Limits

Consider the Function f(x) = Notice

-

that If Dr · Let's find fe for values

of X close to to

Notations (im F(x) =*

X -
> 1

In words ,
"the limit as X approaches
↓ of F(x) equals "

simplif =(x 1)
=) +

Graphing : ; X* 1

n Y
ps ca

Conclusion : F(I) is undefined ,

butim F(x)
3 what expect to be, based values
full on
nearby .

Definition : Suppose F(x) is defined near a (but not

write :
F=
necessarily at al Then .
we

if we can make the values f(x)

of
as close as we
want to L by
(but
talking values of
X closer and closer to a not

equal to al.
 limits
finding graphically
Ex: each the functions ,
For
and
of
I'm
following
Find F(2) F() ·

X+ 2

a) C) ⑧
F(z) = z

F(z) =
1

>
-
e

lim = 1 =
X -
32

6) F(2) =
Undefined d)
·
>
= F(z) = z

- -
E =
DNE
-

Lim FF(x)

One-sidedLimits :

Idea : Look at the two sides separately .

Definition : Suppose f(x) is defined on the left

of a .
Then we write : F( "The limit as X approaches a
from

the left equals L .

"

if we can make fly as close as we want to L by taking values of

* closer and closer to a (where Xca) .
We can
Similarly define +
F(x)
+
EX :
Lim
X >1
-
-
F(x) 4 =

Lim-F(x) = 3

+ F(x) = 1 La4 + F(x) =

1

C F(x) =
DNE Lim,
F(x) = 3

In : Sincein
Exa

2) g(x = =

[
Com g(x

Com gx

since
im
DNe
g
=

[iF
X = -
1

b) F(x) =

9 %
=

Lim F(x) = 1 Lim

F(x) = 7
.
X + z-
6 =
X= - 1

3 =
Lim
X+ -
It
F(x) = 1 im 12
+ F(x) =
9
Lim
F(x) = 1 Lim F(X) =
DNE SinceMF(F(x)
· X ) 1
- -

P
-
I
i
I
-

3 =

-
6 -

9 -

Infinite limits graphically :

Ex :
alsketch the
graph of f(x =*
I

----HA .
y =
0

VA . X=&
 6) What is the S FW ?

Lim F(x) =
DNE- F(x) = + @ (DNE)

Ex : f(x) =
com FCx = - (DN

EDNEF

Definition : Let f(x) be defined near a (but not necessarily at alo

Then we writeMF(x) = + @ "The limit as X approaches a

of F(x) equals + D1

if we can make f(x) as

large as we want by taking values of x closer and closer to a

(but not
equal to a) .

Way a limit can fail to exist : % therefore

W
⑧

(im F(x) DNE

=
2 . Infinite 3 . Oscillation :

limits Cim Sin

X+ a
=
DNE

Lim f(x) =

limits at infinity graphically :

Definition : Let flat be defined on (a,+a Thani .

Fe = L .

>
-

Could also be +Ol if we can make f(x) as close as we want to L by

taking
Lim
values of X that we
larger and
larger .
We can similarly defined xy -a
F(x) =
.
H .
A . important
19
Lim
x + qf(x) = -
0
O

Lim F(x) = 1 : HA .
.
at y=
X - -
2
-

- =>

FindingLimits Algebraically :

Evaluate the limits

Ex :
following .

aCom
Lim
C C where 26
= c is a constant xty
=
26
,

Lim X
6) Tim a
=
42
X - 42
S

Limit lows:

Suppose LimF(x) and Lim g(x) exist The .

1)im [F(x) + g(x] = F(x) + g(x)

2)ma [F((g(x)] (() (vi g(x)
=

3)in CFM = C(mf(x) , where C is a constant a

is even Yo

Ex : Due since Limo DNE if a =0 and h is even

,
we can
only
approach a from the
right.

Ex: Lim =
-Direct substitution proport a

Note : This also works one-sided limits

for
New
strategy Y :
=

[] ; =

Fact: If F(x g(x) When for X

=
close a to a then
,
im F(x =Simag(x) if these limits exist .

Strategy for evaluating limits algebraically :

to Try to use sub ,
if you know you shouldn't do it in square brackets.

If
get [] , rationalizing expanding
factoring don
2.
you use
, , ,
common

3
. Use direct subo

Ex : =* ;m = 3) 2

that
One-sided limits Algebraically :

Ex : (e+ f(x) =
[FX4
Does Line
,
F( exist ?

m (ox =f exist and

equal to zer Since
Lim
X - 4-
F(x)
= F(x) 0 + =

[xif
if X]2

Exc : Let f(x) =

x

For what values of K YimF(x) exist ?

Force Th-F(x =
Com + F(x)

Lim
X+ 2
- F(x) =
S (5K x) -
=
5K-2 ; Y ( =+ (x2 - k) = z= - k = 4 -

We Sk -z 4k = Sk + k 4 +2 6k 6 ; k 1
;
=
need = = =

m F(x =
39 +
F(x) =
3 ;im F(xF(x) =
3
Limits with absolute values :

If have I gol in limit

you
a xya
as .

Case 1 : glad yo ; replace Ig(y) with g(X) .

