Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge

Vol 23(4), April 2024, pp 324-335

DOI: 10.56042/ijtk.v23i4.10316

Processing technologies of various ethnic fish products consumed in Asian

countries: a review
a
Kapil Deb Nath , Deepayan Royb & Sankar Chandra Dekaa,*
a
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, School of Engineering, Tezpur University, Assam, India
b
Department of Fisheries, Government of Tripura, India
*
E-mail: sankar@tezu.ernet.in

Received 10 January 2023; revised 30 November 2023; accepted 01 January 2024

Since time immemorial, various communities across different countries have developed their own techniques of
preparing traditional fermented ethnic fish products either by drying, smoking, or fermenting them together, or by
combining the processes of drying, smoking, and fermentation. Fermentation is a common food preservation technique that
improves safety of food, its shelf life, mouth feel, aroma, palatability and nutritional qualities. Fermented foods are those
foods that are prepared through the regulated escalation of microbes and the enzymatic alteration of dietary components.
Fermented fish is produced and consumed throughout the world, and it is an integral feature of many cuisines. It is also an
affluent resource of microorganisms as well as a major industry in several countries of the world. These fish items are
produced using an environment friendly preservation technology and natural packaging. As a result, food preservation
technology becomes low-cost and accessible to the economically weaker section, and it also addresses the issues of food
deterioration and food-borne infections. This review primarily aims to underline the process technology of various
fermented fish products of some Asian countries and their preparation procedures. In addition, it also highlights the
biochemical, microbial, nutritional quality and ethno-medical properties of various fermented fish products.

Keyword: Drying, Fermentation, Preservation, Quality, Smoking, Traditional ethnic foods

IPC Code: Int Cl.24: A23L 27/24, A23L 17/00

Fish is one of the excellent sources of protein along substantial damage, including blowfly infestation,
with various nutrients such as fat, vitamins, and shattered fragments, and dirt and dust infiltration.
minerals that are meant for human physiology1,2. It However, when products are dried in a restricted
plays an important part in the country's nourishment, environment, such as under solar tent drier, it dries
revenue, employment, and overseas trade earnings. In faster and is protected from dust, filth, bird, rodent,
our day-to-day diet, fish and shellfish are considered and insect infestations5.
to be the most important resources of animal protein Fermentation is a cheap and time-tested process of
as they supply a large amount (typically ≥70%) of food preservation. Because the fermentation of fish
high-quality protein, particularly sulphur-containing involves a variety of bacteria, it is possible that people
amino acids3. have been inadvertently consuming microbes through
People throughout the world have access to a their ethnic foods6. During fermentation, bacteria or
wealth of traditional knowledge. Many ethnic fish- enzymes present in fish tissues break down organic
based ready-to-cook foods are made using diverse molecules into simpler chemicals7. Fermented foods
species of fish prevalent in the rivers, sea, tributaries, undergo chemical and textural changes as a result of
and hill streams. Drying is a time-honored, cost- the microbial population, which can originate either
effective, and efficient method of food preservation. naturally or via outside "starter cultures"8. Despite the
The distinct flavor of each product has fueled demand fact that fermented foods involve naturally occurring
for dried fish and shrimp4. Fish drying might take up living microbes (probiotics), the health benefits of
to a week, depending on the weather. Nevertheless, regularly consuming them are still unclear9. In the
drying for an extended period of time causes process of fermentation of food, bioactive phenolics
————— and volatile chemicals are bio transformed into new
*Corresponding author edible forms with increased odours and flavours10,11.
 NATH et al.: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS ETHNIC FISH PRODUCTS 325

