CHEMISTRY SIMPLY THE BEST…………………ENJOY CHEMISTRY

(Unit: 10.Haloalkanes and Haloarenes)

1. Nomenclature of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes:- The general formula of alkyl halide is CnH2n+1–X
where X is a halogen atom. Alkyl halides are usually represented by R – X where R is an alkyl
group.
2. Classification: Alkyl halides can be classified as methyl halide, primary alkyl halide, secondary alkyl
halide (2°) and tertiary alkyl halide (3°), according to the number of other carbon atoms attached
to the carbon bearing the halogen atom.
H H R' R'
H X R X R X R X
H H H R"
Methyl halide Primary alkyl Secondary alkyl Tertiary alkyl
halide (1°) halide (2°) halide (3°)
R, R and R may be same or different.
3. IUPAC names of some halides:-
CH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3 2-Chlorobutane
(CH3)3CCH2Br 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane
(CH3)3CBr 2-Bromo-2-methylpropane
CH2 = CHCl 1-Chloroethene
CH2 = CHCH2Br 3-Bromopropene
CH2Cl2 1,1-Dichloromethane
CHCl3 1,1,1-Trichloromethane
CHBr3 1,1,1-Tribromomethane
CCl4 1,1,1,1-Tetrachloromethane
CH3CH2CH2F 1-Fluoropropane
o-Chlorotoluene(2-Chlorotoluene)
1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene
Benzyl chloride
1-Chloro1-phenylmethane
Answer the following
1. Write structures of the following compounds: (i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane (ii) 1-Chloro-4-
ethylcyclohexane (iii) 4-tert. Butyl-3-iodoheptane (iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene (v) 1-Bromo-4-sec.
butyl-2-methylbenzene.
2. Write the structures of the following organic halogen compounds. (i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane
(ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene (iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane (iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane
(v) Perfluorobenzene (vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane (vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene
(viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene
3. Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3 (ii) CHF2CBrClF
(iii) ClCH2C≡CCH2Br (iv) (CCl3)3CCl (v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3 (vi) (CH3)3CCH=ClC6H4I-p
4. Name the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as alkyl, allyl, benzyl
(primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:
(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3 (ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl (iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I
(iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3 (vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br
(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3 (viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2
(x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2 (xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3 (xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3

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 5. Write IUPAC names of the following:

4. Methods of Preparation:- (Haloalkanes)

a) From Alcohol (i) Alkyl chlorides can be prepared from alcohols by treating it with PCl 5 or SOCl2.
CH3CH2OH + PCl5  CH3CH2Cl + POCl3 + HCl
CH3CH2OH + SOCl2  CH3CH2Cl + SO2 + HCl
Note :Preparation of alkyl chloride from alcohols by treating it with SOCl2 is the best method as it
gives almost pure alkyl chloride since the by products of the reaction i.e. SO 2 and HCl are in
gaseous phase.
(ii) For the preparation of iodoalkane, we take a mixture of red phosphorus and I2.
P I 2
CH 3CH 2 OH Re
d  CH 3CH 2 I
(iii)When alcohols are treated with PX3 or HX they give alkyl halides.
RCH 2 OH PX RCH 2 X (X= Cl,Br) RCH 2 OH 

3 HX
RCH 2 X (X= Cl,Br)
ZnCl2

b) From Alkenes:-
i. Addition of X2 on alkenes: Addition of X2 on alkenes gives dihaloalkane.

ii. Addition of HX on alkenes give the alkyl halides.

a. Markovnikov’s rule : During addition of a polar molecule to unsymmetrical alkene, the negative
part of addendum attaches to that double bonded carbon which has least no. of hydrogen atom.
CH3 CH = CH2 + HBr   CH3CHBrCH3 (2-Bromo Propane)
b. Peroxide effect (kharasch effect) when a polar molecule is added to unsymmetrical alkene in the
presence of organic peroxide then addition occurs against the Markovnikov’s rule (only for
addition of H Br)
CH3 CH = CH2 + H Br Peroxide
  CH3-CH2-CH2-Br (1-Bromo Propane)
c) Halide Exchange:
i) Finkelstein reaction: Alkyl chlorides/ bromides on reaction with NaI in dry acetone to give Alkyl
iodides. R – Cl +Na I acetone
 R – I + NaCl
R – Br +Na I acetone
 R – I + NaBr
ii) Swarts reaction Heating of alkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as
AgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 to give alkyl fluorides
R – X AgF,
     R – F
Hg F , CoF or SbF
2 2 2 3

CH3 –Br + AgF   CH3 –F + AgBr

d) From halogenation of Alkanes:
 By free radical halogenations Free radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a
complex mixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to separate as pure
compounds. Consequently, the yield of any one compound is low

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 Answer the following
1.

2. Write the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from (i) 1-butanol (ii) 1-chlorobutane (iii)
but-1-ene.
3. Complete the reaction :
(a)CH3CH2CH2Cl – Cl +Na I acetone

(b) CH3CH2CH2Cl – Br +Na I acetone

(c)CH3CH2Br + AgF
4.

5. Alkyl halides are generally not prepared in laboratory by free radical halogenations of
alkanes.Why
6. Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be formed on free radical
monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3.
7. Why is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI?
8. Write structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane.
9. Among the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that on photochemical
chlorination yields (i) A single monochloride. (ii) Three isomeric monochlorides. (iii) Four isomeric
monochlorides.
Physical Properties of Haloalkanes:
a) Alkyl halides are colourless when pure. However, bromides and iodides develop colour when
exposed to light. Many volatile halogen compounds have sweet smell
b) Physical State : Lower members of alkyl halides (CH3F, CH3Cl, CH3Br and C2H5Cl) are colourless
gases at room temperature. The higher members up C18 are coloulress liquids where as other
members are colourless solids.
c) Solubility: Despite of polar nature of alkyl halides, they are insoluble in water due to inability to
form hydrogen bond but they are soluble in non-polar solvents..
d) Melting and Boiling Point:
 Due to greater polarity as well as higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon,
the intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals) are stronger in the
halogen derivatives. That is why the boiling points of chlorides, bromides and iodides are
considerably higher than those of the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass.
 The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and have more electrons.. For the
same alkyl group, the boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF. This is

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 because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the magnitude of van der Waal
forces increases.
 The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase in branching. For example, 2-
bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest boiling point among the three isomers.

 Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same. However, the para-isomers
are high melting as compared to their orthoand meta-isomers. It is due to symmetry of para-
isomers that fits in crystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers.

e) Density :Bromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than water. The
density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms, halogen atoms and atomic mass of
the halogen atoms.
Answer the following
1. The boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI > RBr > RCl > RF.
2. Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water.
3. Haloalkanes have higher boiling points as compared to those of corresponding alkanes.
4. P-Dichlorobenzene has higher m.p and solubility than those of o- and m- isomers.
5. Arrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points.
(i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane.
(ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane.
Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes:
1. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane
(the substrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded to halogen. A
substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom, called leaving group departs as halide ion.
Since the substitution reaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic substitution

reaction. or
a. CH3CH2Cl + KOH(aq)  CH3CH2OH (Alcohol) + KCl
b. CH3CH2Br + NaOH(aq)  CH3CH2OH (Alcohol) +NaBr
c. CH3CH2I + NaOR  CH3CH2OR (Alkoxy alkane)+NaI
d. CH3CH2I + AgCN  CH3CH2NC (Alkyl Isocyanide) +Ag I
e. CH3CH2I + KCN  CH3CH2CN(Alkyl cyanide) +KI
f. CH3CH2Cl + AgNO2  CH3CH2 NO2 (Nitroalkane) +AgCl
g. CH3CH2Cl + KNO2  CH3CH2ONO(Alkylnitrite) +KI
h. CH3CH2Br +NH3  CH3CH2NH2 (Primary Amines) +HBr
i. CH3CH2Br +RNH2  CH3CH2NHR +HBr
j. CH3CH2Br LIAlH
 CH3CH2_H
4

 Ambident nucleophiles :Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres and
are called ambident nucleophiles. Actually cyanide group is a hybrid of two contributing
structures and therefore can act as a nucleophile in two different ways [-C≡N ↔ :C=N-], i.e.,
linking through carbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom leading to
isocyanides. Similarly nitrite ion also represents an ambident nucleophile with two different
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 points of linkage The linkage through oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom,
it leads to nitroalkanes.
 Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product while AgCN forms
isocyanides as main product.since KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in
solution. Although both carbon and Nitrogen can donate electron pair but carbon donates
electron pair instead of Nitrogen to form more stable C-C bond. How ever, AgCN is mainly
covalent in nature and Nitrogen is free to donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main
product.
Answer the following
1. What are ambident nucleophiles? Explain with an example.
2. What happens when (i) Ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH, (ii) Methyl chloride is treated
with KCN?
3. Write the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:
a. (CH3)3CBr + KOH
b. CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH
c. CH3CH2Br + KCN
d. C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl
Mechanism Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
1. SN1 mechanism
 Substitution Nucleophilic Unimoecular (SN1)
 In this reaction, the rate of reaction depends only on the concentration of alkyl halide ie
rate=K [ R X ]
 It is mainly shown by tertiary alkyl halids eg. Tertiary butyl halide.
 Example: The reaction between tert-butyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl
alcohol and follows the first order kinetics

 It is Two step reactions.

 Step I: In the first step slow dissociation of alkyl halide takes place by reversible reaction
forming a carbocation.

 Step II: The carbocation at once combines with the nucleophile to form final product.

 Order of reactivity: 30 > 20 > 10 alkyl halide

 Greater the stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide
and faster will be the rate of reaction. In case of alkyl halides, 30 alkyl halides undergo SN1
reaction very fast because of the high stability of 30 carbocations.
 For a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the order R–I> R–Br>R–
Cl>>R–F.( As iodine is a better leaving group because of its large size, it will be released at a
faster rate in the presence of incoming nucleophile.)
2. SN2 mechanism
 Substitution Nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)

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  In this reaction, the rate of reaction depend on the concentration of both the alkyl halide and
Nucleophile ie rate = [ R X ] [ Nu- ]
 It is mainly given by primary alkyl halides e.g. n-alkyl halide
 Example: The reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and chloride ion
 CH3Cl + OH-  CH3 OH + Cl-
 It is One step reaction

 It results in complete inversion of configuration

 Order of reactivity of alkyl halide : Primary halide10 > Secondary halide20 > Tertiary halide 30
 Of the simple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions because there
are only three small hydrogen atoms. Tertiary halides are the least reactive because bulky
groups hinder the approaching nucleophiles.
Answer the following
1. Explain the SN1 & SN2 mechanism with suitable examples.
2. In the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo S N2 reaction faster?

3. Predict the order of reactivity of the following compounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:(i) The four
isomeric bromobutanes (ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH (C6H5) Br, C6H5CH (CH3) Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br
4. Which alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more rapidly by an S N2
mechanism? Explain your answer.

5. In the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster S N1 reaction?

6. Which compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction with –OH? (i)
CH3Br or CH3I (ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl
7. Write the mechanism of the following reaction:

8. Arrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2 displacement (i)2-Bromo-
2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane , 2-Bromopentane
(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 3-Bromo-2-methylbutane
(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromo-3-
methylbutane
2. Elimination reaction :- When a halo alkane with ß-hydrogen atom is treated with alcoholic
solution of potassium hydroxide there is an elimination of hydrogen atom from  -carbon and a
halogen atom from the ά-carbon atom forming an alkene.
CH3CH2Br + KOH(alcoholic)  CH2 = CH2 + H2O +KBr
 Saytzeff rule: If in an elimination reaction there is availability of more than one  -
hydrogen atom then that alkene is the major product which is highly alkylated ie
containing greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubly bonded carbon atoms.

