CELLS AS THE BASIC UNITS OF LIFE

CELL STRUCT URE

A cell is the basic and functional unit of all living organisms. Cells are microscopic
and cannot be observed with the naked eye Gels can only be seen under a
microscope.
There are two types of cells, plant cells and animal cells.
Plant and animal cells differ in shape and function, but have certain parts in
common which are present in all plant and animal cells.
Similarities between plant and animal cells
The cells of plants and animals all have a cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and
organelles Organelles, such as mitochondria and vacuoles, are structures that are
present in the cytoplasm of the cell

1. Cell membrane
Characteristic

-It is a thin, living and flexible membrane (layer or skin).

Functions

-It encloses the contents of the cell (keeps the contents together).

-It is selectively/semi permeable, Le. it only allows certain substances to move in and
out of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm

Characteristics

-Is a jelly-like substance that fills the cell (fills the entire cavity). - It contains a large
variety of organelles and food particles.

Functions

It contains organelles (small, membrane-like structures) that fulfil specific functions.

Chemical reactions take place here.

- It supports and maintains the shape of the cell.

3. Nucleus
Characteristics

It is a spherical (round) structure that is present in all living cells.

It is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

It has a smaller, dense body inside, which is called a nucleolus.

It contains a liquid known as the nucleoplasm.

In animal cells it is normally found close to the centre of the cell.

In plant cells the nucleus is found close to the edge of the cell.

Functions

It controls all the life activities of the cell.

Is the part of the cell that is referred to as the 'brain'.

Contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which determines hereditary characteristics

such as eye colour and height.

(DNA contains the genetic code that is unique to every living organism. The information
in DNA ensures that a mouse is different from a hamster. The variations in DNA also
make each one of us unique)

4. Organelles
Organelles are structures in the cell's cytoplasm that carry out cell functions.

Organelles like mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) and vacuoles are present in the
cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

►Mitochondria

Characteristics

- Are small, spherical structures in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

Functions

- Are also referred to as the powerhouse of the cell as it breaks down glucose (from
food) to produce energy (referred to as cellular respiration) needed for cells to carry
out life processes.
(The number of mitochondria that are present in a cell depends on the cell's function.)
(Muscle and liver cells contain a lot of mitochondria, because they require a lot of
energy.)

Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondrion.

► Vacuoles

- Vacuoles are organelles with large cavities and are mainly present in plant cells.

Plant cells have large vacuoles, while animal cells contain small vacuoles.

Vacuoles in plant cells are permanent.

Vacuoles in animal cells are temporary or absent.

• Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts and large vacuoles.

These structures are not present in animal cells.

1. Cell wall

Characteristics

- The outermost layer of the plant cell (rigid outer framework of the cell).

- It is non-living, rigid and strong.

- It generally allows all soluble substances through.

- Mainly consists of cellulose (a type of carbohydrate).

Functions

- Gives the cell its specific shape.

Gives the cell sturdiness.

Protects the inside of the cell against damage.

2. Chloroplasts
Characteristics

- Oval-shaped organelles (structures) found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.

- It occurs only in the green parts of the plant, such as the leaves and stems. - Contains
a pigment called chlorophyll, which gives the plant its green colour.

Functions

-Chlorophyll captures the sun's energy and produces, together with carbon dioxide
and water, energy-rich food (glucose and starch) for the plant.

- This process is referred to as photosynthesis.

Large vacuoles

Characteristics

- There is normally only one large vacuole in plant cells.

- It is the space (cavity) in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a membrane called the
tonoplast.

- The space within the vacuole is filled with a liquid referred to as cell sap.

Functions

Gives support to the plant cell so that it can maintain its shape.

Provides storage space for food and waste products.

(Vacuoles may be present in animal cells, but they are usually small and temporary.)
There are also animal cells where vacuoles are completely absent.)

CELLS IN TISSUE, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

Living things consist of different types of cells.
These cells are found in many different shapes and sizes and carry out different
functions.

