[ 1 ]

Organiser:

Presenter:
Amrit Pal Singh, CEng MIMechE
Email: aps.piping@gmail.com

Introduction to Piping Stress Analysis

The objective of piping stress analysis is to ensure safety against failure of the
Piping system by verifying the structural integrity against any loading conditions
expected to occur during the lifetime of the system.

So a stress Analyst's basic function to :-

(a) Decide for which governing loading
conditions what amount of flexibility must be
provided in the layout.

(1)Sustained
(2)Thermal.
(3)Occasional.
(4)Internal & External forces.
(5)Imposed displacements.
(6)Loads on connecting Equipment
(7)Loads on Supports & Structure.
(8)Leakage at joints.
(9)Vibration.
(10)Overstress & fatigue.
 [ 2 ]
Objectives (cont.)

(b) To decide best method and

establish that the required flexibility has
been provided in the layout :-

(1)Simplified methods
e.g., Accepting the layout on the basis of
his past experience.
(2) Approximate method.
e.g., Simple cantilever Method, Guided
Cantilever Method, Nomographs,
Manual Calculations.
(3) Performing a comprehensive analysis.
e.g., Computer Analysis.

Objectives (cont.)

(c) Other factors of considerations are:

• To Prevent:
– Excessive maintenance
– Operations problems
– Damage to Pipes, component & equipment

• To accommodate thermal Movement and prevent pipe clash during operation

or failure.

• Considers layout, support, restraint

• Anticipates stresses and ensures it within allowable limits :

– Elevated design temperatures + Increases pipe thermal stress and
reaction loads + Reduces material strength
– Pipe movement
– Supports and restraints

• Evaluates loads imposed on equipment

• Determines imposed loads on piping system and associated structures

• Loads compared to industry standards

– Based on tables
– Calculated
Criteria for critical lines (sample) [ 3 ]

Critical Line-list (contd)

 Information Required & Methodical Approach [ 4 ]

Projects Stress
Plan / Schedule Stress criteria, Critical Line list
guidelines & procedure & Stress Index

Process
P&ID

Line list Identify the potential Relate each of these

loads that the piping loads to the stresses
Process datasheets system would encounter and strains developed.
during the life of the Define the load cases:
Static / Dynamic
plant.
Mechanical
Equipment Decide the allowable
Datasheets & drawings limits, the system can
withstand without
failure.
Vendor information,
Allowable Nozzle Loads
Actual Nozzle &
Equipment Loads Ensure that the stresses
& loads are within the
CSA safe limits.
Civil & Structural Piping loads on
drawings Structure
Stress Reports To Client
Spectrum wind & other Specialty items
Geo-Technical data Specification

Stress Sketches / Isometric sign off To Construction

Piping Layout comments

Plot Plan, Layout,

PDMS model Supports

Isometrics Support
Standards
Piping Specifications
Speciality items
Support selection Support design
Requisitioning

Stress Isometrics (sample)

Plant
coordinates

Boundary
Node conditions
numbers
Loads for
Structure design
Excessive
displacements

Support
marking

Gap / Sliding plate

requirements
Design
conditions

Actual &
Allowable Stress

Notes
Process Coordinate Calculation
conditions system details
 Stress Isometrics (sample) [ 5 ]

Calculation
Continuation until
fixed anchor location

Pipe Span Criteria

The allowable pipe span/spacing depends on the following:

1. Pipe size

2. Pipe configuration

3. Stiffness of the Pipe

4. Weight of the Contents

5. Weight of the Insulation

6. Location of the heavy piping specialties, valves etc.

7. Prevent Pipe vibration and thereby fatigue.

8. Allowable Stress of Pipe Material at Design Temperature.

9. Allowable Sag for appearance, prevent fluid accumulation, adequate

drainage and Restraints.
 [ 6 ]
Spans limited by Stress & Displacement
Span cases Reactions Moments Displacement

wL wL2 5wL4
A R MC d
2 384EI
L 8

w
wL wL2 wL4
B R ME d
2 12 384EI
L

w
Where,
C wL wL2 2.5wL4 L = Length between two
R MC d
2 9.3 384EI supports, in
L L L L
w = Total weight of the pipe
per unit length, lb/in
F
R = Reaction
M = Bending moment, in-lb
R F ME Fb Fb2 3L  b
D d (End, Center, Load)
b a 6EI F = Concentric load, lb
L

w
5wL wL2 wL4
E R ME d
8 8 185E.I
L

F
Fm1m2
d
Fb Fab 27EIL
F R ML
b a L L m1 ab a  2b
L
m2 3a a  2b

Spans and Location of supports (as per BS 3974)

Where,
fmax = 25 N/mm2
 [ 7 ]
Pipe Span table & Reduction factors (sample)

Guidelines for location of supports

The location of supports should consider the following guidelines:

• At every changes of direction in a horizontal plane the spacing to be limited to

above mentioned charts to promote stability and reduce eccentric loadings.

• Support location should be selected near the existing building steel to minimize
the use of supplementary steel.

• The standard span does not apply to vertical run pipes (risers) since no moment
and no stress will develop due to gravity load in the riser.

• Provide space for adding loops to piping near load sensitive equipment, e.g. in
pump suction lines.

• Consider the need to add friction reducing slides between the piping and
support steel.

• Provide supports near instruments, and other devices that are likely to be
removed for maintenance.

• Minimize the use of spring hangers.

 [ 8 ]
Basic Support Principles
During Operation thermal
displacements and bowing
can cause the Loop to fall
off the Support

Additional Foundation
required.

WRONG

Beam added between

existing columns adds
minimum cost.

RIGHT

Flare Line - UPGN2 Guamare, Brazil 2003

 [ 9 ]
Basic Support Principles

• Attach supports to pipe, not

valves, flanges or instruments.

Heavy concentric loads require

supports. In this case preferably a 3-way
restraint.

Second support may be required for

stability and 2-way restraints

Basic Support Principles

•First support closest to the nozzle or at least the

upper half of a riser (above the center of
gravity) to prevent instability in overturning of
pipe under its own weight.

•Preferably a rest type only (from the vessel).

•Further down Guides may be placed on long

vertical risers to reduce excessive pipe
deflection.

•These guides are usually placed in span

intervals of twice the normal horizontal span and
do not carry any dead weight.
 [ 10 ]
Basic Support Principles

Use rigid supports (i.e. not spring

supports) at safety valves.

