Cosmological constant

In cosmology, the cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter lambda:
Λ), alternatively called Einstein's cosmological constant, is a coefficient that Albert
Einstein initially added to his field equations of general relativity. He later removed it;
however, much later it was revived to express the energy density of space, or vacuum
energy, that arises in quantum mechanics. It is closely associated with the concept of dark
energy.[1]

Sketch of the timeline of the Universe in the ΛCDM model. The

accelerated expansion in the last third of the timeline
represents the dark-energy dominated era.

Einstein introduced the constant in 1917[2] to counterbalance the effect of gravity and
achieve a static universe, which was then assumed. Einstein's cosmological constant was
abandoned after Edwin Hubble confirmed that the universe was expanding.[3] From the 1930s
until the late 1990s, most physicists agreed with Einstein's choice of setting the
cosmological constant to zero.[4] That changed with the discovery in 1998 that the expansion
of the universe is accelerating, implying that the cosmological constant may have a positive
value.[5]

Since the 1990s, studies have shown that, assuming the cosmological principle, around 68%
of the mass–energy density of the universe can be attributed to dark energy.[6][7][8] The
cosmological constant Λ is the simplest possible explanation for dark energy, and is used in
the standard model of cosmology known as the ΛCDM model.

According to quantum field theory (QFT), which underlies modern particle physics, empty
space is defined by the vacuum state, which is composed of a collection of quantum fields. All
these quantum fields exhibit fluctuations in their ground state (lowest energy density)
arising from the zero-point energy existing everywhere in space. These zero-point
fluctuations should contribute to the cosmological constant Λ, but actual calculations give
rise to an enormous vacuum energy.[9] The discrepancy between theorized vacuum energy
from quantum field theory and observed vacuum energy from cosmology is a source of major
contention, with the values predicted exceeding observation by some 120 orders of
magnitude, a discrepancy that has been called "the worst theoretical prediction in the
history of physics!".[10] This issue is called the cosmological constant problem and it is one
of the greatest mysteries in science with many physicists believing that "the vacuum holds
the key to a full understanding of nature".[11]

History

The cosmological constant was originally introduced in Einstein's 1917 paper entitled “The
cosmological considerations in the General Theory of Reality”.[2] Einstein included the
cosmological constant as a term in his field equations for general relativity because he was
dissatisfied that otherwise his equations did not allow for a static universe: gravity would
cause a universe that was initially non-expanding to contract. To counteract this
possibility, Einstein added the cosmological constant.[3] However, Einstein was not happy
about adding this cosmological term. He later stated that "Since I introduced this term, I had
always a bad conscience. ... I am unable to believe that such an ugly thing is actually realized
in nature".[12] Einstein's static universe is unstable against matter density
perturbations.[13] Furthermore, without the cosmological constant Einstein could have
found the expansion of the universe before Hubble's observations.[14]

In 1929, not long after Einstein developed his static theory, observations by Edwin Hubble[14]
indicated that the universe appears to be expanding; this was consistent with a cosmological
solution to the original general relativity equations that had been found by the
mathematician Alexander Friedmann, working on the Einstein equations of general relativity.
Einstein reportedly referred to his failure to accept the validation of his equations—when
they had predicted the expansion of the universe in theory, before it was demonstrated in
observation of the cosmological redshift—as his "biggest blunder" (according to George
Gamow).[15]

It transpired that adding the cosmological constant to Einstein's equations does not lead to a
static universe at equilibrium because the equilibrium is unstable: if the universe expands
slightly, then the expansion releases vacuum energy, which causes yet more expansion.
Likewise, a universe that contracts slightly will continue contracting.[16]

However, the cosmological constant remained a subject of theoretical and empirical

interest. Empirically, the cosmological data of recent decades strongly suggests that our
universe has a positive cosmological constant.[5] The explanation of this small but positive
value is a remaining theoretical challenge, the so-called cosmological constant problem.

Some early generalizations of Einstein's gravitational theory, known as classical unified

field theories, either introduced a cosmological constant on theoretical grounds or found
that it arose naturally from the mathematics. For example, Arthur Eddington claimed that
the cosmological constant version of the vacuum field equation expressed the
"epistemological" property that the universe is "self-gauging", and Erwin Schrödinger's
pure-affine theory using a simple variational principle produced the field equation with a
cosmological term.

