RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Module VI Primary Data

6.A Meaning: - Primary data sources are original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data
directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other
aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers by interviewing them, Primary
data are first-hand information collected through various methods such as observation,
interviewing, mailing etc.

6. B ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA

Advantages of Primary Data

1) Targeted Issues are addressed. The organization asking for the research has the
complete control on the process and the research is streamlines as far as its
objectives and scope is concerned. Researching company can be asked to
concentrate their efforts to find data regarding specific market rather than
concentration on mass market.
2) Data interpretation is better. The collected data can be examined and interpreted
by the marketers depending on their needs rather than relying on the interpretation
made by collectors of secondary data.
3) Recency of Data. Usually secondary data is not so recent and it may not be specific
to the place or situation marketer is targeting. The researcher can use the irrelevant
seeming information for knowing trends or may be able to find some relation with
the current scenario. Thus primary data becomes a more accurate tool since we can
use data which is useful for us.
4) Proprietary Issues. Collector of primary data is the owner of that information and
he need not share it with other companies and competitors. This gives an edge over
competitors replying on secondary data.

Disadvantages of Primary Data

1) High Cost. Collecting data using primary research is a costly proposition.
2) Time Consuming. Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise, the time required
to do research accurately is very long as compared to secondary data, which can be
collected in much lesser time duration.
3) Inaccurate Feed-backs. In case the research involves taking feedbacks from the
targeted audience, there are high chances that feedback given is not correct.
Feedbacks by their basic nature are usually biased or given just for the sake of it.

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 4) More number of resources required. Leaving aside cost and time, other
resources like human resources and materials too are needed in larger quantity to
do surveys and data collection.
5) It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled and is difficult to
administer.

6.C TYPES OF PRIMARY DATA

Primary Data can be classified as Qualitative data and Quantitative data

Qualitative Quantitative
Qualitative data cannot be expressed as a Quantitative data are anything that can be
number and can only be observed and deals expressed as a number, or quantified.
with descriptions.
Examples of Qualitative data are Colors, Examples of Quantitative data are length,
textures, smells, tastes, appearance, beauty, height, area, volume, weight, speed, time,
opinions etc. temperature, humidity, sound levels, cost,
members, ages, etc.

Qualitative data is non-statistical and Quantitative data is statistical and

generally semi-structured or unstructured. structured.
Qualitative Data may be represented by Quantitative data may be represented by
Nominal Scales. Ordinal, interval or ratio scales.
Qualitative Data is categorized based on Quantitative data can be analyzed using
properties, attributes, labels and other statistical methods and represented using
identifiers. graphs and charts.
Qualitative data is generated through Quantitative data is generated through
exploratory research designs and used to conclusive research and used for
develop initial understanding. recommending final course of action.
Analysis of qualitative data is subjective and Analysis of quantitative data is objective and
complex. simple.

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Consider the following table:-

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Example 1: Example 1:
Oil Painting Oil Painting

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

 blue/green color, gold frame  picture is 10" by 14"
 smells old and musty  with frame 14" by 18"
 texture shows brush strokes of oil  weighs 8.5 pounds
paint  surface area of painting is 140 sq. in.
 peaceful scene of the country  cost $300
 masterful brush strokes

Example 2: Example 2:
Latte Latte

Qualitative data: Quantitative data:

 robust aroma  12 ounces of latte
 frothy appearance  serving temperature 150º F.
 strong taste  serving cup 7 inches in height
 burgundy cup  cost $4.95

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6.D QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Survey method is most commonly used primary data collection method for quantitative
data. There are following methods of obtaining quantitative primary data:
(1) Survey Technique or Approach: (a) Mail (Questionnaire) Survey or postal enquiry (b)
Personal Interview or field survey. (c) Telephone survey. We may have census or sample
survey.
(2) Panel Research: Consumer panel or dealer panel-for testing and comments.
(3) Experimental Research

SURVEY: In the questioning or survey method, well informed and desirable persons are
questioned by mail or telephone or through personal interview. A standard set of questions
is prepared to obtain the required information.