Avoid Supporting at bends Preferred

stiffen the elbow and no
flexibility will be available

Sliding Plates (Anti-Friction)

SS Plate
PTFE pad
Pump piping & adjustable supports [ 11 ]

Settlement consideration

Adjustable
support
(preferred)
 Piping Flexibility arrangements [ 12 ]

Stiff Piping
Expansion Loop
NOT recommended for pipes ‘U’ Type
subject to temperature changes

Expansion Joint
Flexible Piping
- Speciality Item.
Helps to reduce loading at Nozzles - Requires Pressure Thrust Calculation.
- Adds cost.
‘L’ Type or ‘Z’
Type NB: It is recommended that if the
layout of the piping system
provides inherent flexibility
through change in direction.

Leg arrangement

Restraint Types

Definitions:

Anchor: does not permit the pipe to move or twist in any

direction at the point it is anchored.

Support: prevents downward motion of a pipe at the point.

Stop: Prevents movement parallel to the centerline of the

pipe, but permits sideways pipe motion.

Guide: stops sideways movement of a pipe, but permits

movement parallel to the pipe's centerline.
Welded shoes, Guides & Hold Down [ 13 ]

Line stops (Anchors)

 ASME B31.3 Stresses in Pipe [ 14 ]

FS
S+3 Circumferential or Hoop
SAX MT
Pressure Stress (Sustained):
S/3 PDo
SHP
2Et
Longitudinal Stress due to
Sustained Loads (SL” Sh):
P P Longitudinal Pressure Stress:
PDo
ZS SLP
5 4t
S/3
S/ Axial Stress:
FAX
SAX
S% S3+ Y A
S3+ Bending Stress:
MB
A = Area of cross-section, in2
X S/ SB
S7 Z
E = Weld factor
Maximum Shear Stress:
F = Force, lb (AX = Axial, B = Bending, S = Shear)
(319.4.4.(a)(17)
MB = Moment, in-lb (B = Bending, t = Torsional)
Q.FS M t
P = Internal Pressure, psi Sshear 
A 2Z
Q = Shear Form Factor (1.33 for circular sections)
Note: Radial Stress is considered
t = Wall Thickness, in negligible for thin-walled pipes
Z = Section Modulus of Pipe, in3 (D/t ” 0.6)

Piping Load classification & characteristics

Loads Type Nature ASME Method of Analysis

(1) Static Pressure Sustained Primary

(2) Dead Weight Sustained Primary
• Pipe weight
• Fluid weight
Static Loads
• Wall Lining
• Insulation Compare to Sh from Table A-1
• Jacket / Tracing
• Snow / Ice accumulation
• Installed components:
(Valves, Flanges, Strainers, Flow Transmitters etc.)
(3) Thermal Cyclic (OPE) Secondary Compare SE to SA
(4) Wind / Wave / Blast Occasional Primary Add to SL , compare to 1.33 Sh

(1) Earthquake Occasional Primary Add to SL , compare to 1.33 Sh

(2) Fluid related Occasional Primary Add to SL , compare to 1.33 Sh
• Water Hammer
Dynamic Loads • Steam Hammer
• Slug Force
• Safety Relief Forces
(3) Vibration Cyclic (OPE) Secondary Compare SE to SA
• Modal (Natural Frequency)
• Mechanical Vibration
• Flow induced
• Acoustic
• Transmitted through Structure
 B31.3 Allowable Stress Range [ 15 ]

•The temperature change and expansion create stress.

•The Allowable expansion stress range SA is computed from

SA f> 1.25Sc  Sh  SL @

or, SA f 1.25Sc  0.25Sh  f Sh  SL

“Liberal Allowable stress”
Added if SL<Sh

Where
Sc = Allowable stress for piping material when cold.
Sh = Allowable stress for piping material at the design temperature.
f = stress range reduction factor
f = 6.0(N)ï0.2 ” 1.0,
where N is some number of cycles from 7000 to 2 million.

B31.3 Occasional Stress

The equation for occasional stress is:

S L  S AXO  S BO  1 . 33 S h

FAXO
where: SAXO = Axial load due to occasional loads. SAXO
A

MBO
SBO = Bending moment due to occasional loads. SBO
Z

SL = Calculated sustained stress.

SL SLP  SAX  SB  Sh

PDO FAX MB
SL    Sh
4t A Z
 [ 16 ]
Stress Strain curves

Total Elongation
Elastic
Uniform Neck
Range
Elongation Down

1 1 2
3
2

V
V E

4 5

H H

Fig. 1 Fig.2 Fig.3

A stress–strain curve typical of Stress–strain curve showing Stress–strain curve for
structural steel typical yield behaviour for brittle materials.
1. Ultimate Strength nonferrous alloys. Stress (ǔ) is
2. Yield Strength shown as a function of strain (dž)
3. Rupture 1: True elastic limit
4. Strain hardening region 2: Proportionality limit
5. Necking region. 3: Elastic limit
4: Offset yield strength

B31.3 Stresses in Bends & Tees

Expansion Stress:

SE SB2  4 ST2 d SA

Where,
2 2
ii Mi  io Mo
SB
Z
Mt
ST
2Z
i = Stress Intensification Factor
(i = In-plane, o = Out-plane)

Alternative rules as per Appendix -P:

-Comprehensive method.
-For Non-linear piping design
-Severe Cyclic conditions
2
SE SAX  SB  4 S t2

FAX
SAX
A
B31.3 Stresses in Bends & Tees [ 17 ]

Q&A
 [ 18 ]

Understanding CAESAR
Start
CAESAR II

Create a new job

• Create a new file
• Set up configuration
• Set up Unit File

Piping Input generation

• Geometry
• Load
• Temperature
• Material
• Fluid
• Support
Yes

Model Error Checking

Error

No

Building Load cases

Run a Static Analysis

Output
• Graphical display
• Displacement
• Numerical display
• Load
• Report
• Stress

End
 [ 19 ]
Getting Started

• Start CAESAR II

• Set the working folder

• Create a new job

• Open existing job
• Check units
• Build data

Main Menu

Working folder

Toolbar

Menu bar

Identify version
& build
 [ 20 ]
Input Menu

Analysis Menu
 [ 21 ]
Output Menu

Output Menu

Animation Graphics

Load
cases
 [ 22 ]
External Interface Menu

Tools and Utility Menu

 [ 23 ]
Help Menu

Getting Help
• User Guide , Technical Reference,
Application Guide
• On-line documentation
• F1 on the cell of interest
• Tool tips show dimensions

Input mode

Element
specific data Menu bar Toolbar

Data Input Graphic

spreadsheet display
 Input Strategy [ 24 ]

The physical system is represented by the assembly of simple “stick” elements.