Cellular differentiation and specialisation

In plants (and other multicellular organisms) growth can only take place when the
number of cells increases.
The increase in cells takes place through a special process during which a mature
cell divides into two daughter cells, which in turn grows into maturity and subdivide.
Not all the cells of a multicellular plant or animal are similar.
During the early stages of cell division, enzymes (chemical substances that control
different processes in cells)ensure that cells develop in such as way that they differ
 from one another in structure.
These differences are referred to as differentiation and are aimed at giving cells
specific functions, in other words, the cells are specialised.
Cells are thus adapted and have different shapes and structures to perform
different functions.
Some cells protect the body against the invasion of germs, e.g. skin cells; some cells
play an important role in transporting substances, e.g. the red blood cells that
transport oxygen; some cells carry impulses to and from the brain, e.g. nerve cells
(neurons); some cells can contract and relax, e.g. muscle cells, etc

Single-celled organisms
Microscopic organisms such as bacteria, the amoeba and certain algae normally
consist of a single cell and arereferred to as unicellular.
These organisms carry out all of their life functions in a single cell.
This means that digestion, secretion, respiration, reproduction and breathing all
occur in one cell.

Macroscopic organisms such as people, animals and plants consist of a

large number of cells, and are known as multicellular.
The cells of multicellular organisms such as plants and animals differ in shape and in
the function that they carry out

This means that the cells are specialised.

In multicellular organisms, the complex processes that allow the body to function
cannot take place in a single cell. Instead, the cells have to work together in an
organised manner

The organisation of cells

A cell is a mass of cytoplasm and a nucleus that is surrounded by the cell
membrane and, in plants, surrounded by a cell wall.
The contents of the cell consists of large numbers of atoms of various types.
Atoms form molecules that are grouped together to form organelles.
The cells of an organism differ from one another
Cells normally do not work individually in the body, but in groups Cells are grouped
together according to their shape and function.
 A group of cells that carry out a specific function forms tissue, a group of tissues
makes up an organ, and organs work together in groups to form systems, which
finally form an organism.
Tissue consists of a group of cells with the same structure, which work together to
carry out a common function.
Examples of tissue in humans are muscle- and nerve tissue.
An organ is a structure of a specific shape and function that consists of more than
one type of tissue.
-In humans, the heart is an organ that consists of muscle, nerve and support tissue..
A system (or organ system) is a group of different organs working together to
carry out a common function, Together, these organs form a system,
The digestive system in the human body consists of various organs, such as the
stomach, liver, pancreas, the small intestine and the large intestine.
An organism (human organism) is made up of different systems that function
together as a unit.

USE OF MICROSCOPES TO OBSERVE CELLS

History of the discovery of microscopes
Before the seventeenth century very little was known about the structure of the cell
because there was no apparatus available to examine these minute structures.
Roughly in the year 1590, two Netherlanders, Hans and Zacharias Janssen, designed
the first compound microscope (a microscope that consists of more than one
lens).

Many years later, another Netherlander, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (a spectacle

maker, 1632-1723) built various simple microscopes by using lenses that he ground
himself. By using these microscopes, the blood flow in the blood vessels of a fish's
tale could be observed.
After van Leeuwenhoek, the English scientist, Robert Hooke (1635-1703), built an
instrument that can be considered the forerunner of the modern compound light
microscope. Hooke examined thin slices of cork under his microscope. He saw
small cavities, each surrounded by a wall.
It reminded him of the compartments in a honeycomb, and he named them cells.
Years later, in 1938, the Belgian botanist, Matthias Schleiden, and the German
zoologist, Theodor Schwann,
formulated the cell theory. They claimed that all organisms are made up of cells
and their products, in other words,that the cell is basically the smallest unit of life.
 Today this cell theory is accepted, while cells are continuously being examined to
eventually obtain more knowledge about these minute structures.
In this study, microscopes are used, amongst other things. Microscopes have
improved a great deal since Hooke's time.
Today we have powerful microscopes, such as compound light microscopes, and
even more powerful microscopes, such as electron microscopes, which can
magnify cells many times more so that they can more easily be examined.
A light microscope focuses light onto the object being examined to illuminate it,
and can magnify it up to 2 000 times.
The electron microscope was developed in the 1950's and works by shooting an
electron beam at a small object that is covered with a thin layer of gold. Electrons
bounce off the thin layer of metal to form an image, which then appears on a
computer screen.
This type of microscope can magnify up to 500 000 times.