Case 2 : g(a) <0

; replace (g()) with -g(x).

Case 3: gla) = o ; evaluate the one-sided limits (then case ad case 20

Ex : Evaluate the limits

following .

=
=

6) COM g(x) =
116-16) = 0 =
case

One-sided limits :

1) Com g( . 9) = -

079 ; 4) -

(e + 4) =
8

2)M ; (4 . 1) = 08 +

Since the one-sided limits do not

agree , im DN

Infinite limits
algebraically :
Ex : Evaluate Can

com - Not an idetomirate form, on infinite for me

Evaluate one-sided limits

,

im ] =
=
- a (closer to zero
,
but negative)
= [i] = +
0

Lim =
DNesince the one-sided limits do not
agree .
General (when
strategy : If you use direct sub .
you shouldn't
and
get [E] ; A O the limit is either -
D
,
0 or DNE .
To
distinguish
between these cases use one-sided limits.

Ex : Eo to fol

a) Lin [] ,im =+ =

+
6)M =

[]im = -

= D +

6)= F + D

Ex : Find all VA of the function =2

There be VA at values that not in Dr Potential A
might a are o . x = 2
,
-

Lim =

· There at but IDF hole

VA There must be
·

is no X =
2 a
, ·

in the graph at X =
z .

immF = F
=F = D

has VA at
F(X) a X = -
4

Limits at infinity algebraically :

Ex : ETFL

a= o

6) =

[] =
o

2)im Indeterminate free

Strategy : Factor out the
largest power on x in the denominator

From both numerator and denominator

, .

= m
dim]
=
I
*

*
(2x3
(-3 -
+
+1)
=-

Exc
F(x
Lim
+ 0 [*] =

=
im
9)im (
=
Lin
=
h im
=
9) Lim (xx) =

[-0] - Indeterminate Form .

0x() -9
Lim
= x + = 0 %
1 = 0

g) M (** x) -
=
[0 &] -

in
k)im =
= adapted strategy factor out the largest power of
E
limits:
Sketching graphs of functions with the help of

Ex : Let F(x) =
a) Find the domain of F(x) .

X + 4

=
-
x 120
; (x
-

1)(x + 1) = 0 ; x =1 x(( -

x,
=

1u[ d) ,

Dr =
70 - Dull 4) u(4 a
,
, ,

6) Find the intercepts of F .

-int : O Dr : no y-int .

X-int = x= 0 ; X 1jx
= 1)
;
-
=
= 0 =

6) Determine where F( is positive and

negative
- = always positive or 0
f(x)>0
>
-

when X-430 > - X > 4

>
-
F(x)10 When X-410 + X44

d) Find all asymptotes of fo

>dnot
-

for
graphing
·
neces

->

H As.
:

·
3
: HA at to the and get
y : 1
right to the
.

Left

"
y 2
- - - - - - - -
= -
Continuity
Idea : A continuous pencil/par
function is if you don't need to lift your

when
graphing

Definition : A function is continuous at x = a if F( =

F(a)·

That is :

.
1
Lim F(x) exist
(FD not
2
. F(a) is defined .

3
. They are equal (mF( F(a) =

Definition : If F is not continuous (cont ) .

at

* = a
,
then it is called discontinuous (discont).
at X= a
.

F(a)- EX : - &

)
Ex: Let
X =0
f(x) =

0XX)

X= 1

2) Where doesf have potential discontinuities ?

-

X =0
,
1 - 2 -
> -

zEDF
wo,
where the
"pieces"meet

6) Determine whether there we discontinuities at the values

found in al . Classify them

,
and remove any removable discontinuities.
X =
0 Lim F

one-sided limits

Ci F(x) = exist
im F(x) = (n(x) =
infinite limits
·
Lim F(x) DNE since F()
: f has an infinite discontinuity at X =0

XMF(x) >
-

One-sided limit
Lim (n(x)
X
- = (n(1) = 0
- 1
Lim x +
= 1 + 56
* - It

cre-sided limits has discontinuity at =

·Lim F(x DNE since
:
the don't agree ,
:of a
jump
 X = -

vomorable
Cim
V - z -

L
discontinuity a . .
#remove the
removable discontinuity redefine F(z) =
-4 .

C) Sketch the
graph of to

6
S-

-
1-

-
z
-

-
3-

-
4 -

HA

F:
X 0
X4
=

Ex
% Find the values) of
K such that is catmoors at x =
1.

Force C F(N) to exist .

To
· LiF(x = (4
*
-
x -
x) · ComF(x =M
= 4 -
1 -
k = 3x
=3 +

k
·
3 -k = 3 +
; 9 -
Sk r2
+ =
x+3 ; k2 + +6 = 0
;
(k -

6)(k 1)
-
=
0 ;6 =

,
k = 1

v 3 -
6 =3
;
-
37 3X
~ 3-1 = m
; z = zv

: CimP(X) exist if K

Make sure Fill is defined when Kel .

F(1) =
ex = = 2

: F(1) defined
I

Is it equal to F(

COMF(x)GmF 3 -
1 = 2 ;

CamF()
·
=
F()
,
:o f(x) is continuous When K is at
Recap :
Continuity at a
point .