Node numbers identify the ends of all these elements.
Each piping element is defined in a piping spreadsheet.

Next, or if
last Create
Next

<Ctrl> End
First If Last,
duplicate
Page Down
Previous Last
Next
Page Up (or Mouse Wheel)

<Ctrl> Home

Input Menu - Toolbars

“Main Menu” Tools

Input / Edit / List Tools

Plot Tools

Toolbars can be conveniently arranged around the window.

 CAESAR Building static load cases [ 25 ]

Input components of load cases

Designation Name Input items which activate this load case

W Deadweight Pipe Density, Insulation Density (with insulation thickness),
Fluid Density, or Rigid Weight
WNC Weight No fluid Contents Pipe Density, Insulation Density (with
insulation thickness), Rigid Weight
T1 Thermal Set 1 Temperature #1
T2 Thermal Set 2 Temperature #2
T3 Thermal Set 3 Temperature #3
T9 Thermal Set 9 Temperature #9
P1 Pressure Set 1 Pressure #1
:
P9 Pressure Set 9 Pressure #9
D1 Displacements Set 1 Displacements (1st Vector)
:
D9 Displacement Set 9 Displacements (9th Vector)
F1 Force Set 1 Forces/Moments (1st Vector),
cold spring (Material # 18 or 19), and spring initial loads
F2 Force Set 2 Forces/Moments (2nd Vector)
F3 Force Set 3 Forces/Moments (3rd Vector)

CAESAR Static load case builder

 CAESAR processing [ 26 ]

•The solution phase commences with the generation of the element stiffness matrices
and load vectors, and solves for displacements, forces and moments, reactions, and
stresses.
•This solution phase also performs the design and selection of spring hangers, and
iterative stiffness matrix modifications for nonlinear restraints.

CAESAR Static Output

 [ 27 ]
Further References

Q&A
 [ 28 ]

•Solving Concentrated Loads and Reducing Loads on Equipment Nozzles

•Equipment Nozzle Load Qualifications
•Detailed problem solving of a more complex model, including:
o Imposed Thermal Displacements
o Expansion Joint Modelling and Evaluation
o Structural Steel Modelling
o Spring Hanger Design

*Problem Solving Workshop – detailed example where each participant works independently,
applying what is learned to solve a variety of stress and equipment load problems.

Equipment Nozzles and code compliance

Calculated Piping forces and moments at equipment nozzles shall not exceed the
allowable limits. These limits should be mutually agreed with the manufacturers and
the client.
Equipment Evaluation Criteria or Standard
Rotary positive displacement pumps API 676

Recip. Positive displacement pumps Manufacturer’s allowable

Centrifugal pumps (refinery service) API 610

Centrifugal pumps (chemical service) ANSI B73.1

General purpose steam turbines API 611, NEMA SM-23

Special purpose steam turbines API 612

Centrifugal compressors API 617

Reciprocating compressors API 619, Manufacturer’s allowable

Vessels WRC 107

Shell and Tube Heat exchangers WRC 107

Air-cooled heat exchangers API 661

Flat-bottom storage tanks API 650

Flare Stacks API 537

Fired heaters API 560

 WRC 107 [ 29 ]

Reaction limits for nozzles on static equipments can be calculated using :

1. Welding Research Council Bulletin 107
2. Finite element analysis

WRC-107
“Local Stresses in …Shells due to
External Loadings” - based on Professor
Bijlaard's theoretical work, with some
adjustments made based on available
experimental data

WRC-107 presents detailed tabular forms for

calculating stresses at four major axis locations.
Stresses at both inside and outside surfaces on
these locations can be readily calculated
following the' step·by-step procedure outlined
in the form.
The final results are the total skin stress
intensities at these four locations in the shell.
No separate membrane stress intensity is given
nor is the stress in the nozzle calculated.

Nozzle load verification using CAESAR

WRC 297 is designed for

larger d/D ratios (up to 0.5),
and that WRC 297 also
computes stresses in the
nozzle and the vessel. (WRC
107 only computes stresses in
the vessel.)
API 610 – Nozzle allowable [ 30 ]

API 661 Nozzle allowable

 Pipe Hangers and supports [ 31 ]

Pipe Hangers & supports can be broadly classified into the following categories :-

Constant supports/
hangers

Dynamic restraints/
Rigid struts
Rigid hangers/Supports

Snubbers / shock absorbers. Variable supports / hangers Spring Loaded sway braces

Hangers
 Spring Design [ 32 ]

Introducing Hot Load and Cold Load

• Hot Load (HL) is the target load which the hanger should support in the
operating condition.
• Cold Load (CL) is the intentionally incorrect load at which the spring is pre-set, in
order to get to the Hot Load after moving.

CL = HL + k Ʀ

Load Variation
• Load Variation = Load Change relative to Hot Load.

| HL – CL | |kƦ|
LV = -------------- = --------
HL HL

Often limited by spec, to 10-25%.

Where:
Ʀ = Travel
k = Spring rate
HL = Hot Load
CL = Cold Load

Spring Load and Travel table (sample)

 [ 33 ]

· Expansion Joints – Types, Application & Selection

· Guide Spacing for Expansion Joints

· Bellow Materials, Hydrostatic Test Pressure for Bellows

Expansion Joints – Movements (EJMA)

Single bellow

Universal bellow
 [ 34 ]
Expansion Joints – Pressure Thrust

Internal (Positive) pressure External (Negative) pressure

Expansion Joints – Guide Spacing & Application

Dual Unrestrained
Application

Tee Section Unrestrained

Application

Unequal Pipe Diameter

Unrestrained Application
 Expansion Joints – Hinged Type [ 35 ]

Hinge System In-Plane

(L1) the maximum possible and (L2) a minimum

Hinge System In-Plane Hinge System Out-of-Plane

Expansion Joints – Gimbal Type

 Expansion Joints – Elbow Pressure Balanced [ 36 ]

One Bellow System Two Bellow System

Expansion Joints – Equalising Rings

 Expansion Joints – Forces [ 37 ]

The static thrust Fs due to internal pressure

Fs Ap where A = effective area corresponding to the mean

diameter of the corrugations,sq in.
p = design line pressure based on most severe condition, psi

The force required to compress or expand the expansion joint in the axial direction Fm is:

Fm = (axial spring rate of the bellow) x (amount of compression/expansion)

The centrifugal thrust Fp at the elbow due to flow is given by:

2 AUV 2 T where
Fp sin
g 2 A = internal area of pipe, sq in.
U = density of fluid, lb/fe
V = velocity of flow, ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
T = angle of bend

Expansion Joints – Examples

Large lateral deflection of a

boiler casing
 Expansion Joints – Failure Modes [ 38 ]

In-Plane Squirm or Instability Column Squirm or Instability

•is a shift of the center section of the bellows •is a warping of the convolutions causing
•caused by excessive internal pressure and the side-walls of the convolutions to no
made worse as angular movement of the longer be perpendicular to the bellows
bellows is introduced. centerline.
•can be detrimental to a bellows •caused by excessive internal pressure
performance. •Usually occurs in bellows with a small
•usually occurs in bellows with a large length- length-to-diameter ratio.
to-diameter ratio.