In 1990s, Saul Perlmutter at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Brian Schmidt of the
Australian National University and Adam Riess of the Space Telescope Science Institute were
searching for type Ia supernovas. By that time, they expected to observe the deceleration of
the supernovas caused by the gravitation attraction of mass according to Einstein's
gravitational theory. The first reports published in July 1997 from Supernova Cosmology
Project used the supernova observation to support such deceleration hypothesis. But soon
they found that supernovas were flying away in an accelerating manner. In 1998, both teams
announced this surprising result. It implied the universe is under accelerating expansion.
The cosmological constant is needed to explain such acceleration.[17] After this discovery,
the cosmological constant was put back to the equation of general relativity.

Sequence of events 1915–1998

In 1915, Einstein publishes his equations of general relativity, without a cosmological
constant Λ.

In 1917, Einstein adds the parameter Λ to his equations when he realizes that his theory
implies a dynamic universe for which space is a function of time. He then gives this
constant a value that makes his Universe model remain static and eternal (Einstein static
universe).

In 1922, the Russian physicist Alexander Friedmann mathematically shows that Einstein's
equations (whatever Λ) remain valid in a dynamic universe.
In 1927, the Belgian astrophysicist Georges Lemaître shows that the Universe is expanding
by combining general relativity with astronomical observations, those of Hubble in
particular.

In 1931, Einstein accepts the theory of an expanding universe and proposes, in 1932 with
the Dutch physicist and astronomer Willem de Sitter, a model of a continuously expanding
universe with zero cosmological constant (Einstein–de Sitter spacetime).

In 1998, two teams of astrophysicists, the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z
Supernova Search Team, carried out measurements on distant supernovae which showed
that the speed of galaxies' recession in relation to the Milky Way increases over time. The
universe is in accelerated expansion, which requires having a strictly positive Λ. The
universe would contain a mysterious dark energy producing a repulsive force that
counterbalances the gravitational braking produced by the matter contained in the
universe (see Standard cosmological model).

For this work, Perlmutter, Schmidt, and Riess jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physics in
2011.
Equation

Estimated ratios of dark matter and dark

energy (which may be the cosmological
constant[1]) in the universe. According to
current theories of physics, dark energy
now dominates as the largest source of
energy of the universe, in contrast to
earlier epochs when it was insignificant.

The cosmological constant Λ appears in the Einstein field equations in the form

where the Ricci tensor Rμν, Ricci scalar R and the metric tensor gμν describe the structure of
spacetime, the stress–energy tensor Tμν describes the energy density, momentum density
and stress at that point in spacetime, and κ = 8πG/c4. The gravitational constant G and the
speed of light c are universal constants. When Λ is zero, this reduces to the field equation of
general relativity usually used in the 20th century. When Tμν is zero, the field equation
describes empty space (a vacuum).

The cosmological constant has the same effect as an intrinsic energy density of the vacuum,
ρvac (and an associated pressure). In this context, it is commonly moved to the right-hand
side of the equation using Λ = κρvac. It is common to quote values of energy density directly,
though still using the name "cosmological constant". The dimension of Λ is generally
understood as length−2.
Using the values known in 2018 and Planck units for ΩΛ = 0.6889 ± 0.0056 and the Hubble
constant H0 = 67.66 ± 0.42 (km/s)/Mpc = (2.192 7664 ± 0.0136) × 10−18 s−1, Λ has the value of

where is the Planck length. A positive vacuum energy density resulting from a
cosmological constant implies a negative pressure, and vice versa. If the energy density is
positive, the associated negative pressure will drive an accelerated expansion of the
universe, as observed. (See Dark energy and Cosmic inflation for details.)

ΩΛ (Omega sub lambda)

Instead of the cosmological constant itself, cosmologists often refer to the ratio between
the energy density due to the cosmological constant and the critical density of the universe,
the tipping point for a sufficient density to stop the universe from expanding forever. This
ratio is usually denoted by ΩΛ and is estimated to be 0.6889 ± 0.0056, according to results
published by the Planck Collaboration in 2018.[18]

In a flat universe, ΩΛ is the fraction of the energy of the universe due to the cosmological
constant, i.e., what we would intuitively call the fraction of the universe that is made up of
dark energy. Note that this value changes over time: The critical density changes with
cosmological time but the energy density due to the cosmological constant remains
unchanged throughout the history of the universe, because the amount of dark energy
increases as the universe grows but the amount of matter does not.[19][20][21]

Equation of state

Another ratio that is used by scientists is the equation of state, usually denoted w, which is
the ratio of pressure that dark energy puts on the universe to the energy per unit
volume.[22] This ratio is w = −1 for the cosmological constant used in the Einstein equations;
alternative time-varying forms of vacuum energy such as quintessence generally use a
different value. The value w = −1.028 ± 0.032, measured by the Planck Collaboration (2018)[18]
is consistent with −1, assuming w does not change over cosmic time.
Positive value

Lambda-CDM, accelerated expansion of the universe. The time-line in this schematic

diagram extends from the Big Bang/inflation era 13.7 Byr ago to the present
cosmological time.

