1. Draw the VI Characteristics of given PN Junction diode.

Determine the
Static and Dynamic resistance of the Diode

Aim: 1. To plot the Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode under forward and
reverse bias conditions.

2. To find static and dynamic resistance in forward bias condition.

Equipments required:
1. DC Regulated Power Supply(0-30V)

2. Digital Ammeter((0-200)μA/(0-200)mA) )

3. Digital Voltmeter(0-20v)

Components required: 1. Bread board

2. Resistor 1KΩ

3. Diode

Circuit Diagram:

i)FORWARD BIAS:

ii) REVERSE BIAS:

THEORY:-

A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are
curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is
zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the
circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to positive terminal and n- type
(cathode) is connected to negative terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias.
The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward
voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode
and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing
forward voltage.

When N-type (cathode) is connected to positive terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to
negative terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across
the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small
current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The
reverse bias current due to minority charge carriers.

PROCEDURE:

(i) FORWARD BIAS :

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the RPS positive is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS
negative isconnected to the cathode of the diode,
3. Switch ON the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode
for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis.
(ii) REVERSE BIAS :

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For reverse bias, the RPS positive is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS
negative isconnected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch ON the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode
for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. The Graph is plotted between voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis.

Observation table:

Forward bias:

S. No Voltage(Volts) Current(mA)

Reverse bias:

S. No Voltage(Volts) Current(µA)
V-I CHARACTERISTICS:

Calculations:

Static resistance (Rf) = Vf / I f

Dynamic resistance (rf)= ΔVf / ΔIf =(V2 -V1) / (I2 -I1)

RESULT:
The V-I Characteristics of the PN junction diode are plotted for the both Forward and
Reverse Bias conditions and calculated static and dynamic resistance in forward bias condition.

The Static resistance of Diode is

The Dynamic resistance of Diode is

2. Determine the Ripple factor, %Regulation, PIV and TUF of the given Rectifier
with & without filter

Aim: To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor, %Regulation, PIV
and TUF of Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with and without filter.

Equipments Required:

1. CRO

2.Transformer

3..BNC Probes

4. Bread board and connecting wires

Components Required: 1.Resistors (1KΩ, 10KΩ)

2.Diodes IN4007

Circuit Diagrams:

5
 Theory:

A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional

waveform with non zero average component is called a rectifier.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge.
The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D3 conducts whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through R L .

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts whereas
diodes D1 and D3 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Procedure:

Without filter:

1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.

2. Observe the waveforms on CRO.
3. Find maximum voltage(Vm) from the full wave.
4. Calculate Vrms and Vdc using formulas.
5. Calculate ripple factor.

With filter:

1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.

2. Observe the waveforms on CRO.
3. Measure Vmax and Vmin.
4. Calculate Vrms, Vdc and ripple factor.
5. Repeat this different values of C.
Expected waveforms:

Tabular forms:

Without filter:

S. No Vm Vdc=2Vm/π Ripple factor

Vrms= Vm / 2 = (Vrms/Vdc)2-1

With filter:

S. No C Vmax Vmin Vdc=(Vmax+Vmin)/2 Vrms=(Vmax-Vmin)/2 2 Ripple

factor=
Vrms/Vdc

Result: Observed the input and output waveforms and calculated the ripple factor of full wave
bridge rectifier with and without filter.

Without filter: Ripple factor:

With filter: Ripple factor:

 3. Obtain the I/O Characteristics of CE configuration of BJT.
Calculate h-parameters from the characteristics

Aim: To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Emitter Configuration and to find the h – parameters from the characteristics.

Apparatus:

S. No Name Range / Value Quantity

1 Dual Regulated D.C Power supply 0–30 Volts 1
2 Transistor BC107 1

3 Resistors 1KΩ,100KΩ 1

4 DC Ammeters (0-200µ A), (0-200mA) Each 1 No

5 DC Voltmeters (0-2V), (0-20V) Each 1 No

6 Bread Board and connecting wires - 1 Set

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

To Find The Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VBB and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCE = 0 volt by varying VCC and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control such that
base current I B varies in steps of 5μA from zero upto 200μA, and note down the
corresponding voltage VBE for each step in the tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCE =10 volts.