(1)The mail Survey:-

It is very efficient and cheap method of conducting surveys. The contact is made through
postal services. The questionnaire is designed and mailing list of respondents is prepared.
Printed copy of questionnaire is sent along with a covering letter. Covering letter is used to
explain background of research and create interest, motivate respondent for answering.
Gift or incentives may be provided to the respondent for encouragement.

Advantages:-
 It has wide geographical coverage helping researcher to reach difficult location.
 It is economical compared to other methods
 Respondents have flexibility of timing and convenience of place to fill the
questionnaire.
 Respondent will be at ease answering sensitive issues.

Limitations:-
 Rate of response is low due to inertia of respondents.
 The questionnaire may not be completely and carefully answered.
 Nonverbal cues are missing and information provided cannot be verified.
 Questions not understood or interpreted correctly cannot be explained

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(2) The Telephone Survey:-
The respondents are interviewed on telephone.
Advantages:-
 It is ideal method if information is needed on current activities e.g. radio programs.
 It is cheap and quick method of data collection
 It is most suited when few factual questions needed to be asked.

Limitations:-
 It restricts selection of a sample.
 Detailed investigation is not possible.
 Nonverbal cues are missing as body language cannot be observed.

(3)The Personal Interview:-

It is direct form of investigation, involving face to face communication between
interviewer and respondents with free flow of information and feedback.

Advantages:-
 It allows use of open ended questions.
 Rate of refusal is low and detailed investigation is possible.
 Demonstrations and explanations are possible.
 Information gathered is of very high quality.
 Monitoring body language can provide vital cues regarding opinions, preferences,
attitudes etc.

Limitations:-
 Requires a great deal of planning.
 It is very costly method and unit cost of information is high.
 Trained, competent and honest interviewer is required.
 Interviewer’s bias may affect quality of information.

PANEL RESEARCH: -
When research analyst interviews the sample group of respondents two or more times or
secures data from them on two or more occasions, it is called Panel Research.
Respondents may be individual consumers, retailers, wholesalers etc. Panel Research
enables researcher to measure small changes in purchases, habits, other activities over a
time from the panel. Panels are made up of respondents who regularly and routinely report
their buying behavior. They maintain a record of purchases, advertising exposure,
shopping activity or any other item under research.

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Shop Audit: -
Panel research may be operated at retail level using score audit technique. It will provide
extensive information about retailers. Periodic checking of stock at retail shops gives
particulars of sales volume at retail level. Auditing of sales records indicates purchases of
retailers, sales to their customers, inventories, prices and related information by individual
brands, packages, sizes etc. Shop audit of a sample of retailers also indicate the
measurement of flow of goods at retail level.

Consumer Purchase Panel: -

Consumer Purchase Panel is widely used. A sample of family units maintain the record and
reports on a weekly or monthly basis their product purchases for the immediate period.
The data includes types, number of units, prices, brands and source of buying. Members on
the panel get motivating benefits in order to maintain the records honestly. Consumer
Panel can be used to test and evaluate new product, new package, new tastes, new fashions,
trends etc. or to answer questions relating to a particular investigation.

Uses of Consumer Panel: -

(1). To find out consumer attitudes, preferences, changes in demand relating to particular
brand; (2)To test samples of product; (3) To assess market trends; (4) To ascertain brand-
share and brand switching; (5) To find out consumer responses to packages; (6) To know
importance of different types of retail outlet; (7) To get consumer reaction to prices, and
advertising; (8) To have test of marketing when new product is being introduced in the
market.