• Fatigue
• Creep-fatigue
• Burst, collapse, over stretching
• Corrosion
• Design Factor = 2.6 on cycles, 3.0 on burst, 2.25 squirm

Nypro (UK) Ltd, Flixborough Explosion

Process : liquid phase oxidation of cyclohexane
Location : North East England, the United Kingdom
Accident : massive explosion on 1 June, 1974
Fatalities : 28 Injuries : 36
Normal operating temperature = 220ºC
Normal operating pressure = 9 bar (900 kPa)

After one of the reactors cracked, it was decided to temporarily replace the faulty reactor with a “bypass” pipe. To allow
for thermal expansion and because each reactor was fixed in the place, the short interconnecting pipes, which joint the
outlet nozzle of the reactor R4 to the inlet nozzle of the reactor R6, were fitted with bellows B4 and B6.

The interconnections were horizontal but the bypass was constructed with a sloped middle section in order to bridge the
vertical shift between the nozzles. The unbalanced horizontal forces that result from such an arrangement led to stresses
on the bellows and bypass arrangement for which it was not designed.

The catastrophe was initiated by a rupture of the bypass at the upstream bellows B4 due to fatigue. The rupture caused
an accidental release of cyclohexane and subsequent formation of vapour cloud containing about 30 tonnes of this
chemical. The cloud exploded causing 28 fatalities, the near total destruction of the 24 hectare plant, severe injury to the
population outside the plant.
 [ 39 ]

•Dynamic analysis theory, types of loads and evaluation of system responses

•Modes and mode shapes
•Modal analysis
•Impact Load Types & Analysis
•Relief Valve Firing
•Surge & Slug Flow

Dynamic Loads, vibration & Analysis

Piping vibration is the to and fro displacement of pipe body in lateral bending
and/or shell wall resonance modes under the effect of dynamic loads.

Dynamic loads (cyclic applied loads):

1. Impact loads.
2. Wind. (Caesar uses Static load case editor for Wind & Wave analysis)
3. Seismic loads.
4. Vibration.
5. Discharge loads.

Types of dynamic analyses available in CAESAR

• Modal analysis (Eigenvalue analysis) for Natural Frequency & mode shapes. The
algorithm uses an iterative method to solve for successive modes.
• Harmonic
• Response spectrum (response vs. frequency spectra)
• Force spectra
– Relief Valve
– Water Hammer/Slug flow
– Random vibration
• Time History (uses numeric integration of the dynamic equation of motion to
simulate the system response throughout the load duration)
 Piping Vibrations [ 40 ]

Free vibration Forced excitation

•Natural frequency/Eigenvalue •Mechanical vibration

•Indicates tendency of the pipe ¾due to machinery.
to respond to the dynamic loads
¾Critical speed of rotary equipments.
•Easy to excite
•Flow turbulence
•Does not continue for ever due to
¾across obstacles & turns.
energy loss called ‘Damping’
¾Slug flow
•Dependants on the Physical inherent
elastic properties of pipes. ¾Surge due to column separation &
cavitation
Cantilever with •Transient vibrations.
Mass, m
¾Instantaneous valve closure,
Displacement, x check valve rattling.
¾Pressure relief valve
Excitation force
¾Seismic, Wind, Wave, Vortex & Blast.
Mode 2 (One node) •Acoustic pulsation
¾due to pressure pulse generated by
Node reciprocating machines
Mode 3 (Two nodes) •Applied load D Deflection

k
Natural Angular frequency Z 2S f
m

Resonance

Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at a greater amplitude when periodic

loads with same excitation frequencies are applied at system’s natural frequency. These
frequencies are known as the system's resonant frequencies (or resonance frequencies).

f/fn ~ 1.0
+

• Ratio f/fn is called

Dynamic Magnification
factor DMF
Frequency

• Amplitude of this
Time
resonant vibration
depends on the
component's damping.
• Higher the damping, the
lower the peak.
• Resonance causes high
cyclic stress, therefore,
_
should be prevented.

Natural Frequency with damping , fn

Dynamic Excitation Frequency, f
Resonant frequency, f/fn
 DMF & Damping [ 41 ]

CAESAR Inputting for Modal Analysis

To enter the dynamics input, the proper job name must be current prior to selecting
the Analysis-Dynamics file options of the Main Menu.

select the analysis from the drop list

Modal analysis simply extracts natural frequencies and

shapes for the system’s modes of vibration. Therefore no
loadings need to be or may be specified. But any
additional mass can be specified. Snubbers can be
defined.
 CAESAR Dynamic processor [ 42 ]

• Dynamic initialization
• Eigensolver - calculates the
natural frequencies and modes
of vibration.
• Each natural frequency appears
on the screen continues until the
frequency cut-off is exceeded
or the mode count reaches its
limit.
• Sturm Sequence Check - to
confirm that no modes were
skipped. If the check fails,
increase the frequency cut-off
value.

•Review Natural frequencies

and the mode shapes either by
text reports or the animations.

Mode shapes
In-Salah Gas Flare Incident, Sonatrach, Algeria [ 43 ]

Description:
In Salah Gas (ISG) is a Joint
Venture between : Sonatrach
(35%), BP (33%), Statoil (32%).

Potential cause of Failure:

• Turbulence Induced Vibration
Failure
• failure due to low frequency
vibration (1-15 Hz) where high
stress (e.g. > 3000 lbf)
• Visible motion of piping often
observed

Proposed mitigation:
• Adequate bracing or supporting
• Thicker wall pipe

Pressure Relief Valve

Purpose:
Safety-relief valves are installed for the purpose
of protecting the fluid system from accidental
over-pressure, or venting the fluid generated in
excess of requirement.