Humans have been eating fermented fish since time mentioning. India, for example, has a plethora of
immemorial in many societies throughout the world. fermented fish items for example „Shidal’, „Ngari’,
Although they were most likely created for the „Hentaak’, „Lonailish’, „Tungtap’, „Napham’,
purpose of preservation, it would have been obvious „Hukoti’, „Numsing’ etc. Among them „Shidal’,
that these meals had other desirable qualities. „Ngari’, and „Hentaak’ are some of the most accepted
Fermented fish have definite tastes, textures, long-established fermented fish dishes in Northeastern
appearances, and functions when judged against the part of India. „Shidal‟ has long been regarded to have
unprocessed components from which they are anti-malarial properties, and despite its unpleasant
produced. Fermented rations were purposely made odour, it is still used to treat fevers19.
many millennia ago, far before nutrition research, as a The present review attempts to document and
regular supply of vitamins, minerals, calories, and describe the traditional preparation
supplementary nutrients12,13. Various nations use a processes/methods associated with important ethnic
conventional process of preserving fish that involves fish-based products all around the world vis-à-vis its
salting and sun drying. The most basic method of biochemical, microbial, nutritional quality and the
preserving fish is curing14. ethno-medicinal properties.
Fermented fish items are quite popular in several
provinces around the globe, particularly in Eastern Fermented fish products
and Southeastern part of Asian continent. Malaysia, Since time immemorial, various communities
Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, across different countries are preparing traditional
Laos, Philippines, Japan and China are among the fermented ethnic fish products either by drying,
countries in this group. „Burongisda‟ is a long- smoking, or fermenting them together, or by
established Filipino dish popular in Philippines' combining the processes of drying, smoking, and
middle region, especially in Pampanga, Bulacan, fermentation. Fermentation is a common food
Cavite, and Nueva Ecija. Cambodian „Prahok‟, preservation technique that improves safety of food,
Malaysian „Pekasam‟ and „Cencalok‟, Korean its shelf life, mouth feel, aroma, palatability and
„Sikhae‟ and Japanese „Narezushi‟ are all examples of nutritional qualities. Fermentation is a cheap and
similar Southeast Asian foods15,16. The preparation time-tested process of food preservation. Since the
formula of „Bagoong‟ and „Patis‟ are almost akin, fermentation of fish involves a variety of bacteria, it is
with the exception that the latter is allowed to ferment possible that people have been inadvertently
until the fish flesh has disintegrated into a liquid form. consuming microbes through their ethnic foods6.
„Bagoong‟ is made from the solid state in the Fermented fish items are quite popular in several
fermentation mixture, while „Patis‟ is made up of the provinces around the globe, particularly in some
liquid phase. The quality of these items varies Asian Countries and the most prominent ones are
according to the manufacturing method and the type mentioned below:
of fish utilized. „Bagoong‟ is a fish paste having salty
taste with a reddish brown colour and cheese-like India
aroma17. Indonesian „Trassi‟, Malaysian „Belachan‟, Shidal
Thai „Kapi‟, Burmese „Ngapi‟, and Vietnamese „Shidal‟ is a well-established fish product of
„Nam-ca‟ are all similar goods15,16. Northeastern part of India prepared through
The techniques of fermenting fish and the culinary fermentation technology having no salt. It is made
applications of these products have been improved solely from Puntius sp. (usually Puntius sophore),
over many generations. This priceless cultural also referred as „Puntishidal‟, or from the estuary fish
practice reflects the technological, social, and Setipinnaphasa, also termed as „Phasa Shidal‟20,21.
economic conditions of the location from where Because of its powerful flavour, the product is
various products are generated. There is a lack of extremely popular. It is popularly called „Shidal‟ in
information about the history, production methods, Tripura, Mizoram and Nagaland; „Sepaa‟ in Assam;
culinary applications, and cultural relevance of „Verma‟ in Arunachal Pradesh. Northeast India is
traditional fermented foods outside of their native notably the leading manufacturers of „Shidal‟. Its
regions18. Researchers conducted a variety of studies powerful flavour comes from the decomposition of
and among these; there are a few that are worth fish proteins and lipids and it generates peptides,
326 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOW, APRIL 2024