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Question: Predict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the following halides
with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane (ii) 2-
Chloro-2-methylbutane (iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane.
3. Reaction with Metal.
i) Reaction with Sodium
 Wurtz reaction : Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons
(Alkanes)containing double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide

.
ii) Reaction with Magnesium
 Grignard Reagent: alkyl or aryl magnesium halide is called grignard reagent. It is obtained
by treating alkyl or aryl bromide with magnesium in the presence of ether.

 Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of proton to give
hydrocarbons. Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently acidic to convert them to
corresponding hydrocarbons. It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture
from a Grignard reagent.
 Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions.because Grignard
reagent reacts with water and get decomposed and form alkanes. RMgX +
H2O   RH + Mg(OH)X
Answer the following
1. What happens when methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether?
2. How the following conversions can be carried out? (a) Chloroethane to butane(b) Benzene to
diphenyl (c) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane (d) 1-Chlorobutane to octane.

Haloarenes
Nomenclature of Haloarenes: According to IUPAC system, aryl halides are named as Haloarenes. If more
than one halogen is present their positions in the ring are indicated by numbers or appropriate prefixes,
ortho, meta, para.

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 CH3
Br CH3 Cl
Cl

Br CH3
1,3-dibromobenzene or 1-chloro-2-methylbenzene 2-chloro-1,4-dimethylbenzene
m-dibromobenzene or o-chlorotoluene

General Methods of Preparation

i) By direct halogenation: This method is used for the preparation of chloro and bromo derivatives.
Halgoens react with aromatic hydrocarbons in presence of catalysts or halogen carriers such as
iron, iodine or aluminium chloride at room temperature in absence of direct sunlight.

C6 H 6  Cl 2 
Fe
C6 H 5 Cl  HCl

ii) From diazonium salts: Aryl halides can be obtained most satisfactorily by the decomposition
of aryl diazonium salts in presence of copper halide solution dissolved in the corresponding
halogen acid, the diazo group is replaced by a halogen atom (Sandmeyer reaction).
Cl

CuCl
 
/ HCl
heat

chlorobenzene
Br

+ -
N2 Cl CuBr
 
/ HBr
heat

bromobenzene
I
Benzene
diazonium  KI 
chloride heat

iodobenzene
F

 
NaBF4
heat

fluorobenzene

Physical Properties:
 Aryl halides are colourless stable liquids with pleasant odour.
 These are insoluble in water but readily miscible with organic solvents. Most of them are steam
volatile, heavier than water.
 Their boiling points are higher than corresponding alkyl halides.
 The boiling points rise gradually from fluoro to iodo compounds.
Chemical Properties of Haloarenes:
(a) Nucleophilic Substitution reactions: Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards Nucleophilic
Substitution reactions.because C—X bond acquires a partial double bond character due to
resonance. As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult than haloalkane and therefore,
they are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction.

Chlorobenzene to Phenol

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(b) Electrophilic substitution reactions

(c) Reaction with Metal

Fittig reaction: Aryl halides(Haloarenes) also give analogous compounds when treated with
sodium in dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together..

Wurtz-Fittig reaction : A mixture of an alkyl halide(Haloalkanes) and aryl halide(Haloarenes.)

gives an alkylarene when treated with sodium in dry ether.

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Stereoisomerism : Isomerism exihibited by two or more compounds with the same molecular and
structural formulae but different spatial arrangements of atoms or groups in space .
1. Certain compounds rotate the plane polarised light (produced by passing ordinary light through
Nicol prism) when it is passed through their solutions. Such compounds are called optically active
compounds.
2. The angle by which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an instrument called
polarimeter.
3. If the compound rotates the plane polarised light to the right, i.e., clockwise direction, it is called
dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form and is indicated by placing a positive (+)
sign before the degree of rotation.
4. If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise direction), the compound is said to be
laevorotatory or the l-form and a negative (–) sign is placed before the degree of rotation. Such
(+) and (–) isomers of a compound are called optical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as
optical isomerism.
5. if all the substituents attached to that carbon are different, such a carbon is called asymmetric
carbon or stereocentre. The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to as
asymmetric molecule. The asymmetry of the molecule is responsible for the optical activity in
such organic compounds.
6. The objects which are non superimposable on their mirror image (like a pair of hands) are said to
be chiral and this property is known as chirality. While the objects, which are, superimposable on
their mirror images are called achiral.
7. Butan-2-ol has four different groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral.
Some common examples of chiral molecules such as 2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal,
(OHC–CHOH–CH2OH), bromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid (H3C–CHBr–
COOH), etc.
8. The stereoisomers related to each other as nonsuperimposable mirror images are called
enantiomers
9. Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely, melting point, boiling point, solubility,
refractive index, etc. They only differ with respect to the rotation of plane polarised light. If one of
the enantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory.
10. A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions will have zero optical rotation, as the
rotation due to one isomer will be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer. Such a
mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic modification.
11. A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl or before the name, for example
butan-2-ol. The process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as
racemisation.
12. Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes for a reaction at an asymmetric
carbon atom. Consider the replacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction.

 If (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention of configuration.
 If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion of configuration.

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  If a 50:50 mixture of the above two is obtained then the process is called racemisation and the
product is optically inactive, as one isomer will rotate light in the direction opposite to another.
 Question :Identify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of compounds:

REASONING BASED QUESTIONS

1. n- butyl bromide has higher point than tert.- butyl bromide.
Answer: n- butyl bromide being a straight chain alkyl halide has larger surface area than tert. butyl
bromide. Larger the surface area ,larger the magnitude of the vanderwaal’s forces and higher is the
boiling point.
2. Racemic mixture is optically inactive.
Answer: A Racemic mixture contains two enantiomers in d & l equal proportions. As the rotation due to
one enatiomer is cancelled by equal and opposite rotation of another isomer. Therefore it is optically
inactive..
3. The presence of nitro group (–NO2 ) at ortho and para postions in haloarenes increases the
reactivity of haloarenes towards Nucleophilic substitution reaction.
Answer: The presence of nitro group (–NO2 ) at ortho and para postions in haloarenes helps in
stabilization of resulting carbanion by –R and –I effects and hence increases the reactivity of haloarenes
towards Nucleophilic substitution reaction.
4. Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water.
Answer: Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water.because alkyl haides are unable to form
H-bond with water as well as unable to break the existing H-bonds among water molecules.
5. Butan-1-ol optically inactive but Butan-2-ol is optically active.
Answer: Butan-2-ol has four different groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon and has chiral carbon,
therefore it is optically active.
6. 1-Bromobutane optically inactive but 2-Bromobutane is optically active.
Answer: 2-Bromobutane has four different groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon and has chiral
carbon, therefore it is optically active
7. Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly.
Answer:Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases electrons through
resonance. The inductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron withdrawal as a
result Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly

8. Although chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-, para- directing in

electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
Answer: As the weaker resonance (+R) effect of Chlorine which stabilize the carbocation formed tends
to oppose the inductive effect of Chlorine which destabilize the carbocation at ortho and para postions
and makes deactivation less for ortho and para postion.
9. Haloalkanes easily dissolve in organic solvents.
Answer: because the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and organic solvents have
much the same strength as ones being broken in the separate haloalkanes and solvent molecules.

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 10. Halogen compounds used in industry as solvents are alkyl chlorides rather than bromides and
iodides.
Answer: because alkyl chlorides are more stable and more volatile than bromides and iodides.
11. Ethyl iodide undergoes SN2 undergoes reaction faster than ethyl bromide.
Answer:Since I- ion is better leaving group than Br- ion, Ethyl iodide reacts faster than ethyl bromide in
SN2.
12. C-X bond length in halobenzene is smaller than C-X bond length in CH3-X
Answer: because C—X bond in halobenzene acquires a partial double bond character due to resonance
13. .P-Dichlorobenzene has higher m.p and solubility than those of o- and m- isomers.
Answer: P-Dichlorobenzene has higher m.p and solubility than those of o- and m- isomers. Since p-
dichlorobenzene has more symmetrical structure than other two isomers, hence its molecules fit more
closely in the crystal lattice and consequently stronger intermolecular attractive forces.
14. Benzyl chloride undergoes SN1 reaction faster than cyclohexyl methyl chloride.
Answer: because in case of benzyl chloride the carbocation formed is stablised by resonance.
15. The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride.
Answer: The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride.because in
chlorobenzene electron withdrawing inductive effect is opposed by electron releasing resonance effect
there fore it is relatively less polar. On the other hand in cyclohexyl chloride there is only electron with
drawing is inductive effect of -Cl atom due to which more polar.
16. Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions.
Answer: Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions.because Grignard reagent
reacts with water and get decomposed and form alkanes RMg X + H2O R-H+Mg (OH) X.
17. p - nitro chlorobenzene undergoes nucleophilic substitution faster than chlorobenzene
Answer: p - nitro chlorobenzene undergoes nucleophilic substitution faster than chlorobenzene,due to
presence of electron withdrawing groups such as nitro group in p - nitro chlorobenzene.,it forms more
stable carbanion
16. The treatment of alkyl chlorides with aq.KOH leads to the formation of alcohols but in the
presence of alc.KOH alkenes are major products.
Answer: The treatment of alkyl chlorides with aq.KOH leads to the formation of alcohols but in the
presence of alc.KOH alkenes are major products.because in presence of aq.KOH(more polar),
nucleophilic substitution reaction takes place ,thus alcohols are formed while in presence alc.KOH(less
polar),elimination reaction takes place.thus alkenes are major products.
17. Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product while AgCN forms
isocyanides as main product.
Answer: Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product while AgCN forms
isocyanides as main product.since KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution.
Although both carbon and Nitrogen can donate electron pair but carbon donates electron pair instead of
Nitrogen to form more stable C-C bond. How ever, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and Nitrogen is free
to donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product.
18. Allyl chloride is more reactive than n - propyl chloride towards nucleophilic substitution
reaction.
Answer: Allyl chloride is more reactive than n - propyl chloride towards nucleophilic substitution
reaction.because allyl carbocation is stabilized by resonance whereas n propyl carbocation is stabilized
by +I effect only.
19. Preparation of alkyl chloride from alcohols by treating it with Thionyl chloride SOCl 2 is the best
method.
Answer: Because it gives almost pure alkyl chloride since the by products of the reaction i.e. SO 2 and
HCl are in gaseous phase.
20. Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards Nucleophilic Substitution reactions.

