks and digital communication > Continued + Thore are various types of natwork hardware, such as switches, routers, bridges and wi-fi access points + Switches are network devices that connect devices in aLAN + Routers are natwork devices that connect different networks, such as a LAN to a WAN. * Wifi access points extend a LAN so that other devices can access the LAN wirelessly. Digital content is stored on a server. This includes content for online streaming, such as video games and movies, and messaging services, such as emails. Now try this! Copy out and complete the activity by filling in the blanks with the correct term from the list below. computers printers network large router WAN LAN A is a calleetion of devices connected to share resources such as files andi printers. You: can use various devices to create a network. is a network device that connacts devices stich 35 , access points and more ina network, This device has some leval of inteligonce that allows it to forward data to the correct connected device. A con the other hand, is a device that connects two different networks. It has.a table where it keeps the addresses of various networks. There are several typos of network. A isa network that connects devices in a geagraphical area, such as a school or building. A ‘on the other hand, is a type of network that connects groups of networks ovara geographical area. switch smallSee One of the benefits of using networks is that they allow us to share data files and software between computers Before computer networks were | invented, data was saved onto floppy diskettes. The capacity of the floppy diskettes was as little as 1.44 MB and the data transler speeds were very | slow compared with modem networks Mahvare can quickly spread to devices connected to a network. Every participating computer on the network should have up-to-date anti-malware software to keep the data files and system safe. Network topologies ‘You have learnt about the different types of network in previous stages In this section, we will leck atavlwork topolghes. A network topolugy refers to the layout of the network in terms of how it comtmunicates with different devices. The topolay shows us the arrangement of devices on the network ind the physical relationships between thea, for example where each device is connected ‘There are three network topologies, These are: + atartopology + bus topology + ring topology. Other topologies ean also be eréated by combining any of the three topologies. Star topology In Stur topology you connect all devices on the network to a central device, such a3 a switel or limb. A hub i8.a device that connects devices auch as computers, printers und servers, However, a hub dillers from a switch in that it broudeasts data packets to ull devices connected‘pworks and digital comenur Tw the network. A data puehet is a small chunk of data sem across ‘the network. Unlike a hub, a switch has some level of intelligence: It can determine the correct device to which the data packets should be sent. Devices ean connect to a switch or hub using cables. Some can connect wirelessly vi wi-fi access points. How a star topology works Suppose Sofia wants 1o send a 14 gigabyte (GB) video file to Marcus using a star topology. Because the file is large, it cannot be sent as one whole file. The file tiust be broken inrto smaller chunks.or packets for easier transmission. Fach packet will have: + a packet number by which it can be identified + thesender’s IP adilress + thervociver’s IP address. An IP address is a series of numbers that is used to identify a device on ‘the network, 5 cCT5>—EF—_eEe0qAU5E B44 ©} ETT FT mb3.4 Network topologi Figure 3.2; Sending a video ficim one device te arsathier ising atar tepology Sofia’s computer sends the file in packets to the central device, which will check the packet 1o determine which computer on the network to send ito. The central devive will compare the destination IP address in the packet to the IP address of each device, Then it will forward the packet to the computer with the matching IP address. When Marcus's computer receives all the packets, it must reassemble them in the order af the packet numbers to recreate the original 14 GB video file. Advantages of star topology + When one device breaks down, it does 1 other devi + You ean manage the network from one central location. This means a network administrator can install software and manage network policies from one computer, affect the operation of + His easy to Set up the network atid to back up data, + Devices cun join using either an Ethernet (network) cable or wirelessly via a wief access point + There is na limit w how many computers can connect.& Networks and digital communication > Disadvantages of star topology + When the central device breaks down, it uffects the operation of the ‘efitire network. This is known as.a single point of failure. + Team be expensive to purchase cables for each device connected to the network. + TFto many computers connect, the network performance is reduced. Bus topology Buy topology isa network topology in. LAN in whieh all devices ane connected ta one cable, The cable runs through the room or multiple rooms, und devices connect to it to join the network, as shown in Figure 1.3 “3b bf @ J . it veo deen we dee vine \ aes Se een = aa cate on Tar san = Figure 3.3: Layout of devices in albus tapolsay Ina bus topology, the long cable devices connect to iskknown as the hacktbome. The back bone i8 named-after the long set of bones ie the human skeleton known as the backbone or spine, 10 which other bones, Tike ribs, connect 22)2. Network topologies Figure 3.5:Erample of cotial cable ‘The backbone ima bus topology is made from coaxial cable like the one shown in