5. Draw a graph between VBE Vs I B against VCE = Constant.

To Find The Output Characteristics:

1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the I B = 20μA by using VBB such that, VCE changes in steps of 0.2 volts from zero
upto 10 volts, note down the corresponding collector current I C for each step in the
tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 40μA tabulate the readings.

4. Draw a graph between VCE Vs IC against I B = Constant.

Tabular Forms:

Input Characteristics:

S. No VCE = 0V VCE = 10V

VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA)

 Output Characteristics:

S. No IB = 20 μA IB = 40 μA

VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)

Model Graphs:

1. Plot the Input characteristics by taking I B on y-axis and VBE on x-axis.

2. Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on the y-axis and VCE on x-axis.

23

Calculation of h-parameters:

Calculation of hie:
Mark two points on the Input characteristics for constant VCE. Let the coordinates of
these two points be (VBE1, I B1) and (VBE2, I B2).

VBE2 - VBE1
h ie = …..

IB2 - IB1
Calculation of hre:
Draw a horizontal line at some constant IB value on the Input characteristics. Find
VCE2, VCE1, VBE2, VBE1
VBE2 - VBE1
hre= -------------
VCE2 - VCE1

Calculation of hfe:

Draw a vertical line on the output characteristics at some constant VCE value. Find

Ic2, Ic1 and I B2 , I B1 .

IC2 - IC1
hfe = ______

I B2 - I B1

Calculation of hoe:

On the Output characteristics for a constant value of IB mark two points with
coordinates (VCE2 , IC2) and (VCE1 , IC1) .
IC2 - IC1

hoe =
VCE2 - VCE1

Result:

The common emitter input and output characteristics are drawn on the graphs and the
h parameters are calculated. hie= ______ohms. hre= ________ hoe=_________mhos.

hfe = _______.
 4. Obtain the I/O Characteristics of CB configuration of BJT.
Calculate h-parameters from the characteristics

Aim: To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Base Configuration and to find the h – parameters from the characteristics.

Apparatus:

S. Name Range / Value Quantity

No

Dual Regulated D.C Power

1 supply 0–30 Volts 1
2 Transistor BC107 1

3 Resistors 1KΩ,10 KΩ 1

4 DC Ammeters (0-200mA) 2

5 DC Voltmeters (0-2V), (0-20V) Each 1 No

6 Bread Board and connecting wires - 1 Set

Circuit Diagram:
 Procedure:

To Find The Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VEE and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCB = 0 volt by varying VCC. and vary the VEE smoothly with fine control such
that emitter current I E varies in steps of 0.2mA from zero upto 20mA, and note down
the corresponding voltage VEB for each step in the tabular form.

4. Repeat the experiment for VCB =10 volts

5. Draw a graph between VEB Vs IE against VCB = Constant.
To Find The Output Characteristics:

1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the IE = 1mA by using VEE such that, VCB changes in steps of 1.0 volts from
zero upto 20 volts, note down the corresponding collector current I C for each step
in the tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 3mA tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph between VCB Vs IC against IE = Constant.
5. Plot the Input characteristics by taking I E on y–axis and VEB on x–axis.

6. Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on y–axis and VCB on x–axis.

Tabular Forms:

Input Characteristics:

S. No VCB = 0V VCB = 10V

VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

 Output Characteristics:

S. No IE = 1mA IE = 3mA

VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA)

Model graph:

To find the h – parameters:

Calculation of hib: Mark two points on the Input characteristics for constant VCB. Let the coordinates of
these two points be(VEB1, I E1) and (VEB2, I E2)
VEB2 -VEB1

h ib =

IE2-I E1
Calculation of hrb: Draw a horizontal line at some constant IE value on the input characteristics.
Find VCB2 , VCB1, VEB2 , VEB1.
VEB2 - VEB1
hrb =
VCB2 - VCB1

Calculation of hfb: Draw a vertical line on the Output characteristics at some constant VCB value.
Find Ic2, Ic1 and I E2, I E1.
IC2 - IC1
hfb =
IE2 - I E1

Calculation of hob: On the Output characteristics for a constant value of IE mark two points
withcoordinates (VCB2 , IC2) and (VCB1 , IC1) .
IC2 - IC1

hob =
VCB2 -V CB1

Result:

The common base input and output characteristics are drawn on the graphs and
the h parameters are calculated.
hib= _____ ohms. hrb= _______ hob= ________mhos. hfb= _______.
 5. Obtain the I/O Characteristics of CC configuration of BJT.
Calculate h-parameters from the characteristics

Aim: To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Collector Configuration and to find the h – parameters from the characteristics.