12
MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605
Answer: Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards Nucleophilic Substitution reactions.because C—
X bond acquires a partial double bond character due to resonance. As a result, the bond cleavage in
haloarene is difficult than haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reaction.(draw the resonating structures of chlorobenzene)
21. Sulphuric acid is not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI.
Answer:.H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to an alkyl iodide as it
converts KI to corresponding HI and then oxidizes it to I2.
22. Alkyl halides are generally not prepared in laboratory by free radical halogenations of alkanes.
Answer: Alkyl halides are generally not prepared in laboratory by free radical halogenations of
alkanes.since Free radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex mixture of isomeric
mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to separate as pure compounds. Consequently, the
yield of any one compound is low.
23. The boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI > RBr > RCl > RF.
Answer: The boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI > RBr > RCl > RF.This is because
with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the magnitude of van der Waal forces increases.
24. Haloalkanes have higher boiling points as compared to those of corresponding alkanes.
Answer:Haloalkanes have higher boiling points as compared to those of corresponding alkanes.Due to
greater polarity as well as higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon,
25. Chloroform is stored in closed dark coloured bottles.
Answer: Chloroform is stored in closed dark coloured bottles.because it is slowly oxidized by air in the
presence of light to an extremely poisonous gas, phosgene.
CHEMICAL TEST TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAIR OF ORGANIC COMPOUND
Haloalkanes are more reactive Haloalkenes & Haloarenes towards nucleophilic substitution reactions
,therefore Haloalkanes on heating with aq.KOH undergoes hydrolysis to produce alcohol & KCl.This
mixture on acidification with dil.HNO3 followed by treatment with AgNO3 solution produces a white
ppt [AgCl]or Yellow ppt AgBr]

Note: Haloalkenes & Haloarenes does not undergoes hydrolysis with KOH

For example:
1. CH3CH2Cl + KOH (aq)  CH3CH2OH + KCl (This mixture on acidification with dil.HNO3
followed by treatment with AgNO3 solution produces a white ppt AgCl.
2. CH3CH2Br + KOH (aq)  CH3CH2OH + KBr (This mixture on acidification with dil.HNO3
followed by treatment with AgNO3 solution produces a AgBr .

Give one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds:
1. Ethyl bromide & Bromobenzene
2. Ethyl bromide & Vinyl chloride
3. Chlorobenzene & n-hexyl chloride
4. Chlorobenzene & chlorocyclohexane
5. Chlorobenzene and Benzylchloride
6. Bromobenzene and Benzylbromide

Name-reactions Based Questions (with suitable examples)

(i)Wurtz reaction (ii) Wurtz-Fittig reaction (iii) Fittig reaction (iv)Finkelstein reaction (v) Swarts
reaction (vi) Diazotization (vii) Sandmeyers reaction

Some reaction based questions:

13
MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605
 How the following conversions can be carried out? (i) Propene to propan-1-ol (ii) Ethanol to but-1-
yne (iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane (iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol (v) Benzene to 4-
bromonitrobenzene (vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid (vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile (viii)
Aniline to chlorobenzene (ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane (x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-
chloro-2-methylpropane (xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid (xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide (xiii) 2-
Chloropropane to 1-propanol (xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform (xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol
(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane (xvii) Chloroethane to butane (xviii) Benzene to diphenyl
(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide (xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide
3.What happens when (i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH, (ii) bromobenzene is treated
with Mg in the presence of dry ether, (iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis, (iv) ethyl chloride
is treated with aqueous KOH, (v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,
(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN?

.Word Problems
(a) Primary alkyl halide C4H9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound
(b).Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a). When (a) is reacted with
sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H18 which is different from the compound formed when n-butyl
bromide is reacted with sodium. Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the
reactions.
(b) A hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single
monochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight. Identify the hydrocarbon.

CHEMISTRY ….OUR LIFE……………………..OUR FUTURE……………..

14
MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605
 ENJOY CHEMISTRY
Unit: 11:- Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
I. Nomenclature Based Questions
Alcohols :.
Formula IUPAC Name Suffix Prefix
R – OH Alkanol -ol Hydroxy
Common and IUPAC names of a few Alcohols.

Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol. It is its common name and also an accepted
IUPAC name. As structure of phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the terms ortho (1,2-
disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para (1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names.

Ethers:. According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as hydrocarbon derivatives in which
a hydrogen atom is replaced by an –OR or –OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,
respectively. The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon.

Answer the following

1
 1. Give IUPAC names of the following compounds:

2.Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system.

3.Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:

4..Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:

(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol (ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane –1, 3, 5-triol (iv) 2,3 – Diethylphenol (v)
1 – Ethoxypropane (vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol (viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol (ix)
Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol (x) 3-Chloromethylpentan-1-ol.
5.Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:

II.Preparation of Alcohols & Phenols:

1. Hydroboration –Oxidation reaction:Diborane reacts with alkenes to from trialkylboranes which are
oxidized to alcohols on reaction with hydrogen peroxide in presence of alkali.The alcohol obtained
corresponds to anti- Markownikov ’s addition of water on alkenes.

i.e.
i ) B2 H 6 ( ii ) OH 
CH3-CH=CH2 (    CH3-CH2-CH2-OH
2. Hydration of Alkene

Mechanism for the Hydration of alkenes

2
Mechanism
The mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:
Step 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic attack of H3O+.

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation.

Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol.

3. Reduction of aldehydes and ketones(Reducing agents: H2/Pd or Pt ,NaBH4 or LiAlH4)

4. Reduction of carboxylic acids :

5. Reaction of Grignard reagents with aldehydes and ketones.:
Mechanism for the addition Grignard reagent on carbonyl compounds.
The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard reagent to the carbonyl group to form an
adduct. Hydrolysis of the adduct yields an alcohol.

NOTE: The reaction produces a primary alcohol with methanal, a secondary alcohol with other
aldehydes and tertiary alcohol with ketones.
6. Reimer-Tiemann reaction:On treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium hydroxide, a
–CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene ring. (salicylaldehyde is formed)

7. Kolbe’s reaction: On reacting sodium salt of phenol with carbon dioxide gas, ortho hydroxy benzoic
(Salicylic acid) acid is formed as the main product.

3
 8. Chlorobezene to Phenol

9. Aniline to Phenol

10. Cumene to Phenol

Chemical Properties of Alcohols & Phenols

1. Dehydration of Alcohols

Mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give alkenes

Mechanism
Step 1: Formation of protonated alcohol.

Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the rate determining step of the reaction.

Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton.

The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3. To drive the equilibrium to the right, ethene is removed as it is formed
2. Oxidation of Alcohols

4
 Primary alcohol to carboxylic acid.[Strong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium

permanganateKMnO4]


 Primary alcohol to Aldehyde.[oxidising agents CrO3 in anhydrous medium. pyridinium
chlorochromate (PCC)

 Secondary alcohols to ketones [chromic anhyride (CrO3).]

 .Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction. Under strong reaction conditions such as strong
oxidising agents (KMnO4) and elevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place and
a mixture of carboxylic acids containing lesser number of carbon atoms is formed.
3. Dehydrogenation [loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule]: When the vapours of a
primary or a secondary alcohol are passed over heated copper at 573 K, dehydrogenation takes place
and an aldehyde or a ketone is formed while tertiary alcohols undergo dehydration.

4. Electrophilic aromatic substitution in Phenols

 Nitration:

 Halogenation

5. Phenol to Benzene

6. Phenol to Benzoquinone

5
 III. Chemical tests Based Questions (with suitable examples)
1. Lucas test
 To distinguish between Primary (10), Secondary (20), & Tertiary (30) Alcohols)
 Lucas reagent: ZnCl2/HCl
 Test & Reactions:
(i) Primary(10) + Lucas reagent(ZnCl2/HCl)  No Turbidity at room temperture
R – CH2 – OH + HCl ZnCl2 R – CH2 – Cl
1 Alcohol Lucas Reagent No Turbidity

(ii)Secondary (2 ) + Lucas reagent(ZnCl2/HCl) Turbidity after some time (5-10 min)
0

(iii) Tertiary (30) + Lucas reagent(ZnCl2/HCl)  Turbidity at once(immediately)

2. Iodoform test (Alcohols)

 Alcohols containing linkage like Ethanol ,Propan-2-ol etc.)

 Reagent: I2 / NaOH
 Test: Alcohols containing CH3-CH(OH)-linkage on reaction I2 / NaOH gives Yellow Ppt of CHI3 .
 Reaction:

3. Neutral ferric chloride test

 Phenol give this test
 Test:Phenol reacts with Neutral FeCl3 to form a complex of Violet colour.
3 PhOH (Phenol) + FeCl3 (Neutral)  Violet colouration (PhO)3 Fe + 3 HCl

ETHERS
Preparation of ethers
1. Williamson’s synthesis :In this method an alkyl halide (Better results are obtained if the alkyl halide is
primary) reacts with a sodium alkoxide to form symmetrical or unsymmetrical ethers.

Limitation In case of secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over substitution. If a tertiary
alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only reaction product and no ether is formed. For example, the reaction of
CH3ONa with (CH3)3C–Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene. It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but
strong bases as well. They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions.

2. Dehydration of alcohols to give ethers

6
 Mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give ethers

Mechanism

Chemical Properties of Ethers:

1. Reaction of Ethers with hydrogen halides.(HX)
 Order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows: HI > HBr > HCl
 The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl halide molecules.

 Ethers with two different alkyl groups:

 When primary or secondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl iodide

(SN2 reaction).
 When one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide formed is a tertiary halide.

 Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the more stable aryl-oxygen bond. The
reaction yields phenol and alkyl halide.

When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature, ethanol reacts with another molecule of
HI and is converted to ethyl iodide.

 Mechanism for the reaction of HI on Ethoxymethane

2. Electrophilic substitution in Alkyl aryl ethers (Anisole)

(i) Halogenation

(ii) Nitration:
7
 (iii) Friedel crafts alkylation in anisole:

(iii) Friedel crafts acetlyation in anisole

QUESTION BANK BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR CBSE PAPERS

Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
1. What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction? Illustrate it with an example.
2. Write the equations involved in the following reactions: (i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction (ii)
Kolbe’s reaction
3. Give equations of the reaction: Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous
NaOH.
(Chemical Test Based Questions)
4. Give Chemical test to distinguish between following pairs of Compounds:
(a)Methanol and Ethanol (b). Propanol and Propan-2-ol (c). 2-Methyl Propan-2-ol and
Propanol (d)Phenol and Cyclohexanol (e) .10,20,& 30 Alchols.
Mechanism Based Questions
5. Give mechanism for the Hydration of alkenes
6. Give mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give alkenes..Or Write the
mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene.
7. Give mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give ethers or Give mechanism of
preparation of ethoxyethane from ethanol.
8. Give mechanism for the addition Grignard reagent on carbonyl compounds.
9. Give mechanism for the reaction of HI on methoxymethane.
Important reactions Based Questions
10.Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from the following reactions:
(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal. (b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute
sulphuric acid. (c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed by
hydrolysis.
11.Write structures of the products of the following reaction:

8
12..Write the structures of the major products expected from the following reactions: (a)
Mononitration of 3-methylphenol (b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol (c) Mononitration of
phenyl methanoate.
13.Give structures of the products you would expect when each of the following alcohol reacts
with (a) HCl –ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2. (i) Butan-1-ol (ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol
14. Predict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of (i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and (ii)
butan-1-ol
15.Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene
16.You are given benzene, conc. H2SO4 and NaOH. Write the equations for the preparation of
phenol using these reagents.
17.Show how will you synthesise: (i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene. (ii)
cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction. (iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable
alkyl halide?
18.Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol.
19.Give equations of the following reactions: (i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4
solution. (ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol. (iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol. (iv) Treating phenol
wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH.
20.How are the following conversions carried out? (i) Propene Propan-2-ol. (ii) Benzyl
chloride Benzyl alcohol. (iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride Propan-1-ol. (iv) Methyl
magnesium bromide 2-Methylpropan-2-ol.
21.Name the reagents used in the following reactions: (i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to
carboxylic acid. (ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde. (iii) Bromination of phenol to
2,4,6-tribromophenol. (iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid. (v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to
propene. (vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol.