Audience measurement panels: -

The audience panels are used for testing response of households for the advertisement,
television programs etc. The data is repeatedly collected from the same households at
regular intervals. Electronic meters attached to the television records the data related to
the channels and program viewed. TRP ratings for the channels or a program can be
arrived at using this data.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: -
Experimental research method is mainly used to find out causal relationship (cause-effect)
e.g. effect of new promotional schemes on volume of sales, effect of competitor’s
promotional campaign on sales of our product etc. Experiments aim at defining the causal
relationship between the sets of variables. They identify (a) the variables whose
occurrence is dependent on others i.e. dependent variables, independent variables that
cause but are caused by other variables being examined, (b) the nature of relationship

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between these dependent and independent variables, and (c) the independent variables
that exercise the most influence on the occurrence of the dependent variables.

Research is concerned with two types of experiments—natural experiments and

controlled experiments.

Natural Experiments: -
The role of researcher in this type is restricted to identifying the independent variables that
could influence the dependent variable and observing a) the nature of the relationship and
b) the change in the dependent variable because of a change in one or more independent
variables over time. E.g. A sample is interviewed for the brand preference of a particular
product; an advertisement for the brand is introduced for a couple of weeks and same
sample is interviewed again to see if brand preferences have changed because of
advertisement.

Controlled Experiments: -
In these experiments, the researcher is concerned with actively manipulating (or
‘controlling’) the levels of independent variables and tracking the impact of these changes
on the dependent variable. The objective in this case is to identify the nature of the
relationship, as in the case of natural experiments and determine the optimal level of the
dependent variable in order to plan most suitable marketing-mix.

e.g. The researcher can vary the advertising exposure on a set of selected customers at
different points of time in a store environment and measure the effect the overall purchase
behavior of the consumer

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6.E QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS: -
Qualitative research is concerned with the data, which cannot be expressed with numbers
such as attitude, feelings, tastes, preferences, predispositions etc. The qualitative research
uses unstructured methods and a small sample for collection of data.

The methods used for qualitative research are Observation, Depth Interview, Delphi
Techniques, Focus Groups, Projective Techniques and Case study

OBSERVATION: -
Under this method, the covert behavior of the customers may be observed and relevant
facts may be noted. Trained observers or mechanical devices may be used for recording
related data. Observation method is used for collecting qualitative data like preference,
taste, attitude etc.
Some examples of observation are-
 Examining attractiveness of window display by observing reactions of passersby.
 Recording viewership of various television programs to arrive at TRP.
 Measuring interest or emotions through galvanometer aroused by exposure to a
specific advertisement.

Observation method is used to 1) study customer movement 2) Pantry checking for testing
brand preferences 3) monitor sales techniques. 4) Dustbin checks. 5) Observe customer
responses in retail stores. 6) Learn fashion trends and style acceptance. Observation
method requires skilled observer.

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be
observed? How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation
can be ensured? In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units
to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation. But when observation is to take place without these
characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,
whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured. We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation
in the context of studies, particularly of social sciences. This distinction depends upon the
observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing. If the observer
observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he
can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without

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any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the
observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the
observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he
is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)

There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher is
enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather
information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.
(iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the
context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose
the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-
control is not solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes

place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when
observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation. In non-controlled observation,
no attempt is made to use precision instruments.

The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing
sufficient time for observing it. But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or
precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization. Such observation has a
tendency to supply formalized data upon which generalizations can be built with some
degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective
interpretation. There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the
observed phenomena than we actually do. Generally, controlled observation takes place in
various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions,
whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.

DEPTH INTERVIEW:-
In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting
intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their
perspectives on a particular idea, program, or situation. For example, we might ask
participants, staff, and others associated with a program about their experiences and
expectations related to the program, the thoughts they have concerning program
operations, processes, and outcomes, and about any changes they perceive in themselves as
a result of their involvement in the program. In-depth interviews are useful when you
want detailed information about a person’s thoughts and behaviors or want to explore new

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issues in depth. Interviews are often used to provide context to other data (such as
outcome data), offering a more complete picture of what happened in the program and
why. For example, you may have measured an increase in youth visits to a clinic, and
through in-depth interviews you find out that a youth noted that she went to the clinic
because she saw a new sign outside of the clinic advertising youth hours. You might also
interview a clinic staff member to find out their perspective on the clinic’s “youth
friendliness.” In-depth interviews should be used in place of focus groups if the potential
participants may not be included or comfortable talking openly in a group, or when you
want to distinguish individual (as opposed to group) opinions about the program. They are
often used to refine questions for future surveys of a particular group.