Observations announced in 1998 of distance–redshift relation for Type Ia supernovae[5]

indicated that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, if one assumes the cosmological
principle.[6][7] When combined with measurements of the cosmic microwave background
radiation these implied a value of ΩΛ ≈ 0.7,[23] a result which has been supported and refined
by more recent measurements[24] (as well as previous works[25][26]). If one assumes the
cosmological principle, as in the case for all models that use the Friedmann–Lemaître–
Robertson–Walker metric, while there are other possible causes of an accelerating
universe, such as quintessence, the cosmological constant is in most respects the simplest
solution. Thus, the Lambda-CDM model, the current standard model of cosmology which uses
the FLRW metric, includes the cosmological constant, which is measured to be on the order
of 10−52 m−2. It may be expressed as 10−35 s−2 (multiplying by c2 ≈ 1017 m2⋅s−2) or as 10−122 ℓP−2
[27]
(where ℓP is the Planck length). The value is based on recent measurements of vacuum
energy density, ρvac = 5.96 × 10−27 kg/m3 ≘ 5.3566 × 10−10 J/m3 = 3.35 GeV/m3.[28] However, due
to the Hubble tension and the CMB dipole, recently it has been proposed that the
cosmological principle is no longer true in the late universe and that the FLRW metric breaks
down,[29][30][31] so it is possible that observations usually attributed to an accelerating
universe are simply a result of the cosmological principle not applying in the late
universe.[6][7]
As was only recently seen, by works of 't Hooft, Susskind and others, a positive cosmological
constant has surprising consequences, such as a finite maximum entropy of the observable
universe (see Holographic principle).[32]

Predictions

Quantum field theory

A major outstanding problem is that most quantum field Unsolved problem in

theories predict a huge value for the quantum vacuum. A
physics:
common assumption is that the quantum vacuum is
Why does the zero-
equivalent to the cosmological constant. Although no theory
point energy of the
exists that supports this assumption, arguments can be
quantum vacuum not
made in its favor.[33]
cause a large
Such arguments are usually based on dimensional analysis cosmological
and effective field theory. If the universe is described by an constant? What
effective local quantum field theory down to the Planck scale, cancels it out?
then we would expect a cosmological constant of the order of (more unsolved problems
in physics)
( in reduced Planck units). As noted above, the
measured cosmological constant is smaller than this by a
factor of ~10120. This discrepancy has been called "the worst theoretical prediction in the
history of physics".[10]

Some supersymmetric theories require a cosmological constant that is exactly zero, which
further complicates things. This is the cosmological constant problem, the worst problem
of fine-tuning in physics: there is no known natural way to derive the tiny cosmological
constant used in cosmology from particle physics.

No vacuum in the string theory landscape is known to support a metastable, positive

cosmological constant, and in 2018 a group of four physicists advanced a controversial
conjecture which would imply that no such universe exists.[34]

Anthropic principle

One possible explanation for the small but non-zero value was noted by Steven Weinberg in
1987 following the anthropic principle.[35] Weinberg explains that if the vacuum energy took
different values in different domains of the universe, then observers would necessarily
measure values similar to that which is observed: the formation of life-supporting
structures would be suppressed in domains where the vacuum energy is much larger.
Specifically, if the vacuum energy is negative and its absolute value is substantially larger
than it appears to be in the observed universe (say, a factor of 10 larger), holding all other
variables (e.g. matter density) constant, that would mean that the universe is closed;
furthermore, its lifetime would be shorter than the age of our universe, possibly too short
for intelligent life to form. On the other hand, a universe with a large positive cosmological
constant would expand too fast, preventing galaxy formation. According to Weinberg,
domains where the vacuum energy is compatible with life would be comparatively rare. Using
this argument, Weinberg predicted that the cosmological constant would have a value of less
than a hundred times the currently accepted value.[36] In 1992, Weinberg refined this
prediction of the cosmological constant to 5 to 10 times the matter density.[37]

This argument depends on the vacuum energy density being constant throughout spacetime,
as would be expected if dark energy were the cosmological constant. There is no evidence
that the vacuum energy does vary, but it may be the case if, for example, the vacuum energy
is (even in part) the potential of a scalar field such as the residual inflaton (also see
Quintessence). Another theoretical approach that deals with the issue is that of multiverse
theories, which predict a large number of "parallel" universes with different laws of
physics and/or values of fundamental constants. Again, the anthropic principle states that
we can only live in one of the universes that is compatible with some form of intelligent life.
Critics claim that these theories, when used as an explanation for fine-tuning, commit the
inverse gambler's fallacy.