Figure 3.5. Each device joins the backbone using special connectors. At the end of either side of the backbone are lerminaluts. Terminators are hardware ‘devices that prevent signals from bouncing back to the hack bone. Without terminators, there would be a lot of data collisions between old and new signals, -Couxial cable is an electrical cable that is used primarily to carry dita signals. It is made of u central inner conducter with a metal shield ‘wrapped around it that is engineered to block signal imerference.3. Networks and digital communication How a bus topology works Suppose Zara wants to senda music file from her computer to Arun, who isin the next computer room. She is cannected to the bus topology using acable, whilst Arun is connected using wi-fi, as shown in Figure « Figure 3.6: Sending armusicfle fram one device to sncthar ia bur topology When Zara sends the file, the file is broken down into packets. Bach packet ca travel in any direction on the backbone. This causes all Coinputers on the fetwark to receive a copy of the packet, although they cannot open it to view the content. Each device will compare its IP address with the destination IP address of each packet. If the two IP addresses match, that device will be allowed to aocess the packet. In this case, only Arun's computer will access the packets. The rest of the deviees will discard the packets. This process is repeated for each packet until all the packets making up the musie file are sent from Zara’s coinputer. Once Arun's computer receives all the packets, it rearratiges them in the order of the puckel number to recreate the original music file from Zara,3.1 Network topologies Advantages of bus topology + It is relatively easy to install the buss topology. + This relatively easy to add a new device. + Ione device fails, it dogs not affect the operation of other devices connected te the backbone. + Ituses fewer cables compared to-the star topology. Ina bus ‘topology, cables run from the device to the nearest part of ‘he backbone. However, in a star topology, cables run from the device to the central device, for example a switch, which could be at adistance. Disadvantages of bus topology + Ifthe backbone cable breaks, the section of the network beyond ‘the point of breakdown is alTected. + Asthe number of devices connected increases, the network becomes slower. + ‘There may be security concerns every device on the network ‘receives a copy of the dat packets. Ring topology Ring topology is-a network topology where devices are connected one after the other ‘to form a ring or loop. Fach device has two heighbouring devices it conimunicates Ring topology is an old topalogy and is, rarely used nowadays. Figure 37: Layout of devices in 2 ring topology 2653. Networks and digital communication How a ring topology works Marcus wantste send a Message to Zar Fach packet from Marcus's computer will be forwarded to all the computers in the ring before it, getsto Zara. ‘When the message reuches a devive in the ring, the devive checks the message's destination IP address und compares to its own address. H'the two-addresies match, the message hag suocessfully reached its destination. However, if they do not match, the device forwards the miessaye to the next device in the ring. The process is repeated until the message is delivered ot returned to the sender, after which the message is dropped from the ring. Advantages of ting topology + There is no need for a central device, which Saves on costs, + Wisrelatively easy to add a new device. However, this will ctusé ain interruption to-the other network users since you must turn ofT the network to allow the addition of new devices. + Bewer cables are used compared with star topology. Ta-connedt a new device, the administrator only needs two short cables. Fach cable will connect the new device Lo existing deviees on either side of the new device. + There is tess chance of data packet collisions as the data is sent in one direction. 266 >3.1. Network topologies Disadvantages of ring topology + Ifthe ring cable breaks, the entire network is affected. * Ifa device breaks or is switched off. the ring or loop is broken, and the network will not work. + The data transmission process may be slower if too many devices are connected. This is because the data packets must pass through all the other devices before reaching the destination. Hybrid topology A lybrhl lopolovy is a topology created when two or more network topologies are joined together at a point called a modu, A node in a network is a point of connection where wired or wireless devices can join the network. ‘An example of hybrid topology is a star topolagy joined toa bus tupelogy. as shown in Fegure 3.9: Layout of a hybrid star-bus toploay ‘One of the immediate benefits of a hybrid topology is that it is very fenible, and you can enjoy the benefits of each network topology. However, this topology is costly and itis not easy to install, Other hybrid ‘topologies can be created using a combination of uny of the three ‘topologies: star, ring and bus. 2st)2 Networks and digital communication > ees You will need: pen and paper ! Draw two simple hybrid topologies by combining the ! following topolagies: i 1 fingand bus topology ‘ 12 starand rng topology. : ' You must decide at what point (node) the secand topology should join the fist topology. 