STEM CELLS
Stem cells are the small living cells that give birth to new tissue in a developing
embryo.
They are called embryonic stem cells.
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can divide (make photocopies of
themselves) to form different specialised cells.
Which means that stem cells can be used to repair damaged cells and organs, and
even to make new ones.
Thus stem cells have two specifically distinguishable characteristics
Bone marrow, brain cells and other types of tissue can be cultivated from stem
cells. Stem cells have the ability to repair organs or tissues after damage caused by
disease or chemotherapy.
Stem cells are also present, for example, in the bone marrow of adults.
Stem cells have also recently been discovered in the adult body, in the epidermis
(skin), hair, eyes and the pulp
The quality and amount of stem cells decrease as people grow older. of teeth.
Older patients can, however, get diseases that contaminate their stem cells and
make them unfit for use.
Stem cells are mainly harvested from human embryos and from the blood in the
umbilical cord when a baby is born

Ethical issues regarding stem cells

The research destroys human embryos.
 Every living being started his/her life as an embryo - consequently the objection
embryos, is murder.
Stem cell research will possibly open the door for inhumane practices, such the use
of foetuses for organ donation. as embryo farms, cloned babies

Counter arguments on ethical issues

Embryos can not be compared to living, fully-grown organisms.
The moral status of an embryo can not be compared to that of, for example, a baby
- hence the use of embryonic stem cells can not be considered as murder.
A few embryos will die, but many people can be cured of disease.
Scientific knowledge can be advanced and many people can benefit from it.

Respiratory System
Function of the system
The respiratory system provides the boy with life-giving oxygen (O2) and removes
the waste gas carbon dioxide (CO2) from the body

Main processes of the respiratory system

The three main processes of the respiratory system are:

1. Breathing
Breathing is the process where air with oxygen is pulled into the lungs and air with
carbon dioxide is forced out of the lungs.
Breathing in is called inhalation.
Breathing out is called exhalation.
When we inhale, we take air in with a high concentration oxygen and when we
exhale, we breath out air that contains more carbon dioxide
These processes take place in a continuous cycle.
Inhalation and exhalation are based on the principle of pressure that rhythmically
decreases and increases in the chest cavity. Muscles between the ribs, which are
called the intercostal muscles, and a muscle below the lungs, called the diaphragm,
make the lungs work
Is a physical process
Consists of inhalation and exhalation
Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere in the lungs during inhalation
Removal of carbon dioxide form the lungs into the atmosphere during exhalation
Inhalation
Active process
Intercostal muscles contract
Rib cage moves up and outwards
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Volume in thoracic increases
Pressure in thoracic cavity and lungs decreases
Air rushes in through the nose, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles to alveoli from the
external environment

Exhalation
Passive process
Intercostal muscles relax
Rib cage moves down and inwards
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped
Volume in thoracic cavity decreases
Pressure in thoracic cavity and lungs increase
Air is forced from the alveoli, bronchioles, trachea, and nose to external entrance

2. Gaseous exchange
This is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs through the process
of diffusion (diffusion is the movement of gas molecules from a high concentration
to a low concentration through a selective permeable membrane.)
The inhaled oxygen diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the blood.
The carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli and is exhaled from
there.
Gaseous exchange is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged.
Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and in the cells of the body.
The process by which gaseous exchange takes place is called diffusion.
Diffusion is the movement of gas molecules from a high concentration to a low
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.

Structure of the lungs

Air passes through a windpipe called the trachea, which branches into two pipes
called the bronchial tubes (bronchi), one on each side.
The trachea and bronchi are kept open by cartilage rings
 The bronchi branch into increasingly smaller tubes called bronchioles.
Where the smallest branch of the bronchioles ends, a lung sac (infundibulum)
consisting of alveoli is found.
The alveoli have very thin, moist walls.
The alveoli are surrounded by a network of small blood vessels, called capillaries

Gaseous exchange in the lungs

Air with oxygen is inhaled and reaches the alveoli.
The inhaled air in the alveoli contains a high concentration of oxygen.
The oxygen diffuses through the thin wall of the alveoli and
The thin walls of the capillaries into the blood.
The oxygen moves from a place where there is a high concentration in the alveoli to
where the concentration in the blood is lower through the process of diffusion.
Carbon dioxide is more concentrated in the blood. Carbon dioxide thus diffuses
from the blood into the alveoli of the lungs

3. Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a chemical process during which glucose (energy-rich
food) is broken down inside the cells by means of oxygen.
It releases energy that is stored in
the glucose for cell functioning.
Oxygen is used and carbon dioxide and water are produced (released).
The necessity of cellular respiration
The various processes of your body (such as movement and reproduction)
require enormous amounts of energy.
The food you eat contains the necessary energy, but it does not help at all if the
cells do not get this energy from the food.
The energy should therefore function.
This be released from the food you eat and be made available to the cells so that
they can
Process of energy release is brought about by cellular respiration. Cellular
respiration – the process during which energy-rich food is broken down in living
cells
To release energy for cell functioning – oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide and
water are released.
Where cellular respiration takes place
 Cellular respiration takes place in small energy ‘releasers’ called mitochondria
(singular = mitochondrion) in the cells of the body.
The mitochondria are also sometimes referred to as the power station of the cell.
What is required for cellular respiration to take place?
For cellular respiration to take place, a constant supply of glucose (sugar) and
oxygen is required.
Glucose is obtained from the food you eat, and oxygen enters the blood through
the lungs.

By-products of cellular respiration

As a result of cellular respiration, energy is re- leased for cell functioning and
carbon dioxide is released as a waste product – water (water vapour) is also
released.
All cells must therefore constantly receive oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells in the blood into the capillaries.
The blood carries the carbon dioxide to the lungs so that the lungs can get rid of
this harmful gas.
If carbon dioxide is allowed to accumulate in the cells, it will be very toxic
(poisonous) to the contents of the cell

Main components in the respiratory system

Nose and mouth
Located at the front lower tip of the nose are the two external nostrils through
which air is normally inhaled,
These nostrils (openings) lead to the nasal cavities
Inhaled air is warmed, purified from dust by fine hairs (cilia) and moistened by
mucus in the nasal cavities.
The air that is inhaled through the nose travels through the nasal cavities into the
windpipe (trachea).
A person can also breathe through the mouth, but this is abnormal and usually
occurs when the nose is blocked, Such during a cold.

Windpipe (trachea) and other air passages

The windpipe (trachea) is a tube that enters the chest and allows air to flow from
the nasal cavities.
It is kept open by cricoid cartilage.
 The windpipe branches into two smaller bronchial tubes called bronchi (singular =
bronchus) that enter the lungs.
Each tube (bronchus) is attached to one lung.
In each lung the bronchi branch into smaller, narrower tubes known as the
smaller bronchial tubes (bronchioles) (singular = bronchiole).
At the end of each smaller bronchial tube (bronchiole) there is a small lung sac
(infundibulum) on which several small bubble-shaped alveoli (singular = alveolus)
(or air sacs) occur.

Lungs
The main organs of the respiratory system are the lungs.

1. External structure
The lungs are two spongy, extremely elastic organs in the chest cavity.
They are well protected by the spine at the back, the ribcage laterally and the
breastbone in front.
Both lungs are conical and pink, grey in colour.
The pink colour is due to the enormous number of capillaries.
The lungs are separated by a space in which the heart is located.
When the bronchial tubes (bronchi) enter the lungs, they branch repeatedly to
form several smaller bronchial tubes (bronchioles).

2. Internal structure
These smaller bronchial tubes (bronchioles) branch throughout the lung,
becoming smaller and smaller.
Each smaller bronchial tube (bronchiole) ends in a small lung sac (infundibulum)
consisting of alveoli (lung sacs).
The entire structure looks like a small bunch of grapes.
Each alveolus (lung sac) has a very thin wall and is surrounded by blood flowing
through a network of small blood vessels.
There are 200-300 million lung sacs (alveoli) in each lung.

Diaphragm
This dome-shaped muscular partition below the lungs allows you to breathe.
When it contracts, it moves downwards, and your lungs fill with air.
When it relaxes, it moves upwards and forces the air out of your lungs.
This is the most important muscle used for breathing.
Health issues involving the respiratory system
Asthma
This is caused by allergies that lead to inflammation and narrowing of the airways.
Symptoms include wheezing, a tight chest, shortness of breath and coughing.
It can be caused by genetic and environmental factors

Lung cancer
Cells in the lungs grow out of control and form tumours.
The tumour affects the lung’s ability to supply oxygen to the blood.
Symptoms are chest pains, shortage of breath, a chronic cough or wheezing and
weight loss.
Mostly caused by smoking and air pollution.