References:
API 520, Appendix II of ASME B31.1, ASME III (NC
& NB 3677)

CLOSED OPEN
 Out of balance Forces [ 44 ]

F3
F3
F4
F1 F1

F1+F2

Closed System
Open System

F PA  mV 2 Where:
A = Orifice Area, mm2.
kT Cp = specific heat at constant pressure.
F1 129W  0.1 AP
k 1 u M Cv = specific heat at constant volume.
F = reaction force at Orifice, N.
kTR k = ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv).
F2 0.6 W
M M = molecular weight of the process fluid, kg/kg mol/K
P = Set pressure, in bar (g).
T R
F3 W2 u R = Gas constant (8314 J °Kï1 kmolï1)
PAM
T = temperature at inlet, in degrees Kelvin.
F4 2F1 W = flow of any gas or vapour, kg/sec.

For Rupture disk shock loads at POP conditions use F4 instead of F1

Out of balance Forces (example)

 Out of balance Forces (example) [ 45 ]

Static analysis approach (example)

 Dynamic analysis approach [ 46 ]

Use the Relief valve synthesiser

magnitude of the dynamic load that

acts on the relief tailpipe and valve due
to the pressure, and change in
momentum of the relieving gas.

magnitudes of the opening and closing pressure waves

that propagate back into the fluid from the relief valve

Surge

Surge pressure is caused by the change in momentum of the fluid:

•Caused by rapid change in flow rate:
•Rapid valve closure
•Change of valve positions (opening, throttling or emergency closing)
•Pump Start-up or shut down of one or more pumps
•Emergency loss of power for one or more pumps
•Switching between pumps already in service
•Can result in vaporisation and then collapse of Vapour pockets.
•Safety valve blow down
•Incorrect plant operation

Note: Surge pressure attenuates (decreases in intensity) as it moves away

from its point of origin.
 Surge [ 47 ]

Potential consequences:
• Pipe over pressure
• Pipe collapse
• Flange leaks
• Valve leaks
• Vacuum / Cavitations
• Large pipe movements.

B 31.3 requirements:
• As per 301.2.2, the effect of such pressure surges must be considered and
kept within the allowable pressure limits of the piping system.
• As per 302.2.3.6, if surge loads are occasional then the total permissible
design pressure is 1.33 times the Design pressure. (1.1 times as per B31.4)

Force Direction

P
V

P+'P
V+'V

During instantaneous valve closure: T  2L

c
1. Additional pressure ('P) builds up at the closure end.
Pump 2. This causes a pressure wave to move in opposite
direction of the flow at the speed of sound (c) in the
fluid.
3. This causes a change in momentum = 'V
4. The change in momentum causes Surge Pressure.
'P = Uc'V/g
5. This result in unbalanced forces in Piping.
F = - 'P A
6. This force exists until the pressure wave reaches the far
elbow, and equilibrium is again established.
? F D 'P , A , L
 Fluid & Wave velocity [ 48 ]

Wave velocity = Speed of sound (c)

gK
c 12 (ft/sec)
U

Fluid velocity: Q
V (ft/sec)
A

where
g = gravitational constant (32.2 ft/sec2)
K = bulk modulus of liquid, psi (about 300,000 psi)
U = Density of fluid (lb/ft3)
= Density of water (62.4 lb/ft3) x Specific gravity
Q = Fluid flow rate (ft3/sec)
A = Flow Area (in2)

Surge due to slow valve closure

2L
During slow valve closure: T !
c

U LV (psi)
Maximum Surge pressure is at the valve 'P
gT

Li
Surge pressure upstream = 'P (psi)
L

Transient Loading due to Surge = 2A'P ; considering DLF = 2

where
Li = Length of pipe from source to the point of interest (ft)
(assuming Linear reduction in flow with time)
L = effective length of pipe (ft)
T = Valve closing Time (sec)
 Static force on a 90° elbow due to steady fluid flow [ 49 ]

2 UAV 2 T
F sin
g 2
1.414 UAV 2
T
g
where
U = density of fluid (lb/ft3)
A = cross-sectional flow area (ft2 )
F
V = velocity of fluid (ft/sec)
g = gravitational constant (32.2 ft/sec2)

1.414 UAV 2
The total loading on 90° elbows (lb)  2 A'P
g
0.765 UAV 2
The total loading on 45° elbows (lb)  2 A'P
g

Sample Problem

INPUT
Q = 4 ft3/sec Flow Rate
Tclosure = 2 sec Time for closure of Valve
DO = 12 in Pipe O.D.
t = 0.39 in Thickness of Pipe
G = 37.46 lb/ft3 Density of Fluid
L = 3300 ft Length of Pipeline
K = 300000 psi Bulk modulus of Fluid
DLF = 2 Dynamic load factor

OUTPUT
c = 6094 ft/sec Wave Velocity
A = 98.74 in2 Internal C.S. Area of Pipe
V = 5.83 ft/sec Velocity of Fluid
T = 1.083 sec Valve closure time (If T>Tclosure then it is instanteneous closure, else late closure)
' pLATE = 15.55 psi Surge Pressure of the valve during late closure.
' pINST = psi Surge Pressure of the valve during instateneous closure.

FLATE = 1536 lb Resultant Force on the valve in case of late closure

FINST = lb Resultant Force on the valve in case of instateneous closure

 Surge Control Solutions [ 50 ]

Vacuum Breaker Motor operated

Valves

Surge dynamics (using CAESAR)

The time related dynamic forces caused by the pressure surges can be calculated
using computer programs.

These values are then used in a time-history-analysis of the system to compute

maximum stresses and loads on piping components and pipe supports.
 Negative Surge Failures [ 51 ]

Possible cause:
•Vacuum due to vapour condensation
•probably due to water-column separation
•Uncontrolled pump shut down
•Inadequate wall thickness
•Inadequate stiffeners or reinforcements

Flow regimes

10
Liquid velocity (m/sec)

Stratified flow
1

0.1
Stratified wavy flow

0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Gas velocity (m/sec)

Generalised flow regime map for

horizontal Two-phase flow Slug flow

Dispersed bubble flow

Wave rises
Reduces gas flow area
Increases gas velocity
Reduces gas pressure causing lift
Annular flow
 Slug Flow Forces [ 52 ]

Slug force is the impact load caused by the change in momentum of the
moving liquid mass when pushed by the gases in between.

F
L F2

U V
F1
T

2 UAV 2 T
Slug flow force, F mass x velocity sin
g 2

Static Stress Analysis Method

Consider dynamic load factor of 1.5 to 2.0 times those due the calculated
static force.

Mitigation:
•Axial restraints in all directional changes of pipe run within the loop.
•Recommended minimum natural frequency of the pipe = 4 Hz.