1 | ¥e need: a pen and paper ' | Find out the network topology ‘used in your computer room and | draw the network topology | diagram. Include in your diagram | all the networked davices, such as printers, scanners and projectors. | Pear assessment | Swap your diagram with a | partner. Have you both drawn | the same topology? Have you * both included the same devices? | if your diagrams aren't the | same, discuss which elements {are different and decide if you | and your pariner need to make {any changes to your diagrams. xe >2.1 Network topelogies Bridges ‘Consider the bus Lopolewy below. Sofia wants to send data files to Arun's computer. In u bus topology, data packets are broudeast to all devices on the network. However, only the intended camputer is allowed ‘tw access the packets. Since every device receives a copy of Arun's data, «ag the data moves in all directions on the bus, this causes network traffic and slows down the netwark speed. eo 4 a Fea] ere Figure 3.10; Arun sending a file to Solia's computer on a bus topolacy ‘To ihinimise network traffic in the above topology, you can use w device knowa aga bridge. A bridge is a network devive that joins twa segments in a local area network. The computers in each segment are identified by Uheir medla access control (MAC) address. A MAC address is u series of numbers that act as a physical address to uniquely identify a device. You should distinguish a MAC uddress from.an IP address. A MAC address is a physical address ereuted by the device thatufacturer to uniquely identify one hardware device compared to another, On the other hand, an IP address is u logical address that idemtifies a device connected tou network such as the internet. A MAC address has two puris. The first identifies the device manufacturer, and the second identifies the device's serial number. Most digital devices have MAC addresses, including computers, phones, printers, smart ‘TVs and smart fridges 20)3. Networks and digital communication D ‘A bridge stores a table that holds all the MAC addresses and says which segment of the network each MAC address belongs to. For exainple. for the network in Figure 3.1, the table would store the information shown in Table 3.1 00:00:5e°00:53:af segment 1 01:23:45:67:89-ab egment 1 rdO-6 32:26 segment 2 00:00:Oa:bb:28 fc segment 2 Marcus's computer 00:25..96-ff-fe:12 segment 2 Table 2.1: An example table holding inlornation about which segment devices aren il ei Segment? Figure 3. Arun snacking. keto Sofia’: computer vias bridge on a bus topology Arun wants to send data to Sofia, Whenta bridge #8 used, us showt in Figure 3.11. the data packets follow this sequence: 1 Data froin Sofia’s computer is first sent to the bridge. 2 The bridge will check the destination MAC address and determine which segment Arun's computer belongs 10. This is done by comparing the destination MAC address against a list of MAC addresses stored in the bridge's table for all the devices in the two Segiitents (See Table 3.1). el 270)3.1 Network topologies: cy ‘The bridge will then broadcast the data packets only to devices in ‘the correct segtment. This prevents devices from the other segnrent from receiving a copy of Sofia’s data packets, which improves the -performanee of the network. ' | Look at Figure3.11, Sofia decides to send a message to Marcus. | Draw a diagram to represent how a bridge would handle the | message before it gets to Marcus's computer. pet Ce then draw the topology, or did you Sef type first and thon add the c Pt i epee eh aed network or several networks for a place that doesn’t slreaely have a network? (Questions 3.1 Identify the network topology described in each statement. ‘You nay choose more than ome answer. 1 This network topology hus a long cable that contacts other ‘computers to the network. A. bustopalogy Bs ringtopology = C_—shybrid topology ©=—s@D star topology 2 | This network topology his central device, A. bustopology Bring topology = C= WAN D sturtopolozy 3 Inthis topology, if one device fails, the network can still work. A bustepolory —Bringtopelogy star topology 4 In this topology, if one device fails, the entire network fails. ‘A bustopology Bring topology °C -—hybridtepology =D star topology 2m >Tn this network topology, each device is connected to two other devices that il communicates with, A bus topology. Bring wpology C hybrid topology D star topology ‘This network topology uses terminators at the end of the cable, A bustopology = Bsringtopology = C—hybrid topology =D star topology ‘When you combine one or more netwark topologies. you create this kind of topology. A bustepology B ringtopology © —hhybridtopology DD _star topology3.2 Data transmission > 3.2 Data transmission understand what is meant bya protocol in ‘computing + understand the protocols TCP/P and HTTP andhow eo “ *- explain factors that you need to consider whon designing anetwork., ee What do you already know? + Data is divided into small pieces and transmitted as packets through many devices over networks to the receiving device. The data is then put back together at the destination. You can use fibre optic and copper cables to transmit data «© Fibre optic transmission is faster than copper cable transmission because fibre optic uses light impulses to send data. Copper cables uso olectrical signats, which travel at a slower rate than light. Fibre optic has a higher bandwidth for a given transmission distance compared to copper cables.2 Networks and digital communication > There are advantages and disadvantages of using wired and wireless networks, including performance ancl security aspects: = Wired connections are usually more reliable, giving a more secure connection as they are hard 10 hack normally have a faster transmission spead for data than wireless connections. © — Howoves, it is more difficult to connect new devices, and they are normally mare expensive to set up + Adding new devices te wireless connections is easier, and they are cheaper to set up than wired connections. = Walls and other radio waves can interfere with wireless connections. Wireless connections can be less secure and normally have 2 sloner