Apparatus:

S. Name Range / Value Quantity

No

Dual Regulated D.C Power

1 supply 0–30 Volts 1
2 Transistor BC107 1

3 Resistors 1KΩ,10 KΩ 1

4 DC Ammeters (0-200mA) 2

5 DC Voltmeters (0-2V), (0-20V) Each 1 No

6 Bread Board and connecting wires - 1 Set

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

To Find The Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VBB and VEE in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VEC = 3 volt by varying VEE and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control such
that base current I B varies in steps of 5μA from zero upto 200μA, and note down the
corresponding voltage VBC for each step in the tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VEC =5 volts.

5. Draw a graph between VBC Vs I B against VEC = Constant.

To Find The Output Characteristics:

1. Start VBB and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the I B = 20μA by using VBB such that, VEC changes in steps of 0.2 volts from
zero upto 10 volts, note down the corresponding emitter current IE for each step in the
tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for I B = 40μA tabulate the readings.

4. Draw a graph between VEC Vs I E against IB = Constant.

Tabular Forms:

Input Characteristics:

S. No VEC = 0V VEC = 10V

VBC (V) IB (μA) VBC (V) IB (μA)

 Output Characteristics:

S. No IB = 20µA IB = 40µA

VEC (V) IE (mA) VEC (V) IE (mA)

Model graph:
Input characteristics: Output characteristics:

To find the h – parameters :

Calculation of hic: Mark two points on the Input characteristics for constant VEC. Let the coordinates of
these two points be (VBC1, IB1) and (VBC2, I B2 )
VBC2 -VBC1

h ic =

IB2 -I B1
Calculation of hrc: Draw a horizontal line at some constant I B value on the input characteristics.
Find VBC2 , VBC1, VEC2 , VEC1.

VBC2 - VBC1
hrc =
VEC2 - VEC1

Calculation of hfc: Draw a vertical line on the Output characteristics at some constant VEC value.
Find I B2, I B1 and I E2, IE1.

IE2 - I E1
hfc =
IB2 - IB1

Calculation of hoc: On the Output characteristics for a constant value of I B mark two points
withcoordinates (VEC2 , I E2) and (VEC1 , IE1) .

IE2 - I E1

hoc =
VEC2 -V EC1

Result:
The common collector input and output characteristics are drawn on the graphs
and the h parameters are calculated.
hic= _____ ohms. hrc= _______ hoc= ________mhos. hfc= _______.
 6. Obtain the Drain and Transfer characteristics of CD, CS configuration of
JFET. Calculate gm, rd from the characteristics

Aim: To obtain the drain and transfer characteristics of JFET of CS configuration of JFET and
calculate gm, rd from the characteristics.

Apparatus:
S.No Name Range / Value Quantity

1 Dual Regulated D.C Power supply (0–30 Volts) 1

2 JFET BFW 10 or 11 1
3 D.C Ammeter (0 – 20mA) 1
4 D.C Voltmeters (0 – 2V), (0 – 20V) Each 1
5 Bread Board and connecting wires -- 1 Set

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

Drain Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. 1 and start with VGG and VDD keeping at zero volts.
2. Keep VGG such that VGS = 0 volts, Now vary VDD such that VDS Varies in steps of 1 volt
up to 10 volts. And Note down the corresponding Drain current I D
3. Repeat the above experiment with VGS = -1V and -2V and tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph VDS Vs ID against VGS as parameter on graph.
5. From the above graph calculate rd and note down the corresponding diode current
against the voltage in the tabular form.
6. Draw the graph between voltage across the Diode Vs Current through the diode in the first
quadrant as shown in fig.