Advantages of In-Depth Interview:-

1) The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide much more
detailed information than what is available through other data collection methods,
such as surveys.
2) They also may provide a more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information—
people may feel more comfortable having a conversation with you about their
program as opposed to filling out a survey.
3) Usually yield richest data, details, new insights
4) Permit face-to-face contact with respondents
5) Provide opportunity to explore topics in depth
6) Afford ability to experience the affective as well as cognitive aspects of responses
7) Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify questions, increasing the likelihood of
useful responses
8) Allow interviewer to be flexible in administering interview to particular individuals
or circumstances

Limitations of Depth Interview:-

1) Prone to bias: Because program or clinic staff might want to “prove” that a program
is working, their interview responses might be biased. Responses from community
members and program participants could also be biased due to their stake in the
program or for a number of other reasons. Every effort should be made to design a
data collection effort, create instruments, and conduct interviews to allow for
minimal bias.
2) Can be time-intensive: Interviews can be a time-intensive evaluation activity
because of the time it takes to conduct interviews, transcribe them, and analyze the
results. In planning
3) Require trained staff: - Interviewer must be appropriately trained in interviewing
techniques: To provide the most detailed and rich data from an interviewee, the
interviewer must make that person comfortable and appear interested in what they
are saying. They must also be sure to use effective interview techniques, such as
avoiding yes/no and leading questions, using appropriate body language, and
keeping their personal opinions in check.
4) Not generalizable: - When in-depth interviews are conducted, generalizations
about the results are usually not able to be made because small samples are chosen

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 and random sampling methods are not used. In-depth interviews however, provide
valuable information for programs, particularly when supplementing other methods
of data collection. It should be noted that the general rule on sample size for
interviews is that when the same stories, themes, issues, and topics are emerging
from the interviewees, then a sufficient sample size has been reached.

DELPHI TECHNIQUE:-
The Delphi group approach is a technique for gathering data that is similar to focus groups.
Its value is that unlike focus groups, Delphi groups do not have to physically meet. The
Delphi technique is a method of generating ideas and facilitating consensus among
individuals who have special knowledge to share, but who are not always in contact with
each other. The Delphi technique is an innovative way to involve busy experts and
specialists who may not be able to come together to brainstorm, but who nevertheless need
to interact with each other to generate new ideas’. Using email, one central contact person
(who may be conducting research) will send questions and background information to
individuals who have been selected on the basis of the relevance of their expertise. These
people will reply, stating their thoughts on the topic. The researcher or facilitator will then
compile these ideas to develop a concrete proposal, set of guidelines, or wording for an
agreement, and will send this out again for comment. The process is continued until
agreement on the wording or process or action to be taken has been reached.
Advantages:
1) Allows sharing of ideas and consensus decision making by a large number of
stakeholders who are geographically distanced.
2) Can be used when the issue is complex.
3) Works well to produce a consensus decision.
4) Provides a transparent and democratic technique.
5) Can deal with quite technical issues.
6) Offers convenience to participants, as they can contribute from their own office or
home.
Disadvantages:
1) The process can be expensive to run.
2) Large amounts of data need to be assessed and distributed.
3) Takes time for the organizers (can run for several months).
4) Participant commitment may falter if the process takes too long or they have other
commitments.

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FOCUS GROUP TECHNIQUE:-
The focus group generally consists of eight to ten people who share a common background
or similar experience which is relevant to the research problem being discussed. The
discussion is generally free flowing and guided by a moderator who acts as facilitator
ensuring the discussion remains on track, providing opportunity to all the members and
generating desired information.