transmission speed for data than wited connections. Now try this! Open Source file 3.1_networking_matching_exercise.htm using a suitable web browser. Match the key words or concepts on the left tothe correct descriptions from the drop-down list. After answering all questions, click ‘Chock’ to reveal your scare. The intemet is made up of deep-sea fibre optic cables buried under the ocean, which connect the werld’s continents. Large ships on the surface of the water pull the cables to lay thom in place under the ocean Robots are then deployed underwater to bury the cable to protect them from sea creatures and fishing activities. Figure 3.12: A cable under the ocsan3.2 Data transmission Data transmission protocols When you network devices, you allow then to share resources, ‘These resources include data files, hardware and software. However, computers and other devices cannot talk to each other unless they agree on rules for communication. These rules aré known as protocols. A protocol isa set of rules that control how devices can communica a bit like grammar ina language. There are several proticols used in digital communication. TCP/IP protocol TCPYIP is protocol suite for data transmission. Remember that there are various kinds of protocol, all with different purposes. When we combine them, they are called an internet protocol suite. The two most important protocols are TCP and [P.TCP stands for transmission control protocol, while [P stands for internet protocol, In the previous section, we defined an [P address ag an address that identifies deviees on a network. Without an IP address, it would be impossible to locate specific computers on the network or deliver data to them. TCP isa protocel responsible for data transmission on the internet. TCP works with IP to ensure the safe delivery of packets to the correct devices on the network. Before transmitting using TCPAP, there must be'a “hathlsliuke’ between the devices intending to share data. A handshake isa technique that allows Iwo devices Lo communicate before data transmission begins. The sending device sends i short message to the receiving device, indicating that it intends to send data. The receiving device sends u short message to the sending device telling it its status (whether it is ready to receive or not). ‘The sending device can then start to transmit if possible. This allows the devices to determine what protocols and transmission speeds they willl use. Anexample of a handshake is the TCP/IP handshake shown below. A TCPMP handshake is sometimes called a three-way communication ‘This is because: 1 The first device sends a pucket to the second device. 2 Then the secumd device responds by sonding a packet to the first deview. ‘The packet from the second computer includes extra information such as an acknowledgement (confirmation that what was sent has been received), the second device's status (whether it is free or not} and how the transmission will proceed. 3) When the first device receives the packet from the second device; It mast also send back un ucknowledgement to the second device. ‘This is how three-way communication is established.3. Networks and digital communication Let us look at this using an example. Suppose Arun wants to send some data fram his computer toa server att the internet. 1 His computer first needs to establish u connection with the server, This is done by sending a signal or packet known as a synchronfsatlen message (SYN) to the server. A SYN isa short messuge 10 notify the server that Arun's device intends to ‘transmit date 2 The server mill respond by sending a synchronisation acknowledgement (SYN/ACK) message to Arun's computer. A. xynchronbiallot-ecknowledgement (SYNIACK) tells Arun's computer that the server acknowledges receiving his request and that the server is ready or not ready 10 receive data. 3 Finally, Arun's computer must send un acknowledgement (ACK) to the server, The sicknowledgement (ACK) indicates that the computer Had received the server's response und will wait or start transmission. 1978 ¢—_2stwiace 3AK Figure 3.12: Hancbhake proces between a laptop and a serverSix statements are shown in the table below. Capy this table and mark each one true or fatse by ticking (# the relevant column. A protocol is a'set of rules. Both devices must sand an ACK massage during a handshake. The first computer can send a SYNVACK message during a handshake. TGP stands for transmission control process. TCP/IP is a protocol suite used only for security. TCPAP can ensure that data is delivered to the correct computer using the IP address. IPP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. HTTP is a protacol that is used to send and receive files over the internet. HTTP can send any file such us text, images, videos and sound, It ig ulso used to find specific documents or information on the World Wide Web (www), Sofia wants to visit her school website to check out the recent swimming gala photos. She opens her favourite web browser on her computer and types the URL of the school website in the address bur. a>2 Networks and digital communication >» ‘Addeess bar showing sunifor renounce locator (URL) Sofia’s computer makes an HTTP request via her browser to access the school website, At this stage, her computer becomes known as a cllett ‘cuinptiter. A client computer is a computer that requests a service. ‘A computer that responds to requests from client computers like Sofia’ is known as.u server. The interaction between Sofia’s computer and tl server is known as client—set ver atelitecture, Client computers make requests to servers for services, and servers respond to clients’ requests with the requested information if it is available, or with error messages if the information is not