Transfer Characteristics:
1. Set VGG and VDD at zero volts .keep VDS = 1Volt.
2. Vary VGG such that VGS varies in steps of 0.5 volts. Note down the corresponding
Drain current ID, until I D = 0mA and Tabulate the readings.
3. Repeat the above experiment for VDS = 3.0 Volts and 5.0 Volts and tabulate the
readings.
4. Draw graph between VGS Vs ID with VDS as parameter.
5. From the graph find g m.
6. Now μ = gm x rd.

Model Graph:
 Tabular Form:
Drain Characteristics:
VGS = 0 volts VGS = -1V V GS = -2V
S.No
VDS (V) ID (mA) ID (mA) I D (mA)
1 0.0
2 0.5
3 1.0
4 1.5
5 2.0
6 2.5
7 3.0
8 3.5
9 4.0
10 4.5
11 5.0
12 5.5
13 6.0

Transfer Characteristics:

VDS = 1.0V VDS = 3.0V VDS = 5.0V

S.No
VGS (V) ID (mA) ID (mA) I D (mA)
1 0.0
2 0.5
3 1.0
4 1.5
5 2.0

Calculations:
Calculation Of r d :
Construct a Triangle on one of the output characteristic for a particular VGS in the
active region and find ΔVDS and ΔI D
Now rd = ΔVDS/ ΔID (VGS = constant)
Calculation Of g m :
Construct a Triangle on one of the Transfer characteristics for a particular V DS find
ΔVGS and ΔID.
Now gm = ΔID /Δ VGS (VDS = constant).
Calculation Of μ:
μ = gm x rd.

Result:
The drain and transfer characteristics of JFET of CS configuration of JFET are plotted and
calculated gm, rd from the characteristics.
 7. Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifiers using Op Amp

Aim: To design and study Inverting and Non-inverting amplifiers using OP-AMP IC741.

Equipment Required: Dual power supply (0-30v)

Function Generator (1 MHz)

CRO (20MHz)

Components Required: Bread board

IC 741 ------------- 1 no.

Resistors 1KΩ ----- 4 no.s.

CRO probes

Connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram:

1) Inverting Amplifier:
 2) Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Theory:

An inverting amplifier using op amp is a type of amplifier using op amp where the output
waveform will be phase opposite to the input waveform. The input waveform will be amplifier
by the factor Av (voltage gain of the amplifier) in magnitude and its phase will be inverted. In
the inverting amplifier circuit the signal to be amplified is applied to the inverting input of the op
amp through the input resistance R1. Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and Rin together determine
the gain of the amplifier. Inverting operational amplifier gain can be expressed using the
equation Av = – Rf/R1. Negative sign implies that the output signal is negated.

The input and output waveforms of an inverting amplifier using opamp is shown below. The
graph is drawn assuming that the gain (Av) of the amplifier is 2 and the input signal is a sine
wave. It is clear from the graph that the output is twice in magnitude when compared to the input
(Vout = Av x Vin) and phase opposite to the input.

A simple practical inverting amplifier using 741 IC is shown below. uA 741 is a high
performance and of course the most popular operational amplifier. It can be used in a verity of
applications like integrator, differentiator, voltage follower, amplifier etc. uA 741 has a wide
supply voltage range (+/-22V DC) and has a high open loop gain. The IC has an integrated
compensation network for improving stability and has short circuit protection. Signal to be
amplified is applied to the inverting pi (pin2) of the IC. Non inverting pin (pin3) is connected to
ground. R1 is the input resistor and Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and R1 together sets the gain
of the amplifier. With the used values of R1 and Rf the gain will be 10 (Av = -Rf/R1 = 10K/1K =
10). RL is the load resistor and the amplified signal will be available across it. POT R2 can be
used for nullifying the output offset voltage. If you are planning to assemble the circuit, the
power supply must be well regulated and filtered. Noise from the power supply can adversely
affect the performance of the circuit. When assembling on PCB it is recommended to mount the
IC on the board using an IC base.
In the inverting amplifier only one input is applied and that is to the inverting input (V2)
terminal. The Non inverting input terminal (V1) is grounded. Since, V1=0 V& V2=Vin , Vo=
-A Vin

The negative sign indicates the output voltage is 1800 out of phase with respect to the input and
amplified by gain A.
The input is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the Inverting terminal is connected
to the ground.
V1= Vin & V2=0 Volts
Vo= A Vin
The output voltage is larger than the input voltage by gain A & is in phase with the input
signal.