Focus group is generally used for new ideas generation, concept testing or package testing,
generate information for designing questionnaires, generating hypotheses , providing
overall background information etc.

Advantages of Focus group

 Synergism: The combined effect of the group will product a wider range of
information, insight, and ideas than if the participants had been interviewed
separately.

 Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in a group interview situation - a

comment by one individual often triggers a chain of responses from otherss.

 Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period the respondents get "turned
on" in that they want to express their ideas and expose their feelings.

 Security: The participants can usually find comfort in the group in that their
feelings are not greatly different from the other participants.

 Spontaneity: Since individuals aren't required to answer any given question in a

group interview, their responses can be more spontaneous and less conventional,
and should provide a more accurate picture of their position on some issues.

 Serendipity: It is more often the case in a group rather than individual interview
that some idea will "drop out of the blue."

 Specialization: The group interview allows the use of a more highly trained
interviewer since a number of individuals are being "interviewed" simultaneously.

 Scientific scrutiny: The group interview allows several observers to witness the
session and it can be recorded for later playback and analysis.

 Structure: The group interview affords more flexibility than the individual
interview with regard to the topics covered and depth with which they are treated.

 Speed: Since a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, the
group interview speeds up the data collection and analysis process.

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 Disadvantages of Focus Group

 Misuse: Focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the results as
conclusive rather than exploratory.

 Misjudge: Focus group results can be more easily misjudged than the results of
other data collection techniques. Focus groups are particularly susceptible to client
and researcher biases.

 Moderation: Focus groups are difficult to moderate. Moderators with all of the
desirable skills are rare. The quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of
the moderator.

 Messy: The unstructured nature of the responses makes coding, analysis and
interpretation difficult. Focus group data tend to be messy.

 Misinterpretation: Focus group results are not necessarily representative of the

general population and are not statistically projectable. Consequently, focus group
results should not be the sole basis for decision making.

 Money: Focus groups can be expensive on a per participant basis

The success of focus group largely depends on the kind of participants and skills of a
moderator.

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective refers to the transfer of one’s feeling or ideas to the external objects or topics
and projective techniques are used to get insight into consumer mind. Projective techniques
are unstructured and indirect forms of questioning that encourage respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern.

Different projective techniques are –

1) Word Association Test:-

A series of words are presented, one at a time and respondents mention the first
word that comes to mind. This method may be used for finding out brand
associations. E.g. Respondents may be asked to name the first brand that come to
their mind on mentioning a product to evaluate brand recall.

2) Sentence completion test:-

An incomplete sentence is presented and respondent is asked to complete the same.
E.g. When I choose Colgate toothpaste because ____________.

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 3) Story completion test:-
An incomplete story is presented for the respondent to complete.
e.g. I visited a customer care center of Nokia and experienced the services and
ambience. The thoughts and feelings I have about it are _____.

4) Cartoon Tests:- Subjects are given a cartoon drawing (typically presented in a

vague manner) and asked to suggest the dialogue in an attempt to identify a
person’s latent feelings about what is being portrayed.

5) Picture Tests: Subjects are given a picture and instructed to describe their
reactions by writing a short narrative story about the picture.

6) Thematic Apperception Test: -The respondents are shown a set of pictures and
asked to make up a story about what is happening or may happen in the picture. The
concept in shown in the advertisement may be shown to understand if it conveys
the same meaning as desired.

7) Role playing: -

The role play requires respondent to assume different role in hypothetical situation
and through interaction between a respondent and researcher the perception of
respondent can be understood. E.g., a respondent may be asked to play a role of
salesman and through his sales speech his perceptions about the product can be
understood.

8) Third person technique: -

The respondent may be asked to describe the response to the particular situation by
an imaginary person. E.g. respondent may be asked what customer must be thinking
on offer of promotional scheme.

CASE STUDY:
A case is a depiction of hypothetical or real life situations. For Example- A case depicting
marketing problem may be given to different respondents and various solutions can be
analyzed.

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