Defin : A function is continuous at X= a

if
f

im F(x =
F(al
That is :

1 Em F(x) exist (Not I0 andmF(x) att

2 fla) is defined a

(ima F Fall
.
3
They equal
=
are

Intervals of
continuity
Definition:
com
1 F is continuous ata F( F(a) ·
from the
right if x+
=
:
.

y -
,
· ov
a) X a >X

F is continuous F isn't
#
continuous
From
at
the
right From the
right at
X =
a X = a

2
. F is continuous from the left ata if =
F(a)
·

Y1 &a
· & o

< a
X

F is
-
continuous from F isn't
-
continuous from

the left at X =
a the left at X=a .

Definition : A function f is continuous on an internal [if f

is continuous at X =
9 ata for all X in 10
If
f is only defined on the left/right of X = a
,
then we only

t
require be continuous from the left/right at X =a .
 Ex: Find the intervals of continuity of to

Ya

· ⑦
F is continuous on
(2 20 -2
, ,
,
-1)
,
(1 1)(1 2)
-

,
,
O O

- 2 -' R
=

Theorem : The types functions continuous at

Following of a re
every number

in their domain .

↓ . Polynomials .
Y D =
IR

2 Rationals
D= = 0 2)u(z a)
functions . = , ,
.

3
. Root functions .

Go Trig Functions .

S Exponential
. functions .

6. log functions .

7 Absolute
. value functions .

8. Inverse trig. Functions .

Ex : Find the intervals of continuity of

the
following functions .

=
(
(n()
a) F(x
+

=>
list

L
f is made functions from the F continuous its (0, 6) (43) U(3 %)
of .
is on damain ? Usin : R
,
DInc =
,
Dr =
,
·

A not continues its demain

: The
intervals
function on is : include of continuity we
include (0, 3) u (3 %)
. ,

Da
ta(X)x
6) g(x) =
*

9 is continuous its domain : IRlter

*
Dr (0 3)
on
Dig : =
, Dr = 10, 0) = (0, 3)
* Is
one of the VAs of tan(x) in the interval (0 37 ?
,

tanc) has a VA at 51 57 ,

Dg (0,) 03]. : The intervals (13

continuity
=

of of g are
 Theorem : If is continuous at and continuous at then F(g(XI) continuous at
g F is
gial is
a
a
,

In words "a continuous function of a continuous function is a continuous function

"

.
,

Ex : F(x) =
Sin (x2z) is
continuous on IR, Since sinc) and xE3 are continuous on IR o

Our help
understanding of continuity us evaluate limits.

Theorem : If Sim g( =
b and E is continuous at b
,
the (g(x) =
F

That is F(y) F(get) You the limit inside atg.

bring
=
can if F is continuous

Ex : ETFL

9)m (x
(n(in()
at
= =
only works if In is continuous
In is continuouso n a a
includes 1
taking
which So
Sim
.

the limit inside was fined

= 1

6) Ei* sin() [] =

Sin(im())
=

Continuous
>
-

Since sin() is on I

=
Sin (i) Sin() sin) = = = Sin (i) sin) sin() = =
= 1

2) Limo Cos/EY
=
Cos(imey Since the cos function is continuous on Ro

=
Cos(0) 1
=

The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Illustration : Supposef is continuous on Fa b].

,

For Flak N(F(6) f intersects

~x
any ,

the line y =N at least once

(a, F(a))
on (a b), o

Theorem (IVT) : Suppose f is continuous on [a b)

, ·
Lot N bo any number between F(a) and F16 .
Then

there is a
c in (a b) , such that F(C) No=

Note : The IVIT helps establish the existence

-
of solutions .
It does not give us those solutions .
 IVT

Ex : Show that the equation X =

x has in one solution.

Step 1: Choose a
function fo

Rewrite the equation XP+ -

X = 0 .
Let F(x = X+ -X
,
and N =
0 .

We converted the to:

have
question
Does F(x) = XS + 1- x cross the line y = 0+ (N) ?

Step 2 : Choose an interval [a 6t , so that N is between Fal and F(6) ·

Lot a = 1 ·
F(al =
F(ll =
1St-1 =
1 .

Lot 6 = -2 F(b) =
F(-2) =
(2) + He = -

29

>
-

Switch a and 6!

: F(a) < NCF(6) , and our interval is [a b] Ez 1]

=
, ,

Step 3: Verity that F is continuous on [a b]·

,

F(x) XS+ 1
= -
y

F is a
polynomial , which is continuous on its domain IR
,
which includes E2..

Step 4 :
Apply IT and conclude

By the IVT ,
there is a c in E2, 1) Such that fo .
That is
,
there is a c in G2 1)
,
,
such

that c+ 1 = c.

Ex : Show that there is at least one solution to3sinczta on []

= 034 ; F =
06
3) F(x) = 3sin(X) -

2tg(x) ; sinc) is continuous on its domain 1 Eg(x) is continuous on EE) which

includes [] of is continuous on 2,)

4) By the FVT, there is a 0 in 158] such that Fl = O
,
such that

30 Sin(0) =

2tg(0) = 0= 0