Procedure:

1) Check the components.

2) Setup the circuit on the bread board and check the connections.

3) Switch on the power supply

4) Give 2 Vpp /1 KHz sine wave as input.

5) Observe input and output on the two channels of the oscilloscope simultaneously.

6) Note down and draw the input and output waveforms on the graph.

7) Verify the input and output waveforms are out of phase for Inverting amplifier and in phase
for Non inverting amplifier.

8) Verify the obtained gain is same as designed value of gain.

Expected Waveforms:
1) Inverting Amplifier:

2) Non Inverting Amplifier:

RESULT: Hence verified and drawn the operation and respective waveforms of inverting and
non-inverting amplifier.
 8. Adder and Subtractor using Op Amp
Aim: To study Adder, Subtractor circuits using OP-AMP IC741 and verify their theoretical and
practical output.

Equipment Required: Dual power Supply (0-30v)

Function Generator (1 MHz)

Multi meter
CRO (20 MHz)
Components Required: Bread Board
IC741 1no.
Resistors 1KΩ ------ 4 nos.
CRO probes
Connecting Wires.
Circuit Diagram:

1) Adder:

2) Subtractor:
Theory:

1) Adder:
Op-Amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals
such as circuit is called a summing amplifier or summer. We can obtain either inverting or non-
inverting summer. The circuit diagrams shows a two input inverting summing amplifier. It has
two input voltages V1and V2, two input resistors R1, R2 and a feedback resistor Rf. Assuming
that op-amp is in ideal conditions and input bias current is assumed to be zero, there is no voltage
drop across the resistor Rcomp and hence the non-inverting input terminal is at ground potential.
By taking nodal equations,

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉0
+ + = 0 − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑓
𝑅 𝑅𝑓
𝑉 =– [( 𝑓 ) 𝑉 + ( ) 𝑉 ] − − − − − −(2)
0
𝑅1 1 𝑅2 2
𝐴𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑓 = 1 𝐾Ω
𝑉0 = − (𝑉1 + 𝑉2)
Hence the output is inverted sum of inputs.
2) Subtractor:
A basic differential amplifier can be used as a sub tractor. It has two input signals V1 and
V2 and two input resistances R1 and R2 and a feedback resistor Rf. The input signals scaled to
the desired values by selecting appropriate values for the external resistors. From the figure, the
output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of ‘1’ is
𝑅
𝑉0 = − (𝑉2 − 𝑉1) − − − − − −(3)
𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − − − − − − − − − (4)

Procedure:

1) Adder:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply dc voltages at each input terminal for V1 and V2 from the dc supply and check the
output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. Tabulate 3 different sets of readings by repeating the above step.
5. Compare practical Vo with the theoretical output voltage Vo = - (V1+V2).
2) Subtractor:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply dc voltages at each input terminal for V1 and V2 from the dc supply and check the
output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. Tabulate 3 different sets of readings by repeating the above step.
5. Compare practical Vo with the theoretical output voltage Vo = V2-V1.

Observation Tables:

1) Adder:

S.No V1 V2 Theoretical Practical Vo

Volts Volts Vo= - (V1+V2) Volts

2) Subtractor:

S.No V1 V2 Theoretical Practical Vo

Volts Volts Vo=V2-V1 Volts

Result:

Thus Adder, Subtractor using op-amp is studied and tested.

 9. Integrator circuit using IC741
Aim: To study the operation of the Integrator using op-amp and trace the output wave forms for
sine and square wave inputs.

Equipment Required: Function Generator (1MHz)

Dual power supply (0-30v)
CRO (20MHz)
Components Required: Bread Board
IC741 1no.
Resistor 100KΩ ---------- 1no.
Resistors 10KΩ ---------- 2nos.
Capacitor 0.01µf --------- 1no.
CRO Probes
Connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage is called an
integrator.

In the practical integrator to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor RF is
connected across the feedback capacitor CF. Thus, RF limits the low-frequency gain and hence
minimizes the variations in the output voltage.