amino acids, fatty acids, indole, skatole, and other colour with a shiny aspect when removed from the
compounds that give the product its distinct aroma. brine (Fig. 2). The flesh retains its strong structure
The product has a solid, compressed, pasty look, and and does not readily detach out of its bone. Salt
the form of the fish is nearly unchanged except for fermented fish product „Lona ilish‟ was characterized
some disintegration at the abdomen and caudal which is consumed by Northeastern region of India
section (Fig. 1). Upon prolonged exposure to the and shown a high peroxide value in the product, but it
atmosphere, the colour of the top-grade material did not impart objectionable spoilage of the product26.
changes from a dull white to a mild brown to a deep The high range of PV may be an indication of lipid
brown tint. TVBN content of Punti and Phasa „Shidal‟ peroxidation. The total viable count isolated from
was 62.53±1.61 and 120.27±1.24 mg%, and TBA was „Lonailish‟ comprised of Micrococcus and Bacillus
0.99±0.06 and 1.10±0.14 mg malonaldehyde per kg and found to be 60% and 40% of the total bacterial
meat for both the products20. The authors revealed flora, respectively (Table 1).
that such high TVBN limit could be related to the
Shidal's typical strong scent disguising the ammonical Ngari
odour. Ahmed et al.22 selectively isolated lactic acid „Ngari‟ is a prominent Manipuri fermented fish
bacteria (LAB) from „Shidal‟ and isolated product which has high demand due to its several
Lactobacillus plantarum which was found to be the contributions to the primary diet27. For its production
bacteriocin positive possessing antibacterial process, the sundried fish Puntius sophore, Puntius
property23 (Table 1). Kakati and Goswami24 reported ticto and Setipinna sp. locally known as „Phoubu‟ is
that, the spoilage indicators like total volatile basic cleaned in water and let to drain for one night using
nitrogen (TVBN), peroxide value (PV) were within permeable bamboo baskets. In the next morning,
the acceptable limit. In their analysis of pathogenic fishes are spread, covered with gunny bags, and
contamination, they detected Staphylococcus aureus, squeezed by legs to eliminate extra water. The fishes
Staphylococcus sp. and Escherichia coli (Table 1) and are then placed into an earthen pot (capacity 45-50
they concluded that the presence of these kg) and a coating of mustard oil is rubbed to the pot's
contaminants may be due to improper handling and inner side, if it is an older one. But if the pot is new
faecal contamination throughout processing and then 8-10 coatings are required in 7-10 days interval.
storage. If the growth of microbes cannot be After stuffing, containers are wrapped with plastic
controlled during storage of such products, it may sheet, fish scales, oil slurry, clay, and cattle droppings
increase the chances of allegation in terms of product slurry. For maturation of these packed containers, it is
excellence and wellbeing25. stored in dark for about 6-12 months at ambient
temperature28 (Fig. 3). Taorem and Sarojnalini27
Lonailish studied on the biochemical and microbiological
Majumdar et al.20 reported a product, made entirely qualities of „Ngari’ prepared from Puntius sophore in
of estuarine fish Hilsha (Tenualosailisha) using different temperature ranges. TBA value lied within
elevated dose of salt called „Lonailish‟. Due to its the acceptable limit but reached a higher range up to
distinct aroma and flavour, the product is extremely 1.11 at 20°C, 0.73 at room temperature and 1.20 at
famous in Northeast India. The product is made by 40°C. In their study they divulged that the
slicing the hilsa fish, which is roughly 1.50-2.00 cm
thick. A normal 'Lona ilish' has a symmetrical pink

Fig. 1 — Shidal (a) Shidal product, (b) Flowchart of preparation Fig. 2 — Lona ilish (a) Lona ilish product, (b) Flowchart of
of Shidal preparation of Lona ilish
 NATH et al.: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS ETHNIC FISH PRODUCTS 327

concentrations of TVBN steadily increased as the condiment. The changes of oxalate content from 0.32
storage period lengthened, and it was concluded that to 0.05 mg/g were noticed during the 7 days
this was attributable to a change in temperature and incubation period and this loss could be inhibited
subsequent microbiological and chemical alteration in significantly by treatment with antibodies. They
the fish tissues. A slow decline of fungal count claimed that some microbes that thrive in this
corresponding to the dying of total microbes‟ environment could play a substantial impact in
population was observed during the 6 months period deterioration of oxalate in the paste. Lactic acid
of fermentation at different temperatures. They could bacteria (LAB) were higher than that of other
not perceive the fecal coliform and Salmonella in microorganisms in both „Ngari’ and „Hentak’. On the
analyzed samples of „Ngari‟. basis of sugar fermentation process using the API
(analytical profile index) system the
Hentak Heterofermentative LAB as Lactobacillus fructosus
‘Hentak‟ is a paste like fermented fish product of and homofermentative LABs as Lactobacillus
Manipur and is prepared from Esomus denricus29. For amylophilus, Lactobacillus coryniformis subsp.
its preparation process the fishes are dried under sun torquens and Lactobacillus plantarum were identified
and ground into powder. Semi dried petioles of aroid (Table 1). There was no mould count found in both
plant Alocasia macrorhiza is mixed with the fish the products30.
powder at an equal amount and crushed together to
formulate a sticky paste. The paste is subsequently Tungtap
made into tiny balls and shifted to clay pots. These „Tungtap‟ is a traditional fermented fish consumed
containers are then stored at ambient temperature for by Khasi tribe of Meghalaya31. Fishes like Puntius sp.
about 2 weeks for fermentation (Fig. 4). After that the and Denio sp. are dried under sun for half a week and
product becomes ready to consume as curry or then mixed with salt at a proportion of 1:10 (salt:
fish). The salted dried fishes are then supplemented
with some amount of fish fat and crammed in clay
pot, made airtight by means of fish scale, sludge or
plastic sheet and allowed for fermentation for 2-6
months at ambient temperature (Fig. 5). Lactobacillus
sp., Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus sp.,
Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, and
Staphylococcus saprophyticus were among the
bacteria found in this fermented product31 (Table 1).
Yeast from the samples was identified as Candida and
Saccharomycopsis sp.