Bronchitis
Is swelling of the lining of the bronchial tubes (bronchi) due to infection that causes
coughing and makes it difficult to get air into the lungs.
The airways become congested with too much mucus.
Symptoms include wheezing and shortness of breath.
It is often caused by smoking or when polluted air is inhaled.

Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria and is a contagious disease.
The bacteria are inhaled and contaminate the lungs and break down lung tissue.
The effectiveness of breathing is reduced and the irritation that is caused by the
bacteria results in heavy coughing.
The excessive coughing causes the capillaries to burst, which often leads to the
coughing up of blood.
TB can be prevented by vaccination and treatment with certain antibiotics.

Pneumonia
Is an infection in the lungs which cause the alveoli to fill with fluid.

Emphysema
The bronchial tubes (bronchi) become blocked by a continuous increase in mucus.
Enzymes dissolve the tissue of the alveoli, and the walls of the alveoli break down.
 The lungs lose their elasticity, with the result that gaseous exchange cannot take
place effectively.

Asbestosis
Is a lung disease that is caused when the person inhales asbestos fibres. The
asbestos particles penetrate the lungs and damage the lung tissue.
The person struggles to breathe, and it is difficult for oxygen to be absorbed into
the blood.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Function of the circulatory system
The circulatory system brings nutrients and oxygen (O2) to the cells and
removes waste products.

Main processes of the circulatory system

Circulates blood between the heart and the lungs, as well as between the
heart and the rest of the body.
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels (veins, arteries,
capillaries) and blood.

The heart
The heart of a human is found just above the diaphragm in the thoracic cavity,
between the two lungs, behind the breast bone.
It is centrally located with its tip slightly to the left.
The heart is a hollow muscular pumping organ.
Internally it is divided into a left and a right side.
The two sides are completely separated by a muscular wall.
The heart therefore consists of four chambers.
The two upper chambers are called the atria (singular = atrium).
The two lower chambers are called ventricles.
The two upper chambers (atria) receive blood from veins entering the heart.
 The two lower chambers (ventricles) pump blood into arteries to all parts of the body.
The left ventricle has a thick muscular wall because it pumps blood at high pressure
over a long distance from the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs.
The right ventricle has a thinner muscular wall because it pumps blood at low
pressure over a short distance from the heart to the lungs.
One-way valves between the chambers constantly keep the blood flowing in the right
direction.

Blood therefore flows twice through the heart during a full circulation.
Firstly, deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right side of the heart to the
lungs where the blood absorbs oxygen.
The oxygenated blood then returns to the left side of the heart from where it is
pumped to the rest of the body to supply oxygen to the cells.

Blood vessels

Your heart pumps blood throughout the body via a network of ducts called
blood vessels.

There are three typical blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins.

▸ Arteries

Transport blood at high pressure away from the heart to all the different parts
of the body.
They have thick, muscular, elastic walls to withstand the high blood pressure.
► Capillary blood vessels (capillaries)

In the organs the arteries branch into many small, narrow ducts called
capillaries.
The walls of capillary blood vessels are very thin, therefore cells get into close
contact with the blood.
Capillary blood vessels supply cells with oxygen and nutrients, and they
remove waste products and carbon dioxide.
Capillaries unite again to form veins.

Veins
Transport blood at much lower pressure to the heart.
Their walls are thinner and less muscular than those of arteries.
The valves in veins allow the blood to flow in one direction and prevents it from
flowing back.

Blood

The fluid that moves in the blood vessels and transport substances
throughout the body is blood.
Blood consists of blood plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.

Blood plasma

Is the liquid part of blood.

It mainly consists of water and transports nutrients,waste products and
dissolved gases in solution.

Three types of blood cells are found in blood, namely:

Red blood corpuscles

They are disc-shaped cells without nuclel.

A hollow in the centre of each cell gives them a biconcave shape.
 Are formed in bone marrow.
The main function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen
The main function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen to all parts of the body.