The frequency response of the integrator is shown in the fig. fb is the frequency at which
the gain is 0 dB and is given by fb = 1/2 R1Cf.

In this fig. there is some relative operating frequency, and for frequencies from f to fa the
gain RF/R1 is constant. However, after fa the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade. In other
words, between fa and fb the circuit of fig. acts as an integrator. The gain limiting frequency fa is
given by

fa=1/2𝜋RfCf

Normally fa<fb. From the above equation, we can calculate Rf by assuming fa& Cf.
This is very important frequency. It tells us where the useful integration range starts.

If fin <fa - circuit acts like a simple inverting amplifier and no integration results,

If fin = fa - integration takes place with only 50% accuracy results,

If fin = 10fa - integration takes place with 99% accuracy results.

 In the circuit diagram of Integrator, the values are calculated by assuming fa as 50 Hz.
Hence the input frequency is to be taken as 500Hz to get 99% accuracy results. Integrator has
wide applications in

1. Analog computers used for solving differential equations in simulation arrangements.

2. A/D Converters.
3. Signal wave shaping.
4. Function Generators.

Procedure:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply sine wave at the input terminals of the circuit using function Generator.
4. Connect channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 at the output terminals.
5. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a cosine wave (90o phase shifted from
the sine wave input) and note down the position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
6. Now apply the square wave as input signal.
7. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a triangular wave and note down the
position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
8. Plot the output voltages corresponding to sine and square wave inputs.

Expected Waveforms:
Observation Table:

Input –square wave Output – Triangular

Amplitude (VP-P) Time period Amplitude (VP-P) Time period
(V) (ms) (V) (ms)

Input –sine wave Output –cosine wave

Amplitude (VP-P) Time period Amplitude (VP-P) Time period
(V) (ms) (V) (ms)

Result:

For a given square wave and sine wave the output waveforms of integrator are observed
and the output phase is leading by _____ with respect to the input.
 10. Differentiator circuit using Op Amp
Aim: To study the operation of the differentiator using op-amp and trace the output wave forms
for sine and square wave inputs.

Equipment Required: Function Generator (1MHz)

Dual power supply (0-30v)
CRO (20MHz)
Components Required: Bread Board
IC741 1no.
Resistor 100KΩ ---------- 1no.
Resistors 10KΩ ---------- 2nos.
Capacitor 0.01µf --------- 1no.
CRO Probes
Connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
As the name suggests, the circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation,
i.e. the output voltage is the derivative of the input voltage. Vo = - RfC1

Both the stability and the high-frequency noise problems can be corrected by the addition
of two components: R1 and Cf, as shown in the circuit diagram. This circuit is a practical
differentiator. The input signal will be differentiated properly if the time period T of the input
signal is larger than or equal to R fC1 . That is, T>= RfC1Differentiator can be designed by
implementing the following steps.

1. Select fa equal to the highest frequency of the input signal to be differentiated.

Then, assuming a value of C1<1 F, calculate the value of Rf
2. Calculate the values of R1and Cf so that R1C1=RfCf.

Differentiator has wide applications in

1. Monostable Multivibrator
2. Signal wave shaping
3. Function Generators.
Procedure:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply sine wave at the input terminals of the circuit using function Generator.
4. Connect channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 at the output terminals.
5. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a cosine wave (90o phase shifted from
the sine wave input) and note down the position, the amplitude and the time period of Vi&Vo.
6. Now apply the square wave as input signal.
7. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a spike wave and note down the
position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
8. Plot the output voltages corresponding to sine and square wave inputs.

Expected Waveforms:
Observation Table:

Input –square wave Output – Spikes

Amplitude (VP-P) Time period Amplitude (VP-P) Time period
(V) (ms) (V) (ms)

Input –sine wave Output –Cosine wave

Amplitude (VP-P) Time period Amplitude (VP-P) Time period
(V) (ms) (V) (ms)

Result:

For a given square wave and sine wave the output waveforms of differentiator are
observed and the output phase is lagging by ____ with respect to the input.
 11. Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
Aim: To study and perform current shunt feedback amplifier and to measure currents and
voltage gain.