available. When the server receives Sofia’s request, it sends an HTTP response back to Sofia’s computer. The web browser on Sofa’s computer can. imezpret the HTTP response fromthe server and display the school web pate off her browser. Sofia's computer {cera} Figure 3.15; HITP requcct fram the cieat and HITPsaxponse lide the server HITTP sends data as plain text, meaning it can be understood by anyone iFintercepted. However, a more'secure HTTP version is protocol secure). ITTPS (hypertext transfer ze >3.2 Data transmission The URL in Figure 3.16 shows an example of HTTPS. BW canine ce « | GTB tem cambsige org You have learnt about the HTTPS protocol. HTTPS encrypts the data files before they are sent. To encrypt data means to encode or scramble it into a meaningless form so that it cannot be read without a decryption ‘key. HTTPS cunt uie protocols such as socket secure layer (SSL) or transport layer secure (TLS) to secure the data. You can identify an HTTPS connection by checking for the letter ‘gal the end of “hitp' or a padlock icon just before the URL in the saddress bar. Cea 7 ‘ou will need: some-coloured pens, a pencil and paper (Create a poster about how to recognise secure and insecure 1 websites. Share your poster with leamers from other stages to | help them stay safe online. Scalability factors to consider when designing networks Shall networks are usually built for a certain number of users. For example, in a school of 300 learners and staff, you can estimate that a maxintum of 200 to 300 users will uge the network at any time. So, all the devices and other network hurdware will be designed with this number in nind. However, if'a school grows and takes on new staff and enrals more Jearners, it means there will be more users on the network. To muke a network bigger, if needs to be scalable (able to change in size). When we talk about scalability [aclors, we ure talking about the potential af the network lo grow. am>2 Networks and digital communication a ‘The following are some of the scalability factors to consider, 1 Increased number of users on the network ‘The infrastructure and chosen network topology should support adding new computers or other devices to the network. Think of the advantages and disadvantages of the various network topologies wehave looked at. For example, it is easier to set up a ring topology a8 you ollly need two conhestion points, However, as the number of nodes or computers an the network increases, the network becomes slower as it takes longer for the data fo move across the network. Similarly, you should consider device or hardware limitations such as transmission speeds und babdwhlth, 2 The costs that come with Increased users Ag mere people join the network, some of their devices will be further away from the central point of the network Wired networks cal be a maximuin length of about 100 metres before the network signal or strength becomes weak. To extend a wired network, the network owner will need to buy new hardware equipment, such as wi-fi access. You might also want to break the fetwork inte two or more segments (purts) using hardware devices, such as bridges. Bridges restrict network traffic to-a specific network section, leaving other parts unaffected by the traffic. We looked at a bridge in the previous topic when we talked about network topolagies. 3 The network bandwidth Bundwhlth means the amount of data a communication channel can carry. Bandwidth is likea road network. The more lanes there are on the highway, the higher the number of tars the read can carry at u given Lime. [tis the same with networks: more bundwidtlt means more data carried by a communication chunnel and a faster ‘overall transmission prowess. This means that more users call use the network at one.4 Compatibility of hardware devices The hardware used in networks must all be compatible. It must be easy to upgrade and maintain and it must work with other devices without issues. Devices can be incompatible for several reasons, including incompatible hardware, connection and ‘transmission speeds, different protocols on each device and so on. Most organisations have policies that say they have to get all their hardware from the same manufacturer. These policies are created to minimise incompatibility and maintenance issues. Ges Ae In groups of three to five, visit the IT support department or equivalent in your school to conduct research on the network topology in your school. Ask the following questions and write down your answers; 1 How many people was it designed for? 2 Are there any hardware or software changes that the school would need to make if the number of staff tripled and the number of leamer doubled? Using suitable presentation software, make a presentation about your findings to present to the rest of the class. = ink about the presentation of the oroup whe we eee tees ee cane m Witectiemet toe: things you liked about their presentation. Pein, SOR ee nas eee iad Pe ee Bt2 Networks and digital communication > Questions 3.2 Stute the difference between IP and TCP. plain what handshaking is, What is the role of HTTP? How does HTTPS differ from HTTP? Imagine you have been asked to desipn a network for a small school of 100 learners and staff. Deseribe two scalability factors you would consider in your network design. neers lise? Aclocuaiaad> 3.3 Parity checks and network security his are: can check the data to see if an error is by using an echo check, which can be used ors in transmission. During an echo check, the compares two data sats to see if they match Firewalls play an coming into a netw: «tia role in ensuring that the traffic rk meets specified rules. Tho user sets rules that the v obey. Any trafic that does not meet these criteria is not allowed into the networkNetworks and digital communication > © — Antivirus software protects a computer against viruses that can delete, corrupt or modify computer files. * You must regularly scan your computer for viruses and update your antivirus software to ensure it has the latest virus definitions. Viruses are constantly evolving, becoming more sophisticated and challenging to detact. Companies that create antiviruses regularly release new virus dofinitions, which include new rules and strategies for detecting viruses during a scan. Now try this! 41 List one source of transmission errors. 