In 1995, Weinberg's argument was refined by Alexander Vilenkin to predict a value for the
cosmological constant that was only ten times the matter density,[38] i.e. about three times
the current value since determined.

Failure to detect dark energy

An attempt to directly observe and relate quanta or fields like the chameleon particle or the
symmetron theory to dark energy, in a laboratory setting, failed to detect a new force.[39]
Inferring the presence of dark energy through its interaction with baryons in the cosmic
microwave background has also led to a negative result,[40] although the current analyses
have been derived only at the linear perturbation regime. It is also possible that the
difficulty in detecting dark energy is due to the fact that the cosmological constant
describes an existing, known interaction (e.g. electromagnetic field).[41]

See also

Big Rip

Higgs mechanism

Lambdavacuum solution

Hierarchy problem

Quantum electrodynamics

de Sitter invariant special relativity

Unruh effect

References

Footnotes

1. It may well be that dark energy is explained by a static cosmological constant, or that
this mysterious energy is not constant at all and has changed over time, as in the case
with quintessence, see for example:
"Physics invites the idea that space contains energy whose gravitational effect
approximates that of Einstein's cosmological constant, Λ; nowadays the concept is
termed dark energy or quintessence." Peebles & Ratra (2003), p. 1

"It would then appear that the cosmological fluid is dominated by some sort of
fantastic energy density, which has negative pressure, and has just begun to play an
important role today. No convincing theory has yet been constructed to explain this
state of affairs, although cosmological models based on a dark energy component,
such as the cosmological constant (Λ) or quintessence (Q), are leading candidates."
Caldwell (2002), p. 2

2. Einstein (1917).

3. Rugh & Zinkernagel (2001), p. 3

4. On the Cosmological Constant being thought to have zero value see for example:
"Since the cosmological upper bound on | ⟨ρ⟩ + λ/8πG | was vastly less than any value
expected from particle theory, most particle theorists simply assumed that for
some unknown reason this quantity was zero." Weinberg (1989), p. 3

"An epochal astronomical discovery would be to establish by convincing

observation that Λ is nonzero." Carroll, Press & Turner (1992), p. 500

"Before 1998, there was no direct astronomical evidence for Λ and the
observational upper bound was so strong (Λ < 10−120 Planck units) that many
particle physicists suspected that some fundamental principle must force its value
to be precisely zero." Barrow & Shaw (2011), p. 1

"The only other natural value is Λ = 0. If Λ really is tiny but not zero, it adds a most
stimulating though enigmatic clue to physics to be discovered." Peebles & Ratra
(2003), p. 333

5. See for example:

"This is the independent result of two teams. Supernova Cosmology Project
(Perlmutter et al. (1999); also see Perlmutter et al. (1998)) and the High-Z Supernova
Search Team (Riess et al. (1998); also see Schmidt et al. (1998))" Weinberg (2015),
p. 376

6. Ellis, G. F. R. (2009). "Dark energy and inhomogeneity" (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742

-6596%2F189%2F1%2F012011) . Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 189 (1): 012011.
Bibcode:2009JPhCS.189a2011E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPhCS.189a2011
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1) .

7. Colin, Jacques; Mohayaee, Roya; Rameez, Mohamed; Sarkar, Subir (20 November 2019).
"Evidence for anisotropy of cosmic acceleration" (https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/
full_html/2019/11/aa36373-19/aa36373-19.html) . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 631:
L13. arXiv:1808.04597 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.04597) .
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8. Redd (2013)

9. Rugh & Zinkernagel (2001), p. 1

10. See for example:
"This gives an answer about 120 orders of magnitude higher than the upper limits
on Λ set by cosmological observations. This is probably the worst theoretical
prediction in the history of physics!" Hobson, Efstathiou & Lasenby (2006), p. 187

"This, as we will see later, is approximately 120 orders of magnitude larger than
what is allowed by observation." Carroll, Press & Turner (1992), p. 503

"Theoretical expectations for the cosmological constant exceed observational

limits by some 120 orders of magnitude." Weinberg (1989), p. 1

11. See for example:

"the vacuum holds the key to a full understanding of nature" Davies (1985), p. 104