Equipments required:

1. Single channel power supply(0-30V)

2. Function Generator(0-3MHz, 20m-30V)
3. CRO(0-30MHz, 0-20Vp-p)
4. BNC Probes(1:10)

Components required:

1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 1KΩ - 2 no.s
320Ω - 1 no.

4.7KΩ - 1 no.

100Ω - 1 no.

3. Transistor: BC107 - 2 no.s

4. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:
Theory:

In Current-Shunt feedback amplifier Feedback signal is proportional to the output current

and feedback to input in shunt.

Current-shunt feedback is a series-derived, shunt-fed feedback. The shunt connection at

the input reduces the input resistance and the series connection at the output increases the output
resistance. As this type of feedback have the least desirable effects. Thus current shunt feedback
circuit behave like a current controlled current source.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply input voltage of 50mV.
3. Measure output current (I0) and feedback current (If).
4. With feedback find the output voltage.
5. Calculate the voltage gain.
6. Compare voltage gain with the theoretical gain.

Expected graph:

Calculations: Practical voltage gain (AV) with feed back

V
A V= Vo/p
i/p

R2R 3
Theoretical voltage gain Avf =
R1R 5

Result: The current shunt feedback amplifier is studied and currents and voltage gains are
calculated.
 12. Design an RC Phase Shift Oscillator circuit and derive the gain
condition for oscillations practically for given frequency
Aim: To study the RC phase shift oscillator and to find the frequency of oscillations and
compare the theoretical and practical frequencies.

Equipments required:

1. Single channel power supply(0-30V)

2. CRO(0-30MHz, 0-20Vp-p)
3. BNC Probes(1:10)
Components required:

1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 22KΩ - 1 no.

2.2KΩ - 1 no.
10KΩ - 1 no.
1KΩ - 1 no.
4.7KΩ/10 KΩ - 3 no.s
3. Capacitors: 100µf - 1 no.

10 µf - 2 no.s

0.01µf/0.1 µf - 3 no.s

4. Transistor: BC107 - 1 no.

5. Connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:
Theory:

An oscillator is a circuit which takes DC voltage or current and converts into useful Ac
voltage or current. It is different from the oscillator in the sense that amplifier takes AC and
amplifiers the given Ac signal where as the oscillator takes the DC input and converts it into AC,
there are the sinusoidal and non sinusoidal oscillators

RC phase shift oscillator is a sinusoidal oscillator. The oscillator is an amplifier with a

feedback. In feedback resistor and capacitor are connected. This is called RC phase shift
oscillator because RC networks are used in feedback and each RC network gives a 60 degrees
phase shift and the total phase shift produced is 360 degrees, the frequency of oscillator depends
on the RC values.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Note down the time period of the oscillations for a given value of R, C in the tank
circuit.
3. Find frequency of oscillation which is the reciprocal of time period for different
values of R, C in the tank circuit.
4. Verify the observed frequency with the theoretical values.

Observations:

S. No R(KΩ) C(µF) Time Period(s) F(HZ) F(HZ)

Practical Practical Theoretical

Expected graph:

Calculations: Frequency: F= 1
2πRC√6

Result: RC Phase shift oscillator is studied. Theoretical and practical frequencies of RC phase
shift oscillator have been compared.
 13. Design a Colpitt’s Oscillator circuit for the given frequency and draw
the output waveform
Aim: To study the working of Colpitts oscillator and to calculate the frequency of
oscillations practically and compare with theoretical frequency.

Equipment required:

1. Single channel power supply(0-

30V)2. CRO(0-30MHz, 0-20Vp-p)
3. BNC Probes(1:10)
4. Decade capacitance Box - 2 no.s
5. Decade inductance Box - 2 no.s

Components required:

1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 22KΩ - 1 no.
2.2KΩ - 1 no.
10KΩ - 1 no.
1 KΩ - 1 no.
3. Capacitors: 10µF - 2 no.s
4. Transistor: BC107 - 1 no.
5. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:
Theory:

Oscillator is a circuit which takes DC voltage or current and converts it into useful
AC voltage. Amplifier is different from the oscillator. In the oscillator DC is converted to
AC. There are two types of oscillators. They are sinusoidal oscillator and non sinusoidal
oscillators.