White blood corpuscles

They are larger than red blood corpuscles, with an irregular shape and a clear
nucleus.

Their main function is to destroy germs and defend the body against disease.
(They are the "soldiers of the body").

► Platelets

Are small fragments of cells that play a key role in blood clotting.
Are produced in the bone marrow.

Health issues involving the circulatory system

High blood pressure

High blood pressure, also called hypertension, refers to a constant high

pressure of blood in the arteries and forces the heart to work harder.
Workload of the heart increases.
Heart enlarges.
Heart does not pump blood efficiently.
Can cause a heart attack, kidney failure or a stroke.
The high pressure against the artery walls can damage them.
Normal blood pressure varies throughout the day.
It rises when we are excited or nervous, or participate in some type of activity.
Any stress, cigarette smoking, being overweight, a lack of exercise and an
unhealthy diet cause high blood pressure

Heart attack
 Occurs when stricture (narrowing) or blood clot develops in one of the blood
vessels that supply the heart muscle with blood.
If the stricture or blood clot is too large, it can block the blood flow to the
heart muscle and cause the heart to stop pumping, and this is called a heart
attack.
The person may die.
A common symptom is a sharp pain in the centre of the chest that spreads to
the jaw, back and left arm.
• A fatty diet, lack of exercise, obesity, smoking and alcohol abuse can cause
heart attacks.
However, most people who suffer a heart attack inherited the tendency from
their ancestors.

Stroke

Occurs when the brain is deprived of oxygen.

This often happens because of a blockage in the blood vessels that lead to the
brain, or when one of these vessels rupture (tear open).
The person feels weak and confused, and can become paralysed in certain
parts of the body.

T H E DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Function of the digestive system

The digestive system breaks down food into dissolved nutrients that are absorbed
into the bloodstream and transported to cells throughout the body.

Main processes of the digestive system

There are four main processes that occur in the digestive system in different
areas along the digestive tract. They are:

► Ingestion: This occurs when food is taken in through the mouth into your body
by eating or drinking.

► Digestion: This is the process where large food molecules are broken into
smaller soluble food molecules which are then transported in the bloodstream.

There are two types of digestion:

1. Mechanical digestion (physical digestion)

Occurs when food is broken down physically by chewing, churning, or

grinding and crushing. Mechanical digestion takes place in your mouth and in
your stomach.

2. Chemical digestion

Occurs when different digestive enzymes break down the pieces of food into
smaller molecules. Enzymes are chemicals that break up large food
molecules into smaller molecules.
Different enzymes work on different food molecules.
Chemical digestion starts in the mouth where enzymes in the saliva start
breaking down starch.
Chemical digestion also occurs in the stomach and small intestine.
Absorption: This is the movement of digested, soluble food molecules
through the wall of the digestive system into the bloodstream, from where it is
carried to all the cells in the body.

▸ Egestion and elimination (defecation): When any undigested or unwanted

particles pass through the digestive tract as faeces to the end of the digestive tract
(through the anus).

Main components in the digestive system

The human digestive system consists of two main groups, the digestive tract and
the supporting organs. The digestive tract is a long, hollow duct through which the
food moves.

It has two openings to the outside, the mouth at the one end and the anus at the
other end.

The following organs form part of the digestive tract:

 (1) the mouth; (2) the oesophagus; (3) the stomach; (4) the small intestine: (5)
the large intestine
The supporting organs help with the proce stomach: (4) the small intestine),
the tongue, the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas.
The teeth and tongue help with mechanical digestion.
The glands (i.e. the liver, pancreas and salivary glands) produce and store
chemicals (enzymes) that breaks down

The mouth
Food enters the digestive tract through the mouth.
When you put food in your mouth it is called food components.
Ingestion or digestion starts in the mouth.
In the mouth we find the teeth, tongue and special glands called salivary
glands. The teeth play a role in the biting, chewing and grinding of food
(pulverising food into smaller pieces) during mechanical digestion.
The tongue holds the food between the teeth, mixes the food with saliva, rolls
the food into a small ball of food(called a bolus) and helps with the swallowing
process. Taste buds on the tongue allows us to taste our food.
The salivary glands contain enzymes that help with the chemical digestion,
secretes saliva, moistens food to form a bolus and smooths the bolus to make
swallowing easier.
Once the food has formed a bolus (round ball) it is swallowed and moves into
the oesophagus.