QUESTION BANK BASED ON PREVIOUS YEAR CBSE PAPERS

ETHERS
Answer the following
1. Write the equations involved in Williamson ether synthesis.
2. Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following ethers by
Williamson’s synthesis:(i) 1-Propoxypropane (ii) Ethoxybenzene (iii) 2-Methoxy-2-
methylpropane (iv) 1-Methoxyethane
3. Write the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane starting from
ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol.
4. The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of t-butyl ethyl ether.

(i) What would be the major product of this reaction ?

(ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether.
5. Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the preparation of
certain types of ethers.
6. Write equations of the following reactions: (i) Friedel-Crafts reaction – alkylation of anisole.
(ii) Friedel-Craft’s acetylation of anisole
7. Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with: (i) 1-propoxypropane (ii)
methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether.
8. Write equations of the following reactions: (i) Friedel-Crafts reaction – alkylation of anisole.
(ii) Nitration of anisole. (iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium. (iv) Friedel-
Craft’s acetylation of anisole.
9. Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following ethers with HI.

9
 10.Predict the products of the following reactions: (i)CH3−CH2−CH2−O – CH3+HBr
(ii)(CH3)3C-OC2H5 
HI

(iii)

Reasoning Questions Based Questions

1. O-nitrophenol is steam volatile whereas p-nitrophenol is not.
Ans:O-nitrophenol is steam volatile due to presence of intramolecular Hydrogen bonding
whereas p-nitrophenol is not steam Volatile.due to presence of intermolecular Hydrogen
bonding
2. Phenols undergo substitution at ortho and para position.
Ans: because the OH group attached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic
substitution. Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para positions in the ring as these
positions become electron rich due to the resonance effect caused by –OH group.(also draw the
resonating structures of phenol)
3. Thionyl chloride preferred over PCl5 in nucleophilic substitution reaction to convert
alcohol to alkyl halide.
Ans: because all by – product are gases and escape easily and pure alkyl halide is Obtained
CH3CH2OH + SOCl2  CH3CH2Cl + SO2 (g) + HCl (g)
4. Ortho – nitrophenol is more acidic than Ortho – methoxyphenol.
Ans: Ortho-nitrophenol is more acidic because nitro group is electron withdrawing and will
increase +Ve Charge on Oxygen to make it more acidic whereas – OCH3 group is electron releasing
and it will not break easily
5. Phenol is more acidic than alcohols(Ethanol)
Ans: Because Phenoxide ion is more stablised than alkoxide since in phenoxide ion, the charge is
delocalised.,The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more stable and favours
the ionisation of phenol.( also draw the resonating structures of phenoxide ion)
6. Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than the corresponding
hydrocarbons
Ans: because it can form intermolecular Hydrogen -bonding with water
7. Propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon, butane.
Ans: because propanol are held together by stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding.whereas
the molecules of butane are held together by weak yan der Waals forces of attraction
8. . O-nitrophenol has lower boiling point than p-nitrophenol
Ans: O-nitrophenol has lower boiling point than p-nitrophenol.due to presence of intramolecular
Hydrogen bonding in Ortho-nitro phenol and presence of intermolecular Hydrogen bonding in p-
nitrophenol.
9. Phenol does not undergo protonation easily.
Ans: Because in phenols, the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom are delocalized over the
benzene ring due to resonance and hence are not easily available for protonation.
10. In Phenol, the –OH group activates the benzene ring towards elecrophilic substitution
and directs the substituents to Ortho and para positions in benzene ring.
Ans: . because the OH group attached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic
substitution. Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para positions in the ring as these
positions become electron rich due to the resonance effect caused by –OH group.(also draw the
resonating structures of phenol)

10
 11. Phenol has small dipole moment than methanol.
Ans: Due to electron-withdrawing effect of the benzene ring, the C ―O bond in phenol is less polar
but in case of methanol due to electron-donating effect of CH3 group, C ―O bond is more polar.
12. Among HI, HBr, HCl, HI is most reactive towards alcohol.
Ans:.Due to low bond dissociation energy of HI
13. Out of ethanol and propanol, ethanol gives iodoform test whereas propanol does not
do so.
Ans: because ethanol has CH3CO linkage while propanol has not.
14. Lower alcohols are soluble in water, higher alcohols are not.
Ans: Lower alcohols are able to form strong hydrogen bonding with water.
15. The boiling point of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in number of carbon
atoms.
Ans: because of increase in van der Waals forces.
16. In alcohols the boiling point decreases with increase in branching.
Ans: because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface area
17. The boiling point of alcohols and phenols are higher in comparison to hydrocarbons,
ethers, haloalkanes.
Ans: because the –OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular hydrogen
bonding
18. The acid strength of alcohols decreases in the following order:1o>2o>3o.
Ans: Because more is number of electron releasing groups lesser is the acidic strength
19. The presence of electron withdrawing groups such as nitro group enhances the acidic
strength of phenol.
Ans: Because withdrawing groups, such as nitro group, in general, favour the formation of phenoxide ion
resulting in increase in acid strengthThis effect is more pronounced when such a group is present at ortho
and para positions.
20. The presence of electron releasing groups such as alkyl group decreases the acidic strength of
phenol
Ans: Because electron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do not favour the formation of
phenoxide ion resulting in decrease in acid strength. Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol.
21. Phenols not undergo Nucleophilic substitution reaction easily but undergo elecrophilic
substitution reaction easily at ortho and para positions.
Ans: Phenols not undergo Nucleophilic substitution reaction easily because of double bond character
between C=O bond which is difficult to break.but Electrophilic substitution reaction take place easily
because the –OH group activates the benzene ring towards elecrophilic substitution and directs the
substituents to Ortho and para positions in benzene ring. Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and
para positions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to the resonance effect caused by –OH
group.(also draw the resonating structures of phenol).
22. In aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates thebenzene ring towards electrophilic
substitution and (ii) it directs the incoming substituents to ortho and para positions in
benzene ring..
. Ans:In aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates thebenzene ring towards electrophilic substitution
and (ii) it directs the incoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring. because the
–OR(alkoxy group) group activates the benzene ring towards elecrophilic substitution and directs the
substituents to Ortho and para positions in benzene ring. Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and
para positions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to the resonance effect caused by –OR
group.(also draw the resonating structures of aryl alkyl ethers).
23. Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols is not a suitable
method.
Ans: because dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohol will take place and alkene will be product.

11
 ALDEHYDES KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group
I. Aldehydes and ketones - Aldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl
compounds.
There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones.
(a) Common names
Aldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names instead of IUPAC names. The common
names of most aldehydes are derived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic acids by
replacing the ending –ic of acid with aldehyde.

The common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl
group. Some ketones have historical common names, the simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone. Alkyl
phenyl ketones are usually named by adding the acyl group as prefix to phenone. For example

IUPAC names :-
The IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones are derived from the names of the
corresponding alkanes by replacing the ending –e with –al and –one respectively. In case of aldehydes the
longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the carbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones
the numbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group. The substituents are prefixed in
alphabetical order along with numerals indicating their positions in the carbon chain. The same applies to
cyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one. When the aldehyde group is attached to a
ring, the suffix carbaldehyde is added after the full name of the cycloalkane. The numbering of the ring
carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the aldehyde group. The name of the simplest
aromatic aldehyde carrying the aldehyde group on a benzene ring is benzenecarbaldehyde. However, the
common name benzaldehyde is also accepted by IUPAC. Other aromatic aldehydes are hence named as
substituted benzaldehydes.

MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 1 of 25

MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 2 of 25
Table 12.1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones

MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 3 of 25

 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
1. By oxidation of alcohols :-
Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols,
respectively (SEE CHAPTER ALCOHOLS)
2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols
This method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial application. In this method alcohol vapours
are passed over heavy metal catalysts (Ag or Cu). Primary and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and
ketones, respectively (SEE CHAPTER ALCOHOLS)
3. From hydrocarbons :-
(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes followed by reaction with zinc dust and
water gives aldehydes ketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution pattern of the alkene
(ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the presence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives
acetaldehyde. All other alkynes give ketones in this reaction
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES :-
1. From acyl chloride (acid chloride) :- Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst,
palladium on barium sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction

2. From nitriles and esters :-

Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid,
which on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde.
(i). This reaction is called Stephen reaction.

( ii ). Alternatively, nitriles are selectively reduced by diisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines

followed by hydrolysis to aldehydes:

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3. From hydrocarbons :-
Aromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared from aromatic hydrocarbons by the
following methods:
(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene :-
Strong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to benzoic acids. However, it is possible to stop
the oxidation at the aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl group to an
intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further. The following methods are used for this purpose.
(a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises methyl group to a chromium complex,
which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde.

This reaction is called Etard reaction

(ii) By Gatterman – Koch reaction
When benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehyde.

Preparation of ketones:-
1. From acyl chlorides:-
Treatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the reaction of cadmium chloride with
Grignard reagent, gives ketones.

2. From nitriles:-
Treating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields a ketone.

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3. From benzene or substituted benzenes :-
When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in the presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride, it affords the corresponding ketone. This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts acylation
reaction.

Physical Properties :-
1. Boling point:-
The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of comparable
molecular masses. It is due to weak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the
dipole-dipole interactions. Also, their boiling points are lower than those of alcohols of similar molecular
masses due to absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The following compounds of molecular
masses 58
and 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points.

2. Solubility:-
However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain.
All aldehydes and ketones are fairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol, chloroform,
etc. The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours. As the size of the molecule increases, the odour
becomes less pungent and more fragrant. In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and ketones are
used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents.

Chemical Reactions :-
1. Nucleophilic addition reactions:- Contrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes the
aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions
(i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions:-
A nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar carbonyl group from a direction
approximately perpendicular to the plane of sp2 hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon The hybridisation of
carbon changes from sp2 to sp3 in this process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is produced. This
intermediate captures a proton from the reaction medium to give the electrically neutral product.The net
MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 6 of 25
result is addition of Nu– and H+ across the carbon oxygen double bond as shown in Arrange the following
compounds in increasing order of their boiling points.

(ii) Reactivity:-
Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and
lectronic reasons. Sterically, the presence of two relatively large substituents in ketones hinders the
approach of nucleophile to carbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such substituent.
Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than ketones because two alkyl groups reduce the
electrophilicity of the carbonyl more effectively than in former.

(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes and ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to
yield cyanohydrins. This reaction occurs very slowly with pure HCN. Therefore, it is catalyzed by a base
and the generated cyanide ion (CN-) being a stronger nucleophile readily adds to carbonyl compounds
to yield corresponding cyanohydrin. Cyanohydrins are useful synthetic intermediates.

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(b)Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium hydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and ketones to form
the addition products.The position of the equilibrium lies largely to the right hand side for most aldehydes
and to the left for most ketones due to steric reasons. The hydrogensulphite addition compound is water
soluble and can be converted back to the original carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral
acid or alkali. Therefore, these are useful for separation and purification of aldehydes.

(c)Addition of Grignard reagents:-

(d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of monohydric alcohol in the presence of dry
hydrogen chloride to yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals, which further react with one
more molecule of alcohol to give a gem-dialkoxy compound known as acetal as shown in the reaction.
Ketones react with ethylene glycol under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as ethylene
glycol ketals. Dry hydrogen chloride protonates the oxygen of the carbonyl compounds and therefore,
increases the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon facilitating the nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol.
Acetals and ketals are hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield corresponding aldehydes and
ketones respectively.