2 Explain how’an acho chack can be usad to dotect transmission errors. Parity checks Understanding the role of parity bits in Rinaty uenbers : are sometimes error detection called machine You havealready looked at error detection methods such us the echo gate: Meine check. This section will look at another error detection method known tetas asa purity chock. A parity check ig a method of error detection where evel an gage: ‘the total nuniber of bits in any data transmitted is either even or odd ce the language In earlier stages, you looked at how ta represent uttbers in acomputer | PAY COMPATETS system using the binary number system. erga We know that dita is stored in bits, that if, Osund Is. One byte it made the computer any high-level language (such mM 0 7 1 TToT1{o as Python) or any Table 3.2: One byicof cade language other aaaaeaiaa than machine code, it must be translated to machine code for the computer to understand.2.3 Parity checks and network security ‘Table 3.3 shows the structure of byte, ineluding the purity bit, which is used a a check on a get of binary values, Table 3.3: One bite of code with a parity bit ‘To start, let's read the bits from right to lefl. Or, from the least significant bit (the LSB) to the most significant bit (the MSB). Each bit ina binary number is assigned a weight based on is position, und these weights determine the colunin headings as shown in the table below. ‘The LSB is the bit with the smallest weight while the MSB is the bit with the largest weight. For example, in the table below, the LSB is shown as 2° = 1 while the MSB is showe as 2” = 128. Weight —+ (2 Te] I 2 Column heading —+ | 128] 64 | 37[ 16] 3 | 4 [2 | 1 | Binary number —+[ 7 [TOT IT Ty 1 Toyi ye) ‘Column headings ace useful when converting numbers to binary or denary. The eighth bit ig the parity bit. The rest of the bits (bit | 10 bit 7) will store the dat: ‘There are two types of parity check: + even purity = odd parity. Both the sending and receiving devices must agree on the lype of parity check they will use before transmission by performing u “handshake” (discussed in the previous topi¢). Even parlly checks that the number of Is ina byte is even. Ifthe mumber of |3 in data (that is, bits I to T)is odd, the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total number of 1s in the byte even. ‘Ouid parity, however, determines to see that the number of Ls ina byte ig odd. I sets the parity bit to | if the number of Is in the data (that is, bits | to 7) is even. In Table 3.3, there are four 13 from bits | to 7. This is an even number. Therefore: + for ali even parity check, the parity bit will be set to 0 «for aiodd parity. check, the parity bit will be set to |3) Networks and digital communication > elite hererisBeTat tals 11 Sofia sent the byte 10111011 to Marcus using even parity. | Marcus received the byte as 10111011. State whether {the transmission passed the even parity check | Solution: | Marcus and Soffa used even parity, so the number of 1s in | the raceivad byte must be an even number. Counting the ' number of Ts in the byte gives us 6, which is even. | Therefore, the byte passed an even parity check, ' } Now try this on your own. | 2 Marcus sent back a series of bytes to Sofia using even parity. | | For each received byte, state whether the byte passed the | } even parity check. Copy the table out and place a tick (V7) in | {the correct column for each row. : 11007000" O1011t 10110071 00117100. 111110.2.2 Parity checks and netwark security Sofia and Zara are sending some music files to-each other using | their phones. Their devices are using odd parity checks to check | for transmission errors. Some bytes from the sent data are shown in the table below. State whether the received byte passes an! ‘odd parity check. Copy the table out and place a tick () inthe = + correct column for each row: lr [oootaet —[ioootaor |_| Iz [1o1o1010—J 10101000 |_| [rivorti0 —Joriorani_ |__| [¢[rorore? —_fiororir_| | : [tonto —jorortios_ |] Limitations of parity checks Purity checks cam only determine if the transmission was successful by looking at the number of Is in the byte before and after transmission, ‘They cannot detect if there has been a swap or switch in the position af the bits during transmission, Congider the communication between Arun und Zara in Figure 3.1 Arun sent a byte of data using even parity to Zara. spoto11o ro100110. Figure 3.17: firun sande dota to Zara using even parity3) Networks and digital communication > ‘The byte arrived on Zara's computer as 10100110. The devices used ant even parity check. anid the number of 1s in the received byte was eve 80 it passed the parity check. However, the data has been corrupted ‘hecause some bits have been switched. You will get two different values if you convert the two binary numbers to denary, as shown in Tables 3.4 and 3.5. + Converting 10010110 to denary 128 | 64 2 16 8 4 T 0 0 T o 7 Table 3.4:Convering 10010110 we denaey = 1284 164442 50 + Converting 10100110 to denary 128 | 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 oO 1 0 0 1 1 0 Table 35: Converting 10100110 10 deneay 8432442 166 ‘This shows that the data