Q&A
[ 53 ]
 [ 54 ]

P ROPERTIES OF P IPE ®

Nom. Pipe Weight

Size, Schedule Wall Inside Inside Metal Outside Inside Weight of Water Moment Section Radius
O.D. Number* Thickness Diameter Area Area Surface Surface per Foot per Foot of Inertia Modulus Gyration
Inches a b c Inch Inch Sq. In. Sq. In. Sq. Ft./Ft. Sq. Ft./Ft. Lbs.† Lbs. In.4 In.3 In.
– – 5S 0.065 1.770 2.461 0.375 0.497 0.4634 1.27 1.067 0.15792 0.1662 0.649
– – 10S 0.109 1.682 2.222 0.613 0.497 0.4403 2.08 0.963 0.24682 0.2598 0.634
40 Std 40S 0.145 1.610 2.036 0.799 0.497 0.4215 2.72 0.883 0.30989 0.3262 0.623
1 1/2 80 XS 80S 0.200 1.500 1.767 1.068 0.497 0.3927 3.63 0.766 0.39121 0.4118 0.605
1.9000 160 – – 0.281 1.338 1.406 1.429 0.497 0.3503 4.86 0.610 0.48239 0.5078 0.581
– XXS – 0.400 1.100 0.950 1.885 0.497 0.2880 6.41 0.412 0.56784 0.5977 0.549
– – – 0.525 0.850 0.567 2.268 0.497 0.2225 7.71 0.246 0.61409 0.6464 0.520
– – – 0.650 0.600 0.283 2.553 0.497 0.1571 8.68 0.123 0.63335 0.6667 0.498
– – 5S 0.065 2.245 3.958 0.472 0.622 0.5877 1.60 1.716 0.31489 0.2652 0.817
– – 10S 0.109 2.157 3.654 0.776 0.622 0.5647 2.64 1.584 0.49919 0.4204 0.802
40 Std 40S 0.154 2.067 3.356 1.075 0.622 0.5411 3.65 1.455 0.66575 0.5606 0.787
2 80 XS 80S 0.218 1.939 2.953 1.477 0.622 0.5076 5.02 1.280 0.86792 0.7309 0.766
2.3750 160 – – 0.343 1.689 2.241 2.190 0.622 0.4422 7.44 0.971 1.16232 0.9788 0.729
– XXS – 0.436 1.503 1.774 2.656 0.622 0.3935 9.03 0.769 1.31130 1.104 0.703
– – – 0.562 1.251 1.229 3.201 0.622 0.3275 10.9 0.533 1.44157 1.214 0.671
– – – 0.687 1.001 0.787 3.643 0.622 0.2621 12.4 0.341 1.51251 1.274 0.644
– – 5S 0.083 2.709 5.764 0.728 0.753 0.7092 2.47 2.499 0.71002 0.4939 0.988
– – 10S 0.120 2.635 5.453 1.039 0.753 0.6898 3.53 2.364 0.98725 0.6868 0.975
40 Std 40S 0.203 2.469 4.788 1.704 0.753 0.6464 5.79 2.076 1.52955 1.064 0.947
2 1/2 80 XS 80S 0.276 2.323 4.238 2.254 0.753 0.6082 7.66 1.837 1.92423 1.339 0.924
2.8750 160 – – 0.375 2.125 3.547 2.945 0.753 0.5563 10.0 1.538 2.35274 1.637 0.894
– XXS – 0.552 1.771 2.463 4.028 0.753 0.4636 13.7 1.068 2.87079 1.997 0.844
– – – 0.675 1.525 1.827 4.665 0.753 0.3992 15.9 0.792 3.08819 2.148 0.814
– – – 0.800 1.275 1.277 5.215 0.753 0.3338 17.7 0.554 3.22396 2.243 0.786
– – 5S 0.083 3.334 8.730 0.891 0.916 0.8728 3.03 3.785 1.30116 0.7435 1.208
– – 10S 0.120 3.260 8.347 1.274 0.916 0.8535 4.33 3.619 1.82196 1.041 1.196
40 Std 40S 0.216 3.068 7.393 2.228 0.916 0.8032 7.58 3.205 3.01716 1.724 1.164
3 80 XS 80S 0.300 2.900 6.605 3.016 0.916 0.7592 10.3 2.864 3.89432 2.225 1.136
3.5000 160 – – 0.437 2.626 5.416 4.205 0.916 0.6875 14.3 2.348 5.03192 2.875 1.094
– XXS – 0.600 2.300 4.155 5.466 0.916 0.6021 18.6 1.801 5.99251 3.424 1.047
– – – 0.725 2.050 3.301 6.320 0.916 0.5367 21.5 1.431 6.49924 3.714 1.014
– – – 0.850 1.800 2.545 7.076 0.916 0.4712 24.1 1.103 6.85088 3.915 0.984
– – 5S 0.083 3.834 11.545 1.021 1.05 1.004 3.47 5.005 1.95972 0.9799 1.385
3 1/2 – – 10S 0.120 3.760 11.104 1.463 1.05 0.9844 4.97 4.814 2.75519 1.378 1.372
4.0000 40 Std 40S 0.226 3.548 9.887 2.680 1.05 0.9289 9.11 4.286 4.78772 2.394 1.337
80 XS 80S 0.318 3.364 8.888 3.678 1.05 0.8807 12.5 3.853 6.28009 3.140 1.307
– XXS – 0.636 2.728 5.845 6.721 1.05 0.7142 22.9 2.534 9.84776 4.924 1.210
– – 5S 0.083 4.334 14.753 1.152 1.18 1.135 3.92 6.396 2.80979 1.249 1.562
– – 10S 0.120 4.260 14.253 1.651 1.18 1.115 5.61 6.179 3.96268 1.761 1.549
– – – 0.188 4.124 13.358 2.547 1.18 1.080 8.66 5.791 5.93033 2.636 1.526
40 Std 40S 0.237 4.026 12.730 3.174 1.18 1.054 10.8 5.519 7.23260 3.214 1.510
4 80 XS 80S 0.337 3.826 11.497 4.407 1.18 1.002 15.0 4.984 9.61049 4.271 1.477
4.5000 120 – – 0.437 3.626 10.326 5.578 1.18 0.9493 19.0 4.477 11.6433 5.175 1.445
– – – 0.500 3.500 9.621 6.283 1.18 0.9163 21.4 4.171 12.7627 5.672 1.425
160 – – 0.531 3.438 9.283 6.621 1.18 0.9001 22.5 4.025 13.2710 5.898 1.416
– XXS – 0.674 3.152 7.803 8.101 1.18 0.8252 27.5 3.383 15.2837 6.793 1.374
– – – 0.800 2.900 6.605 9.299 1.18 0.7592 31.6 2.864 16.6570 7.403 1.338
– – – 0.925 2.650 5.515 10.389 1.18 0.6938 35.3 2.391 17.7081 7.870 1.306