(e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such as ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add
to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones. The reaction is reversible and catalysed by acid. The
equilibrium favours the product formation due to rapid dehydration of the intermediate to form >C=N-Z.
Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc.

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Table 12.2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)

2. Reduction:-
(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and secondary alcohols
respectively by sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as well as by catalytic
hydrogenation
(ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on
treatment with zincamalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen reduction]

with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as
ethylene glycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction).

3. Oxidation:-
Aldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions. Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids
on treatment with common oxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium
dichromate, etc. Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens’ reagent and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise
aldehydes

Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i.e., strong oxidising agents and at elevated
temperatures. Their oxidation involves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic
acids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone.

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The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish aldehydes from ketones:
(i) Tollens’ test:- On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared ammoniacal silver nitrate solution
(Tollens’ reagent), a bright silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal. The aldehydes are
oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. The reaction occurs in alkaline medium.

(ii) Fehling’s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B.
Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline sodium potassium tartarate
(Rochelle salt). These two solutions are mixed in equal amounts before test. On heating an aldehyde with
Fehling’s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained. Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding
carboxylate anion. Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test.

(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl
group linked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones) are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium
salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The
methyl group is converted to haloform. This oxidation does not affect a carbon- arbon double bond, if
present in the molecule. Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection of CH 3CO
group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group on oxidation.

Reactions due to a-hydrogen:-

Acidity of α-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes and ketones undergo a number of
reactions due to the acidic nature of α-hydrogen.
The acidity of α-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due to the strong electron withdrawing effect
of the carbonyl group and resonance stabilisation of the conjugate base.

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(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the
presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form β-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or β-hydroxy ketones (ketol),
respectively. This is known as Aldol reaction.

The name aldol is derived from the names of the two functional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in
the products.The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds which are
aldol condensation products and the reaction is called Aldol condensation. Though ketones give ketols
(compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups), the general name aldol condensation still applies to the
reactions of ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes.

(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehydes
and / or ketones, it is called cross aldol condensation. If both of them contain α-hydrogen atoms, it gives a
mixture of four products. This is illustrated below by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal.

Other reactions:-
(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an α-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and
reduction (disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali. In this reaction, one molecule
of the aldehyde is reduced to alcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt.

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(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones undergo electrophilic substitution
at the ring in which the carbonyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group.

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MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 13 of 25
METHODS OF PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS :-
1. From primary alcohols and aldehydes:- Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with
common oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in neutral, acidic or alkaline media or
by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent).

Carboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of mild oxidising agents.
2. From alkylbenzenes:- Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes
with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium permanganate. The entire side chain is oxidised to the
carboxyl group irrespective of length of the side chain. Primary and secondary alkyl
groups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected. Suitably substituted alkenes are
also oxidised to carboxylic acids with these oxidising reagents

3. From nitriles and amides:- Nitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of H+ or
OH − as catalyst. Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the reaction at the amide stage.

4. From Grignard reagents :- Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of
carboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids after acidification with mineral acid.

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As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared from alkyl halides . The above methods (3
and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom
more than that present in alkyl halides (ascending the series).
5. From acyl halides and anhydrides:- Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or
more readily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on acidification provide
corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on the other hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with
water.

6. From esters
Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on
acidification give corresponding carboxylic acids

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:- Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless liquids at room
temperature with unpleasant odours. The higher acids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due
to their low volatility. Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols
of comparable molecular masses. This is due to more extensive association of carboxylic acid molecules
through intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The hydrogen bonds are not broken completely even in the
vapour phase. In fact, most carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase or in the aprotic solvents.

Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four carbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation
of hydrogen bonds with water. The solubility decreases with increasing number of carbon atoms. Higher
carboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to the increased hydrophobic interaction of
hydrocarbon part. Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid is nearly insoluble in cold water.
Carboxylic acids are also soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene, ether, alcohol, chloro form, etc.

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MAHENDRA KALRA 9462305605 Page 17 of 25
Reactions Involving Cleavage of O–H Bond
1. Formation of anhydride:-
Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with P2O5 give corresponding anhydride.

2. Esterification:-

Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence of a mineral acid such as
concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst .
3. Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 :-

The hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols and is easily replaced by chlorine atom
on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or SOCl2. Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two.

products are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the purification of the products easier.

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4. Reaction with ammonia:-
Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature
give amides. For example:

1. Reduction
Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium aluminium hydride or better with diborane.
Diborane does not easily

reduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc. Sodium borohydride does not reduce the carboxyl
group.
2. Decarboxylation:-
Carboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their

sodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of 3 : 1). The reaction is known as
decarboxylation.
Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation on electrolysis of their aqueous
solutions and form hydrocarbons having

twice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid. The reaction is known as Kolbe
electrolysis
Reaction on hydrocarbon:-
1. Halogenation:- Carboxylic acids having an α-hydrogen are halogenated at the α-position on
treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give α-
halocarboxylic acids. The reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.

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2. Ring substitution
Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions in which the carboxyl group acts as
a deactivating and meta-directing group. They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (because
the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst aluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the
carboxyl group). Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating industries.
Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR TERM -2

A. Write the structures of the following organic compound
1. Methanal
2. Ethanal
3. 2-Methylpropanal
4. 3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde
5. 2-Methoxypropanal
6. 3-Bromobenzaldehyde
7. Pentan-2-one
8. 2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one
9. 2-Methylcyclohexanone
10. 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one
11. 3-Hydroxybutanal
12. 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde
13. 4-Oxopentanal
14. Di-sec. butyl ketone
15. 4-Fluoroacetophenone
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 16. 3-Phenylpropanoic acid
17. 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid
18. 3-Methylbutanal
19. p-Nitropropiophenone
20. p-Methylbenzaldehyde
21. 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one
22. 4-Chloropentan-2-one
23. 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid
24. Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid
A-2 . Write The IUPAC names of the following ketones and Aldehydes.

A-3 . Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:

(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO (ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl (iii) CH3CH=CHCHO
(iv) CH3COCH2COCH3 (v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3 (vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH
(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p (viii) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3 (ix) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO (x) CH3(CH2)5CHO
(xi) Ph-CH=CH-CHO (xii) PhCOPh
B. ACCOUNT FOR THE FOLLOWING:
1. Aldehydes and Ketones have lower boiling point than alcohols.
2. Aldehydes are more reactive than Ketones towards Nucleophilic addition reaction
3. Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6 – tri methylcyclohexanone does not.
4. There are two – NH2 group in semi carbazide however only one is involved in the formation of semi
carbazones.
5. During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid
catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed as fast as it is formed.
6. Melting Point of an acid with even number of carbon atoms higher than those of its neighbours with
odd number of carbon atoms
7. It is necessary to control the pH during the reaction of aldehydes and ketones with ammonia
derivatives.
8. Formaldehyde does not take part in Aldol condensation.
9. Benzaldehyde gives a positive test with Tollens reagent but not with Fehling and Benedict’s solution.
10. Carboxylic acids do not give the characteristic reactions of carbonyl group.
11. Chloroacetic acid is stronger than acetic acid.
12. The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of
comparable molecular masses.
13. The lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,ethanal and propanone are
miscible with water in all proportions.
14. Would you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in nucleophilic addition
reactions than propanal.
15. Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of comparable
molecular masses.
16. Aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four carbon atoms are miscible in water.

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 17. Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols.
18. Although phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than carboxylate ion, carboxylic
acid is a stronger acid than phenol.
19. Electron withdrawing groups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids.
20. Electron donating groups decrease the acidity of carboxylic acids.
21. Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of acid strength.(i)CH 3CH2CH(Br)COOH,
CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,CH3CH2CH2COOH (ii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-
Dinitrobenzoic acid, 4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)
22. Which acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger?(i) CH 3CO2H or CH2FCO2H (ii)
CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H.
C. MECHANISM BASED QUESTIONS
1. Give mechanism for Nucleophilic addition reaction in carbonyl compounds.
2. Write the mechanism of reaction between actetaldehyde and HCN.
3. Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in nucleophilic addition
reactions.with reasons
• (i) Ethanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone.
• (ii) Benzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone.
• (iii) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone
D. Give a CHEMICAL TEST to distinguish between following pair of organic compounds
1. Propanal and Propanone
2. Acetophenone and Benzophenone
3. Phenol and Benzoic acid
4. Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate
5. Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one
6. Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone
7. Ethanal and Propanal
8. Benzaldehyde & Propanal
9. Acetone and Acetaldehyde
10. CH3CHO & CH3COCH3
11. C6H5CHO & CH3CHO
12. Acetaldehyde and Benzaldehyde
13. Ethanoic acid and Ethnoyl chloride
14. Methanoic acid and Ethanoic acid
15. Formic acid and Acetic acid
E. Write short notes on following :
1. Aldol Condensation
2. Cross Aldol Condensation
3. Cannizzaro Reaction
4. Clemmensen Reaction
5. Wolf Kishner Reaction
6. Rosenmund Reaction
7. Etard Reaction
8. Stephen Reaction
9. Gatterman-Koch reaction:
10. Ozonolysis
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11. Esterification
12. Decarboxylation
13. Hell Volhard Zelinsky
14. Acetylation

F. WORD PROBLEMS REACTION BASED

G. An organic compound A with molecular formula C8H16O2 was hydrolysed with sulphuric acid to give
a carboxylic acid B and alcohol C. Oxidation of C with chromic acid produced B. C on dehydration
gives but-1-ene.Write reactions involved.
H. An organic compound A which has a characteristic odour on treatment with NaOH forms two
compounds B and C. Compound B has a molecular formula C7H8O which on oxidation gives back
compound A. Compound C is sodium salt of acid. C when heated with sodalime yields an aromatic
hydrocarbon D. Deduce structures A-D .
I. A compound ‘X’ (C2H4O) on oxidation gives ‘Y’ (C2H4O2). ‘X’ undergoes haloform reaction. On
treatment with HCN ‘X’ forms a product ‘Z’ which on hydrolysis gives 2- hydroxy propanoic acid. (i)
Write down structures of ‘X’ and ‘Y’. (ii) Name the product when ‘X’ reacts with dil NaOH. (iii) Write
down the equations for the reactions involved.
J. .An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an orange-red precipitate with 2,4-
DNP reagent and gives yellow precipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium
hydroxide. It neither reduces Tollens’ or Fehlings’ reagent, nor does it decolourise bromine water or
Baeyer’s reagent. On drastic oxidation with chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having
molecular formula C7H6O2. Identify the compounds A and B and explain the reactions involved.
K. . An organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative, reduces
Tollens’ reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction. On vigorous oxidation, it gives 1,2-
benzenedicarboxylic acid. Identify the compound.

L. Write the reactions and the conditions involved in the conversion of:

1. Ethanal to 3-Hydroxybutanal
2. Ethanal to But-2-enal
3. Benzaldehyde to Toluene
4. Propanal to Propane
5. Acetone to Propane
6. Benzoyl chloride to Benzaldehyde
7. Acetyl chloride to Acetaldehyde
8. Toluene to Benzaldehyde
9. Ethanol to Ethanal
10. Benzyl chloride to benzyl alcohol
11. Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid
12. Acetophenone to 2-Phenyl -butan-2-ol
13. Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol
14. Ethanal to Butane-1,3-diol
15. Ethanal to But-2enoic acid
16. Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde
KALRA1977@GMAIL.COM MAHENDRA KALRA
23
 17. Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal
18. Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone
19. Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone

M. Complete the Following reactions:

1. Predict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with following reagents. (i)
PhMgBr and then H3O+ (ii)Tollens’ reagent (iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid (iv)Excess ethanol and
acid (v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid
2. Write the structures of products of the following reactions

3. Complete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products

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4. Predict the products of the following reactions:

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 CHEMISTRY SIMPLY THE BEST…………………ENJOY CHEMISTRY
AMINES
1. Nomenclature & Classification of Amines : Amines are alkyl / aryl derivatives of ammonia. In amines
nitrogen atom is sp3 hybridised and contains one lone pair.
Formula IUPAC Name Suffix Prefix
R – NH2 Alkanamine amine amino

Primary amine (10) Secondary amine (20) Tertiary amine (30)

One- H atom is replaced by R/Ar. Two-H atom is Three-H atom is replaced
replaced by R/Ar. by R/Ar.