has changed or is corrupted. This type of error results From bits switching places and is known a3 (ranspusition error. For example, a | turns into a 0 or the other way around. Transposition errors are mainly caused by human error during data entry. They can also be caused by changes in electrical voltages during transmission. One way of detecting transposition errors is using parity blocks. Parity blocks ‘Parity blocks are used to detect which bits have been swapped during data transmission. When sending data, the dats is transmitted in blocks. ‘The block is made up of rows and columns. Each row contains a byte of dat, atid the last row contains the calculated parity byte.2.2 Parity checks and network security Table 3.6: A parity black A parity check is applied to each row and column before and after transmission. If the transmission used odd parity, then all the bytes {rows) and columns should pass odd parity. If one byte (row) fails an odd parity check, we expect one or more columns to fail the odd parity. We will add an extra column after column 7 to help us check each row. Table 3.7: Hows of bytes being checked by an odd parity check ‘The first four rows (byte 1 to byte 4) in Table 3.8 pass an odd parity check. The fifth row (byte 5) doesn’t puss, Let us add another row after the parity byte to help us determine if each column passes the add parity check. a>2° Networks and digital communication Ifwe perform a parity check on the coluinns, all the columns pass the odd parity check except column 5, a8 shown in Table 3.8. Table 3.8: Columns.o! bytes being checked by an odd parity check The intersection of the row and column gives us the corrupted bit, ag shown in Table 3.9. In this case, byte 5 was switched from a | toa 0 in column 5. Table 3.9: Where the transposition exrot occurred n>3.3 Parity checks and network security Limitation of parity blocks Despite helping to deteet which bit hus been corrupted in the transmitted block, purity blocks caftnot detect the exact corrupt bits in multiple rows, or colurans. For example, if two errors exist ina byte, that byte would still pass the even or odd purily check us before. For example Original byte 1o1g11OL The byte has five 1s (at odd number), Corrupted byte 1o1d0001 The byte has three 1s (an odd number). If, after transmission, two bits are corrupted, the byte will have three Is (a odd number). Parity blocks will not find the exact bit that has been changed because they are looking fora change from an odd number to an even number of [ Cesc Marcus is transmitting a block of data to Aran using even parity. The block of data arrived at Arun's computer as shown here. 1 Add another column after column 7 to determine ifeach byte passes sven parity. 2 Determine which byte (byte 1 to byte 5) has been comupted 3) Add another row after the parity byte to determine if each column passes even parity. 4 Determine which column has been corrupted. 5 Deternine which bit has been corrupted.2 Networks and digital communication Peer assessment Review a friend's solution to Unplugged activity 3.8 for possible errors. Did they gett fight? If not, what went wrong and how can thay fix it? Choices to be made when implementing network security Figure 3.18: Serre on a netwsit ‘The security of a network isan essential element of network des ‘Data should be protected from corruption, deletion or accidental loss. For this reason, organisations invest in security measures to minimise ‘or prevent secttity bfewchos such a8 hacking. A security breach is a failure of Security measures to prevent utauthoriged access 10 a device data, applications or networks Security measures to avoid security breaches may be physical ar digital Physical meusures can include using access codes tw server rooms a locking computers when not in use. Digital measures include firewalls, antivirus software, eneryption and the authentication techniques that you have locked at in previous stages. These are all very important when considering the security of a network >3.3 Parity checks and network security ‘There arevother things to think about as well. Decisions need to be made about things like: + redundancy and duta recovery plans + accessibility * cost + training of staft Redundancy and data recovery plans There should be adequaite back up plans for network hardware soflware und data in the event ofan interruption. This ein be achieved using redultdamt or multiple hardware devices, such as backups on external storie media or file servers located in diffeent phioss. Suppose one part of the network is ot working. In that ‘ase, the alternative hardware should allow minimal interruption to the network's operation Most organisations have subscribed to clotnl-tuised security Companies to manage their data, Using cloud-baseel data services means using the internet and remote servers to store and munage data. Cloud-basal security companies help secure data affsite for their cients «it fee. The fee can be paid monthly or yearly as.a subscription. ‘This mais ‘That the client no longer has to worry about dita security and availability. Accessibility ‘When designing network security, it’ crucial to consider accessibility for individuals with disabilities (Tor example, those with visual, hearing cognitive, motor or mobility impairments) so they can use network resources safely and efficiently. The goal of accessibility is to ensure that every network user can experience equal participation and enjoyment in using network resources. Therefore, involving people with disabilities in the network design and tesling processes can provide valuable feedback and comtinuous improvement, ‘There are various options for adding accessibility feutures, including: + using alternative authentications like