Fig. 3 — Ngari (a) Ngari product, (b) Flowchart of preparation of Numsing

Ngari Muzaddadi et al.32, investigated the conventional
knowledge pertaining with „Numsing‟, an Assamese
ethno-cultural fish product made by the Missing
community. They reported that, „Numsing‟ is

Fig. 4 — Hentak (a) Hentak product, (b) Flowchart of preparation Fig. 5 — Tungtap (a) Tungtap product, (b) Flowchart of
of Hentak preparation of Tungtap
328 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOW, APRIL 2024

prepared by small sized fish species such as Puntius fish, tender colocasia (Colocasia esculanta) shoots,
sp., Amblypheryngodon sp., Lepidocephalus sp., mature bamboo tube, clay paste, and straw are used
Channa sp., Trichogaster sp., Danio sp., as raw materials in its production procedure. For the
Mastacembelus sp., Mystus sp., Rasbora sp. etc. production of „Napham‟ small fishes are cleaned,
According to them, to manufacture the product, flame washed, and dried for around 2 h for partial removal
dried and smoked species are mashed together with of moisture. The fishes are next smoked over low
petioles of arum (Alocasia macrorrhiza), placed in heat with dry rice chaff until they are completely
hollow bamboo containers, and allowed to mature for dried. These fishes are then crushed using hand
a month (Fig. 6). The entire procedure consists of pound. The colocasia stems are also inserted during
various distinct processes, and the ultimate product is the grinding process. According to Bodo tradition, it
stored by suspending the fermenting bamboo is customary to use chilly in this concoction to
container over a fire oven. In their study they stated eliminate awful odour. When the concoction is
that „Numsing‟ is normally prepared during the finished, it is poured into a one-plane-open bamboo
monsoon season when the trash fish and arum are tube. After that, the fish mixture is coated by means
abundantly available in the villages. Namsing's of dry leaves and the bamboo jar‟s entrance is sealed
microflora included both Gram-positive and Gram- by a soil paste. The entire concoction is then
negative bacteria, which steadily decreased as fermented for 2 to 3 months and after this period of
fermentation progressed. Mineral availability in maturing; „Napham‟ is ready to be served as a
„Namsing‟ was maximum during the third week condiment (Fig. 7). „Napham‟ is good source of
of fermentation, then gradually reduced. The mineral content and the compositions were estimated
breakdown of the substrate by the available as calcium (68.90±0.16 μg/mL), sodium
microorganisms is assumed to contribute to the (67.26±0.150 μg/mL), magnesium (32.20±0.9
availability of nutrients33. μg/mL), potassium (10.68±0.74 μg/mL) and iron
(9.10±0.30 μg/mL). It consists of 32% essential
Napham amino acids, 40% non-essential amino acid and
„Napham‟ is a fish-based fermented food specially others included 28% out of all amino acids. The fatty
prepared by Assamese Bodo people. It is one of their acid such as pentadecanoic acid (C15:0) contribute
highly important and popular delicacies 34,35. Dry 50%, tetradecanoic acid (C14:0) 24.67% and
tridecanoic acid (C12:0) about15.04% and amongst
monoenoic acid 4-octadecenoic acid (C18:1n-14)
contributes about 3.65% 36.

Fig. 6 — Numsing (a) Numsing product, (b) Flowchart of

preparation of Numsing Fig. 7 — Flowchart of preparation of Napham
 NATH et al.: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS ETHNIC FISH PRODUCTS 329