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® P ROPERTIES OF P IPE

Nom. Pipe Weight

Size, Schedule Wall Inside Inside Metal Outside Inside Weight of Water Moment Section Radius
O.D. Number* Thickness Diameter Area Area Surface Surface per Foot per Foot of Inertia Modulus Gyration
Inches a b c Inch Inch Sq. In. Sq. In. Sq. Ft./Ft. Sq. Ft./Ft. Lbs.† Lbs. In.4 In.3 In.
– – 5S 0.109 5.345 22.438 1.868 1.46 1.399 6.35 9.728 6.94713 2.498 1.929
– – 10S 0.134 5.295 22.020 2.285 1.46 1.386 7.77 9.547 8.42536 3.029 1.920
40 Std 40S 0.258 5.047 20.006 4.300 1.46 1.321 14.6 8.673 15.1622 5.451 1.878
5 80 XS 80S 0.375 4.813 18.194 6.112 1.46 1.260 20.8 7.888 20.6707 7.431 1.839
5.5630 120 – – 0.500 4.563 16.353 7.953 1.46 1.195 27.0 7.090 25.7317 9.251 1.799
160 – – 0.625 4.313 14.610 9.696 1.46 1.129 33.0 6.334 30.0259 10.79 1.760
– XXS – 0.750 4.063 12.965 11.340 1.46 1.064 38.6 5.621 33.6348 12.09 1.722
– – – 0.875 3.813 11.419 12.887 1.46 0.9982 43.8 4.951 36.6355 13.17 1.686
– – – 1.000 3.563 9.971 14.335 1.46 0.9328 48.7 4.323 39.1007 14.06 1.652
– – 5S 0.109 6.407 32.240 2.231 1.73 1.677 7.59 13.98 11.8454 3.576 2.304
– – 10S 0.134 6.357 31.739 2.733 1.73 1.664 9.29 13.76 14.3974 4.346 2.295
– – – 0.129 6.367 31.839 2.633 1.73 1.667 8.95 13.80 13.8918 4.194 2.297
40 Std 40S 0.280 6.065 28.890 5.581 1.73 1.588 19.0 12.53 28.1422 8.496 2.245
6 80 XS 80S 0.432 5.761 26.067 8.405 1.73 1.508 28.6 11.30 40.4907 12.22 2.195
6.6250 120 – – 0.562 5.501 23.767 10.705 1.73 1.440 36.4 10.30 49.6106 14.98 2.153
160 – – 0.718 5.189 21.147 13.324 1.73 1.358 45.3 9.168 58.9732 17.80 2.104
– XXS – 0.864 4.897 18.834 15.637 1.73 1.282 53.2 8.165 66.3326 20.02 2.060
– – – 1.000 4.625 16.800 17.671 1.73 1.211 60.1 7.284 72.1009 21.77 2.020
– – – 1.125 4.375 15.033 19.439 1.73 1.145 66.1 6.517 76.5775 23.12 1.985
– – 5S 0.109 8.407 55.510 2.916 2.26 2.201 9.91 24.07 26.4402 6.131 3.011
– – 10S 0.148 8.329 54.485 3.941 2.26 2.181 13.4 23.62 35.4145 8.212 2.998
– – – 0.219 8.187 52.643 5.783 2.26 2.143 19.7 22.82 51.1172 11.85 2.973
20 – – 0.250 8.125 51.849 6.578 2.26 2.127 22.4 22.48 57.7220 13.38 2.962
30 – – 0.277 8.071 51.162 7.265 2.26 2.113 24.7 22.18 63.3527 14.69 2.953
40 Std 40S 0.322 7.981 50.027 8.399 2.26 2.089 28.6 21.69 72.4892 16.81 2.938
8 60 – – 0.406 7.813 47.943 10.483 2.26 2.045 35.6 20.79 88.7363 20.58 2.909
8.6250 80 XS 80S 0.500 7.625 45.664 12.763 2.26 1.996 43.4 19.80 105.716 24.51 2.878
100 – – 0.593 7.439 43.463 14.963 2.26 1.948 50.9 18.84 121.324 28.13 2.847
120 – – 0.718 7.189 40.591 17.836 2.26 1.882 60.6 17.60 140.535 32.59 2.807
140 – – 0.812 7.001 38.496 19.931 2.26 1.833 67.8 16.69 153.722 35.65 2.777
160 – – 0.906 6.813 36.456 21.970 2.26 1.784 74.7 15.80 165.887 38.47 2.748
– – – 1.000 6.625 34.472 23.955 2.26 1.734 81.4 14.94 177.087 41.06 2.719
– – – 1.125 6.375 31.919 26.507 2.26 1.669 90.1 13.84 190.572 44.19 2.681
– – 5S 0.134 10.482 86.294 4.469 2.81 2.744 15.2 37.41 62.9675 11.71 3.75
– – 10S 0.165 10.420 85.276 5.487 2.81 2.728 18.7 36.97 76.8638 14.30 3.74
– – – 0.219 10.312 83.517 7.245 2.81 2.700 24.6 36.21 100.485 18.69 3.72
20 – – 0.250 10.250 82.516 8.247 2.81 2.683 28.0 35.77 113.714 21.16 3.71
30 – – 0.307 10.136 80.691 10.072 2.81 2.654 34.2 34.98 137.420 25.57 3.69
40 Std 40S 0.365 10.020 78.854 11.908 2.81 2.623 40.5 34.19 160.734 29.90 3.67
10 60 XS 80S 0.500 9.750 74.662 16.101 2.81 2.553 54.7 32.37 211.950 39.43 3.63
10.7500 80 – – 0.593 9.564 71.840 18.922 2.81 2.504 64.3 31.15 244.844 45.55 3.60
100 – – 0.718 9.314 68.134 22.629 2.81 2.438 76.9 29.54 286.132 53.23 3.56
120 – – 0.843 9.064 64.525 26.237 2.81 2.373 89.2 27.97 324.225 60.32 3.52
– – – 0.875 9.000 63.617 27.145 2.81 2.356 92.3 27.58 333.485 62.04 3.51
140 – – 1.000 8.750 60.132 30.631 2.81 2.291 104 26.07 367.806 68.43 3.47
160 – – 1.125 8.500 56.745 34.018 2.81 2.225 116 24.60 399.308 74.29 3.43
– – – 1.250 8.250 53.456 37.306 2.81 2.160 127 23.18 428.149 79.66 3.39
– – – 1.500 7.750 47.173 43.590 2.81 2.029 148 20.45 478.464 89.02 3.31