IUPAC Name: -
Aliphatic amine: Alkanamines
Aromatic amine:
Benzenamine/Aniline
CH3-NH2 Methanamine CH3-NH- CH3 (CH3)3N
CH3-CH- CH3 N- N, N-
NH2 Propan-2-amine Methylmethanamine dimethylmethanamine
CH3-NH- CH2- CH3
N-Methylethanamine
CH3 - CH2-NH- CH2- CH3
Aniline/benzenamine N-Ethylethanamine N, N-
Dimethylbenzenamine
Answer the following
1. Draw the structure of : (i)Methanamine (ii)Ethanamine (iii)N methylethanamine (iv)N,N-
dimethylethanamine (v)N-ethyl N-methyl ethanamine (vi)Aniline (vii)N-methylaniline (viii)Benzylamine
(ix)N-methyl Propane -2-amine
2. Write IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,secondary and tertiary
amines. (a) (i)CH3CH2NH2 (ii)CH3CH2NH CH3 (iii)CH3CH2N (CH3)2 (iv) (CH3)2CHNH2 (v) CH3NHCH(CH3)2
(vi)(CH3)3CNH2 (vii) C6H5NHCH3 (viii)(CH3CH2)2NCH3
(b) (i) (CH3)2CHNH2 (ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2 (iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2 (iv) (CH3)3CNH2 (v) C6H5NHCH3 (vi)
(CH3CH2)2NCH3 (vii) m–BrC6H4NH2
3. Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular formula, C4H11N
PREPARATION OF AMINES
1. Reduction of Nitro Compounds gives aliphatic
and aromatic primary amines. (Reducing
Agents): -
• Hydrogen and nickel/ palladium or platinum.
• Iron scrap and hydrochloric acid (Fe + HCl).
• Tin and hydrochloric acid (Sn + HCl).
2. Ammonolysis of alkyl halides: -
Reagent: Ethanolic solution of ammonia.
Disadvantage: Mixture of amines formed.
3. Reduction of nitriles
Reducing agents: - LiAlH4/Catalytic
hydrogenation.
4. Reduction of Amides:

MAHENDRA KALRA ………..9462305605……Chemistry simply the best

 5. Hoffmann bromamide degradation Reaction: An amide is heated with Bromine in aq. solution
of NaOH/KOH gives primary amine.

The amine formed contains one carbon less than that present in the amide.
6. Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis: Only aliphatic
primary amines are prepared by this method.
Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared
because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic
substitution with the anion formed by phthalimide.

Answer the following

1. Write following Name reactions : (a) Hofmann’s bromamide reaction (b) Ammonolysis (c)Gabriel
phthalimide synthesis
2. Write chemical equations for the following reactions: (i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl. (ii)
Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed with two moles of CH3Cl.
2. Write chemical equations for the following conversions (i) Chloroethane to Propane-1-amine (ii)Benzyl
chloride to 2-phenylethanamine
3. Write structures and IUPAC names of (i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide
reaction. (ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide.
4. Why Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines.
5. Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide synthesis. explain

Physical properties of Amines

1. Physical State : The lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour. Primary amines with three or
more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are solid. Aniline and other arylamines are usually
colourless but get coloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation.
2. Solubility in water :
• Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
• solubility decreases with increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the hydrophobic
alkyl part. Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water.
• Alcohols are more polar than amines and form stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines
3. Primary and secondary amines have intermolecular association due to hydrogen bonding. This
intermolecular association is more in primary amines than in secondary amines. Tertiary amines do not
have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen atom available for hydrogen bond
formation Boiling Point : 30 <20<10 Boiling point: Alkane < Amine < Alcohol
Answer the following
Give reasons
1. Primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary
2. Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not.
3. Arrange the following in increasing order of:
a. C2H5NH2, C2H5OH, (CH3)3N (boiling point)
b. C2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2 (boiling point)
c. C6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2. (solubility in water)

Chemical Properties of Amines

1. Basic character of amines
• Amines are Lewis bases due to presence of lone pair.
• Larger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the base.

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 • Aliphatic amines are stronger base than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups
• NH3 < 10 < 20 < 30 (gas phase) (due to +I effect)
• NH3< C2H5NH2< (C2H5 )3N<(C2H5)2NH (aqueous phase)
• It is the combination of electron releasing nature of alkyl group, H-bonding and steric factors determine
the stability of ammonium cations formed in solution therefore Et2 NH  Et3 N  EtNH 2 is order of Kb
• NH3 < (CH3 )3N <CH3NH2 < (CH3 )2NH (aqueous phase)
• Aromatic amines are weaker bases than ammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl
group.
• Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than aromatic amines. because in aliphatic amines electron
releasing group is present, and in aniline, the lone pair of electron of nitrogen atom is involved in
resonance with benzene ring hence is not easily available for donation
Answer the following
(a) Give reasons
1. Ammonia are basic in nature .
2. Amines are basic in nature.
3. Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia.
4. The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the order: Tertiary amine > Secondary
amine > Primary amine > NH3.
5. The order of basicity of amines is not regular in the aqueous state.
6. Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than aromatic amines.
7. pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine
8. Aromatic amines are weaker bases than ammonia.
9. The observed Kb order Et2 NH  Et3N EtNH2> NH3 OR (C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3in
aqueous solution .where Et is ethyl.
10. The observed Kb order Me2 NH  MeNH2 Me3N > NH3 OR (CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3 in
aqueous solution .where Me is Methyl
(b) Arrange the following in increasing order of
1. CH3NH2 (CH3)2NH (CH3)3N (basic strength in aqueous phase)
2. (C2H5)3N, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH (basic strength in aqueous phase)
3. C2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2 (pKb values)
4. Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine(basic strength)
5. C6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5) 2NH, NH3(basic strength in aqueous phase)
6. C2H5NH2, (C2H5) 2NH, (C2H5) 3N,NH3 (basic strength)
7. C2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5) 2NH, C6H5NH2(basic strength)
8. C6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5) 2NH,CH3NH2(basic strength)
2. Carbylamine reaction (Isocyanide Test) : Primary amines react with chloroform and KOH give
isocyanides (Carbylamines) which has unpleasent smell (foul smell).
Secondary and tertiary amines do not show this
reaction.
It is used as a test for primary amines.
3. Acetylation: (replacement of H-atom of –NH2 />N–H group by the acyl group).
(C2H5)2NH + CH3COCl → CH3CON(C2H5)2 + HCl
4. Benzoylation: (replacement of H-atom of –NH2 />N–H group by the benzoyl group).
CH3NH2 + C6H5COCl →C6H5 CONH-CH3 + HCl
5. Reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2)
• Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic diazonium salts (unstable)
which liberate nitrogen gas and alcohols.
•

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 • Aromatic amines at low temperatures (273-278 K) forms diazonium salts.

6. Diazotization : The reaction of aniline with nitrous acid at 273-278K. Nitrous acid is produced in the
reaction mixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid. The conversion of primary
aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known as diazotisation.

7. Reaction with Benzenesulphonyl chloride (Hinsberg's test) (C6H5SO2Cl)

Primary Amine Secondary Amine Tertiary Amine
Pramiry amines form Secondary amines form Tertiary amines do
N-alkylbenzenesulphonamide N, N-dialkylbenzenesulphonamide not react with
which is soluble in alkali due to which is not soluble in alkali due to Hinsberg reagent.
presence of acidic hydrogen at absence of hydrogen atom at N-
N-atom. atom.

Important note: Now day’s benzenesulphonyl chloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride.

8. Electrophilic substitution: Aniline is a resonance hybrid of five structures.Ortho- and para-positions to
the –NH2 group become centres of high electron density. Thus –NH2 group is ortho and para directing
and a powerful activating group
(a) Bromination

(b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation products in addition to the nitro
derivatives. Moreover, in the strongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the anilinium ion
which is meta directing. That is why besides the ortho and para derivatives, significant amount of
meta derivative is also formed.

Note : Aniline is converted into acetanilide by acetylation with acetic anhydride and then the desired
substitution is carried out followed by hydrolysis the lone pair on nitrogen is less available for donation to
benzene ring by resonance. Therefore, activating effect of –NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group.
(c) Sulphonation

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 (d) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and acetylation) due to salt formation
with aluminium chloride, the Lewis acid, which is used as a catalyst
Answer the following
A. Give reasons
1. Although amino group is o– and p– directing in aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions, aniline on nitration
gives a substantial amount of m-nitroaniline.
2. Direct nitration of aniline is not carried out.
3. Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction.
4. NH2 group of aniline acetylated is before carrying out nitration.
5. Acetylation of —NH2 group of aniline reduce its activating effect
6. Electrophilic substitution in aromatic amines takes place more readily than benzene.
7. Amines are less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses .
8. Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated ferric oxide
9. Aniline is soluble in aqueous HCl .
10. MeNH2 is stronger base than MeOH.
11. CH3CONH2 is a weaker base than CH3CH2NH2
B. Describe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Also write chemical
equations of the reactions involved
C. Give a CHEMICAL TEST to distinguish between following pair of organic compounds
1. Methylamine and dimethylamine
2. Ethylamine and aniline
3. Aniline and benzylamine
4. Aniline and N-methylaniline
5. N-methyl Propane -2-amine and N-ethyl N-methyl ethanamine
6. Secondary and tertiary amines
7. 10,20,& 30 Amines
8. C6H5NH2 & C6H5NHCH3
D. WRITE FOLLOWING NAME REACTIONS :
1. Carbylamine reaction
2. Diazotisation
3. Acetylation
4. Benzoylation
E. An aromatic compound A on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating forms compound B which on
heating with Br2 and KOH forms compound C of molecular formula C6H7N .Write the structures and IUPAC
names of compounds A,B,C
F. Write the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous acid.
G. Write chemical equations for the following conversions:
1. CH3–CH2–Cl into CH3–CH2–CH2–NH2 19. Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline
2. C6H5–CH2–Cl into C6H5–CH2–CH2–NH2 20. Aniline to p-bromoaniline
3. Benzene into aniline 21. Benzamide to toluene
4. Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline 22. Aniline to benzyl alcohol
5. Cl–(CH2)4–Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine
6. Ethanoic acid into methanamine
7. Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane
8. Methanol to ethanoic acid
9. Ethanamine into methanamine
10. Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid
11. Methanamine into ethanamine
12. Nitromethane into dimethylamine
13. Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid
14. Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid
15. Benzene to m-bromophenol
16. Benzoic acid to aniline
17. Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene
18. Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine
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 H. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING REACTIONS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16. CH3CN A B

17. CH3COOH A B C
DIAZONIUM SALTS
1. Diazotisation(Aniline to Benzenediazonium chloride,BDC)

2. Sandmeyers reaction:The Cl–, Br– and CN– nucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in
the presence of Cu(I) ion[cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide or cuprous cyanide]

.
3. Gatterman reaction:Chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the benzene ring by treating the
diazonium salt solution with corresponding halogen acid in the presence of copper powder

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4. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Chlorobenzene or Bromobenzene

5. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Benzonitrile

6. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Iodobenzene

7. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Flurorobenzene

8. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Benzene

9. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Phenol

10. Benzenediazonium chloride(BDC) to Benzoic acid

11. Benzenediazoniumchloride to Nitrobenzene

12. Coupling reaction:Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its
para position is coupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene.. Similarly the reaction
of diazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene.