Cambodia eviscerated, scaled, and rinsed. According to the

tastes of the consumers, the proper proportions of salt,
Prahok and Toeuk trey
fish, and other spices are blended. The combinations
The majority of Cambodians eat fermented and
are then cured for 12-24 h at ambient temperature
preserved fish as part of their diet. Most fermented
prior to partial drying for 1-2 days. The cured fish is
dishes, for instance „Prahok’ (fish paste) and „Toeuk
then combined well with roasted rice. In addition, part
trey‟ (fish sauce), are made from freshwater fishes.
of the roasted rice is placed inside the fish stomachs.
„Prahok‟ is Cambodia's national fermented and salted
The combinations are placed in miniature pickle pots,
fish, and it's noted for its distinct taste and flavour.
which are then sealed properly. After that, the product
This product is prepared by crushing fish (Channa
is kept for fermentation at ambient temperature for
striata or other small fish) and mixed them with 150-
about 2 months39 (Fig. 9). Zeng et al.40 isolated and
200 g kg-1 of salt before being stored and fermented,
identified bacteria from „Suanyu‟. „Suanyu‟ starter
and it ranges in colour from grey to brown (Fig. 8).
culture, comprised of three species viz., Lactobacillus
„Toeuk trey‟ is a fish sauce that is prepared
plantarum, Staphylococcus xylosus, and
organically by fermenting small freshwater or marine
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which functioned as
fish which is light brown in colour. This is combined
inoculums for the commencement of fermentation at
with salt in a 3:1 (fish: salt) ratio and can be preserved
24°C. „Suanyu‟ treated with various mixed starter
for a year. After being stored for more than 3 months,
cultures recorded fast lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
the liquid supernatant is filtered multiple times before
growth, decreased pH, suppressed thiobarbituric acid
being utilized or bottled37. The major organic acids in
reactive substances (TBARS) and increase in total
„Prahok‟ and „Toeuk trey‟ were acetic acid, lactic
volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), as well as
acid, pyroglutamic acid, and propionic acid. The
proliferation of spoilage bacteria and pathogens.
presence of these organic acids in both fermented
Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus
meals might be attributed to the presence of numerous
pentosaceus accounted for the majority of the LAB
Gram-positive rods and cocci37. Glutamic acid
isolated from „Suanyu‟, followed by Leuconostoc and
(2.31%), alanine (2.16%), valine (1.47%), leucine
Lactobacillus paralimentarius. Saccharomyces
(2.85%), and lysine (2.64%) were the most common
cerevisiae and Hansenula anomala made up the
amino acids in „prahok‟.
majority of the yeast. Staphylococcus saprophyticus
China and Staphylococcus xylosus were the most common
Staphylococcus isolates from „Suanyu‟41 (Table 1).
Suanyu
„Suanyu‟ is a classic South Chinese fermented fish Yu-lu
dish. It is mostly made using whole or chopped „Yu-lu‟ is a typical fermented fish sauce common in
freshwater fish or other grains, salt, and spices38. For China's Southern and Eastern provinces, especially
preparation of „Suanyu‟, fishes need to be degutted, Guangdong and Fujian, as a cuisine component. It is

Fig. 8 — Flowchart of preparation of Prahok Fig. 9 — Flowchart of preparation of Suanyu

330 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOW, APRIL 2024

prepared by fermenting tiny fish that have been salted ages47. It is made by collectively crushing dry fish
in a 3:1 ratio (fish: salt, w/w.) and the apparent brown (Sidra) and leaves of bottle gourd (Lagenaria
fluid component produced from fermentation fish is the siceraria Standl.) in Okhali/Dikki, then shaping it
„yu-lu‟42. The primary biogenic amines (>100 mg kg-1) into a pan cake-like shape and drying under sun
detected were putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, and (Supplementary Fig. S3). The final product bears its
tyramine, whereas the minor biogenic amines (<25 mg characteristics of dry fishy odor as it is
kg-1) were tryptamine, spermidine and spermine43. prepared from Sidra. It is mainly prepared for
consumption during “Deepawali”, but it can be
Myanmar prepared in any season of the year and it serves as
Ngapi side dish or main dish (in unavailability of
„Ngapi‟ is a well-known Myanmar‟s fermented fish vegetables). Total Plate Count (TPC) value of
product which is prepared using high dose of salt. In 9.6±1.6×105 cfu/g, total mould count of 2.5±1.2×102
order to prepare it, fish or shrimp are combined with cfu/gm, and Staphylococcal count of 6±1.5×10 5 cfu/g
15% salt and then dehydrated. The dehydrated fish is were found in the microbial composition but no
then chopped and packed securely in wooden tubs, pathogenic bacteria viz., Salmonella and Shigella
where it ferments within 1-4 weeks44 (Supplementary were detected47.
Fig. S1). Based on the 16S rDNA sequences, the two Saudi Arabia
organisms were identified as Bacillus subtilis and
Bacillus sp10. On the basis of 16S rRNA gene Hout-Kasef
sequencing and PCR-restriction fragment length The „Hout-Kasef‟ is a typical fermented fish
polymorphism analysis of this gene, the majority of product produced from natural fermentation of salted
the isolates were identified as the halophilic LAB mullet collected from the coast of Saudi Arabia's
Tetragenococcus muriaticus. Molecular-analysis- Jazan region48. The fresh fish is washed, dissected,
based techniques revealed that spore-forming and and salted before being layered in wooden boxes and
non-spore-forming anaerobic bacteria such as depending on temperature; they are kept on the
Clostridium and Halanaerobium, as well as fishing boat for a month or more for fermentation11
Tetragenococcus muriaticus, were commonly (Supplementary Fig. S4). The most commonly used
identified in bacterial communities44 (Table 1). fish for preparation of „Hout-Kasef‟ is Mullet
(Valamugil scheli). Nutritional value of „Hout-Kasef‟
Laos includes protein content 25.71%, moisture 49.13%,
Pa-som fat 7.42%, ash 19.60%48.
„Pa-som‟ is a well-established fermented fish Philippine
product and is indigenous to Laos. Descaled,
eviscerated, and well rinsed fish or fish fillets are Balao-balao
combined together with salt, garlic, and cooked in „Balao-balao‟ is a conventional Filipino dish
sticky or non-sticky rice; and allowed for prepared by means of using garlic and onion and
fermentation. After 2 or 3 days of maturation, the served as a sauce or main course 17. Live shrimps
product is considered ready to consume such as Penaeus indicus or Macrobrachium sp. are
(Supplementary Fig. S2). Slightly prolonged used for preparation of „Balao-balao‟. For this, after
fermentation (5 or more days) may also be proper washing live shrimps are added with salt
favoured, if the temperature is low due to weather (20%) and allowed the mixture to sit for 2 h before
circumstances45. Tetragenococcus, Lactobacillus, draining. After that, the salt free shrimps are mixed
Pediococcus, Weissella, Halanaerobium, Clostridium with cooked cooled rice at the ratio of 4.8:1 (rice to
and Sphingomonas are the dominant microorganisms46 shrimp) and then mixed carefully with 3%
(Table 1). salt before packing into the glass jar. The concoction
is left to ferment at 28°C for 7-10 days
Nepal (Supplementary Fig. S5). The dominated
Masular microorganisms of „Balao-balao‟ are Leuconostoc
The Nepalese Tharugroup is preparing an mesenteroides cocci, Pediococcus cerevisiae and
indigenous fish product named „Masular‟ from old Lactobacillus plantarum17.
 NATH et al.: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS ETHNIC FISH PRODUCTS 331