biometrics (fingerprints, fucial recognition, voice recognition) or hardware tokens suck as smart cards + utilising user interfaces that allow eagy navigation using screen readers, keybourd shorteuts and other assistive technologies + labelling and documenting various parts of the netwark to ussist users who eed 1o avigate through the tletwork sections + ensuring training muterials ure accessible and, where appropriate, aud aleriative text for images atid videos or provide video transcripts ee 23>3. Networks and digital communication a Cost There is a coat element that comes along with securing a network ‘The cost is for both software aiid hardware devices tieant for network security. For example, you can buy a software-based firewall al a lower price than hardware-based one, For some peuple, having a physical security device is ideal due to the nature of the data they want to protect (despite having to buy it at a very high price), Organisations that need phiysical security devices include large organisations like governments, ‘batiks aiid research centres, which hold very sensitive data. On the other hand, orgasiisations lake schools thay use software-based security Measures, which are cheaper but ean provide enough security. Training staff Network users must be trained in the basics of security aitd how to protect themselves from being vielimis on the internet. For example, they must know haw to identify fake websites install and update antivirus software and identify phishing and pharming attacks, among other threats. Human errors cause most security breaches, a there must be resources allocated for training sessions for new network users. I training sessions ure not possible, there must be cusy-to-use documents or brochures to give enough information to users about security. In some organisations, ictwork users iiust sign an IT policy that outlines what they can and cannot do on the network. Thereare also sanctions for breaching any of the zuidelines in the policy document Work in a group of four. imagine that your group is setting up a business. lecan be any kind of business. fou need a secure network to run this business. As 2 group, think about and write down the choices you would make when implementing network security. Why did you choose what you did? Figure 3.19: Staff hile ve ainero pot thresats mm >2.2 Parity chacks and network security (Questions 3.3 1 2 3 4 What isa parity check? What are the types of parity check and what do they check for? State two limitations of parity checks. For each received byte, state whether the byte woul pass an odd parity check. es SI For each block below, determine: whether you need to do an odd purity check or an even parity check which byte (byte | to byte 5) has beea corrupted which columa bus been corrupted which bit has been corrupted. 11700001 1 an oe3 Networks and digital communi Project: Teach the class ‘Arun and Zara have joined the school's computer dub this year. Thay have been doing a project on networks and the computing teacher has asked them to lead a lesson to teach the rest of their lass about networks and how data. is shared. They have asked you to-help. Task 1: Explain the different network topolagies Arun is going to explain about networks. He would like you to: * Create a poster showing the different network topologies. Explain what topology your computer classroom has and why this is the best topology for this setup. Use free online network simulation software to: create a network of 20 devices using star topology. ‘Your network should have devices such as switches, desktop computers, laptops and routers, Choose appropriate cables to connect the devices, Set an ite IP address for each device so that it can in the network. ‘Task 2: Explain data transfer and error detection methods Zara is going to teach the class about how data is transferred and needs your help in explaining error detection methods. ~ ic * — Create a presentation for your class about error detection methods. Choose at least two error detection methods and explain how thay work. ‘Add visuals to your presentation such as videos, pictures or animations to make your presentation interesting and educational. ‘Ask your teacher if you need support with adding things to your presentation.Se eee Check your progress 3 1 Which topology uses.a single long cable to connect devices to forma network? [1] a WAN bus terminator ‘This is a central device that connects devices. [1 has some intelligence that allows it te Forward data packets to the correct device, What is it? tl router switelt hub bridge ‘The diagram shows a network segment, =-@ CI Identify the device labelled Identity the device labelled B. ‘What type of network topology is shown in the network segment? State two advantages of using this topology over other topologies. State one disadvantage of using this topology over other topologies.Networks and digital communication ‘The table below shows data received after transmission using ewen pacity Add the correct parity bit to: make the transmission of each byte pass an even parity check Bl ‘The following block of data was part of a movie Soffa downloaded. Unfortunately, the lata is corrupted. 1 0 7 0 7 Q 1 0 i 1 1 T 1 1 a 0 1 0 0 a The computer perforin ant odd parity check. @ Which column is corrupted? b Which byte iscorrupted? © Explain how you would determine which bit is corrupt xd State which bit is corrupt (1 or). Protocolsure wed in many communication devices, 2 Define the teri protocol, b Statetwo protocols that can be used during data transmission. © Explain the role of one of the protocols mentioned in question 6b. How does HTTPS help protect data transmitted over the internet? Meation two choices to consider when implementing network security.