"The theoretical problem of explaining the cosmological constant is one of the

greatest challenges of theoretical physics. It is most likely that we require a fully
developed theory of quantum gravity (perhaps superstring theory) before we can
understand Λ." Hobson, Efstathiou & Lasenby (2006), p. 188

12. Kirshner, Robert P. (2004-01-06). "Hubble's diagram and cosmic expansion" (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC314128) . Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences. 101 (1): 8–13. doi:10.1073/pnas.2536799100 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpna
s.2536799100) . ISSN 0027-8424 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424) .
PMC 314128 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC314128) . PMID 14695886
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14695886) .

13. Eddington, A. S. (1930-05-09). "On the Instability of Einstein's Spherical World" (http
s://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F90.7.668) . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 90 (7): 668–678. doi:10.1093/mnras/90.7.668 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnra
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14. Hubble, Edwin (1929-03-15). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 15 (3): 168–173.
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15. There is some debate over whether Einstein labelled the cosmological constant his
"biggest blunder", with all references being traced back to a single person: George
Gamow. (See Gamow (1956, 1970).) For example:
"Astrophysicist and author Mario Livio can find no documentation that puts those
words into Einstein's mouth (or, for that matter, his pen). Instead, all references
eventually lead back to one man—physicist George Gamow—who reported Einstein's
use of the phrase in two sources: His posthumously published autobiography My
World Line (1970) and a Scientific American article from September 1956." Rosen
(2013)

" We also find it quite plausible that Einstein made such a statement to Gamow in
particular. We conclude that there is little doubt that Einstein came to view the
introduction of the cosmological constant a serious error, and that it is very
plausible that he labelled the term his "biggest blunder" on at least one occasion".
O'Raifeartaigh & Mitton (2018), p. 1

16. Ryden (2003), p. 59

17. Riess, Adam G.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Challis, Peter; Clocchiatti, Alejandro; Diercks,
Alan; Garnavich, Peter M.; Gilliland, Ron L.; Hogan, Craig J.; Jha, Saurabh; Kirshner,
Robert P.; Leibundgut, B.; Phillips, M. M.; Reiss, David; Schmidt, Brian P.; Schommer,
Robert A. (1998). "Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating
Universe and a Cosmological Constant" (https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/300
499) . The Astronomical Journal. 116 (3): 1009–1038. arXiv:astro-ph/9805201 (https://a
rxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805201) . Bibcode:1998AJ....116.1009R (https://ui.adsabs.har
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18. The Planck Collaboration (2020).

19. Siegel, Ethan. "Dark Energy May Not Be A Constant, Which Would Lead To A Revolution In
Physics" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/01/31/dark-energy-ma
y-not-be-a-constant-which-would-lead-to-a-revolution-in-physics/) . Forbes.
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20. Peebles & Ratra (2003).

21. Davies, Paul (2021). What's Eating the Universe?: And Other Cosmic Questions. Penguin
Books Australia. ISBN 9780141993720.

22. Brumfiel (2007), p. 246.

23. See e.g. Baker et al. (1999).

24. See for example Table 9 in The Planck Collaboration (2015a), p. 27.

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redshifts?". Astrophysics and Space Science. 191 (1): 107–124.
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27. Barrow & Shaw (2011).

28. Calculated based on the Hubble constant and ΩΛ from The Planck Collaboration (2015b).

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33. Rugh & Zinkernagel (2001), p. ?

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36. Vilenkin (2006), pp. 138–139.

37. Weinberg (1992), p. 182.

38. Vilenkin (2006), p. 146.

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External links

Michael, E., University of Colorado, Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences,

"The Cosmological Constant (https://web.archive.org/web/20070103073616/http://super.c
olorado.edu/~michaele/Lambda/lambda.html) "
Carroll, Sean M., "The Cosmological Constant" (https://web.archive.org/web/20011201205
845/http://pancake.uchicago.edu/~carroll/encyc/) (short), "The Cosmological
Constant" (https://web.archive.org/web/20040620123430/http://www.livingreviews.org/l
rr-2001-1) (extended).

News story: More evidence for dark energy being the cosmological constant (http://news.b
bc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6156110.stm)

Cosmological constant (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cosmological_constant)

article from Scholarpedia

Copeland, Ed; Merrifield, Mike. "Λ – Cosmological Constant" (http://www.sixtysymbols.co

m/videos/cosmological.htm) . Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of
Nottingham.

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