Table 1 Microorganisms associated with the various traditional fish products across various countries
Sl. Fish Country Microorganisms associated References
No. product of origin
1 Shidal India Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp. Escherichia coli and Kakati and Goswami (2017)24;
Lactobacillus plantarum Ahmed et al. (2015)22
2 Ngari India Lactococcus plantarum, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Thapa et al. (2004)30
Enterobacteriaceae, Candida sp. and Saccharomycopsis sp.
3 Hentak India Lactobacillus fructosus, Lactobacillus amylophilus, Enterococcus Thapa et al. (2004)30
faecium, Bacillus subtilis Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus,
Enterobacteriaceae, Candida sp. and Saccharomycopsis sp.
4 Tungtup India Lactobacillus coryniformis, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus fructosus Thapa et al. (2004)30
Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus subtilis Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus
aureus, Enterobacteriaceae, Candida sp. and Saccharomycopsis sp.
5 Gunchi India Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus Thapa (2016)58
mesenteroides, Candida bombicola, Enterococcus faecium,
Enterococcus faecalis, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Candida
chiropterorum, Saccharomycopsis sp.
6 Lonailish India Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp. Majumdar and Basu (2010)26
7 Namsing India Providenciaalc alifaciens, Staphylococcus xylosus, Kurthia gibsonii, Chowdhury et al. (2019)33
Bacillus thuringiensis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Bacillus siamensis,
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus tequilensis,
Wohlfahrtiimonas chitiniclastica, Vagococcus fluvialis,
Lactobacillus plantarum, Bacillus megaterium,
Paenibacillus polymyxa
8 Sidra India Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Thapa (2016)58
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Enterococcus faecalis, Pediococcus
pentosaceus, Weissella confusa, Candida chiropterorum, Candida
bombicola, Saccharomycopsis sp.
9 Sukakomaacha India Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Thapa (2016)58
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Enterococcus faecalis, Weissella confusa,
Pediococcus pentosaceus, Chrysosporium chiropterorum, Candida
bombicola, Saccharomycopsis sp.
10 Suanyu China Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Saccharomyces Zeng et al. (2013b)40
cerevisiae, Hansenula anomala, Staphylococcus saprophyticus,
Staphylococcus xylosus
11 Ngapi Myanmar Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sp., Tetragenococcus muriaticus Kobayashi et al. (2016)44
12 Pa-som Laos Tetragenococcus, Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Weissella, Marui et al. (2015)46
Halanaerobium, Clostridium, Sphingomonas
13 Balao-balao Philippine Leuconostoc mesenteroides cocci, Pediococcus cerevisiae, Sanchez (1999)17
Lactobacillus plantarum
14 Burongisda Philippine Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Lactobacillus brevis, Streptococcus Sanchez (1999)17
faecalis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Pediococcus cerevisiae,
Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum
15 Patis Philippine Bacillus pumilus, B. coagulans, B. megaterium. B. subtilis, B. Sanchez (1999)17
licheniformis, Micrococcus colpogenes, M. roseus, M. varians
16 Tinabal Philippine Pediococcus pentosaceus, Streptococcus equines Sanchez (1999)17
17 Pla-ra Thailand Tetragenococcus, Halanaerobium, Lactobacillus. Tetragenococcus Rodpai et al. (2021)49
muriaticus, Halanaerobium fermentans, Lactobacillus rennini
18 Terasi Indonesia Bacillus, Pseudomonus, Micrococcus, Kurthia, Sporolactobacillus Surono and Hosono (1994)56