The oesophagus
The oesophagus (gullet) is a long duct with muscles that help the food (bolus)
to move into the stomach.
It's like squeezing toothpaste from a tube.
The rhythmic contraction (wave motion) of the muscles in the oesophagus is
called peristalsis.
Peristalsis assists in pushing the bolus down into the stomach.
It has no digestive function.
The stomach
The food is mixed in the stomach (a muscular organ) with a liquid that is
secreted by the stomach wall. This liquid is called digestive juices (gastric fluid)
and it contains hydrochloric acid and enzymes.
These chemicals help to further break down food molecules (chemical
digestion).
The stomach wall has muscles that contract and pulverize the food.
The muscle walls grind the food and mix it with the digestive juices
(mechanical digestion).
Food stays in the stomach for about two hours where it is churned and mixed
with digestive juices.
A sphincter at the exit of the stomach opens and food moves through the
valve into the small intestine.

The small intestine

The small intestine is about 6 m long and is specially adapted for the last
stages of digestion. The major part of digestion and the absorption of
digested food takes place in the small intestine.
During the last stage of digestion the food is broken down into a simpler form
in order to be utilised by cells.
Glands in the wall of the small intestine secrete intestinal juice that contains
enzymes.
Food that has not been fully digested is broken down by the action of these
enzymes until simple, soluble food molecules are formed. Soluble food
molecules move through the small intestine wall where it is absorbed into the
blood stream(absorption).
The food molecules are transported in this way to the cells where they are
used.

The large intestine

The large intestine is about 1,5 m long and 70 mm in diameter.

The following parts of the large intestine are distinguished:

-The caecum: Is the widest part where the large Intestine joins the small intestine.

-The colon: Makes up the greatest part of the large intestine that first extends
upwards, then across and finally downwards.

-The rectum: Is the last part of the large intestine that ends at the anus.

No digestion takes place in the large intestine.

By the time the food reaches the large intestine, most of the nutrients have
been absorbed.
All the undigested food ends up in the large intestine as waste food. Here the
body absorbs most of the water, mineral salts and certain vitamins from the
content.
The substances remaining in the large intestine are further decomposed by
bacteria into faeces (excrement) and stored in the rectum before excretion.
Faeces (excrement) leaves the body through the anus - this is called egestion
or defecation.

Other parts of the digestive system

There are several organs that help the digestive system to function.

These organs include the liver, gallbladder and pancreas.

They secrete special fluids into the digestive tract that contain different enzymes
and chemicals.

These substances help to digest the food.

The liver

The liver is the largest organ in the body and has many functions and plays an
important role in digestion.
It produces a yellow-green liquid called bile.
Bile contains substances that help digest fatty foods.

The gallbladder
 The gallbladder temporarily stores bile until it is needed.

The pancreas

The pancreas produces gastric juices with digestive enzymes that break down
(digest) starch, protein, carbohydrates, fats and oils.

Health issues involving the digestive system

Peptic ulcers

A peptic ulcer is an open sore that can form in the stomach wall or in the
upper part of the intestinal tract.
Peptic ulcers are caused by certain bacterial infections in the stomach.
It can also occur as a result of smoking, the use of painkillers and stress.

Anorexia

People suffering from this eating disorder have an abnormal fear of gaining
weight and therefore deliberately do not eat and intentionally go hungry.
Anorexia is a type of eating disorder that affects the mind.
This leads to many health issues such as loss of bone density, kidney damage,
heart problems and even death.

Diarrhoea

Diarrhoea is the excretion of faeces that is sparse and watery.

Diarrhoea usually lasts two days only and is generally caused by a virus.
It is sometimes called gastric flu.
Cholera is caused by a bacterium and can lead to death in young children if
not treated.
Diarrhoea is also a symptom of other diseases such as cholera.
Cirrhosis of the liver

Cirrhosis of the liver is when the liver is scarred as a result of continuous

damage to the liver cells.
The scar tissue replaces healthy tissue and prevents the liver from functioning
properly.
The most common causes of cirrhosis is excessive drinking of alcohol or
infection from the hepatitis C virus.