76 Anvil International, Piping & Pipe Hanger Design and Engineering www.anvilintl.com
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P ROPERTIES OF P IPE ®

Nom. Pipe Weight

Size, Schedule Wall Inside Inside Metal Outside Inside Weight of Water Moment Section Radius
O.D. Number* Thickness Diameter Area Area Surface Surface per Foot per Foot of Inertia Modulus Gyration
Inches a b c Inch Inch Sq. In. Sq. In. Sq. Ft./Ft. Sq. Ft./Ft. Lbs.† Lbs. In.4 In.3 In.
– – 5S 0.156 12.438 121.504 6.172 3.34 3.256 21.0 52.68 122.389 19.20 4.45
– – 10S 0.180 12.390 120.568 7.108 3.34 3.244 24.2 52.27 140.419 22.03 4.44
20 – – 0.250 12.250 117.859 9.817 3.34 3.207 33.4 51.10 191.824 30.09 4.42
30 – – 0.330 12.090 114.800 12.876 3.34 3.165 43.8 49.77 248.453 38.97 4.39
– Std 40S 0.375 12.000 113.097 14.579 3.34 3.142 49.6 49.03 279.335 43.82 4.38
40 – – 0.406 11.938 111.932 15.745 3.34 3.125 53.5 48.53 300.209 47.09 4.37
– XS 80S 0.500 11.750 108.434 19.242 3.34 3.076 65.4 47.01 361.544 56.71 4.33
12 60 – – 0.562 11.626 106.157 21.519 3.34 3.044 73.2 46.02 400.420 62.81 4.31
12.7500 80 – – 0.687 11.376 101.641 26.035 3.34 2.978 88.5 44.07 475.104 74.53 4.27
– – – 0.750 11.250 99.402 28.274 3.34 2.945 96.1 43.09 510.926 80.15 4.25
100 – – 0.843 11.064 96.142 31.534 3.34 2.897 107 41.68 561.650 88.10 4.22
– – – 0.875 11.000 95.033 32.643 3.34 2.880 111 41.20 578.523 90.75 4.21
120 – – 1.000 10.750 90.763 36.914 3.34 2.814 125 39.35 641.664 100.7 4.17
140 – – 1.125 10.500 86.590 41.086 3.34 2.749 140 37.54 700.551 109.9 4.13
– – – 1.250 10.250 82.516 45.160 3.34 2.683 154 35.77 755.378 118.5 4.09
160 – – 1.312 10.126 80.531 47.145 3.34 2.651 160 34.91 781.126 122.5 4.07
– – 5S 0.156 13.688 147.153 6.785 3.67 3.584 23.1 63.80 162.564 23.22 4.89
– – 10S 0.188 13.624 145.780 8.158 3.67 3.567 27.7 63.20 194.566 27.80 4.88
– – – 0.210 13.580 144.840 9.098 3.67 3.555 30.9 62.79 216.308 30.90 4.88
– – – 0.219 13.562 144.457 9.481 3.67 3.551 32.2 62.63 225.142 32.16 4.87
10 – – 0.250 13.500 143.139 10.799 3.67 3.534 36.7 62.06 255.300 36.47 4.86
– – – 0.281 13.438 141.827 12.111 3.67 3.518 41.2 61.49 285.047 40.72 4.85
20 – – 0.312 13.376 140.521 13.417 3.67 3.502 45.6 60.92 314.384 44.91 4.84
– – – 0.344 13.312 139.180 14.758 3.67 3.485 50.2 60.34 344.242 49.18 4.83
14 30 Std – 0.375 13.250 137.886 16.052 3.67 3.469 54.6 59.78 372.760 53.25 4.82
14.0000 40 – – 0.437 13.126 135.318 18.620 3.67 3.436 63.3 58.67 428.607 61.23 4.80
– – – 0.469 13.062 134.001 19.937 3.67 3.420 67.8 58.09 456.819 65.26 4.79
– XS – 0.500 13.000 132.732 21.206 3.67 3.403 72.1 57.54 483.756 69.11 4.78
60 – – 0.593 12.814 128.961 24.977 3.67 3.355 84.9 55.91 562.287 80.33 4.74
– – – 0.625 12.750 127.676 26.262 3.67 3.338 89.3 55.35 588.530 84.08 4.73
80 – – 0.750 12.500 122.718 31.220 3.67 3.272 106 53.20 687.318 98.19 4.69
100 – – 0.937 12.126 115.485 38.453 3.67 3.175 131 50.07 824.436 117.8 4.63
120 – – 1.093 11.814 109.618 44.320 3.67 3.093 151 47.52 929.521 132.8 4.58
140 – – 1.250 11.500 103.869 50.069 3.67 3.011 170 45.03 1027.20 146.7 4.53
160 – – 1.406 11.188 98.309 55.629 3.67 2.929 189 42.62 1116.65 159.5 4.48
– – 5S 0.165 15.670 192.854 8.208 4.19 4.102 27.9 83.61 257.303 32.16 5.60
– – 10S 0.188 15.624 191.723 9.339 4.19 4.090 31.7 83.12 291.904 36.49 5.59
10 – – 0.250 15.500 188.692 12.370 4.19 4.058 42.1 81.81 383.664 47.96 5.57
20 – – 0.312 15.376 185.685 15.377 4.19 4.025 52.3 80.50 473.248 59.16 5.55
30 Std – 0.375 15.250 182.654 18.408 4.19 3.992 62.6 79.19 562.084 70.26 5.53
16 40 – – 0.500 15.000 176.715 24.347 4.19 3.927 82.8 76.61 731.942 91.49 5.48
16.0000 60 – – 0.656 14.688 169.440 31.622 4.19 3.845 108 73.46 932.336 116.5 5.43
80 – – 0.843 14.314 160.921 40.141 4.19 3.747 136 69.77 1156.29 144.5 5.37
100 – – 1.031 13.938 152.578 48.484 4.19 3.649 165 66.15 1364.43 170.6 5.30
120 – – 1.218 13.564 144.499 56.563 4.19 3.551 192 62.65 1555.41 194.4 5.24
140 – – 1.437 13.126 135.318 65.744 4.19 3.436 224 58.67 1759.86 220.0 5.17
160 – – 1.593 12.814 128.961 72.101 4.19 3.355 245 55.91 1893.54 236.7 5.12

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