Burongisda countries manufacture similar items, such as

„Burongisda‟ is a classic Filipino dish popular in „Phaak‟or „Manchao‟ in Cambodia, „Pla-ra‟ in
Pampanga, Bulacan, Cavite, and Nueva Ecija. Several Thailand, „Pekasam‟ and „Cencalok‟ in Malaysia,
kinds of fish e.g., Ophicephalus striatus „Sikhae‟ in Korea, and „Narezushi‟ in Japan15,16.
(burongdalag), Tilapia plumbeus (burong tilapia), Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Lactobacillus
Chanoschanos (burongbangus), and Leiopotherapon brevis, Streptococcus faecalis, Leuconostoc
plumbeus (burongayungin), are used to create mesenteroides, Pediococcus cerevisiae, Lactobacillus
different variations of the product, with or without the fermentum, and Lactobacillus plantarum are the
inclusion of red rice17. Other Southeast Asian predominant microbes of „Burong isda‟17 (Table 1).
332 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOW, APRIL 2024

Bagoong, Patis and Tinabal argentatus, Rastrelliger neglectus, Rachycentron

The preparation technique of „Bagoong‟ and canadus, Caranx leptolepis etc. „Pla-ra‟ is made by
„Patis‟ are almost similar, with the exception that the fermenting raw fish with rice bran or roasted rice
latter is allowed to ferment until the fish flesh has flour and salt for at least 6 months to a year in a
disintegrated into a liquid form. „Bagoong‟ is made sealed container49 (Supplementary Fig. S8).
out of the solid state in the fermentation mixture According to the ingredients used, „Pla-ra‟ is divided
(Supplementary Fig. S6), while „Patis‟ is made up of into two sorts. „Pla-ra Khao-kuo‟ was the name given
the liquid phase (Supplementary Fig S7). The quality to „Pla-ra‟ that has roasted rice added to it, whereas
of these items varies according to the manufacturing „Pla-ra Ram‟ is the name given to „Pla-ra‟ that has
method and the type of fish utilized. „Bagoong‟ is a rice bran added to it50. Tetragenococcus muriaticus,
paste with a slightly cheesy odour and a reddish- Halanaerobium fermentans, Lactobacillus rennini,
brown colour17. Indonesian „Trassi‟, Malaysian Staphylococcus nepalensis, Lactobacillus sakei,
„Belachan‟, Thai „Kapi‟, Burmese „Ngapi‟, and Lactobacillus pentosus, Weissella confusa, and
Vietnamese „Nam-ca‟ are all similar 15-16. Depending Bifidobacterium bifidum are the common bacteria
on the fish species used, the colour of „Patis‟ ranges found in „Pla-ra‟49 (Table 1).
from straw-yellow to amber. The product is prepared
by slowly digesting or fermenting salted fish and Vietnam
then separating the solid and liquid portions of the
hydrolysate. „Patis‟ is salty and has a cheese-like Mam caloc
flavour, as well as a distinctive appetite-stimulating „Mam ca loc‟ is a sour fermented paste produced
scent17. A kind of fish known as Molmol in local from Channa maculata, a snakehead fillet fishes. It is
Visayan language is generally used for making an made by fermenting fish with salt (20% w/w) and rice
indigenous product „Tinabal‟. Except for the powder (10% w/w) for an extended period and finally
cooking method, this fermented fish is nearly sugar is added to the product to season it51. „Mam ca
identical to fish paste. It has a specific flavour or loc‟ was found to have five halophytic strains of
taste that is distinct from other fermented fish bacteria that are able to resist 17% salinity and
products such as „Bagoong‟17. There are 15 amino produced protease. Lactobacillus sp. and Bacillus sp.
acids in „Patis‟, but no cystine or proline. The most were the strains with the highest protease activity
abundant amino acids are lysine (1083 mg %), (1.18 tyrosine unit/mL)52.
histidine (976 mg %) and glutamic acid (960 mg %).
Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus Mam chuaca sac
megaterium and Bacillus subtilis are among the „Mam chuaca sac‟ is also a fermented sour fish
microorganisms responsible for the initial phases of paste prepared from gourami fish (Trichogaster
fermentation of „Patis‟ while Bacillus licheniformis, trichopterus and Trichogaster microlepis). The fish
Micrococcus colpogenes, Micrococcus roseus, is cleaned and the head and digestive organs are
Micrococcus varians and species of Staphylococcus detached, but the fins are kept. After soaking for 16
are responsible for the later stage of fermentation 17 h in water, the organs are rinsed, drained, and dried
(Table 1). The most common lactic acid bacteria up for 6 h before being mixed with sugar, 10% salt,
found in „Tinabal‟ between 0-21 days of rice powder, chilli, garlic, and 5% rice beer (v/w).
fermentation were Pediococcus pentosaceus and The organs are then stored in sealed jars and matured
Streptococcus equines17 (Table 1). at 28-30°C for 20-30 days. The shape of the fish is
preserved, but the skeleton softens, leaving the dish
Thailand
boneless. It is best served as a side dish because the
Pla-ra completed product is sweet, sour, and salty53.
„Pla-ra‟ is a traditional Thai dish that is popular in Pediococcus acidilactici, Lactobacillus farciminis
all parts of Thailand, particularly in the North and and Staphylococcus hominis were among the
Northeast. It is mostly prepared from freshwater bacteria recovered from „Mam chua ca sac‟ that
fishes like Channa striata, Trichogaster trichopterus, produced amylases; however, only two strains,
Trichogaster leeri, Cyclocheilichthys repasson, Pediococcus acidilactici and Lactobacillus
54
Puntius gonionotus and marine fishes such as Johnius farciminis, produced proteases .
 NATH et al.: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS ETHNIC FISH PRODUCTS 333