Colpitts is a sinusoidal oscillator. The construction of oscillator is an amplifier with

feedback. For Colpitts oscillator in feedback there are two capacitors and one inductor. The
frequency of the oscillator depends on the values of the C, L of the feedback circuit.

The Colpitts oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider network as a feedback source.
C1 and C2 are placed across common inductor L forms tank circuits. So, when the power
supply is applied, the two capacitors C1 and C2 we are seeing in the circuit start charging and
after it’s fully charged then discharging will take place through ‘L’ which causes damped
harmonic oscillations.

Across C1 and C2, an AC voltage is produced by oscillatory current. While this

discharging process takes place in the capacitor completely, the capacitors transfer
electrostatic energy in the form of magnetic flux to the inductor which gives rise to inductor
charge. Again when the inductor discharges, the capacitor charges. Due to this, inductor and
capacitors charging and discharging process, oscillations will be generated.

Using the tank circuit resonant frequency, we can obtain the frequency of oscillations. This
tank circuit is energy storage and it is also termed as an energy reservoir. This is due to the
continuous charge and discharge of capacitors and inductor and for gaining constant feedback
the two capacitances are ganged together.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary one of the capacitance (C4 or C5), at constant inductance L.
3. Note down the time period of the oscillations.
4. Find the frequency of oscillations
5. Compare the practical frequency with the theoretical frequency.

Observation table:

S. No L(mH) C4(µF) C5(µF) Time Period(s) F(KHz) F(KHz)

Practical Theoretical
Practical
Expected graph:

Calculations:

1 C 1.C 2
F= , where Ceq = ( )
2π√LCeq C 1+C 2

Result: The Colpitt’s oscillator is studied and practical frequencies are comparedwith
theoretical frequencies.
 14. Design transformer coupled Class A power amplifier and draw the input
and output waveforms, find its efficiency

Aim:
To study the Class A power amplifier with transformer load and calculate the efficiency.

Equipment required:
1. Single channel power supply(0-30V)
2. Function Generator(0-3MHz, 20m-30V)
3. DMM(0-20mA) - 1 no.
4. CRO(0-30MHz, 0-20Vp-p)
5. BNC Probes(1:10)

Components required:
1. Bread board
2. Step down transformer
3. Transistor: CL100B - 1 no.
4. Resistors: 147KΩ - 1 no.
1K Ω - 1 no.
500Ω - 1 no.
5. Capacitors: 100µf - 1 no.
10µf - 1 no.
6. Connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:
Theory:
This is also sometimes referred to as single ended power amplifier. The term “single ended”
(denoting only one transistor) is used to distinguish it from the push-pull amplifier using two transistors.
In case of a direct-coupled class A power amplifier shown, the quiescent current flows through
the collector resistive load and causes large wastage of dc power in it. This dc power dissipated in the
load resistor does not contribute to the useful ac output power.
Furthermore, it is generally inadvisable to pass the dc through the output device such as in
a voice coil of a loudspeaker. For these reasons an arrangement using a suitable transformer for
coupling the load to the amplifier is usually employed. This arrangement also permits impedance
matching.
In a power amplifier circuit shown R1 provide fixed biasing and emitter resistor RE is meant for
bias stabilization. The emitter bypass capacitor CE is meant for RE to prevent ac voltage. The input
capacitor Cin couples ac signal voltage to the base of the transistor but blocks any dc from the previous
stage. A step-down transformer of suitable turn ratio is provided to couple the high impedance collector
circuit to low impedance load.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply input from the function generator and measure D.C current.
3. Calculate the DC input power, AC output power and efficiency.
4. Compare it with theoretical efficiency.

Expected graph:

Calculations: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of AC output power to DC input power

D.C Power PDC = VCC ICC
V2
1
A.C Power PAC =
2R"L
where V1= Magnitude or peak value of primary voltage
RL N2 V2
R"L= (where n= = )
n2 N1 V1
PAC
Efficiency η% = ( )x100
PDC

Result: Class A power amplifier with transformer load is implemented and the efficiency is found to
be______.