Azo dye test

• Aniline & its derivative give this test.
• Reagent: (NaNO2 + HCl )[Nitrous acid] followed by  -napthol
• Test: Aniline on reaction with NaNO2 + HCl at 273-278 K gives BDC which forms a brilliant orange
dye with  -napthol in sodium hydroxide.

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 • Reaction:
C6H5-NH2 + NaNO2 + HCl ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ C6H5-N+2 Cl¯ ⎯⎯
273 -278K
⎯⎯→ orange Azo dye
- napthol

Answer the following

1. Give the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:

2. Complete the following reactions:

Word problems based on reactions

i) An aromatic compound A on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating forms compound B which on heating
with Br2 and KOH forms compound C of molecular formula C6H7N .Write the structures and IUPAC names of
compounds A,B,C. Answer Since C is formed by Hoffmann Bromamide reaction, it is a primary amine So
Structure is C6H5 NH2 ,B is C6H5 CO NH2 A is carboxylic acid C6H5COOH.
ii) A compound A has the molecular formula C7H7NO.On treatment with Br2 and NaOH it gives B. B gives a foul
smelling substance C on treatment with CHCl3 and KOH. B on treatment with NaNO2 and HCl at 00C and mixing
with alkaline phenol gives a red dye D. Identify A to D. Answer-13: A is benzamide B is Aniline , C is phenyl
isocyanide D is p- Hydroxy azobenzene
iii) A compound A has the molecular formula C7H7NO. On heating with P2O5 gives B C7H5N. B on hydrolysis gives
an acid C C7H6O2. B on reduction with Na/C2H5OH gives D C7H9N a basic compound. D on treatment with
NaNO2 and HCl evolves N2 forming E C7H8O . This on oxidation gives C. C is also formed on heating A with
HCl. Identify A to E. Answer: A-Benzamide ,B- Phenyl cyanide C - benzoic acid D- Benzylamine E –
Benzylalcohol
iv) A compound X having molecular formula C3H7NO reacts with Br2 in presence of KOH to give another compound
Y .The Compound Y reacts with HNO2 to form ethanol and N2 gas .Identify the compounds X and Y and write the
reactions involved. Answer :X=CH3CH2CONH2 Y= CH3CH2NH2
v) A compound A with molecular formula C2H3Cl on treatment with AgCN gives two isomeric compounds of
unequal amounts with the molecular formula C3H3N.The minor of these two products on complete reduction with
H2 in the presence nickel gives a compound B with molecular formula C3H9N. Deduce the structures of A,B,& C
and write the reactions involved. Answer :A=CH3CH2Cl ,On reaction with AgCN it gives CH3CH2CN (Minor)
& CH3CH2NC (Major) B= CH3CH2CH2NH2

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UNIT 14: BIOMOLECULES (7 Marks)

TOPIC: CARBOHYDRATES
1. CARBOHYDRATES :It is defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the
compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis. Most of them have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y,
and were considered as hydrates of carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived. For
example, the molecular formula of glucose (C 6H12O6) fits into this general formula, C6(H2O)6. But all
the compounds which fit into this formula may not be classified as carbohydrates. Acetic acid
(CH3COOH) fits into this general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES: Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on
hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into following three groups.
(a) MONOSACCHARIDES: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to
occur in nature. Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
(b) OLIGOSACCHARIDES: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are
called oligosaccharides. They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,
etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis. Amongst these the
most common are disaccharides. The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a
disaccharide may be same or different. For example,
• Sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose and fructose.
• Maltose on hydrolysis gives two molecules of glucose only.
• Lactose on hydrolysis gives galactose and glucose.
(c) POLYSACCHARIDES: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
are called polysaccharides. Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also called non-sugars.
3. REDUCING SUGARS & NON-REDUCING SUGARS
• All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as
reducing sugars.
• All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars .
• In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic groups
are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose.
• On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups are free, are called reducing
sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
4. MONOSACCHARIDES: Monosaccharides can classified on the basis of number of carbon atoms and
the functional group present in them. If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group, it is known as
an aldose and if it contains a keto group, it is known as a ketose.
5. GLUCOSE
(a) Preparation of Glucose

(i) From sucrose (Cane sugar):

(ii) From starch:

(b) STRUCTURE & REACTIONS OF GLUCOSE: Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose.
It is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose.
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(i) Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.

(ii) Reaction with HI: On prolonged heating with

HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the
six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain

(iii)Reaction with Hydroxylamine : Glucose reacts

with hydroxylamine to form an oxime.
Reaction with HCN (Hydrogen Cyanide):: Glucose reacts with
hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin.
These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group
(>C = 0) in glucose.

(iv) Reaction with Bromine water (Br2 ):Glucose gets oxidised

to six carbon carboxylic acid (Gluconic acid) on reaction
with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water. This
indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an
aldehydic group.
(v) Reaction with Acetic anhydride: Acetylation of glucose
with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which
confirms the presence of five –OH groups. Since it
exists as a stable compound, five –OH groups should be
attached o different carbon atoms.

(vi) Reaction with nitric acid HNO3 : On oxidation with nitric

acid, glucose yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This
indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in
glucose.

• Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose. ‘D’ before the name of glucose

represents the configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents dextrorotatory nature
of the molecule.
• The structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the following
reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure.
(i) Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2,4-DNP test,
Schiff’s test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product
with NaHSO3.
(ii) The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the
absence of free —CHO group.
(iii) Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as α and β. The α-form of
glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K
while the β-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and saturated aqueous
solution at 371 K. This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure (I) for
glucose.

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ANOMERS OF GLUCOSE: The two cyclic hemiacetal

forms of glucose differ only in the configuration of
the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon
(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such
isomers, i.e., α-form and β-form, are called
anomers.

PYRANOSE STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE: The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose
structure (α– or β–), in analogy with pyran. Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom and
five carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is more correctly represented by Haworth
structure as given below.

6. Fructose Fructose is an important ketohexose. It is obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of
disaccharide, sucrose. Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and on the basis of its
reactions it was found to contain a ketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six carbons in
straight chain as in the case of glucose. It belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound. It is
appropriately written as D-(–)-fructose.
Structure of Fructose

7. DISACCHARIDES & GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE Disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute acids or enzymes
yield two molecules of either the same or different monosaccharides.The two monosaccharides are
joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between
two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called Glycosidic Linkage
8. SUCROSE: sucrose on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose.

• These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of α-glucose and C2
of β-fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond
formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar.

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• Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose.
Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°), the
mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation,
from dextro (+) to laevo (–) and the product is named
as INVERT SUGAR.
9. MALTOSE: on hydrolysis gives two α-D-glucose units in
which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another
glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be
produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it
shows reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.

10. . LACTOSE (milk sugar): on hydrolysis gives β-D-galactose

and β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose
and C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.

11. POLYSACCHARIDES contain a large number of

monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic
linkages.
12. STARCH: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is a polymer of α-glucose and consists
of two components— Amylose and Amylopectin.
• Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. Chemically
amylose is a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D-(+)-glucose units held by C1– C4
glycosidic linkage.
• Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80- 85% of starch. It is a branched
chain polymer of α-D-glucose. units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage
whereas branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage.
13. CELLULOSE: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in
plant kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain
polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage between C1
of one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
14. GLYCOGEN: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal
starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present
in liver, muscles and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to
glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
15. IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES:.
• Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals. They form a major portion of
our food.
• Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic
system of medicine.
• Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
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• Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose.

• We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose
in the form of cotton fibre.
• They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and
breweries.Carbohydrates are found in biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids.
(QUESTIONS RELATED TO CARBOHYDRATES)
1. ●Define carbohydrates.
2. How are carbohydrates classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis?
3. What are reducing and non reducing sugars? Give example of each.
4. How is Glucose prepared? Write the reactions when D-Glucose reacts with following:
(a)Hydrocyanicacid, HCN (b) acetic anhydride (c) Tollensreagent (d)HI (e)ConcHNO3
(f)PhenylHydrazine (g) Hydroxlamime (h)Bromine
5. Write the reaction which show that all the carbon atoms in glucose are linked in a straight chain.
6. How do you explain the presence of an aldehydic group in a glucose molecule?
7. How do you explain the presence of five —OH groups in glucose molecule?
8. Under what conditions glucose is converted to gluconic and saccharic acid?
9. Explain Pyranose structure of glucose.
10. Write such reactions & facts of Glucose which cannot be explained by its open chain structure.
11. What is the basic structural difference Glucose and Fructose?
12. Despite having an aldehyde group glucose does not give 2, 4 - DNP test. What does this indicate?
13. What is the significance of D and (+) in D(+)-glucose ?
14. Explain the structure of Sucrose.
15. Classify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides.Ribose,2 deoxyribose, maltose,
galactose, fructose and lactose.
16. Monosaccharides contain carbonyl group hence are classified, as aldose or ketose. The number of
carbon atoms present in the monosaccharide molecule are also considered for classification. In which
class of monosaccharide will you place fructose?
17. What are the hydrolysis products of (a) Sucrose. (b) Lactose (c)Maltose.
18. Name the sugar present in milk. How many monosaccharide units are present in it? What are such
oligosaccharides called?
19. Glucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or benzene are insoluble in water. Explain
20. How do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the pentaacetate of D-glucose?
21. Write two main functions of carbohydrates in plants.
22. What do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage?
23. Name the linkage connecting monosaccharide units in polysaccharides.
24. Which sugar is called invert sugar?
25. What is meant by Invert Sugar.
26. Sucrose is dextrorotatory but the mixture obtained after hydrolysis is laevorotatory. Explain.
27. What is glycogen? How is it different from starch?
28. What is the basic structural difference starch and cellulose?
29. Name the carbohydrates that are used as storage molecules in plants
30. Name the carbohydrates that are used as storage molecules in animals,
31. name the carbohydrate which is present in wood or in the fibre of cotton cloth.
32. Define the term Anomers.
33. What is essentially the difference between the α- form of glucose & β- form of glucose?
34. ●An optically active compound having molecular formula C6H12O6 is found in two isomeric forms

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(A) and (B) in nature. When (A) and (B) are dissolved in water they show the following equilibrium.
(A) ↔ Equilibrium mixture ↔ (B)
1110 52.20 19.20
(i) What are such isomers called? (ii) Can they be called enantiomers? Justify your answer
(iii) Draw the cyclic structure of isomer (A)
35. Name the two components of starch. How do they differ from each other structurally?
36. Which of the two components of starch is water soluble?
TOPIC: PROTEINS
1. PROTEINS: are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. Chief sources of proteins are
milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc. They occur in every part of the body and form the
fundamental basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for growth and
maintenance of body. The word protein is derived from Greek word, “proteios” which means primary
or of prime importance. All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
2. α-AMINO ACIDS :
➢ All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids. Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–
COOH) functional groups. Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter symbol,
sometimes one letter symbol is also used. For example :

➢ Glycine (where R is H) Gly (G)

➢ Alanine (where R is CH3) Ala (A)
➢ Valine* (H3C)2CH- Val (V)
➢ Leucine* ( where R is (H3C)2CH-CH2-) Leu (L)
➢ Phenylalanine* (where R is C6H5-CH2-) Phe (F)
➢ Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino
and carboxyl groups in their molecule. Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it
neutral; more number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more carboxyl groups as
compared to amino groups makes it acidic.
➢ NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS : The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are
known as nonessential amino acids. e.g Glycine , Alanine etc.
➢ ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS : Those which cannot be synthesised in the body and must be obtained
through diet, are known as essential amino acids .e.g. Valine*, Leucine*, Phenylalanine* etc.
3. PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS: Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids. These are water-
soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This
behaviour is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in
the same molecule.
4. ZWITTER ION: In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group
can lose a proton and amino group can accept a proton,
giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is
neutral but contains both positive and negative
charges. In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show
amphoteric behaviour as they react both with acids and
bases.