Indonesia behavior and these organisms are extremely beneficial

to human digestive system. Unlike the canned fish
Terasi
products which are extremely popular throughout the
„Terasi‟ is a traditional Indonesian condiment made
world, these fermented fish products can further be
from fermented shrimp paste and the planktonous
popularized especially among the urban masses and
shrimp is used to make it. For most Indonesians,
therefore it needs more detailed investigation, and it
shrimp paste (Terasi-udang) is preferred over fish
can be a multibillion-dollar market especially in the
paste (Terasi-ikan). „Terasi-udang‟ is commonly
developing countries.
blended with chilli, garlic, and salt, and is known as
„Sambal-terasi‟55. „Petis-udang‟ is another Indonesian
shrimp paste that is extensively consumed. The trash Supplementary Data
Supplementary data associated with this article is
(heads and shells) from the manufacture of Indonesian
available in the electronic form at
shrimp crackers (Krupuk-udang) is boiled to make
https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/jinfo/ijtk/IJTK_23(04)(2024)
„Petis-udan‟55. Shrimp paste is known as „Seinsanga-
324-335_SupplData.pdf
pi‟ or „Hmyinnga-pi‟ in Myanmar. It is a pink to
crimson paste created from tiny Mysis or planktonic
Acknowledgements
shrimps. The paste prepared from first-class shrimp is
The authors thank all the informants for their
known as „Seinsanga-pi‟, while the rest is known as
participation in the study.
„Hmyinnga-pi‟. The nutritional value of „Terasi‟
comprises an average protein, sodium chloride, fat,
and carbohydrate contents of 25.42%, 16.75%, Conflict of Interest
There is no issue of competing interest.
6.11%, and 1.94%, respectively. Bacillus is the most
common microflora in „Terasi‟, followed by
Pseudomonus, Micrococcus, Kurthia, and Author Contributions
The first author (KDN) and the second author (DR)
Sporolactobacillus56 (Table 1).
have collected the data and written the whole
Bangladesh manuscript except abstract and conclusion section.
The third author (SCD) has written the conclusion,
Nga-pi and abstract sections of the study, and has checked the
„Nga-pi‟, an ethnic fermented delicacy historically manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
created by Rakhine people in Cox's Bazar area of manuscript.
Bangladesh, and it is a popular cuisine item in that
region. This product is mostly prepared, sold, and References
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