5. ISOELECTRIC POINT: The pH at which the amino acid molecule has no net charge & do not migrate
towards any electrode is called its Isoelectric point.
6. PEPTIDE BOND : peptide linkage is an amide formed between
–COOH group and –NH2 group. The bond formed between two
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amino acids by the elimination of a water molecule is called a peptide linkage or bond(–CO–NH–.)
For example, when carboxyl group of glycine combines with the amino group of alanine we get a
dipeptide, glycylalanine.
A dipeptide contains two amino acids linked by one peptide
Linkages , A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide linkages.When the number
of such amino acids is more than ten, then the products are called polypeptides. A polypeptide with
more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called a
protein.
7. GLOBULAR PROTEINS & FIBROUS PROTEINS : Proteins can be classified into two types (Globular
Proteins & fibrous proteins) on the basis of their molecular shape.
Globular proteins Fibrous proteins
This structure results when the When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held
chains of polypeptides coil together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre– like
around to give a spherical structure is formed They can be stretched and contracted like
shape. a thread
usually soluble in water Insoluble in water
Example : Insulin Examples are
and albumins keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in
muscles)
8. Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide
in a protein has amino acids linked with each other in a specific sequence and it is this sequence of
amino acids that is said to be the primary structure of that protein. The primary structure of a protein
refers to the number and sequence of the amino acids in its polypeptide chains. Any change in this
primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein.
9. Secondary structure of proteins:( α-helix and β-pleated sheet structure): The secondary structure of
protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can exist. It gives information: (a) about
the manner in which the protein chain is folded and bent;(b) about the nature of the bonds which
stabilise this structure. They are found to exist in two different types of structures viz. α-helix and β-
pleated sheet structure.
• α-Helix : This structure is formed when the chain of α -amino acids coils as a right handed
screw (called α -helix) because of the formation of hydrogen bonds between amide groups of
the same peptide chain, i.e., NH group in one unit is linked to carbonyl oxygen of the third unit
by hydrogen bonding. This hydrogen bonding between different units is responsible for holding
helix in a position. It is stablised by intramolecular hydrogen bonding. Wool and hair have α -
helix structure.
• In β-structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension and then laid
side by side which are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure
resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as β-pleated sheet. Silk has a
beta pleated structure.
10. TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS: The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of
the polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of the secondary structure. It gives rise to two major
molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular. The main forces which stabilise the 2° and 3° structures of
proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction.
11. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more
polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to
each other is known as quaternary structure

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12. DENATURATION OF PROTEINS: Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional
structure and biological activity is called a native protein. When a protein in its native form, is
subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the
hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its
biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein. During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are
destroyed but 1º structure remains intact. For example : the heating of white of an egg (water
soluble) gives a hard and rubbery insoluble mass (coagulation of egg white on boiling) ,curdling of milk
which is caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.
QUESTIONS RELATED TO PROTEINS
1. Draw the structure of Glycine, Alanine, and Phenylalanine.
2. Amino acids may be acidic ,alkaline or neutral.How does this happen.
3. ●What are essential and non essential amino acids? Give two examples of each type.
4. ●Write a note on zwitter ion and isoelectric point.
5. Amino acids behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. Explain
6. What do you understand by the term Peptide linkage&Poly Peptide linkage?
7. Write the name of linkage joining two amino acids.
8. ●Distinguish between the following: (a)Essential &Nonessential amino acids (b) Fibrous &Globular
proteins(c) -helix and -pleated sheet proteins
9. Write a note on: (a)Primary structure of proteins (b) secondary structure of proteins
10. What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins?
11. ●What type of bonding helps in stabilizing the -helix structure of proteins
12. ●How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids?
13. What is Denaturation of proteins
14. ●What is the biological effect of Denaturation on the structure of proteins?
15. Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg.
16. Coagulation of egg white on boiling is an example of denaturation of protein. Explain it in terms of
structural changes.
17. The melting point and solubility in water of amino acids are generally higher than that of the
corresponding haloacids.Explain.
18. Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?
19. What changes occur in the nature of egg proteins on boiling?
20. Name the type of bonding which stabilizes -helix structure of proteins.
21. Name the type of bonding which stabilizes -pleated sheet proteins .
22. Name the type of bonding which stabilizes tertiary structure of proteins.
23. An optically active amino acid (A) can exist in three forms depending on the pH of the medium. If the
molecular formula of (A) is C3H7NO2 write
(i) Structure of compound (A) in aqueous medium. What are such ion called?
(ii) In which medium will the cationic form of compound (A) exist?
(iii) In alkaline medium, towards which electrode will the compound (A)
migrate in electric field?
TOPIC : VITAMINS
1. Vitamins are Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
2. Classification of Vitamins
• Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this
group. These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.

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• Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped
together. Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted
in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body
3. Hypervitaminosis: Excess intake of vitamins.
4. Avitaminosis: Condition of vitamin deficiency.
5. Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their Deficiency Diseases
S Name of Source Deficiency disease
No. vitamin
1 Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia i.e cornea hardening of eye , Night
butter and milk blindness
2 Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite, retarded growth)system)
(thiamine) vegetables and cereals
3 Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of mouth and lips),
(riboflavin) Kidney digestive disorders and burning sensation of the skin.
4 Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions(Body muscles contract and relax rapidly &
(pyridoxine) cereals and grams repeatedly resulting in uncontrolled actions of body.)
5 Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient in
Curd haemoglobin)
6 Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables
7 Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities in children) and osteomalacia
fish and egg yolk (soft bones and joint pain in adults)
8 Vitamin E Vegetable oils like Sterility, Increased fragility of RBCs and muscular
wheat Weakness
germ oil, sunflower oil,
etc.
9 Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting ,time Haemorrhagic conditions
QUESTION RELATED TO VITAMIN
1. Define vitamins. How are vitamins classified?
2. Name the deficiency diseases caused due to lack of vitamin A, C, E, B 1, B2, B6 , B12 E &K.
3. Give the main sources of vitamin A, C, E, B1, B2,, B6 , B12 E &K.
4. Write the chemical name of vitamin A, C, E, B1, B2,, B6 , B12 E &K.
5. Write the name of Vitamin responsible for the : (a) Pernicious anaemia (b) Increased blood clotting
time(c) Xerophthalmia(d) Rickets (e) Muscular weakness (f) Night blindness (g) Beri Beri(h) Bleeding
gums (i) Osteomalacia
6. Which of the following B group vitamins can be stored in our body? Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2 ,Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
7. Except for vitamin B12, all other vitamins of group B, should be supplied regularly in diet. Why?
8. Why cannot Vitamin C be stored in our body?
9. Why Vitamin B & C essential for us.
TOPIC : ENZYMES &NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. Enzymes are Biocatalyst produced by living cells which catalysis the biological reactions. Enzymes are
mainly globular proteins. They are very specific in nature. They are needed in very small quantity.The
various steps involve in the enzyme catalyzed reaction are as follows:--
• Binding of the enzymes (E) to substrate (S) to form a complex.
E + S → ES (complex)
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• Product formation in the complex :E S → E P

• Release of product from the complex.: E P → E + P
2. NUCLEIC ACIDS: Nucleus of a living cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also
called heredity.The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are called chromosomes
which are made up of proteins and another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids. These are
mainly of two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Since nucleic acids
are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so they are also called polynucleotides.
3. Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing
heterocyclic compounds (called bases).
4. DNA (DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACIDS) & RNA (RIBOSE NUCLEIC ACIDS)
DNA RNA
It contains β-D-2-deoxyribose sugar. It Contains β-D-ribose sugar.
It Contains adenine (A), guanine (G), It Contains adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
cytosine (C) and thymine (T) as bases. uracil (U). as bases
It has double helix structure It has single helix structure
It Can replicate It Can not replicate
It is responsible for inheritance of character It is responsible for protein synthesis.
It is present in the nucleus cell. It is present in the cytoplasm of the cell.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
5. NUCLEOSIDES: A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1’ position of
sugar is known as nucleoside
Base + Sugar → Nucleosides

6. NUCLEOTIDES : When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5′-

position of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide. Base + Sugar +
phosphoric acid → Nucleotides.
7. PHOSPHODIESTER LINKAGE : Nucleotides are joined together by
phosphodiester linkage between 5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose
sugar.
10. PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEIC ACID : Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the
chain is of a nucleic acid is called its primary structure.
11. SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEIC ACID :
• James Watson and Francis Crick gave a double strand helix structure for DNA .Two nucleic acid chains
are wound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. The two
strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between specific
pairs of bases. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen
bonds with guanine.
• .In secondary structure of RNA, helices are present which are only single stranded. Sometimes they
fold back on themselves to form a double helix structure. RNA molecules are of three types and they
perform different functions.
12. DIFFERENT TYPES OF RNA : RNA molecules are of three types and they perform different functions.
They are named as messengerRNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer RNA (t-RNA).
13. DNA FINGERPRINTING:It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the
tips of the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be altered by
surgery. A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding this is
called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known treatment.
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DNA fingerprinting is now used (i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals. (ii) to
determine paternity of an individual. (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the
DNA’s of parents or children. (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.
Questions related to Enzymes & Nucleic acids
1. ●Define Enzymes. Explain the mechanism of Enzyme action
2. What are biocatalysts? Give an example.
3. Define Nucleic acids. How are they classified? Mention their two important sources.
4. Write the full forms of DNA and RNA.
5. ●Write the important differences between DNA and RNA.
6. Name the four bases present in RNA.
7. Of the two bases named below which one is present in RNA and which one is present in DNA? (i)
Thymine (ii) Uracil
8. Out of the two bases Thymine & Uracil which one is present in DNA.
9. Out of the four bases name those which are common to both DNA
10. Which of the following are purine bases?Guanine,AdenineThymine & Uracil
11. What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
12. What is phosphodiester linkage.
13. Which moieties of nucleosides are involved in the formation of phosphodiester linkages present in
dinucleotides?
14. The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain
15. What are different types of RNA molecules which perform different functions.?
16. What products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing thymine is hydrolysed?
17. When RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different bases obtained.
What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA?
18. ●Write a note on DNA fingerprinting.
TOPIC : HORMONES
1. Hormones: Hormones are biomolecules that are produced in the ductless (endocrine) glands and
transported by the bloodstream to various parts of the body where they control various metabolic
processes. These are required in minute amounts and, unlike fats and carbohydrates, are not stored
in the body but are constantly produced.

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